: What is network interface card (NIC)?

A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without which a computer cannot be
connected over a network. It is a circuit board installed in a computer that provides a dedicated
network connection to the computer. It is also called network interface controller, network
adapter, or LAN adapter.

Purpose

• NIC allows both wired and wireless communications.

• NIC allows communications between computers connected via

local area network (LAN) as well as communications over large-scale network through Internet
Protocol (IP).

• NIC is both a physical layer and a data link layer device, i.e. it
provides the necessary hardware circuitry so that the physical layer processes and some data
link layer processes can run on it.

ADVERTISEMENT

ADVERTISEMENT

Types of NIC Cards

NIC cards are of two types −

Internal Network Cards

In internal networks cards, motherboard has a slot for the network card where it can be inserted.
It requires network cables to provide network access. Internal network cards are of two types.
The first type uses Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connection, while the second type
uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA).

External Network Cards

In desktops and laptops that do not have an internal NIC, external NICs are used. External
network cards are of two types: Wireless and USB based. Wireless network card needs to be
inserted into the motherboard, however no network cable is required to connect to the network.
They are useful while traveling or accessing a wireless signal.


Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:

• LAN(Local Area Network)

• PAN(Personal Area Network)

• MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

• WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

• Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small

area such as building, office.

• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a

communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.

• It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network

adapters, and ethernet cables.

• The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.

• Local Area Network provides higher security.

• Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal
use is known as Personal Area Network.

• Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the
Personal Area Network.
 • Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.

• Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network
are the laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

• Wired Personal Area Network

• Wireless Personal Area Network

Wireless Personal Area Network: Wireless Personal Area Network is developed by simply using
wireless technologies such as WiFi, Bluetooth. It is a low range network.

Wired Personal Area Network: Wired Personal Area Network is created by using the USB.

Examples Of Personal Area Network:

• Body Area Network: Body Area Network is a network that moves with a person.
For example, a mobile network moves with a person. Suppose a person establishes a network
connection and then creates a connection with another device to share the information.

• Offline Network: An offline network can be created inside the home, so it is also
known as a home network. A home network is designed to integrate the devices such as
printers, computer, television but they are not connected to the internet.

• Small Home Office: It is used to connect a variety of devices to the internet and
to a corporate network using a VPN

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

• A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by

interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.

• Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.

• In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange
line.

• The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC
-3, ADSL, etc.

• It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

• MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

• It can be used in an Airline Reservation.

• It can be used in a college within a city.

• It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

• A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area
such as states or countries.

• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.

• A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.

• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.

• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Examples Of Wide Area Network:

• Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.

• Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
 • Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices.
This network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

• Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area.

Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with them through
WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can connect with another branch.

• Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do

not need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.

• Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.

• Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web
application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.

• Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software
and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.

• Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.

• High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the
high bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn increases the
productivity of our company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

• Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN
and MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security
problem.

• Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which
can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some people can
inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a virus.

• High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves
the purchasing of routers, switches.

• Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

Internetwork

• An internetwork is defined as two or more computer network LANs or WAN or

computer network segments are connected using devices, and they are configured by a local
addressing scheme. This process is known as internetworking.

• An interconnection between public, private, commercial, industrial, or government

computer networks can also be defined as internetworking.

• An internetworking uses the internet protocol.

• The reference model used for internetworking is Open System

Interconnection(OSI).

Types Of Internetwork:

1. Extranet: An extranet is a communication network based on the internet protocol such as

Transmission Control protocol and internet protocol. It is used for information sharing. The
access to the extranet is restricted to only those users who have login credentials. An extranet
is the lowest level of internetworking. It can be categorized as MAN, WAN or other computer
networks. An extranet cannot have a single LAN, atleast it must have one connection to the
external network.

2. Intranet: An intranet is a private network based on the internet protocol such as Transmission
Control protocol and internet protocol. An intranet belongs to an organization which is only
accessible by the organization's employee or members. The main aim of the intranet is to share
the information and resources among the organization employees. An intranet provides the
facility to work in groups and for teleconferences.

Intranet advantages:

• Communication: It provides a cheap and easy communication. An employee of

the organization can communicate with another employee through email, chat.

• Time-saving: Information on the intranet is shared in real time, so it is time-

saving.

• Collaboration: Collaboration is one of the most important advantage of the

intranet. The information is distributed among the employees of the organization and can only
be accessed by the authorized user.

• Platform independency: It is a neutral architecture as the computer can be

connected to another device with different architecture.

• Cost effective: People can see the data and documents by using the browser and
distributes the duplicate copies over the intranet. This leads to a reduction in the cost.
Types of Network Topology

In Computer Network ,there are various ways through which different components are
connected to one another. Network Topology is the way that defines the structure, and how
these components are connected to each other.

Types of Network Topology

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and
receiver is referred to as Network Topology. The various network topologies are:

• Point to Point Topology

• Mesh Topology

• Star Topology

• Bus Topology

• Ring Topology

• Tree Topology

• Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and
receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and
the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In
Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP
(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.


Mesh Topology

Figure 1: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are
known as links.

• Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, the total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are
5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4.
The total number of ports required = N * (N-1).

• Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology,
then the total number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure
1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2
= 10.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

• Communication is very fast between the nodes.

• Mesh Topology is robust.

• The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among
the devices through dedicated channels or links.

• Provides security and privacy.

Drawbacks of Mesh Topology

• Installation and configuration are difficult.

• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.

• The cost of maintenance is high.

A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet service
providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also used in
military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.

For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Mesh Topology.

Star Topology

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the
central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in
nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be
intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45
cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN
protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e.
hub.

Advantages of Star Topology

• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.

• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.

• It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.

• Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.

• Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

Drawbacks of Star Topology

• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole
system will crash down.

• The cost of installation is high.

• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all
computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks
where all devices are connected to a wireless access point.

For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Star Topology.

Bus Topology

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a
single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because
if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access
Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA,
Slotted Aloha, etc.


Bus Topology

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel
via drop lines.

Advantages of Bus Topology

• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.

• Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support up to 10 Mbps.

• The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build
small networks.

• Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting

techniques are well known.

• CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.

Drawbacks of Bus Topology

• A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.

• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.

• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.

• Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.

• Security is very low.

A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to a
single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television networks.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus Topology.

Ring Topology

In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices. A
number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then
the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.

The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having
2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology,
the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Ring Topology

Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

• Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from

one node to another node.

• Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

Operations of Ring Topology

0. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for
performing the operations.

0. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is
done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.

0. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.

0. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the
token just after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the
acknowledgment is received from the receiver.

Advantages of Ring Topology

• The data transmission is high-speed.

• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.

• Cheap to install and expand.

• It is less costly than a star topology.

Drawbacks of Ring Topology

• The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 • Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.

• The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the
whole topology.

• Less secure.

For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Ring Topology.

Tree Topology

This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are
used.

Tree Topology

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains
the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and
then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the
central hub. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone
fails the topology crashes.

Advantages of Tree Topology

• It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases

the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.

• It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.

• We can add new devices to the existing network.

• Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

Drawbacks of Tree Topology

• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.

• The cost is high because of the cabling.

• If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of the
tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes) of the
company. Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams
(grandchild nodes). The team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy,
connected to their respective managers and departments.

For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Tree Topology.

Hybrid Topology

This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have
studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means
these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types
of topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed
earlier.

Hybrid Topology

Figure 6: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a
combination of all different types of networks.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

• This topology is very flexible.

• The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.

Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology

• It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.

• Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.

• The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling
and network devices.

A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network may have
a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone through a switch
or router. Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the different
rooms and offices. The wireless access points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices.
This hybrid topology allows for efficient communication between different buildings while
providing flexibility and redundancy within each building.

Client-Server Model

The Client-server model is a distributed application structure that partitions task or workload
between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters called
clients. In the client-server architecture, when the client computer sends a request for data to
the server through the internet, the server accepts the requested process and deliver the data
packets requested back to the client. Clients do not share any of their resources. Examples of
Client-Server Model are Email, World Wide Web, etc.

How the Client-Server Model works ? In this article we are going to take a dive into the Client-
Server model and have a look at how the Internet works via, web browsers. This article will help
us in having a solid foundation of the WEB and help in working with WEB technologies with ease.

• Client: When we talk the word Client, it mean to talk of a person or an

organization using a particular service. Similarly in the digital world a Client is a computer (Host)
i.e. capable of receiving information or using a particular service from the service providers
(Servers).

• Servers: Similarly, when we talk the word Servers, It mean a person or medium
that serves something. Similarly in this digital world a Server is a remote computer which
provides information (data) or access to particular services.

So, its basically the Client requesting something and the Server serving it as long as its present
in the database.

How the browser interacts with the servers ? There are few steps to follow to interacts with the
servers a client.

• User enters the URL(Uniform Resource Locator) of the website or file. The
Browser then requests the DNS(DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM) Server.

• DNS Server lookup for the address of the WEB Server.

• DNS Server responds with the IP address of the WEB Server.

• Browser sends over an HTTP/HTTPS request to WEB Server’s IP (provided by

DNS server).

• Server sends over the necessary files of the website.

 • Browser then renders the files and the website is displayed. This rendering is
done with the help of DOM (Document Object Model) interpreter, CSS interpreter and JS Engine
collectively known as the JIT or (Just in Time) Compilers.

Advantages of Client-Server model:

• Centralized system with all data in a single place.

• Cost efficient requires less maintenance cost and Data recovery is possible.

• The capacity of the Client and Servers can be changed separately.

Disadvantages of Client-Server model:

• Clients are prone to viruses, Trojans and worms if present in the Server or
uploaded into the Server.

• Server are prone to Denial of Service (DOS) attacks.

• Data packets may be spoofed or modified during transmission.

• Phishing or capturing login credentials or other useful information of the user are
common and MITM(Man in the Middle) attacks are common.

What is Internet? Definition, Uses, Working, Advantages and Disadvantages

Pre-Requisite: Introduction to Internet

The Internet is the foremost important tool and the prominent resource that is being used by
almost every person across the globe. It connects millions of computers, webpages, websites,
and servers. Using the internet we can send emails, photos, videos, and messages to our loved
ones. Or in other words, the Internet is a widespread interconnected network of computers and
electronic devices(that support Internet). It creates a communication medium to share and get
information online. If your device is connected to the Internet then only you will be able to
access all the applications, websites, social media apps, and many more services. The Internet
nowadays is considered the fastest medium for sending and receiving information.


Internet

History of the Internet

The Internet came in the year 1960 with the creation of the first working model called ARPANET
(Advanced Research Projects Agency). It allowed multiple computers to work on a single
network which was their biggest achievement at that time. ARPANET uses packet switching to
communicate multiple computer systems under a single network. In October 1969, using
ARPANET first message was transferred from one computer to another. After that technology
continues to grow.

How is the Internet Set Up?

The internet is set up with the help of physical optical fiber data transmission cables or copper
wires and various other networking mediums like LAN, WAN, MAN, etc. For accessing the
Internet even the 2G, 3G, and 4G services and the Wifi require these physical cable setups to
access the Internet. There is an authority named ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers) located in the USA which manages the Internet and protocols related to it
like IP addresses.

How Does the Internet Work?

The actual working of the internet takes place with the help of clients and servers. Here the
client is a laptop that is directly connected to the internet and servers are the computers
connected indirectly to the Internet and they are having all the websites stored in those large
computers. These servers are connected to the internet with the help of ISP (Internet Service
Providers) and will be identified with the IP address.

Each website has its Domain name as it is difficult for any person to always remember the long
numbers or strings. So, whenever you search for any domain name in the search bar of the
browser the request will be sent to the server and that server will try to find the IP address from
the Domain name because it cannot understand the domain name. After getting the IP address
the server will try to search the IP address of the Domain name in a Huge phone directory that in
networking is known as a DNS server (Domain Name Server). For example, if we have the name
of a person and we can easily find the Aadhaar number of him/her from the long directory as
simple as that.

So after getting the IP address, the browser will pass on the further request to the respective
server and now the server will process the request to display the content of the website which
the client wants. If you are using a wireless medium of Internet like 3G and 4G or other mobile
data then the data will start flowing from the optical cables and will first reach towers from
there the signals will reach your cell phones and PCs through electromagnetic waves and if you
are using routers then optical fiber connecting to your router will help in connecting those light-
induced signals to electrical signals and with the help of ethernet cables internet reaches your
computers and hence the required information.

For more, you can refer to How Does the Internet Work?

What is an IP Address?

IP Address stands for Internet Protocol Address. Every PC/Local machine is having an IP
address and that IP address is provided by the Internet Service Providers (ISPs). These are
some sets of rules which govern the flow of data whenever a device is connected to the Internet.
It differentiates computers, websites, and routers. Just like human identification cards like
Aadhaar cards, Pan cards, or any other unique identification documents. Every laptop and
desktop has its own unique IP address for identification. It’s an important part of Internet
technology. An IP address is displayed as a set of four-digit like 192.154.3.29. Here each
number on the set ranges from 0 to 255. Hence, the total IP address range from 0.0.0.0 to
255.255.255.255.

You can check the IP address of your Laptop or desktop by clicking on the Windows start menu
-> then right-click and go to network -> in that go to status and then Properties you can see the
IP address. There are four different types of IP addresses are available:

0. Static IP Address

0. Dynamic IP Address

0. Private IP Address

0. Public IP Address

World Wide Web (WWW)

The world wide web is a collection of all the web pages, and web documents that you can see
on the Internet by searching their URLs (Uniform Resource Locator) on the Internet. For example,
www.geeksforgeeks.org is the URL of the GFG website, and all the content of this site like
webpages and all the web documents are stored on the world wide Web. Or in other words, the
world wide web is an information retrieval service of the web. It provides users with a huge array
of documents that are connected to each other by means of hypertext or hypermedia links. Here,
hyperlinks are known as electronic connections that link the related data so that users can
easily access the related information hypertext allows the user to pick a word or phrase from
text, and using this keyword or word or phrase can access other documents that contain
additional information related to that word or keyword or phrase. World wide web is a project
which is created by Timothy Berner’s Lee in 1989, for researchers to work together effectively at
CERN. It is an organization, named World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which was developed
for further development in the web.

WWW Image

Difference Between World Wide Web and the Internet

The main difference between the World Wide Web and the Internet are:

Uses of the Internet

Some of the important usages of the internet are:

• Online Businesses (E-commerce): Online shopping websites have made our life
easier, e-commerce sites like Amazon, Flipkart, and Myntra are providing very spectacular
services with just one click and this is a great use of the Internet.

• Cashless Transactions: All the merchandising companies are offering services to

their customers to pay the bills of the products online via various digital payment apps like
Paytm, Google Pay, etc. UPI payment gateway is also increasing day by day. Digital payment
industries are growing at a rate of 50% every year too because of the INTERNET.

• Education: It is the internet facility that provides a whole bunch of educational

material to everyone through any server across the web. Those who are unable to attend
physical classes can choose any course from the internet and can have point-to-point
knowledge of it just by sitting at home. High-class faculties are teaching online on digital
platforms and providing quality education to students with the help of the Internet.

• Social Networking: The purpose of social networking sites and apps is to

connect people all over the world. With the help of social networking sites, we can talk, and
share videos, and images with our loved ones when they are far away from us. Also, we can
create groups for discussion or for meetings.

• Entertainment: The Internet is also used for entertainment. There are numerous
entertainment options available on the internet like watching movies, playing games, listening to
music, etc. You can also download movies, games, songs, TV Serial, etc., easily from the
internet.

Steps to Protect the Online Privacy

• Install Antivirus or Antimalware.

 • Create random and difficult passwords, so that it becomes difficult to guess.

• Use a private browsing window or VPN for using the Internet.

• Try to use HTTPS only for better protection.

• Try to make your Social Media Account Private.

• If you are not using any application, which requires GPS, then you can turn GPS
off.

• Do not simply close the tab, first log out from that account, then close the tab.

• Try to avoid accessing public Wifi or hotspots.

• Try to avoid opening or downloading content from unknown sources.

There is an element of the Internet called the Dark Web, which is not accessible from standard
browsers. To keep safe our data, we can use Tor and I2P, which helps in keeping our data
anonymous, that helps in protecting user security, and helps in reducing cybercrime.

Advantages of the Internet

• Online Banking and Transaction: The Internet allows us to transfer money online
through the net banking system. Money can be credited or debited from one account to the
other.

• Education, Online Jobs, Freelancing: Through the Internet, we are able to get
more jobs via online platforms like Linkedin and to reach more job providers. Freelancing on the
other hand has helped the youth to earn a side income and the best part is all this can be done
via the INTERNET.

• Entertainment: There are numerous options for entertainment online we can

listen to music, play games can watch movies, and web series, and listen to podcasts, youtube
itself is a hub of knowledge as well as entertainment.

• New Job Roles: The Internet has given us access to social media, and digital
products so we are having numerous new job opportunities like digital marketing and social
media marketing online businesses are earning huge amounts of money just because the
Internet is the medium to help us to do so.

• Best Communication Medium: The communication barrier has been removed

from the Internet. You can send messages via email, Whatsapp, and Facebook. Voice chatting
and video conferencing are also available to help you to do important meetings online.
 • Comfort to humans: Without putting any physical effort you can do so many
things like shopping online it can be anything from stationeries to clothes, books to personal
items, etc. You can books train and plane tickets online.

• GPS Tracking and google maps: Yet another advantage of the internet is that you
are able to find any road in any direction, and areas with less traffic with the help of GPS on your
mobile.

Disadvantages of the Internet

• Time Wastage: Wasting too much time on the internet surfing social media apps
and doing nothing decreases your productivity rather than wasting time on scrolling social
media apps one should utilize that time in doing something skillful and even more productive.

• Bad Impacts on Health: Spending too much time on the internet causes bad
impacts on your health physical body needs some outdoor games exercise and many more
things. Looking at the screen for a longer duration causes serious impacts on the eyes.

• Cyber Crimes: Cyberbullying, spam, viruses, hacking, and stealing data are some
of the crimes which are on the verge these days. Your system which contains all the confidential
data can be easily hacked by cybercriminals.

• Effects on Children: Small children are heavily addicted to the Internet watching
movies, and games all the time is not good for their overall personality as well as social
development.

• Bullying and Spreading Negativity: The Internet has given a free tool in the form
of social media apps to all those people who always try to spread negativity with very revolting
and shameful messages and try to bully each other which is wrong.

Difference between Internet, Intranet and Extranet

2. Intranet : It is an internal private network built within an organization using Internet and
World Wide Web standards and products that allows employees of an organization to gain
access to corporate information. 3. Extranet : It is the type of network that allows users from
outside to access the Intranet of an organization.

Difference between Internet, Intranet and Extranet :

Types of Internet Protocols

Internet Protocols are a set of rules that governs the communication and exchange of data over
the internet. Both the sender and receiver should follow the same protocols in order to
communicate the data. In order to understand it better, let’s take an example of a language. Any
language has its own set of vocabulary and grammar which we need to know if we want to
communicate in that language. Similarly, over the internet whenever we access a website or
exchange some data with another device then these processes are governed by a set of rules
called the internet protocols.

Working of Internet Protocol

The internet and many other data networks work by organizing data into small pieces called
packets. Each large data sent between two network devices is divided into smaller packets by
the underlying hardware and software. Each network protocol defines the rules for how its data
packets must be organized in specific ways according to the protocols the network supports.

Need of Protocols

It may be that the sender and receiver of data are parts of different networks, located in
different parts of the world having different data transfer rates. So, we need protocols to
manage the flow control of data, and access control of the link being shared in the
communication channel. Suppose there is a sender X who has a data transmission rate of 10
Mbps. And, there is a receiver Y who has a data receiving rate of 5Mbps. Since the rate of
receiving the data is slow so some data will be lost during transmission. In order to avoid this,
receiver Y needs to inform sender X about the speed mismatch so that sender X can adjust its
transmission rate. Similarly, the access control decides the node which will access the link
shared in the communication channel at a particular instant in time. If not the transmitted data
will collide if many computers send data simultaneously through the same link resulting in the
corruption or loss of data.

What is IP Addressing?

An IP address represents an Internet Protocol address. A unique address that identifies the
device over the network. It is almost like a set of rules governing the structure of data sent over
the Internet or through a local network. An IP address helps the Internet to distinguish between
different routers, computers, and websites. It serves as a specific machine identifier in a
specific network and helps to improve visual communication between source and destination.
Types of Internet Protocol

Internet Protocols are of different types having different uses. These are mentioned below:

0. TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol)

0. SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

0. PPP(Point-to-Point Protocol)

0. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

0. SFTP(Secure File Transfer Protocol)

0. HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

0. HTTPS(HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure)

0. TELNET(Terminal Network)

0. POP3(Post Office Protocol 3)

0. IPv4

0. IPv6

0. ICMP

0. UDP

0. IMAP

0. SSH

0. Gopher

3. PPP(Point-to-Point Protocol)

It is a communication protocol that is used to create a direct connection between two

communicating devices. This protocol defines the rules using which two devices will
authenticate with each other and exchange information with each other. For example, A user
connects his PC to the server of an Internet Service Provider and also uses PPP. Similarly, for
connecting two routers for direct communication it uses PPP.

4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

This protocol is used for transferring files from one system to the other. This works on a client-
server model. When a machine requests for file transfer from another machine, the FTO sets up
a connection between the two and authenticates each other using their ID and Password. And,
the desired file transfer takes place between the machines.

5. SFTP(Secure File Transfer Protocol)

SFTP which is also known as SSH FTP refers to File Transfer Protocol (FTP) over Secure Shell
(SSH) as it encrypts both commands and data while in transmission. SFTP acts as an extension
to SSH and encrypts files and data then sends them over a secure shell data stream. This
protocol is used to remotely connect to other systems while executing commands from the
command line.

6. HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

This protocol is used to transfer hypertexts over the internet and it is defined by the www(world
wide web) for information transfer. This protocol defines how the information needs to be
formatted and transmitted. And, it also defines the various actions the web browsers should
take in response to the calls made to access a particular web page. Whenever a user opens
their web browser, the user will indirectly use HTTP as this is the protocol that is being used to
share text, images, and other multimedia files on the World Wide Web.

Note: Hypertext refers to the special format of the text that can contain links to other texts.

7. HTTPS(HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure)

HTTPS is an extension of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It is used for secure
communication over a computer network with the SSL/TLS protocol for encryption and
authentication. So, generally, a website has an HTTP protocol but if the website is such that it
receives some sensitive information such as credit card details, debit card details, OTP, etc then
it requires an SSL certificate installed to make the website more secure. So, before entering any
sensitive information on a website, we should check if the link is HTTPS or not. If it is not
HTTPS then it may not be secure enough to enter sensitive information.

8. TELNET(Terminal Network)

TELNET is a standard TCP/IP protocol used for virtual terminal service given by ISO. This
enables one local machine to connect with another. The computer which is being connected is
called a remote computer and which is connecting is called the local computer. TELNET
operation lets us display anything being performed on the remote computer in the local
computer. This operates on the client/server principle. The local computer uses the telnet client
program whereas the remote computer uses the telnet server program.
10. IPv4

The fourth and initially widely used version of the Internet Protocol is called IPv4 (Internet
Protocol version 4). It is the most popular version of the Internet Protocol and is in charge of
distributing data packets throughout the network. Maximum unique addresses for IPv4 are
4,294,967,296 (232), which are possible due to the use of 32-bit addresses. The network
address and the host address are the two components of each address. The host address
identifies a particular device within the network, whereas the network address identifies the
network to which the host belongs. In the “dotted decimal” notation, which is the standard for
IPv4 addresses, each octet (8 bits) of the address is represented by its decimal value and
separated by a dot (e.g. 192.168.1.1).

11. IPv6

The most recent version of the Internet Protocol, IPv6, was created to address the IPv4
protocol’s drawbacks. A maximum of 4.3 billion unique addresses are possible with IPv4’s 32-
bit addresses. Contrarily, IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, which enable a significantly greater
number of unique addresses. This is significant because IPv4 addresses were running out and
there are an increasing number of devices that require internet access. Additionally, IPv6 offers
enhanced security features like integrated authentication and encryption as well as better
support for mobile devices. IPv6 support has spread among websites and internet service
providers, and it is anticipated to gradually displace IPv4 as the main internet protocol.

For more details, please refer Differences between IPv4 and IPv6 article.

12. ICMP

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is a network protocol that is used to send error
messages and operational information about network conditions. It is an integral part of the
Internet Protocol (IP) suite and is used to help diagnose and troubleshoot issues with network
connectivity. ICMP messages are typically generated by network devices, such as routers, in
response to errors or exceptional conditions encountered in forwarding a datagram. Some
examples of ICMP messages include:

• Echo Request and Echo Reply (ping)

• Destination Unreachable

• Time Exceeded

• Redirect

ICMP can also be used by network management tools to test the reachability of a host and
measure the round-trip time for packets to travel from the source to the destination and back. It
should be noted that ICMP is not a secure protocol, it can be used in some types of network
attacks like DDoS amplification.

13. UDP

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless, unreliable transport layer protocol. Unlike
TCP, it does not establish a reliable connection between devices before transmitting data, and it
does not guarantee that data packets will be received in the order they were sent or that they
will be received at all. Instead, UDP simply sends packets of data to a destination without any
error checking or flow control. UDP is typically used for real-time applications such as streaming
video and audio, online gaming, and VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) where a small amount
of lost data is acceptable and low latency is important. UDP is faster than TCP because it has
less overhead. It doesn’t need to establish a connection, so it can send data packets
immediately. It also doesn’t need to wait for confirmation that the data was received before
sending more, so it can transmit data at a higher rate.

14. IMAP

IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) is a protocol used for retrieving emails from a mail
server. It allows users to access and manage their emails on the server, rather than
downloading them to a local device. This means that the user can access their emails from
multiple devices and the emails will be synced across all devices. IMAP is more flexible than
POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3) as it allows users to access and organize their emails on
the server, and also allows multiple users to access the same mailbox.

15. SSH

SSH (Secure Shell) is a protocol used for secure remote login and other secure network services.
It provides a secure and encrypted way to remotely access and manage servers, network
devices, and other computer systems. SSH uses public-key cryptography to authenticate the
user and encrypt the data being transmitted, making it much more secure than traditional
remote login protocols such as Telnet. SSH also allows for secure file transfers using the SCP
(Secure Copy) and SFTP (Secure File Transfer Protocol) protocols. It is widely used in Unix-
based operating systems and is also available for Windows. It is commonly used by system
administrators, developers, and other technical users to remotely access and manage servers
and other network devices.

16. Gopher

Gopher is a type of file retrieval protocol that provides downloadable files with some description
for easy management, retrieving, and searching of files. All the files are arranged on a remote
computer in a stratified manner. It is an old protocol and it is not much used nowadays.

TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It contains four layers,
unlike the seven layers in the OSI model.

The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four. The Physical Layer and Data Link
Layer are referred to as one single layer as the ‘Physical Layer’ or ‘Network Interface Layer’ in
the 4-layer reference.

What Does TCP/IP Do?

The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another. The
main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver will
receive the same information which is sent by the sender. To ensure that, each message
reaches its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and
combines them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another end.

What is the Difference between TCP and IP?

TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic difference between TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In
simple words, IP finds the destination of the mail and TCP has the work to send and receive the
mail. UDP is another protocol, which does not require IP to communicate with another computer.
IP is required by only TCP. This is the basic difference between TCP and IP.

How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?

Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model, the TCP/IP
Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and the same packets have to be
recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same data, and this thing happens to maintain the
accuracy of the data. TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data
first go into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the same way
at the receiver’s end.

For more, you can refer to TCP/IP in Computer Networking.

Layers of TCP/IP Model

0. Application Layer

0. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)

0. Network/Internet Layer(IP)

0. Data Link Layer (MAC)

0. Physical Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:

TCP/IP and OSI

1. Physical Layer

It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for

generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network
Access layer on the behalf of the receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of
the receiver.

2. Data Link Layer

The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the data-link layer. Error
prevention and “framing” are also provided by the data-link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.

3. Internet Layer

This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols
residing at this layer are as follows:

• IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets
from the source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet
headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently.
But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to the
number of users.

• ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated

within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network
problems.

• ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware
address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP,
Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.

The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols that
define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device
to another across a network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is
used to identify the device and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.

Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend. When you click
“send,” the email is broken down into smaller packets of data, which are then sent to the
Internet Layer for routing. The Internet Layer assigns an IP address to each packet and uses
routing tables to determine the best route for the packet to take to reach its destination. The
packet is then forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its destination. When all of
the packets have been delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble them into the original
email message.

In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email from your computer
to your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and routing tables to determine the best route
for the packets to take, and it ensures that the packets are delivered to the correct destination.
Without the Internet Layer, it would not be possible to send data across the Internet.

4. Transport Layer

The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit
missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end
communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram
Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).

• TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were
physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-
character transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes the
connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the
connection make up this transmission.

• UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer
protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP.
Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates
the processes of establishing and validating connections.

5. Application Layer

This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:

• HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the
World Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS
stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is
efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry out
bank transactions.

• SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to
Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted
connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
 • NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks
on our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank
transactions. Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry
out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at
2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.

The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model that is
responsible for providing communication between hosts (computers or other devices) on a
network. It is also known as the transport layer.

Some common use cases for the host-to-host layer include:

0. Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is transferred
reliably between hosts by using techniques like error correction and flow control. For example, if
a packet of data is lost during transmission, the host-to-host layer can request that the packet
be retransmitted to ensure that all data is received correctly.

0. Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is responsible for breaking

up large blocks of data into smaller segments that can be transmitted over the network, and
then reassembling the data at the destination. This allows data to be transmitted more
efficiently and helps to avoid overloading the network.

0. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is responsible for

multiplexing data from multiple sources onto a single network connection, and then
demultiplexing the data at the destination. This allows multiple devices to share the same
network connection and helps to improve the utilization of the network.

0. End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a connection-

oriented service that allows hosts to communicate with each other end-to-end, without the need
for intermediate devices to be involved in the communication.

Example: Consider a network with two hosts, A and B. Host A wants to send a file to host B. The
host-to-host layer in host A will break the file into smaller segments, add error correction and
flow control information, and then transmit the segments over the network to host B. The host-
to-host layer in host B will receive the segments, check for errors, and reassemble the file. Once
the file has been transferred successfully, the host-to-host layer in host B will acknowledge
receipt of the file to host A.

In this example, the host-to-host layer is responsible for providing a reliable connection between
host A and host B, breaking the file into smaller segments, and reassembling the segments at
the destination. It is also responsible for multiplexing and demultiplexing the data and providing
end-to-end communication between the two hosts.

Other Common Internet Protocols

TCP/IP Model covers many Internet Protocols. The main rule of these Internet Protocols is how
the data is validated and sent over the Internet. Some Common Internet Protocols include:

• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP takes care of Web Browsers and
Websites.

• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): FTP takes care of how the file is to be sent over the
Internet.

• SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is used to send and receive data.

Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

What is POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3)?

Today email is the most widely used platform for personal and professional business
communication. To provide secure and efficient transmission of emails between clients and
servers email protocols are used. Email protocol is defined as a set of rules for the secure
transmission of emails over the Internet. SMTP, IMAP, POP, and POP3 are some of the email
protocols. Each type of protocol used has a specific mechanism. The below article covers in
detail the POP3 protocol.

What is POP?

POP stands for Post Office Protocol. The POP protocol was published in the year 1984. POP
has been updated two times namely “POP2” and “POP3”. The POP protocol is an Internet
Standard Protocol that works on the application layer. It is used to get an access email from the
mail server. The need for POP mainly arises when the user or client does not have a continuous
internet connection and what’s to receive email messages. The Pop client makes use of POP to
pull email messages from the POP server. POP3 is the updated version of POP.

What is POP3?

POP 3 stands for Post Office Protocol Version 3. POP3 protocol is used to provide access to the
mail inbox that is stored in the email server. POP3 protocol can download and delete messages.
Once the POP3 client has established a connection with the mail server it can easily retrieve all
the messages from the server. The user can access the messages locally even if the user is
offline. Every time the client needs to check manually for new messages as POP3 Protocol
provides the feature of real-time synchronization. Various email applications such as Microsoft
Outlook, Apple Mail, Gmail supports POP3 protocol.


POP3 Email Protocol

POP3 Ports

POP3 makes use of two network ports. They are:

• Port 110: Port 110 is a default TCP port used by POP3. But It has a disadvantage
that it does not support encrypted communication.

• Port 995: Port 995 is majorly used for more secure applications. Port 995 is a
TLS or SSL port used to provide more security.

Working of POP3

• Initially, POP3 needs to establish a connection between the POP client and the
POP server.

• Once a secure connection is established several commands are exchanged

between them to perform the task.

• Once a connection is established client requests available email messages.

• The Server sends the available messages along with their size and unique
identifier number.

• Once the client receives the message, it makes a request to the server for
downloading the messages. The user marks such messages and sends them to the server.

• Upon receiving from the client-server sends the messages selected by the client
and accordingly marks them as read or unread.

• The client if want sends a request for deleting the messages.

• Once the tasks are completed the client sends a close connection request to the
server

• The server then sends an acknowledgment to the client and closes the
connection.

Advantages of POP3

• The message can be read offline also.

• POP3 requires less storage space.

 • POP3 is easy to use and configure.

• POP3 is supported by many email applications.

Disadvantages of POP3

• POP3 does not provide the feature of real-time synchronization.

• If an email consists of virus attachments it can affect the system easily.

• POP3 does not support accessing the same email at the same time on different
systems.

• At a time entire email folder can be discarded.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

Pre-Requisite: Application Layer

Email is emerging as one of the most valuable services on the internet today. Most internet
systems use SMTP as a method to transfer mail from one user to another. SMTP is a push
protocol and is used to send the mail whereas POP (post office protocol) or IMAP (internet
message access protocol) is used to retrieve those emails at the receiver’s side.

SMTP Fundamentals

SMTP is an application layer protocol. The client who wants to send the mail opens a TCP
connection to the SMTP server and then sends the mail across the connection. The SMTP
server is an always-on listening mode. As soon as it listens for a TCP connection from any client,
the SMTP process initiates a connection through port 25. After successfully establishing a TCP
connection the client process sends the mail instantly.

SMTP Protocol

The SMTP model is of two types:

0. End-to-end method

0. Store-and-forward method

The end-to-end model is used to communicate between different organizations whereas the
store and forward method is used within an organization. An SMTP client who wants to send
the mail will contact the destination’s host SMTP directly, in order to send the mail to the
destination. The SMTP server will keep the mail to itself until it is successfully copied to the
receiver’s SMTP.
The client SMTP is the one that initiates the session so let us call it the client-SMTP and the
server SMTP is the one that responds to the session request so let us call it receiver-SMTP. The
client-SMTP will start the session and the receiver SMTP will respond to the request.

Model of SMTP System

In the SMTP model user deals with the user agent (UA), for example, Microsoft Outlook,
Netscape, Mozilla, etc. In order to exchange the mail using TCP, MTA is used. The user sending
the mail doesn’t have to deal with MTA as it is the responsibility of the system admin to set up a
local MTA. The MTA maintains a small queue of mail so that it can schedule repeat delivery of
mail in case the receiver is not available. The MTA delivers the mail to the mailboxes and the
information can later be downloaded by the user agents.

SMTP Model

Components of SMTP

0. Mail User Agent (MUA)

0. Mail Submission Agent (MSA)

0. Mail Transfer Agent (MTA)

0. Mail Delivery Agent (MDA)

1. Mail User Agent (MUA): It is a computer application that helps you in sending and retrieving
mail. It is responsible for creating email messages for transfer to the mail transfer agent(MTA).

2. Mail Submission Agent (MSA): It is a computer program that basically receives mail from a
Mail User Agent(MUA) and interacts with the Mail Transfer Agent(MTA) for the transfer of the
mail.

3. Mail Transfer Agent(MTA): It is basically software that has the work to transfer mail from one
system to another with the help of SMTP.

4. Mail Delivery Agent(MDA): A mail Delivery agent or Local Delivery Agent is basically a system
that helps in the delivery of mail to the local system.

Working of SMTP

1. Communication between the sender and the receiver : The sender’s user agent prepares the
message and sends it to the MTA. The MTA’s responsibility is to transfer the mail across the
network to the receiver’s MTA. To send mail, a system must have a client MTA, and to receive
mail, a system must have a server MTA.

2. Sending Emails: Mail is sent by a series of request and response messages between the
client and the server. The message which is sent across consists of a header and a body. A null
line is used to terminate the mail header and everything after the null line is considered the body
of the message, which is a sequence of ASCII characters. The message body contains the
actual information read by the receipt.

3. Receiving Emails: The user agent on the server-side checks the mailboxes at a particular
time of intervals. If any information is received, it informs the user about the mail. When the
user tries to read the mail it displays a list of emails with a short description of each mail in the
mailbox. By selecting any of the mail users can view its contents on the terminal.

Working of SMTP

Some SMTP Commands

• HELO – Identifies the client to the server, fully qualified domain name, only sent
once per session

• MAIL – Initiate a message transfer, the fully qualified domain of the originator

• RCPT – Follows MAIL, identifies an addressee, typically the fully qualified name
of the addressee, and for multiple addressees use one RCPT for each addressee

• DATA – send data line by line

For more, you can refer to SMTP Commands.

Difference between SMTP and Extended SMTP

Extended STMP is an extended version of SMTP. Extended SMTP is a set of protocols for
sending and receiving electronic messages on the internet. First, Email is sent from sender to
sender-server through ESTMP and from sender-server to receiver-server on the internet through
ESTMP. ESMTP follows the same protocols as SMTP. It adds more functionality, security, and
authentication than SMTP.

Let’s see some basic differences between them.

Advantages of SMTP

• If necessary, the users can have a dedicated server.

 • It allows for bulk mailing.

• Low cost and wide coverage area.

• Offer choices for email tracking.

• Reliable and prompt email delivery.

Disadvantages of SMTP

• SMTP’s common port can be blocked by several firewalls.

• SMTP security is a bigger problem.

• Its simplicity restricts how useful it can be.

• Just 7-bit ASCII characters can be used.

• If a message is longer than a certain length, SMTP servers may reject the entire
message.

• Delivering your message will typically involve additional back-and-forth

processing between servers, which will delay sending and raise the likelihood that it won’t be
sent.