Introduction

Radiographic, ultrasonic, dye-penetrant and magnetic particle methods are

briefly described below. The relative advantages and limitations of the
methods are discussed in terms of their applicability to the examination of
welds.

1 Radiographic Methods
In all cases radiographic methods as applied to welds involve passing a
beam of penetrating radiation through the test object. The transmitted
radiation is collected by some form of sensor, which is capable of measuring
the relative intensities of penetrating radiations impinging upon it. In most
cases this sensor will be a radiographic film; however the use of various
electronic devices is on the increase. These devices facilitate so-called real
time radiography and examples may be seen in the security check area at
most airports. Digital technology has enabled the storing of radiographs
using computers. The present discussion is confined to film radiography
since this is still by far the most common method applied to welds.

1.1 Sources of penetrating radiation

Penetrating radiations may be generated from high-energy electron beams,
in which case they are termed X rays, or from nuclear disintegrations
(atomic fission), in which case they are termed -rays. Other forms of
penetrating radiation exist but they are of limited interest in weld
radiography.

1.2 X rays
X rays used in the industrial radiography of welds generally have photon
energies in the range 30keV up to 20MeV. Up to 400keV they are generated
by conventional X ray tubes which dependant upon output may be suitable
for portable or fixed installations. Portability falls off rapidly with increasing
kilovoltage and radiation output. Above 400keV X rays are produced using
devices such as betatrons and linear accelerators. These devices are not
generally suitable for use outside of fixed installations. All sources of X rays
produce a continuous spectrum of radiation, reflecting the spread of kinetic
energies of electrons within the electron beam. Low energy radiations are
more easily absorbed and the presence of low energy radiations, within the
X ray beam, gives rise to better radiographic contrast and therefore better
radiographic sensitivity than is the case with -rays which are discussed
below. Conventional X ray units are capable of performing high quality
radiography on steel of up to 60mm thickness, betatrons and linear
accelerators are capable of penetrating in excess of 300mm of steel.

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1.3 -rays
The early sources of -rays used in industrial radiography were in general
composed of naturally occurring radium. The activity of these sources was
not very high, therefore they were physically rather large by modern
standards even for quite modest outputs of radiation and the radiographs
produced by them were not of a particularly high standard. Radium sources
were also extremely hazardous to the user due to the production of
radioactive radon gas as a product of the fission reaction. Since the advent
of the nuclear age it has been possible to artificially produce isotopes of
much higher specific activity than those occurring naturally and which do not
produce hazardous fission products. Unlike the X-ray sources -sources do
not produce a continuous distribution of quantum energies. -sources
produce a number of specific quantum energies which are unique for any
particular isotope. Four isotopes are in common use for the radiography of
welds; they are in ascending order of radiation energy: thulium 90, ytterbium
169, iridium 192 and cobalt 60. In terms of steel thulium 90 is useful up to a
thickness of 7mm or so, it’s energy is similar to that of 90keV X rays and
due to it’s high specific activity useful sources can be produced with physical
dimensions of less than 0.5mm. Ytterbium 169 has only fairly recently
become available as an isotope for industrial use, it’s energy is similar to
that of 120keV X rays and it is useful for the radiography of steel up to
approximately 12mm thickness. Iridium 192 is probably the most commonly
encountered isotopic source of radiation used in the radiographic
examination of welds, it has a relatively high specific activity and high output
sources with physical dimensions of 2-3mm are in common usage, it’s
energy is approximately equivalent to that of 500 keV X rays and it is useful
for the radiography of steel in the thickness range 10-75mm. Cobalt 60 has
an energy approximating to that of 1.2MeV X rays, due this relatively high
energy suitable source containers are large and rather heavy. Cobalt 60
sources are for this reason not fully portable. They are useful for the
radiography of steel in the thickness range 40-150mm.

The major advantages of using isotopic sources over X rays are: a) The
increased portability; b) The lack of the need for a power source; c) Lower
initial equipment costs. Against this the quality of radiographs produced by
-ray techniques is inferior to that produced by X ray techniques, the
hazards to personnel may be increased (if the equipment is not properly
maintained, or if the operating personnel have insufficient training), and due
to their limited useful lifespan new isotopes have to be purchased on a
regular basis (so that the operating costs of a -ray source may exceed
those of an X ray source).

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1.4 Radiography of welds
Radiographic techniques depend upon detecting differences in absorption of
the beam ie: changes in the effective thickness of the test object, in order to
reveal defective areas. Volumetric weld defects such as slag inclusions
(except in some special cases where the slag absorbs radiation to a greater
extent than does the weld metal) and various forms of gas porosity are
easily detected by radiographic techniques due to the large negative
absorption difference between the parent metal and the slag or gas. Planar
defects such as cracks or lack of side wall or interun fusion are much less
likely to be detected by radiography since such defects may cause little or
no change in the penetrated thickness. Where defects of this type are likely
to occur other NDE techniques such as ultrasonic testing are preferable to
radiography. This lack of sensitivity to planar defects makes radiography an
unsuitable technique where a fitness-for-purpose approach is taken when
assessing the acceptability of a weld. However, film radiography produces a
permanent record of the weld condition, which can be archived for future
reference; it also provides an excellent means of assessing the welder’s
performance and for these reasons it is often still the preferred method for
new construction.

Figure 1: X ray equipment Figure 2 Gamma-ray equipment

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 Figure 3: X ray of a welded seam showing porosity

1.5 Radiographic testing

Advantages Limitations
• Permanent record • Health hazard. Safety (important)
• Good for sizing non planar • Classified workers, medicals required
defects/flaws • Sensitive to defect orientation
• Can be used on all materials • Not good for planar defect detection
• Direct image of defects/flaws • Limited ability to detect fine cracks
• Real-time imaging • Access to both sides required
• Can be position inside pipe • Skilled interpretation required
(productivity) • Relatively slow
• Very good thickness • High capital outlay and running costs
penetration available • Isotopes have a half life (cost)
• No power required with
gamma

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2 Ultrasonic Methods
The velocity of ultrasound in any given material is a constant for that
material and ultrasonic beams travel in straight lines in homogeneous
materials. When ultrasonic waves pass from a given material with a given
sound velocity to a second material with different velocity refraction and
reflection of the sound beam will occur at the boundary between the two
materials. The same laws of physics apply equally to ultrasonic waves as
they do to light waves. Because ultrasonic waves are refracted at a
boundary between two materials having different acoustic properties, probes
may be constructed which can beam sound into a material at (within certain
limits) any given angle. Because sound is reflected at a boundary between
two materials having different acoustic properties ultrasound is a useful tool
for the detection of weld defects. Because the velocity is a constant for any
given material and because sound travels in a straight line (with the right
equipment) ultrasound can also be utilised to give accurate positional
information about a given reflector. Careful observation of the echo pattern
of a given reflector and its behaviour as the ultrasonic probe is moved
together with the positional information obtained above and knowledge of
the component history enables the experienced ultrasonic operator to
classify the reflector as say slag lack of fusion or a crack.

2.1 Equipment for ultrasonic testing

Equipment for manual ultrasonic testing consists of:

A) A flaw detector comprising:

 Pulse generator,
 Adjustable time base generator with an adjustable delay control,
 Cathode ray tube with fully rectified display.
 Calibrated amplifier with a graduated gain control or attenuator)

B) An ultrasonic probe comprising:

 Piezo-electric crystal element capable of converting electrical vibrations
to mechanical vibrations and vice-versa
 Probe shoe, normally a perspex block to which the crystal is firmly
attached using a suitable adhesive
 Electrical and/or mechanical crystal damping facilities to prevent
excessive ringing

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 Such equipment is lightweight and extremely portable. Automated or semi-
automated systems for ultrasonic testing utilise the same basic equipment
although since in general this will be multi-channel equipment it is bulkier
and less portable. Probes for automated systems are set in arrays and
some form of manipulator is necessary in order to feed positional
information about the probes to the computer. Automated systems generate
very large amounts of data and make large demands upon the RAM of the
computer. Recent advances in automated UT have led to a reduced amount
of data being recorded for a given length of weld. Simplified probe arrays
have greatly reduced the complexity of setting up the automated system to
carry out a particular task. Automated UT systems now provide a serious
alternative to radiography on such constructions as pipelines where a large
number of similar inspections allow the unit cost of system development to
be reduced to a competitive level.

Figure 4: Ultrasonic equipment

Figure 5 Compression and shear wave probes

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 Figure 6 Scanning technique with a shear wave probe

Figure 7 Typical screen display when using a shear wave probe

2.2 Ultrasonic testing

Advantages Limitations
Portable (no mains power) battery No permanent record
Direct location of defect (3 dimensional) Only ferritic materials (mainly)
Good for complex geometry High level of operator skill required
Safe operation (can be carried out next Calibration of equipment required
to someone) Special calibration blocks required
Instant results No good for pin pointing porosity
High penetrating capability Critical of surface conditions (clean
Can be done from one side only smooth)
Good for finding planar defects Will not detect surface defects
Material thickness >8mm due to dead
zone

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3 Magnetic Particle Testing
Surface breaking or very near surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic
materials give rise to leakage fields when high levels of magnetic flux are
applied. These leakage fields will attract magnetic particles (finely divided
magnetite) to themselves and this process leads to the formation of an
indication. The magnetic particles may be visibly or fluorescently pigmented
in order to provide contrast with the substrate or conversely the substrate
may be lightly coated with a white background lacquer in order to contrast
with the particles. Fluorescent magnetic particles provide the greatest
sensitivity. The particles will normally be in a liquid suspension and this will
normally be applied by spraying. In certain cases dry particles may be
applied by a gentle jet of air. The technique is applicable only to
ferromagnetic materials, which are at a temperature below the curie point
(about 650°C). The leakage field will be greatest for linear discontinuities
lying at right angles to the magnetic field. This means that for a
comprehensive test the magnetic field must normally be applied in two
directions, which are mutually perpendicular. The test is economical to carry
out both in terms of equipment costs and rapidity of inspection. The level of
operator training required is relatively low.

Figure 8 Magnetic particle inspection using a yoke

Figure 9 Crack found using magnetic particle inspection

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3.1 Magnetic particle testing

Advantages Limitations
Inexpensive equipment Only magnetic materials
Direct location of defect May need to demagnetise components
Not critical of surface Access may be a problem for the yoke
conditions Need power if using a yoke
Could be applied without No permanent record
power
Calibration of equipment
Low skill level
Testing in two directions required
Sub defects surface 1-2mm
Need good lighting 500 Lux minimum
Quick instant results
Hot testing (using dry powder)
Can be used in the dark (UV
light

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4 Dye Penetrant Testing
Any liquid that has good wetting properties will act as a penetrant.
Penetrants are attracted into surface breaking discontinuities by capillary
forces. Penetrant, which has entered a tight discontinuity, will remain even
when the excess penetrant is removed. Application of a suitable developer
will encourage the penetrant within such discontinuities to bleed out. If there
is a suitable contrast between the penetrant and the developer an indication
visible to the eye will be formed. This contrast may be provided by either
visible or fluorescent dyes. Use of fluorescent dyes considerably increases
the sensitivity of the technique. The technique is not applicable at extremes
of temperature. At low temperatures (below 5°C) the penetrant vehicle,
normally oil will become excessively viscous and this will cause an increase
in the penetration time with a consequent decrease in sensitivity. At high
temperatures (above 60°C) the penetrant will dry out and the technique will
not work.

Figure 10 Methods of applying the red dye during dye-penetrant inspection

Figure 11 Crack found using dye-penetrant inspection

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4.1 Dye penetrant
Advantages Limitations
All materials (non-porous) Will only detect defects open to the
surface
Portable
Requires careful surface preparation
Applicable to small parts with
complex geometry Not applicable to porous surfaces
Simple Temperature dependant
Inexpensive Cannot retest indefinitely
Sensitivity Potentially hazardous chemicals
Relatively low skill level (easy No permanent record
to interpret) Time lapse between application and
results
Messy

5 Surface Crack Detection (Magnetic Particle/Dye

Penetrant): General
When considering the relative value of NDE techniques it should not be
forgotten that most catastrophic failures initiate from the surface of a
component, therefore the value of the magnetic particle and dye Penetrant
techniques should not be underestimated. Ultrasonic inspection may not
detect near surface defects easily since the indications may be masked by
echoes arising from the component geometry and should therefore be
supplemented by an appropriate surface crack detection technique for
maximum test confidence.
.
Review of NDT documentation
In reviewing or carrying out an audit of NDT reports certain aspects apply to
all reports whilst others are specific to a particular technique.

General requirements:
 Date/ time/stage of inspection
 Place of inspection
 Procedure or Standard to which the test was performed
 Standard used for acceptance criteria
 Material type and thickness
 Joint configuration
 All defects identified, located and sized
 NDT technicians name and qualification
 Stamped signed and dated

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 Ultrasonic specific – note not suitable for all weld metal types

 Surface finish ie as-welded or ground

 Type of equipment
 Probe types – compression and shear wave
 Probe sizes – usually 10mm
 Probe frequency – typically 2.5–5MHz
 Probe angles – typically 45, 60 , 70, 90
 Type of couplant
 Calibration block type and hole size
 Calibration range setting
 Scanning pattern
 Sensitivity setting
 Recording level

Radiographic specific
 Type of radiation – X or gamma
 Source type, size and strength (curies)
 Tube focal spot size and power (Kva)
 Technique eg single wall single image
 Source/focal spot to film distance
 Type and range of IQI
 Type and size of film
 Type and placement of intensifying screens
 Exposure time
 Development temps and times
 Recorded sensitivity – better than 2%
 Recorded density range – 2-3.5

Magnetic particle specific – note method suitable for ferritic steels only
 Method – wet/dry, fluorescent, contrast etc
 Method of magnetisation- DC or AC
 Equipment type – prod, yoke, perm. magnet, bench, coils
 Prod spacing (7.5A/mm)
 Lift test for magnets – 4.5kg for AC yoke, 18kg for perm. magnet
 Contrast paint
 Ink type
 Prod/yoke test scan sequence – 2 x at 450 to weld c/l.
 Lighting conditions – 500 Lux min for daylight, 20 Lux for UV
 UV light -1mW/cm2
 Flux measurement strips – Burmah-Castrol etc

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 Penetrant specific
 Method – colour contrast or fluorescent
 Surface preparation
 Penetrant type
 Application method and time (5-60min)
 Method of removal
 Type and application of developer
 Contrast light – 500 Lux min
 Black light – 20 Lux
 Operating temperature - 5–500C

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