Module-2 & 3

Fluid Statics, Buoyancy, Relative Equilibrium.

Dr. P. G. Gaikwad
Associate Professor, Civil Engineering Department
Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan’s
Sardar Patel College of Engineering
Andheri (West), Mumbai 400 058
(An Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Mumbai University)

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• The basic equation of hydrostatics, concept of pressure
head, measurement of pressure (absolute, gauge),
application of the basic equation of hydrostatics, simple
manometers, differential manometers and precision
manometers. Introduction to pressure transducers.
Centre of pressure, total pressure on plane and curved
surfaces, pressure diagrams, practical applications.

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 Module 2_SPCE
• Pressures and Head: Types of Pressure,
Pascal’s law of pressure at a point, Hydrostatic
equation,Pressure and pressure head, Force
Balance Pressure gauge, Electrical Pressure
transducers.

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 Module 3_SPCE
Static Forces on Surface and Buoyancy: Fluid static, action
of fluid pressure on surface, resultant force and center of
pressure on a plane surface under uniform pressure,
resultant force and center of pressure on a plane surface
immersed in a liquid, pressure diagrams, forces on a curved
surface due to hydrostatic pressure.

Buoyancy, equilibrium of floating bodies, stability of a

submerged body, stability of floating bodies, determination
of the metacentric height, determination of the position of
the metacentre relative to the center of buoyancy.

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 Fluid Statics
The word “statics” is derived from Greek word
“statikos”= motionless

For a fluid at rest or moving in such a manner

that there is no relative motion between
particles there are no shearing forces present:

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 INTRODUCTION
• Fluid statics: Deals with problems associated with fluids at rest.
• The fluid can be either gaseous or liquid.
• Fluid statics is generally referred to as hydrostatics when the fluid is
a liquid and as aerostatics when the fluid is a gas.
• In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid
layers, and thus there are no shear (tangential) stresses in the fluid
trying to deform it.
• The only stress we deal with in fluid statics is the normal stress,
which is the pressure, and the variation of pressure is due only to
the weight of the fluid.
• The topic of fluid statics has significance only in gravity fields.
• The design of many engineering systems such as water dams and
liquid storage tanks requires the determination of the forces acting
on the surfaces using fluid statics. 6
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 Definition of Pressure
Pressure is defined as the amount of force exerted
on a unit area of a substance:
force N
P  2  Pa
area m

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 Pressure
• Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area.

• Units of pressure are N/m2, which is called a pascal

(Pa).

• Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures

encountered in practice, kilopascal (1 kPa = 103 Pa)
and megapascal (1 MPa = 106 Pa) are commonly
used.

• Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm2, lbf/in2=psi.

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 Pressure
Pressure is the force per unit area, where the force is perpendicular to
the area.

N
F pa= 105 Nm-2
p=
Nm-2
A m2 1psi =6895Pa
(Pa)

This is the Absolute pressure, the pressure compared to a vacuum.

The pressure measured in your tyres is the gauge pressure, p-pa.

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 Units for Pressure
Unit Definition or
Relationship
1 pascal (Pa) 1 kg m-1 s-2
1 bar 1 x 105 Pa
1 atmosphere (atm) 101,325 Pa
1 torr 1 / 760 atm
760 mm Hg 1 atm
14.696 pounds per 1 atm
sq. in. (psi)

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Variation of pressure in a Fluid

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 p
 w
z
dp Hydrostatic Law (Pressure – Density – Height
  w   g
dz Relationship)

Rate of increase of pressure in a vertical direction is equal to the weight

density of the fluid at that point and this is called as Hydrostatic Law

 dp   g.dz
p=ρgZ=wZ
p
Z h
w
Here Z or h is known as pressure head

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Pressure variation in fluid at rest:
Rate of increase of pressure in a vertical downward direction is equal to
the weight density of the fluid at that point and this is called as
Hydrostatic Law 27
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 Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures
Absolute Pressure= Atmospheric Pressure + Gage Pressure

Gage pressure are positive if they are

above that of the atmosphere & negative if
they are vacuum pressure.

Absolute Pressure= Atmospheric Pressure - Vacuum Pressure

Absolute Pressure

 It is necessary to establish an absolute scale, which is

independent of the changes in atmospheric pressure.

 A pressure of absolute zero can exist only in complete

vacuum.

 Any pressure measured above the absolute zero of

pressure is termed as an absolute pressure.

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1. Atmospheric Pressure:

 The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all

faces on which it is in contact, and is known as
atmospheric pressure.

 Atmospheric pressure is usually determined by a

mercury column barometer.

 The atmospheric pressure at sea level (above absolute

zero) is called standard atmospheric pressure.

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Gauge Pressure

 It is the pressure measured with the help of pressuring

instruments, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as
datum.

 The atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.

 Gauges record pressure above or below the local atmosphere,

since they measure the difference in pressure of the liquid to
which they are connected and that of the surrounding air.

 If the pressure of liquid is below the local atmospheric pressure,

then the gauge is designated as vacuum gauge and the recorded
value indicates the amount by which the pressure of liquid is
below atmospheric pressure, i.e. negative pressure.
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 Absolute, Gage, & Vacuum Pressures

• Actual pressure at a give point is called the absolute

pressure.

• Most pressure-measuring devices are calibrated to read

zero in the atmosphere, and therefore indicate gage
pressure,
• Pgage= Pabs - Patm. OR (Pabs= Pgage + Patm)

• Pressure below atmospheric pressure are called

vacuum pressure,
• Pvac= Patm - Pabs. 38
 Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures
Absolute Pressure= Atmospheric Pressure + Gage Pressure

Gage pressure are positive if they are

above that of the atmosphere & negative if
they are vacuum pressure.

Absolute Pressure= Atmospheric Pressure - Vacuum Pressure

 Units for Pressure
Unit Definition or
Relationship

1 pascal (Pa) 1 kg m-1 s-2

1 bar 1 x 105 Pa
1 atmosphere (atm) 101,325 Pa
1 torr 1 / 760 atm
760 mm Hg 1 atm
14.696 pounds per 1 atm
sq. in. (psi)
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 Free Surface of Water
• A horizontal surface upon which the pressure is constant
every where.

• Free surface of water in a vessel may be subjected to:

- atmospheric pressure (open vessel) or,
- any other pressure that is exerted in the vessel (closed
vessel).

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If the water body has a free surface that is exposed to atmospheric
pressure, Patm.
Point ‘A’ is positioned on the free surface such that PA= Patm
(PB )abs= PA + g h = Patm + g h = absolute pressure

 Pressure gages: are usually designed to measure pressures above

or below the atmospheric pressure.

 Gage pressure: is the pressure measured with respect to

atmospheric pressure (using atmospheric pressure as a base).

 Absolute pressure: Pabs = Pgage + Patm

 Pressure head, h = P/g

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 Pressure at a Point
• Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in
all directions.

• Pressure has a magnitude, but not a specific

direction, and thus it is a scalar quantity.

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 Pressure in a Fluid

• The pressure is just the weight of all the fluid above

you.

• Atmospheric pressure is just the weight of all the air

above on area on the surface of the earth.

• In a swimming pool the pressure on your body

surface is just the weight of the water above you
(plus the air pressure above the water).
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 Pressure in a Fluid
• So, the only thing that counts in fluid pressure is the
gravitational force acting on the mass ABOVE you

• The deeper you go, the more weight above you and
the more pressure.

• Go to a mountain top and the air pressure is lower.

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Pressure in a Fluid

Pressure acts
perpendicular
to the surface
and increases
at greater
depth.

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 Pascal’s Laws
 Pascals’ laws:
– Pressure acts uniformly in all directions on a small
volume (point) of a fluid.

– In a fluid confined by solid boundaries, pressure acts

perpendicular to the boundary – it is a normal force.

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Direction of fluid pressure on boundaries

Furnace duct Pipe or tube

Heat exchanger

Pressure is a Normal Force

(acts perpendicular to surfaces)
It is also called a Surface Force

Dam

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Pascal’s Law
• Pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the
same amount.
• In picture, pistons are at
same height:

F1 F2 F2 A2
P1  P2    
A1 A2 F1 A1

• Ratio A2/A1 is called ideal

mechanical advantage
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 Pascal’s principle (The hydrostatic paradox)
 From equation ( Pressure Density Height relationship) the pressure
at a point in a fluid depends only on density, gravity and depth.

 The pressure in a homogeneous, incompressible fluid at rest

depends on the depth of the fluid relative to some reference
plane, and it is not influenced by the size or shape of the tank or
container
Fluid is the same in all containers

Pressure is the same at the bottom of all containers

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 Measuring Pressure
• There are two main types of instruments used
to measure fluid pressure
• The Manometer
– Blood pressure is measured with a variant called
the sphygmomanometer (say that three times
fast!)
• The Barometer
– Many forms exist

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 • Atmospheric pressure is
The Barometer measured by a device called a
barometer; thus, atmospheric
pressure is often referred to as
the barometric pressure.

• PC can be taken to be zero since

there is only Hg vapor above
point C, and it is very low
relative to Patm.

• Change in atmospheric
pressure due to elevation has
many effects: Cooking, nose
bleeds, engine performance,
PC   gh  Patm aircraft performance.
Patm   gh
 Measurement of Pressure
The atmospheric pressure can be measured with a barometer.

patm  gh  pvapor

– For mercury barometers atmospheric pressure

(101.33kPa) corresponds to h=760 mmHg (= 29.2 in)

– If water is used h = 10.33 m H2O (= 34 ft)

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 Measurement of Pressure
• Manometers
• Mechanical gauges
Manometers are devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid by
balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of liquid.
Manometers are further classified as
Simple manometres and Differential manometers
1. Piezometer
2. U Tube manometres
3. Single column manometers

Mechanical gauges
Bourdon tube pressure gauge, Diaphragm pressure gauge
Bellow’s pressure gauge, Dead weight pressure gauge
Pressure transducers convert pressure into an electrical output

Strain-gage pressure transducers are suitable for rapid changes in pressure and cover big
ranges of pressure values.

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 Simple & Differential manometers

Simple manometers are those which measure

pressure at a point in a fluid contained in a pipe
or a vessel.
On the other hand Differential manometers
measure the difference of pressure between
any two points contained in a pipe or vessel.

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 Simple manometers

 Simple manometers are devices which consists of a glass tube

having one of its ends connected to the gage where pressure is to be
measured and other remains open to atmosphere.
 Some common manometers are as mentioned below

 Piezometer
 U Tube manometres
 Single column manometers

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 Piezometers
 A piezometers is the simplest form of manometer which can be used
for measuring moderate pressure of liquids.

 It consists of a glass tube inserted in the wall of a pipe or a vessel

containing a liquid whose pressure is to be measured.

 The tube extends vertically upward to such a height that liquid can
freely rise in it without overflowing.

 The pressure at any point in the liquid is indicated by the height of

the liquid in the tube above that point.

p=hρg
height of the liquid is h ( in m of water) and p (N/m2) is the
pressure at A
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 U tube manometer
 Piezometers cannot be used when large pressures in the lighter
liquids are to be measured, since this would require very long tubes,
which cannot be handled conveniently.

 Further gas pressure cannot be measured by means of piezometers

because a gas forms no free atmospheric surface.
 This limitation can be overcome by U tube manometer.

 It consists of a glass tube bent in U shape , one end of which

connected to the gage point and other open to the atmosphere.

 The tube contains a liquid ( like mercury) of specific gravity greater

than that of the fluid of which the pressure is to be measured.

 Since the pressure is measured in terms of column of heavier liquid,

higher pressure can be measured with u tubes of moderate size.
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In case of simple or a differential manometer unknown
pressure can be calculated by following procedure
•Draw a neat sketch of the system.

•Demarcate the different liquid levels so that we can go from one end to
the other via the manometer.

•Starting from known end e.g. atmospheric pressure end in case of

simple manometer or from one end, then go from level to level.

•Decrease in elevation add pressure head and for increase in elevation

subtract the pressure head taking into account sp. Gr of different liquids.

•Express all heads in terms of water head and then at the other end
convert the head in terms of any other desired units.
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Micromanometer

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Mechanical Gauges

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 Bourden Tube pressure Gauge
• Invented by E Bourden (1808-84).

• The pressure responsive element in this gage is a tube of steel or

bronze which is of elliptic C/S and is curved into a circular arc.
• The tube is closed at its outer end, and this end of tube is free to
move.
• The other end of the tube, through which the fluid enters , is rigidly
fixed to the frame.

• Due to increase in pressure the elliptical c/s of the tube tends to

become circular, Thus causing the tube to straighten out slightly.

• The small outward movement of the free end of the tube is

transmitted through a link, quadrant and pinion, to a pointer which by
moving clockwise on the graduated circular dial indicates the
pressure intensity of fluid. 109
 Bourden Tube pressure Gauge
• The dial gage is calibrated to read that it reads zero when pressure
inside tube equals to the local atmospheric pressure and the elastic
deformation of the tube causes the pointer to be displaced on the
dial in proportion to the pressure intensity of the fluid.

• By modifying the graduations of the dial and adjusting the pointer

Bourden tube vacuum gages can also be made.

• When vacuum gage is connected to partial vacuum, the tube tends

to close, thereby moving the pointer in anticlockwise direction,
indicating the negative OR Vacuum gage pressure.

• It is calibrated to read N/m2 OR Pascal

• However other units such as metres of water or cm or Mercury are

also frequently used. 110
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Diaphragm Pressure gage

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Bellows Pressure Gage

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 Dead weight pressure gage
• It consists of a plunger of dia “d” which can slides
within a vertical cylinder.

• Fluid under pressure enters the cylinder, exerts a

force on the plunger, which is balanced by the
weights loaded on the top of the plunger.
• It is rarely used.

• If the weight required to balance the fluid under

pressure is W, then the pressure intensity p of the
fluid may be determined as below
• p=W/( d2xp/4) 115
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 Hydrostatics

Centre of pressure, total pressure on

plane and curved surfaces, pressure
diagrams, practical applications

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Hydrostatics

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• b) Principle of floatation and buoyancy,
equilibrium of floating bodies, stability of
floating bodies. Metacentre and metacentric
height and its determination (experimental &
analytical). Relative Equilibrium, uniform
linear acceleration, rotation about a vertical
axis.

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 Archimedes Principle
• Forces act everywhere on ship -> too tough to
analyze
• Center of Gravity (G): all gravity forces as one
force acting downward through ship’s
geometric center
• Center of Buoyancy (B): all buoyancy forces as
one force acting upward through underwater
geometric center

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Buoyancy and Stability
• Buoyancy force FB is equal
only to the displaced volume
fgVdisplaced. (weight of body)
• Three scenarios possible
1. body<fluid: Floating body
2. body=fluid: Neutrally buoyant
3. body>fluid: Sinking body
For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to the
buoyant force, which is the weight of the fluid whose volume is equal to the
volume of the submerged portion of the floating body:

A solid body dropped

into a fluid will sink,
float, or remain at rest
at any point in the fluid,
depending on its
average density relative
to the density of the
fluid.
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 Stability of Immersed Bodies

• Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon relative

location of center of gravity G and center of buoyancy B.
– G below B: stable
– G above B: unstable
– G coincides with B: neutrally stable.
 Flotation Stability
• The stability of a floating body is determined by the relative positions of
the center of gravity of body G and the center of buoyancy B.

• The body is in equilibrium if:

- W must equal Fb (buoyancy force)
- G and B lie on the same vertical line.

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• When the body is displaced through an angle q , the center of
buoyancy move from B to B` and a turning moment is produced.

• M (metacentre) is the point at which the line of action of the

upthrust Fb intersects the vertical line through G.
• GM known as the metacentric height.

• Then:
Moment generated  W  GM q

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 Flotation Stability
The equilibrium of a body may be:
• Stable Equilibrium : if when displaced returns to equilibrium
position.

• Unstable Equilibrium: if when displaced it returns to a new

equilibrium position.

• Neutral Equilibrium

The stability depends upon whether, when given a small

displacement, it tends to return to the equilibrium position,
move further from it or remain in the displaced position.

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When the center of gravity G of an immersed neutrally buoyant body is not
vertically aligned with the center of buoyancy B of the body, it is not in an
equilibrium state and would rotate to its stable state, even without any
disturbance.

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A floating body is stable if the body is bottom-heavy and thus the center of gravity G
is below the centroid B of the body, or if the metacenter M is above point G.
However, the body is unstable if point M is below point G.
Metacentric height GM: The distance between the center of gravity G and the
metacenter M—the intersection point of the lines of action of the buoyant force
through the body before and after rotation.
The length of the metacentric height GM above G is a measure of the stability: the
larger it is, the more stable is the floating body.
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Stability of Floating Bodies
• If body is bottom heavy (G
lower than B), it is always
stable.
• Floating bodies can be
stable when G is higher
than B due to shift in
location of center buoyancy
and creation of restoring
moment.
• Measure of stability is the
metacentric height GM. If
GM>1, ship is stable.
The altitude of a hot air
balloon is controlled by
the temperature
difference between the
air inside and outside
the balloon, since warm
air is less dense than
cold air. When the
balloon is neither rising
nor falling, the upward
buoyant force exactly
balances the downward
weight.

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Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies

Stability is easily
understood by
analyzing a ball on
For floating bodies such as ships, the floor.
stability is an important
consideration for safety. 177
 Rigid-Body Motion
• There are special cases where a body of fluid can undergo rigid-body
motion: linear acceleration, and rotation of a cylindrical container.

• In these cases, no shear is developed.

• Newton's 2nd law of motion can be used to derive an equation of motion
for a fluid that acts as a rigid body
P   gk    a
P P P
• In Cartesian coordinates:    ax ,   ay ,     g  ax 
x y z
Linear Acceleration
Container is moving on a straight path
ax  0, a y  az  0
P P P
  ax ,  0,   g
x y z
Total differential of P

dP    ax dx   gdz

Pressure difference between 2 points

P2  P1    ax  x2  x1    g  z2  z1 

Find the rise by selecting 2 points on free

surface P2 = P1
a
zs  zs 2  zs1   x  x2  x1 
g
Rotation in a Cylindrical Container
Container is rotating about the z-axis
ar  r 2 , aq  az  0
P P P
  r 2 ,  0,   g
r q z
Total differential of P

dP   r 2dr   gdz

On an isobar, dP = 0
dzisobar r 2 2 2
  zisobar  r  C1
dr g 2g
Equation of the free2 surface

zs  h0 
4g
 R 2
 2r 2 