Edward C.

Banfield, American Foreign

Policy Doctrines (Washington: AEI,
1967)

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aid so confidently proposed by policymakers and so readily s u p
ported, or at any rate tolerated, by the public? This question re-
quires consideration of the nature of American political culture and
of democracy in general.
It should be noted that doctrines are under discussion here, not
programs or practices. Foreign aid programs and practices may, of
course, be very different from what the doctrines attempt to justify.
It should be noted too that only nun-military aid is under discussion.
The study is organized in three main parts. The first discusses
the doctrines which justify non-military aid mainly or ultimately on
the ground of its contribution to our national security. The second
discusses the doctrines that justify it on other grounds. The third
appraises the character of the discussion of aid doctrines and tries
to show why the nature of American democracy has led to a senti-
mental and unworkable approach to the subject.
 DOCTRINES JUSTIFYING AID BY NATIONAL SECURITY
MOSTOF THOSE WHO write about aid justify it mainly or ulti-
mately, but usually not solely, on the ground that it will contribute
to national security. This position is based on one or the other of
two largely incompatible doctrines.' One, which will be called the
doctrine of indirect influence, asserts that national security will be
promoted by using aid to transform fundamentally the cultures
and institutions of the recipient countries. The other, which will
be called the doctrine of direct influence, takes the cultures and
institutions of the recipient countries as given and seeks to achieve
the purpose (promotion of national security) by bringing influence
to bear directly either upon the governments of the countries con-
cerned or upon their public opinions.

The Doctrine of Indirect Influence

A widely accepted doctrine asserts that foreign aid may serve the
vital interests of the United States by setting off, or bringing about,
fundamental changes in the outlook and institutions of the recipient
societies and that these changes will lead to others-especially the
spread of freedom and democracy-that will promote peace and
thus, indirectly, serve our ultimate purpose, which is to increase our
national security.
Those who advocate the doctrine of indirect influence differ about
how this process will work, especially about the nature of the
changes to be produced by aid and how these will yield the further
effects (freedom, democracy, and peace) that are desired ultimately.
One school of thought emphasizes economic effects. A marked rise
The two doctrines are largely incompatible in three ways: (1) the
rightness of one depends logically to some extent upon the wrongness of the
other (e.g., if transforming the recipient society is necessary, then a method
which does not transform it is wrong; similarly, if transforming it is not
necessary, there is no justification for a method which transforms it); (2)
the two approaches compete for money, time, and other scarce resources; and -
(3) the success of one approach may entail, or even constitute, the non-
success of the other (e.g., the transformation of a society may render the
society unamenable to direct influence).
 in average income will change profoundly the outlook of the masses
of the people in underdeveloped countries. People who have enough
to eat and something to look forward to will be much less receptive
to Communist and other extremist appeals. Prosperity and oppor-
tunity will engender a taste for democracy and peace as, presumably,
they have in own our society. The one great need, therefore, is to
bring about rapid economic development. All the other effects that
are desired will follow automatically.
On this theory, aid should be distributed among countries solely
on the basis of their ability to use it to increase incomes. In princi-
ple, Russia and China might be given the highest priorities.
Another school of thought, represented principally by Millikan
and Rostow, says that increases in income will not of themselves
produce the desired effects (freedom, stability, democracy, and
peace). To be sure, "some" economic improvement is a necessary
condition for achieving these effects. But Millikan and Rostow are
severely critical of the "crude materialist" thesis that economic
development will of itself either reduce revolutionary pressures or
lead to orderly political development. They regard it as a serious
misconception to think that the spirit of revolt spreads easily among
people who are chronically destitute or that the mere creation of
wealth can satisfy a people's expectations. In their view, aid is
important principally because it will set off social, political, and
psychological changes which will energize the society.
Even more important (than increases in income) are the confidence
generated by the sense of progress, the social mobility, the outlet for
leadership energies, the national unity, the consolidation of new
individual and group values, and discovery of new sources of
satisfaction and achievement which a concentration of social and
economic development can bring.2
Millikan and Rostow, op. cit., pp. 25-26. Another version of the
Millikan-Rostow doctrine appears in Senate Document 52, 85th Congress,
1st Session, July 1957, "The Objectives of United States Economic Assistance
Programs" by the Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute
of Technology. A reformulation of the M.I.T. position has recently been
published: Max F. Millikan and Donald L. M. Blackrner, The Emerging
Nations: Their Growth and United States Policy (Boston: 1961).
 Since they insist that the desired effects can only be secured
through certain social, political, and psychological changes, Millikan
and Rostow might be expected to make suggestions for using aid to
bring about these changes. They do not. All of their recornrnenda-
tions would be congenial to a "crude materialist." Whereas their
first four chapters stress the crucial importance of non-economic
factors, the remaining five chapters do not mention them. These
later chapters refer to the purpose of aid as "economic development"
and make recommendations that are all directed toward purely eco-
nomic goals and that have little or no relation to (indeed, are
probably somewhat in conflict with) the goal of setting off social,
political, and psychological change^.^ For example, the key recom-
mendation is that the distribution of aid "be determined by absorptive
capacity rather than by considerations of equity or politics."
Millikan and Rostow, then, not only say nothing about how the
changes they regard as crucial are to be brought about, but, by laying
out a program which looks entirely to economic objectives, they
implicitly contradict the main point of their analysis.

Aid May Not Raise Levels of Living

All who hold the doctrine of indirect influence agree that a
significant (Millikan and Rostow say "some") improvement in
levels of living is necessary to secure the effects that are ultimately
desired. "Crude materialists" believe that the greater the improve-
ment the more marked these secondary effects will be. To the
'"We have a very specific purpose in adopting such a program: to promote
.
the economic growth of the underdeveloped countries. . ." (p. 64). The
criteria listed in Chapter 7 all assume the purely economic goal. The recent
reformulation of the M.I.T.doctrine (Millikan and Blackrner, op. cit.) is less
subject to this criticism: it makes (Ch. 10) a number of suggestions for
bringing about the necessary social, political, and psychological changes.
But here also the greatest importance is given to purely economic criteria.
For example, "Those responsible for development aid allocations must base
their decisions on economic criteria rather than on considerations of short-run
political advantage. In the long run our programs will be more likely to
have the political consequences we seek if they are based on reasonably strict
economic criteria." Ibid., p. 120.
extent that there is reason to believe improvements will not take
place, confidence in these doctrines must be weakened.
The improvement that is necessary is in the income of the ordinary
man, not in aggregate income. A large increase in aggregate income
could leave most people in the society worse off than before if, for
example, population grew faster than income or if the growth in
income was accompanied by an increased concentration of income in
the hands of a small elite or was siphoned off for military or other
governmental purposes that did not raise standards of life. In order
to bring about the necessary improvement in levels of living, there-
fore, a proper equilibrium must be achieved among three variables:
the productivity of the economy, the size of the population, and
the evenness with which income is distributed. Conceivably a satis-
factory relationship among these variables might be secured by
changing only one of them; in the usual case, however, it will be
essential to change them all.
In most of the underdeveloped areas aggregate income has been
increasing in recent decades. These gains, however, are being
nearly offset, and in some cases more than offset, by growth of
population. The rate of population growth is in most places enough
to absorb the increase in aggregate income that will result from
normal saving. Although their incomes are rising, the underde-
veloped countries, with some exceptions, are not increasing their per
capita food ~ u p p l y . ~
S e e A. J. Jaffe, "Population Trends and Controls in Underdeveloped
Countries," Law and Contemporary Problems, Vol. XXV:3, 1960, p. 528.
According to J. J. Spengler, "Getting a fertility-reducing process under
way today probably presupposes a saving rate of something like 10-15 percent
.
of a nation's net national product . . and the conversion of a sufficient
fraction of it into forms of capital which are strongly production-oriented."
"The Population Problem: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow," Southern
Economic Journal, Vol. XXVIII:3, 1961, p. 206. See also Kingsley Davis,
"The Political Impact of New Population Trends," Foreign Affdrs, Vol.
36:2, 1958, p. 296. Raymond Vernon believes steady improvement in the
quality of censuses in the underdeveloped countries has led demographers
to overestimate the rate of population growth and that per capita incomes
are increasing faster than is usually thought (personal communication).
 Estimates by Professor P. N. Rosenstein-Rodan on very optimistic
assumptions (e.g., that the underdeveloped countries will get all the
aid they can absorb and that they will make reasonably good use of
it) indicate that from 1961 to 1976 gross national product in the
underdeveloped parts of the world may rise from an average of $140
to $192 per ~ a p i t a .Whether
~ an increase of this magnitude would
suffice to change the political outlook of the underdeveloped coun-
tries decidedly is, of course, anyone's guess. (It must be kept in mind
that an increase in average income does not imply a better distribu-
tion of income; this may be such that most people will be no better
off-conceivably even worse off-than at present. It should be taken
into account, too, that the aspirations of the people of the under-
developed parts of the world may meanwhile rise even faster than
their incomes.) 1
If the aid doctrine requires not merely some improvement in levels
of living;
- but the "modernization" of the economy, the outlook is
even more discouraging. That aggregate and in some cases per
capita incomes in these countries have been growing in recent years
does not mean that they will continue to do so. The growth that has
occurred so far may be in the nature of "taking up slack"; additional
growth may be impossible without basic changes within the societies
-changes that will not occur.
Some societies may never develop. The American Indian is a case
in point. The cruelty, indifference, and stupidity of whites can ex-
plain only in part why many Indian cultures have not entered modern
society after several hundred years of contact with it. In the last
30 years a vast amount of effort has been put forth on behalf of the
Indians. The United States Government, for example, has spent
several thousand dollars per Navaho to help them adapt, and has
spent it with much intelligence and good will-as much, at any

See Millikan and Blackmer, op. at., p. 154. A. J. Jaffe's conclusion, in

the article cited above, was that "Under the best of circumstances, it will
still take at least one generation, counting from the end of World War 11,
before there may be a decided slackening in the rate of population growth
and a very significant improvement in the levels of living." (p. 534).
rate, as is likely to be found in any underdeveloped country. Yet
the problem of the Navaho remains almost as it was a generation
ago.6
Even those underdeveloped countries which are not primitive may
lack certain cultural or other prerequisites of development. One such
prerequisite is the presence in the society of at least a small class of
persons having talents and incentives that lead them to organize,
innovate, and take risks. Other prerequisites are traits which must
probably be fairly widespread in order for such a class to arise, or
to function effectively if it does arise. These include the desire for
material irnpro~ernent,~ the belief that economic activity is worthy of
respect,* willingness to concert activity for common purposes or at
least to allow others to concert it without interference9 and ability

See Frank A. Tinker, "The Navaho Experience," Challenge, December

1960, pp. 26-30.
Capital formation, Nurkse says, can be permanently successful only in
a capital-conscious community. "Nothing matters so much as the quality of
the people." Initiative, prudence, ingenuity, and foresightedness are the
qualities particularly needed. Ragnar Nurkse, Problems of Capital Formation
in Underdeveloped Countries (Oxford: 1953), p. 155. Professor Edward S.
Mason has remarked that it is not clear that the people of southern Asia are
uniformly and significantly motivated by a desire for economic betterment.
Promoting Economic Development (Claremont, California: 1955), p. 41.
In the newly developing states, according to Edward A. Shils, the nation
is the sole locus of charisma; political leaders get their legitimacy from it.
For development to occur, some ambition must be turned into economizing
behavior and this can only happen as such behavior is seen as permeated
by the sacred. In most underdeveloped areas there is no such tradition; "It
cannot of course be created deliberately," Shils says, "but it can be helped to
grow by the establishment of favorable conditions. Successful enterprise will
help to create it, but so will a sympathetic and appreciative public opinion in
the underdeveloped countries." Edward A. Shils, "The Concentration and
Dispersal of Charisma," World Politics, Vol. XI:1, 1958, p. 18.
6 See E. C. Banfield, The Moral Bash of a Backward Society (Glencoe:

1958).
to maintain at least that minimum of political stability that is essen-
tial in order for the Government to carry out certain critical tasks.
These and other prerequisites are not all present in any of the
underdeveloped areas.''
Such factors are in general more important obstacles to develop-
ment than are lack of technical knowledge or of foreign capital.
If cultural and other conditions favor development, it will occur
without aid. (Japan and Russia, to cite recent cases, did in fact de-
velop without it.) If cultural conditions do not favor development,
no amount of aid will bring it about. (Cuba and Haiti, for example,
have received large amounts of both technical assistance and foreign
capital without development taking place.) Probably no country
is so poor that it cannot accumulate capital,ll and the Western world
codd not if it tried prevent the wholesale borrowing of its tech-
nical knowledge by underdeveloped countries able to make use of it.
Where populations have a "will" to limit births, the population

loAfter listing four prerequisites of development "each as critical as

capital" (viz., a substantial degree of literacy and that small number of people
with knowledge and skills for managerial and technical tasks, a substantial
measure of social justice, a reliable apparatus of government and public
administration, and a clear and purposeful view of what development
involves), J. K. Galbraith declares that "In practice, one or more of these
four factors is missing in most of the poor countries." "A Positive Approach
to Foreign Aid," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 39:3, 1961, pp. 444-57. Professor
Simon Kuznets has observed that it is not the physical equipment of a
country that constitutes the major part of its capital but rather "the body of
knowledge amassed from tested findings and the capacity and training of the
population to use this knowledge effectively." In United Nations, Processes
and Problems of Industrialization in Under Developed Countries (New
York: 1955), p. 5. See also T. W. Schultz, "Investment in Human Capital,"
American Economic Review Vol. LI:1, 1961, pp. 1-17. For discussions of
the cultural conditions of growth, see Ralph Braibanti and J. J. Spengler,
Traditions, Values, and Socio-Economic Development (Durham, N. C. :
1961).
l1 Cf. Simon Kuznets, Six Lectures on Economic Growth (Glencoe: 1959),

pp. 80-81.
problem will solve itself; where they do not, there is nothing much
that can be done.12
But even if all cultural and institutional prerequisites of growth
were present, it might not be possible for certain underdeveloped
countries ever to achieve levels of living even roughly approximating
those of the West. A modern economy must draw upon a large
complex of basic raw materials, including land, water, fossil fuels,
and minerals of many kinds. Even with free international trade,
shortages of some resource would set limits on the level of develop-
ment that some of the most disadvantaged countries-India, for
example~couldachieve.13
It should not be surprising if a donor over-values his gift. Amer-
ican aid doctrine certainly exaggerates greatly the importance of both
technical assistance and foreign capital in the development process.
Only in the most backward countries can either kind of aid make a
crucial difference, or perhaps even an important one. In the nature
of the case, the greater the need of a country for aid, the less evi-
dence there is that it has a capability to develop. The most prosper-
ous and promising of the underdeveloped countries-Mexico, for
example-may not require any aid in order to grow at a satisfactory
rate. There is, to be sure, an important middle group of countries-
India is a conspicuous example-which can absorb large amounts
of aid and which offer some promise of developing. In time, too,
some of the most backward countries may be brought by aid to the
condition of this middle group. Nevertheless, despite these qualifi-
cations, there is a built-in perversity in the situation which makes it
impossible to use large amounts of aid with effectiveness in most
places.

l2 The existence of a cheap and effective oral contraceptive does not put
it within the power of governments to reduce population growth; a reduc-
tion will occur only as there is a widespread desire within the societies in
question to limit births, and this will not arise except in consequence of
general improvement in levels of living. See Robert C. Cook's article in the
issue of Law and Contemporary Problems cited above, p. 387.
l3See Richard L. Meier, Science and Economic Development (New York:

1956).
 Although aid is seldom, or perhaps never, an indispensable pre-
requisite to economic development and although even under the most
favorable circumstances it is not likely to be the "key" to develop-
ment, it may, as both Milton Friedman and J. K. Galbraith have
emphasized, do much to retard development if improperly used.14
There is much that should be done by government in underdevel-
oped areas (e.g., provision of roads, elementary education, a mone-
tary system, law and order), Friedman says, but there are crucial
advantages in letting private business do as much as possible. One
such advantage is that private individuals, since they risk their own
funds, have a much stronger incentive to invest wisely. Another
is that private individuals are more likely than state bureaucracies
to abandon unsuccessful ventures. The availability of resources at
little or no cost to a country inevitably stimulates "monument-
building," i.e., investment in projects adding little or nothing to the
productivity of the economy. Under these circumstances, he con-
cludes, countries would develop faster without aid than with it.
Even if it does begin, economic development may not last very
long or get very far. Continued growth, David McCord Wright has
pointed out, involves discovery and use of new ideas.15 The devel-
oping society must produce a social outlook, institutions, and eco-
nomic organization which, generation after generation, will bring
to the fore men who will produce new ideas. That such men come
to the fore in one generation, Wright observes, is no guarantee that
they will in the next. The long-run economic prospect, therefore, is
very uncertain in any society, including, of course, a highly developed
one like our own.

l4There is a striking agreement between Friedman and Galbraith with

respect to most of these points. See Milton Friedman, "Foreign Economic

Aid: Means and Objectives," The Yale Review, Summer 1958, and J. K.
Galbraith, Economic Development in Perspective (Cambridge: 1962).
l6David McCord Wright, "Stages of Growth vs. The Growth of Free-

dom," Fortune, December 1959.

The Political Prospects
But even if economic growth does occur it will not necessarily
lead to the spread of freedom and democracy. In the literature on
aid these terms are usually left undefined. One cannot tell which is
meant: wide distribution of power, rule of law, regard for civil
liberties, free elections, consumers' choice, national independence, a
distribution system favoring the poor, or something else. Obviously
these need not all go together (e.g., national independence is com-
patible with dictatorship). Obviously measures that promote democ-
racy or freedom in one meaning may inhibit them in others.
If by democracy and freedom are meant "respect for the individ-
ual" and its corollary "government by discussion" (however these
principles are expressed institutionally), there is certainly little basis
for optimism. Respect for the individual is unique to the Judaeo-
Christian tradition. In those parts of the world which do not
participate in this tradition, the idea is unintelligible or nearly so.
That a conception so fundamental might enter into and transform
alien cultures would be highly improbable under the most favorable
of circumstances. That this particular conception-of the sacredness
of the individual-might enter into and transform alien cultures
in those parts of the world where the worthlessness of the individual
human life is a conspicuous fact of everyday experience (a circum-
stance which indeed constitutes the very problem that aid seeks to
solve) is so improbable as to be incredible.
The prospects are better if democracy is defined to mean merely
government through institutions that are in some sense representative
(i.e., which take account of the wants and interests of the major
elements of the population and which by a peaceful process like an
election can be made to respond to public opinion). But democracy
even in this restricted sense will have a slow and fitful growth in
most of the underdeveloped world. The political institutions of the
West cannot be copied, as its technology can, by people whose ways
of thinking and valuing are fundamentally different. It took several
hundred years for the West to arrive at its very imperfect democracy.
The underdeveloped countries, although they may learn something
from our experience, are not likely to do much better.I6
The possibilities for development of societies that share our most
fundamental ethical premises are probably best in Latin America,
which has participated in Western civilization for four and one-half
centuries. But even there the long-run outlook for democracy is very
uncertain.
Even if mere "political stability" (i.e., the absence of change
brought about by violence) is taken as the goal, the prospect is not
good. Economic development, by hastening the decay of tradition
and other forms of authority, will create ferment and disorder. The
spread of literacy, an indispensable condition of self-sustaining
growth, is especially likely to do so. As Millikan and Rostow say:
The education which accompanies economic change contributes
to unrest. People who can't read can't be subverted by literature.
Once they can read, the process of widening knowledge and
changing ideas of what the world is like and what is possible in it
proceeds with great rapidity.17
Urbanization, another indispensable condition of growth, also
tends to produce political instability. According to Bert F. Hoselitz:
. .
. the greater degree of literacy and the much greater degree of
exposure to mass communication media make urban populations
more susceptible to various forms of political propaganda. Thus, at
present, the cities of underdeveloped countries, and above all their
primate cities, are the centers of nationalist sentiment and political
l6Seymour Martin Lipset concludes a valuable analysis of some of these

questions with a quotation from Max Weber: "The spread of Western cul-
tural and capitalist economy did not, ips0 facto, guarantee that Russia would
also acquire the liberties which had accompanied their emergence in European
history . . . European liberty had been born in unique, perhaps unrepeatable,
circumstances at a time when the intellectual and material conditions for it
were exceptionally propitious." Lipset believes that, despite this dim outlook,
encouraging the spread of democracy "remains perhaps the most important
substantive intellectual task which students of politics can still set before
themselves." "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Develop-
ment and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review, Vol.
LIII:l, 1959, p. 103.
l7 op. at., p. 22.
 action. But to the extent that aspirations for economic advancement
are not fulfilled or fulfilled only inadequately, urban populations
may become a very responsible element for radical propaganda of
various sorts and may easily be induced to support forms of totali-
tarian policies on the left or on the right.18
In India, Asia, Africa, and Latin America the more economically
developed regions have been more prone to violence than the less
developed ones.16
If aid raises the level of expectation in a country without affording
a steady accompanying increase in actual satisfaction, it is, perhaps,
more likely than not to create discontent and revolution. This is
the implication of an analysis by James C. Davies. According to him:
Revolutions are most likely to occur when a prolonged period of
objective economic and social development is followed by a short
period of sharp reversal. The all-important effect on the minds of
people in a particular society is to produce, during the former
period, an expectation of continued ability to satisfy needs-which
continue to rise-and, during the latter, a mental state of anxiety
and frustration when manifest reality breaks away from anticipated
reality. The actual state of socio-economic development is less
significant than the expectation that past progress, now blocked, can
and must continue in the future.20
In most parts of the underdeveloped world the real question is.
not whether there can be created a political system that is democratic
or stable, but whether there can be created one capable of modern-
izing the country at all. "No new state,'" Edward A. Shils has.
written, "can modernize itself and remain or become liberal and
democratic without an elite of force of character, intelligence and
high moral qualities." Very few of the underdeveloped countries,
he says, have such elites; those that do have them may under favor-
able circumstances enjoy democracy that is to some extent tutelary,
Bert F. Hoselitz, Sociological Aspects of Economic Growth (Glencoe:
1960), pp. 228-29.
l9 For an illuminating discussion of these matters with respect to India,

see Bert F. Hoselitz and Myron Weiner, "Economic Development and

Political Stability," Dissent, Spring 1961.
20 James C. Davies, "Toward a Theory of Revolution," American Socio-

logical Review, 27:l (February 1962), p. 6.

and in time, if the elite has a very powerful will to be democratic,
the enormous gap between it and the masses of the population may -
be overcome. The less democratic and much more probable alterna-
tives will not, he thinks, provide stable government at all:
The alternatives are disorderly oligarchies, each promising and
aspiring to maintain order and to modernize, but doing so only by
sweeping the disorder temporarily into a box from which it recur-
rently springs out into full strength. The totalitarian oligarchy by
the ruthlessness of its elite and by the vigor of its party machine
as well as by the organizational and material aid which it would
get from the Soviet Union, would appear to have the best chance
to maintain itself, once it gets into power. But it too would have
to compromise markedly with the human materials which traditional
society gives it. It could build monuments and suppress open dis-
satisfaction but it could not realize its idea.Z1
The expansion of state activity which aid engenders tends in some
ways to discourage the growth of democracy. In a prosperous and
politically experienced society, democracy and extensive govern-
mental participation in economic affairs may coexist. But the situa-
tion of the underdeveloped countries precludes this. The best choice
open to many of them is between governments that are not incom-
petent and ones that are not tyrannical; the possibility of having
21Shils describes "components" and "preconditions" of five possible
courses of political development in the new states: A. Political democracy
("civilian rule through representative institut/ons in the matrix of public
liberties"); B. Tutelary democracy (political democracy adapted to provide
a greater preponderance of the executive); C. Modernizing oligarchies
(civilian or military cliques reduce parliament to a ratifying role, depend
upon the civil service, and do not tolerate an independent judiciary); D.
Totalitarian oligarchy (oligarchy with democratic airs and a doctrine); E.
Traditional oligarchy (a firm dynastic constitution, buttressed by traditional
religious beliefs). With respect to each of these, he discusses the following
preconditions: a. the stability, coherence, and effectiveness of the ruling
elite, b. the practice and acceptance of opposition, c. the machinery of
authority, d. the institutions of public opinion, and e. the civil order. See
his two articles on "Political Development in the New States," Comparative
Studies in Society and History, Vol. I1 (1960). The quotations are from
the second article, pp. 407 and 410.
governments that are neither incompetent nor tyrannical does not
exist. Aid, by encouraging governments to undertake tasks beyond
their capabilities, is likely to lead to waste through the incompetence
of the recipients, to the extension and hardening of governmental
power-or, perhaps most likely, to both at once."
Development at what is now in the underdeveloped areas con-
sidered to be a reasonable rate will require much more saving than
is likely to occur voluntarily. Governments can secure some of the
needed saving by defrauding their populations through inflation,
the use of government marketing boards, and other devices. To
the extent that fraud does not suffice, they are likely to use force;
as the required amount of savings increases (i.e., as the desired
rate of development increases), the amount of repression will prob-
ably also increase. According to Sir Robert Jackson:
Heroic measures of internal saving (and 15 percent of national
income is heroic when consumption is marginal and population
growing by 2 per cent a year) demand a ruthless political discipline
which liberal systems can hardly employ and still remain liberal.
Totalitarian dictatorship can thus appear not simply the short cut
but the only route to economic growth.23
22 "Perhaps the greatest unsolved problem of the Indians is to find some

way to insure efficient public entrepreneurship under the general aegis of a

parliamentary government." J. K. Galbraith, "Rival Economic Theories in
India," Foreign Affairs, July 1958, p. 596. "Under the general aegis" may
perhaps be interpreted to mean "under the nominal control of." E. S. Mason,
op. cit., p. 49, writes: "The magnitude of the role assumed by the state in
promoting economic development raises the question of whether the govem-
ments of southern Asia are up to the job."
23 Sir Robert G. A. Jackson, T h e Case for an International Development

Authority (Syracuse: 1959), p. 40. Egypt is a case in point.

"Unless it is resigned to a continuance of the decline of the living standards
of the masses, the government of Egypt must find the means for sharply
increasing the accumulation of capital and directing it into productive chan-
nels. This is likely to require deficit financing and a program of forced
savings. In other words, Egypt must curtail present levels of consumptions,
or even depress them, in order to achieve even a modest rate of economic
development." Frederick Harbison and Ibrahim Abdelkader Ibrahim, Human
Resources for Egyptian Enterprise (New York: 1958), p. 34.
 Some underdeveloped countries may have to adopt totalitarian
methods in order to meet the threat presented by neighboring coun- -
tries which have adopted them and are developing faster than they.24
The exigencies of development, then, will tend to bring into ex-
istence repressive or totalitarian regimes. But even without these
exigencies, the same effect might arise from other causes. The rulers
of the underdeveloped countries are discovering that the technology
of mass communications affords them the possibility of rule by propa-
ganda. This is something new in the history of the world. In very
poor societies it was formerly uneconomic, if not altogether im-
possible, to maintain rule by force over a large area. Consequently
government was mostly village or tribal and rested largely on tra-
ditional authority. The situation has now changed fundamentally.
The technology of communications makes it feasible to govern by
talk rather than by force, and to do so over-an almost limitless
area at a cost that is trivial even by the standards of a poor so~iety.~'
Even if rulers did not need to increase their power in order to hasten

24 Barbara Ward Jackson finds that the Congress Party of India is well

suited for the give-and-take of democracy. "But it is not a very suitable

instrument for rallying vast unified popular effort or for exacting great
public sacrifice. It follows that India cannot mobilize savings and direct
energies as the Chinese Communists claim to do, and Congress as a political
party can survive only so long as really heroic sacrifices are not needed from
the Indian people." "India on the Eve of its Third Plan," Foreign Affairs,
January 1961, p. 265.
25 The following dispatch was carried by Reuters, datelined Panama, May

6, 1961:
Portable transistor radios are becoming a key factor in Latin-American
politics, according to leading radio and television executives in Panama.
Their role is to bring politicians' messages, appeals and, upon occasion,
speeches to hundreds of thousands of peasants who never had any form of
direct communication with the politically-active cities.
The core of the role played by these transistor radios in bringing about
this change is the flashlight batteries on which so many of the sets operate.
The humblest country store stocks them for countryfolk who live far
beyond the end of the last power line. A recent survey showed that one-
third of the population of Latin America comes into this category.
economic development, they would probably find the opportunity for
rule by propaganda irresistible.
Rule by propaganda requires a constant supply of program ma-
terial, of ideas exciting or challenging enough to stir the masses into
a state of mind that will make them amenable to control. "Positive"
appeals for "constructive" action-appeals, say, for great national
crusades against poverty, disease, and ignorance~mayserve the
purpose. In general, however, appeals to hate and fear will probably
work better. The example of Castro suggests that excoriating the
capitalist, the colonialist, the foreigner, the Yankee, and (although
not in Cuba) the white man is likely to be the cheapest, easiest and
most dependable way to rally the people, make them cohere as a
nation, and secure possession of their energies and loyalties.
Where propaganda is to be the basis of governmental power,
the West is at a great and probably hopeless disadvantage. It is
Identified (unfairly, of course, in the case of the United States)
with the hated system of colonialism, the horrors of which increase
with every retelling and the virtues of which have already been
forgotten. The great principles for which the West stands, such
as the worth of the individual, are unintelligible to the masses in the
underdeveloped areas; the meaning of democracy, it need hardly be
said, cannot be shouted over the radio to a street mob. The Com-
munists, on the other hand, are under no such handicaps. The
Marxist ideology is, as Adam B. Ularn has remarked, the natural
one for backward societies to adopt.26 It provides people who are
undergoing transition from a pre-industrial to an industrial society
with a doctrine that makes sense of what must otherwise appear
to them a senseless world. The Soviet Union, moreover, is an under-
developed country that has "made good," whereas the United States,
the richest country by far, is the conspicuous symbol of all that is
hateful and threatening.
26 Adam B. Ulam, The Unfinished Revolution (New York: 1960), Ch.

VII. See also Zbigniew Brzezinski, "The Politics of Underdevelopment,"

World PoIitics, Vol. IX:1, 1956, p. 63 and passim, and the contrasting
views of Alex Inkeles, "The Soviet Union: Model for Asia?" Problems of
Communism, Vol. VIII:6, 1959, pp. 30-38.
 In some countries of Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America,
leaders and followers alike are stirred less by desire for improvement
of living standards than by the emotion of nationalism-by the
desire to create a mystic bond among a chosen people marked by
some sacred stigmata and to exalt the power and the glory of the
nation, This is an expression of a primordial urge to be in contact
with the sacred and to feel awe and reverence. Economic develop-
ment, where nationalism is strongest, is valued less for itself (it
may even be thought intrinsically undesirable) than as a means of
symbolizing, or of asserting, the power and glory of the nation. To
people intensely moved by the religion of nationalism, those who do
not belong to the nation are beyond the pale: their mere presence
defiles the sacred places. The existence of the nation as a mystic
body depends upon maintaining this radical distinction between those
within and those without.
These reasons for hating the West, the capitalist, the white, and
the foreigner exist in some degree in most of the underdeveloped
countries. They account in part for the hostility often manifested
toward the United States by the leaders of countries which have no
"objective" grounds for hostility. In such countries, it may be much
more important to the ruling clique, and perhaps also to the whole
nation, to have us for enemies than for friends.
Successful application of the doctrine of indirect influence (sup-
posing this to be possible) will require concentration of aid efforts
on the most promising and amenable countries, and this, of course,
will almost certainly create disaffection among those that are not
favored. It is quite likely that the promising and amenable-and
hence favored-countries will be ones of little strategic importance
to the United States and that the disfavored-and hence disaffected-
ones will be of great strategic irnportan~e.~~

27 Chester Bowles, a special adviser to the President, proposed publicly

on August 14, 1962 that the Agency for International Development classify
applicants in four priority categories according to their ability and willing-
ness to make use of aid. Bowles went so far as to list particular countries
he thought might be included in the two top categories. He acknowledged
that the exigencies of Cold War (or other) politics might require giving
Developed Societies Not Necessarily Peaceful
If the underdeveloped countries were to become fully developed
and "modernized," they would not necessarily be peaceful. As
Rupert Emerson has observed:
The great wars which have seriously threatened mankind in recent
history have taken place within the fraternity of the rich and
developed states. Can there be any clear assurance of a gain for
peace in the multiplication of well-to-do, industrialized states,
modeled precisely after those which have been the principal
warmakers of modern t i m e ~ ? ~ s
The disparity between the richness of some nations and the poverty
of others does not, as is so often asserted, tend toward war. Poor,
pre-industrial nations do not attack rich, industrial ones, much as
they might like to. Nor does being "undemocratic" incline one
nation to attack another if the attack cannot possibly be successful.
By the same token, any nation, however developed or democratic,
may be aggressive. Millikan and Rostow have no basis for their
confidence that democratic societies "can be relied upon not to
generate conflict because their own national interests parallel ours
and because they are politically healthy and mature."29 On the
contrary, it may be taken for granted that in the long course of
history the interests of any nation are likely to conflict with those
of any other, including, of course, the United States, and that when
this happens the relative power of the nations, not their political
"health" or "maturity," will determine the outcome.
Millikan and Rostow assert that as underdeveloped countries
gain confidence they will become easier to deal with.
Once they see that they are wholly capable of standing on their own
feet, they can afford to be less quixotic and nervous in their foreign

aid to countries not qualifying by the "economic and social" criteria. These
would be "exceptional cases," he said, and might be financed from the
Special Contingency budget. The approach he recommended was "tough-
minded," he said, and conservatives would "applaud and support" it.
Rupert Emerson, From Empire to Nation (Cambridge: 1960), p. 415.
29 Op. cit., p. 4.
 policies. A confident nation, making progress at home, is likely to
conduct its foreign policy with poise and good sense.s0
This also overlooks the fact of power. The Soviet Union is a
confident nation, but it is nevertheless infinitely dangerous to us.
Twenty-five years ago, when its confidence was much less, it was no
danger at all. The difference is that its power has increased. What
counts is not the confidence of nations but their power. The peace
of the world would be perfectly safe if the underdeveloped nations
(and the others also!) were utterly without confidence, providing
they were also utterly without power.
Finally, if the countries in question were to become entirely peace-
able, our national security would not necessarily be increased and it
might even be decreased. It would not be increased if we possessed
deterrents sufficient to prevent any nation, warlike or peaceable,
from attacking us, and it might be decreased if countries now willing
to risk war in support of our policy were (having become peaceable)
no longer willing to do so.

The Probability of Success

The degree of confidence that one has in the doctrine of indirect
influence will therefore depend upon how one judges four proba-
bilities: (a) that aid will increase per capita incomes significantly,
(b) that this increase, by itself or with other energizing changes, will
make societies more democratic, (c) that their being more demo-
cratic will make them more peaceable, and (d) that their being
more peaceable will add to our security. The probability of the
outcome that is ultimately desired, viz., greater national security, is
the product of these four separate probabilities. Hence (to assign
numbers for illustrative purposes only) if there is one chance in ten
that per capita incomes will increase significantly, one chance in ten
that this will make the societies more democratic, one chance in ten
that this will make them peaceable, and one chance in ten that their
being peaceable will increase our security, there is one chance in
ten thousand of achieving our ultimate aim in the manner the
doctrine prescribes.
Along with the probability of achieving the effect that is ulti-
mately desired must be considered another: that of achieving it
in time. The peril to America exists now and in the immediate
future; it makes little difference to us how peaceful the presently
underdeveloped countries will be 100 years from now, or even 30
years from now, if by then we will have been destroyed. One unit
of present advantage is worth much more to us than many units of
advantage 30 years hence, and more, perhaps, than any possible
number 100 years hence. It is certainly wildly optimistic to believe
that the underdeveloped areas may become "mature" and "healthy"
democracies within a generation, but even if they did, success might
come too late.
The rate of technological and other change is so great that the
present crisis of relations between the West and the Soviets is very
likely to have been resolved one way or another in less than 30 years.
If our objectives can be achieved simply by inspiring the under-
developed countries to "confident" and "constructive" efforts-if,
that is, we need not first raise their incomes substantially-this
problem of timing is less urgent. But it is very hard to believe that
our objectives can be achieved in this way.
Whatever the benefits that may be judged probable on this basis,
account must also be taken of the costs. One cost which may not be
obvious is the possibility o f making matters worse. W e may, for
example, set off armaments races and wars between the under-
developed countries. Indeed, there is reason to suppose that we
have already done so. Israel's attack on Egypt was probably made
possible by American aid, for, although the aid was non-military it
freed foreign exchange for the purchase of armaments. In time,
perhaps, our non-military aid to Egypt will enable that country to
attack Israel. The arms competition between India and Pakistan is
largely financed by us. By giving India non-military aid we make it
possible for her to buy arms (Indian expenditures for arms have
for several years equalled the value of the aid received from us)
and this causes Pakistan to demand ever-larger amounts of military
assistance. W e are therefore financing both sides of an arms race.
This is not the only danger. W e ourselves may eventually be -
menaced by countries that are now weak and friendly but will by
our aid be made strong and hostile. It was American aid to nation-
alist China that gave the Chinese Communists their start. "It is one
of the cheerful illusions of our day," Rupert Emerson has remarked,
"that economic and social development will surely redound to the
benefit of the West."31
What economists call "opportunity costs" must not be overlooked
either. By following one course of action we are to some extent
precluded from following others. The net benefits of actions fore- (

gone must be counted as costs against the actions that are taken. !
For example, if for fear of jeopardizing some long-run gain that is
to be had by transforming the economic and political life of a recip-
ient country we fail to take actions that would benefit us in the short
run, the loss of the short-run benefits must be counted as a cost
against the gain in the long-run benefits. To give another example,
to the extent that aid for non-defense purposes interferes with, or
precludes, measures for defense purposes, the loss in terms of the
latter must be charged as a cost against the former.

The Doctrine of Direct Influence

Another doctrine asserts that aid may serve the vital interests
of the United States by directly influencing the recipient governments
and peoples to act as the interests of the United States require or,
more often, to refrain from acting in ways injurious to the United
States. In contrast to the doctrine of indirect influence, this doctrine
does not expect aid to work by changing the character of the recipient
society economically or otherwise, though it acknowledges that
economic and other effects may be by-products.
Several versions of this doctrine may usefully be distinguished:
1. Quid Pro Quo. The aid is part of a bargain between two
governments in which there are clearly specified advantages to both
sides. For example, we might agree to build a system of highways

Op. ctt., p. 411.

24
in return for assurances that the Soviet Union would not be allowed
to penetrate the country.
Bribery is a special case. Here the bargain is with politicians
in the underdeveloped country who act from personal interest rather
than duty.
2. Business Friendship. The aid is given to create or maintain a
relationship that is expected to have mutual advantages over time.
The aid is, so to speak, a payment on an open account, it being tacitly
understood that political advantages will be given in return.
3. Maintenance of Friendly Governments. The aid is intended to
strengthen and to keep in power a government which is friendly, or
at least not unfriendly. This may be done by undertakings, including
of course economic development, which will increase the prestige
of the recipient government or the confidence its public have in it.
4. Prestige. The aid is intended to exhibit dramatically the power
of the giver and thereby to increase it. As Hobbes said in the Levia-
than, "Reputation of power is power, because it draweth with it the
adherence of those that need protection."
5. Good Will. The aid is intended to make the recipient feel
well disposed toward the giver and to put him under an implied
obligation to return kindness for kindness. Few people expect gov-
ernments to be moved by such sentiments as gratitude, but it is
fairly widely believed that public opinion may be so moved and that
it may have some effect on the policy of governments.
6. Moral 'Force. The aid is expected to affect public opinion by
exerting moral force. The giver expects that the nobility of his
action will inspire the recipient to act nobly too.
In most discussions of the doctrine of direct influence, these
differences of approach are not clearly recognized. The term "im-
pact" is sometimes used to describe any approach that is expected
to make its effect by influencing opinion. It is evident, however, that
different approaches require different means. For example, measures
to promote "business friendship" would not generate "moral force."
Distinctions along these lines are therefore implied even when they
are not made expressly.
Those who make any distinctions of this kind at all usually disdain
the approaches at the "quid pro quo" end of the scale and approve
those at the "moral force" end. David Lilienthal, for example, says
that the policy of extending aid in order to buy the allegiance of
the underdeveloped countries, or to keep the Soviets from buying it,
.
has not worked, cannot be made to work and has got us into a
t
moral mess." He asks:
What can we say in defense of an American policy, however
disguised with diplomatic rhetoric, which from time to time displays
the representatives of a noble nation up to their elbows in the
cynical international bazaar, there to bargain and haggle and make
deals by which we trade our money or credit or technical aid for
"friendship."32
Lilienthal favors the moral force approach. He urges a program
of aid from which we would seek nothing for ourselves and which
would therefore give the world "a demonstration of the kind of
people our system of political and economic freedom is capable of
producing."
We could [he says] provide an example by which the rapidly
emerging nations of the world could weigh and judge the virtue
of making increasing freedom for the individual-with justice for
his neighbor-the cornerstone of their own evolving societies.
Hans J. Morgenthau, although he does not condemn the "quid
pro quo" and "business friendship" approaches, also emphasizes
"moral force":
This plausibility of the American purpose, established in the eyes
of the world by deeds, must again become the foundation upon
which, supported by the modern techniques of propaganda and
foreign aid, the world-wide influence of America must rest.3s
It is worth noting that Morgenthau couples propaganda with aid
and that he puts propaganda first. The objective of "impact" aid

32David Lilienthal, "Needed: A New Credo for Foreign Aid," New

York Times Magazine, June 26, 1960. J. K. Galbraith says that our aid
should be seen "as a manifestation of the quality of the society-as an index
of its generosity and compassion and hence its right to respect." The Liberal
Hour (New York: 1960), p. 22.
33 Hans J. Morgenthau, The Purpose of American Politics (New York:

1960), p. 28.
 is to create an opinion favorable to the United States, not to change
the conditions of life in the underdeveloped country except as doing
so may be necessary in order to create a favorable opinion. Though
deeds, as Morgenthau says, are a necessary condition of effective
propaganda, they count only as the accompanying propaganda makes
them count; to the extent that this propaganda fails to turn them
to account by changing opinion, they are wasted. It follows, then,
that if "impact" can be increased by spending more on propaganda
and less on deeds, we ought to make the change.
It is not obvious why Americans so generally condemn the "quid
pro quo" and "business friendship" versions of the direct influence
doctrine. To bribe a foreign statesman to keep his country free may
not be evil at all. But if it is, it is a kind of evil that respectable
statesmen have always deemed it their duty to do when the security
and welfare of their countries demanded. Where bribery is not
involved, the justification of "reason of state" is not necessary. If a
government is willing to give political favors in exchange for
material resources, it is hard to see why either it or a government
which accepts its offer should be criticized. As Aristotle remarked,
the expression "friendly governments" means governments that
exchange favors, not ones that love each other.
The other ways of exercising influence are in fact open to moral
objections that cannot be made against bargains. In a bargain, each
party decides for itself whether it is willing to do as the other wants
and, if so, on what terms. -That is to say neither is manipulated by
the other. The other modes of influence, including of course "moral
force," do involve manipulation; they are exercised unilaterally, and
if a party responds to influence, it does so without necessarily being
aware that it is being manipulated: without, that is, realizing that
the favor or generous deed was done simply to elicit the response
wanted by the infl~encer.8~
34 Some countries are said to find the moral claims implied by gifts particu-

larly odious. For this reason, apparently, the Soviets offer credits rather
than grants. Their propaganda in the underdeveloped countries stresses the
mutual benefit of aid arrangements rather than the generosity of the Soviets.
Joseph S. Berliner, Soviet Economic Aid (New York: 1958), p. 147.
 Instead of regretting the occasional necessity of putting aid on a
business basis, we should wish that we could do it more often.
Unfortunately our opportunities will be few. The underdeveloped
countries are in most cases pathologically sensitive about national
"honor," and the suggestion that we should get something for what
we give is always bitterly resented. Only the most reactionary gov-
ernments-those without ideology, which exist more or less as the
private possession of a monarch or a ruling clique-will sell political
favors. Doing business with these will make it all the harder to
come to terms with the ideologically-based governments that will
eventually replace them. Though the purchase of political favors
may be indispensable as an expedient in some cases, it is not a
widely available possibility.
For the United States to seek to increase its prestige by the use of
aid makes little sense. The power of this country is not underrated.
(The Soviets are in a different position; their power is new and has
to be seen to be believed.) Military prestige, moreover, is of little
value so long as it is understood on all sides that Soviet power, world
opinion, and our own scruples will prevent us from using force in
any event. Our experience with Cuba is a case in point. The case
for using aid to increase our reputation for non-military power is
even poorer. No underdeveloped country doubts our ability to give
or withhold enormous advantages.
"Good will" and "moral force" can make their effect only by
working upon public opinion rather than upon governments. The
public opinion of an underdeveloped country does not include the
opinion of the peasants, who in most places are the vast majority.
If our grain prevents the peasant from starving, he may be grateful,
but his gratitude has no effect upon the policy of his country because
politically he does not exist. Those who do make a difference are
the people of the cities, especially the primate cities, and, above all,
the small group which rules.
To suppose that the masses in the cities will feel grateful towards
us because we have improved the peasant's lot or saved him from
starvation is probably unrealistic. It is hardly less so, perhaps, to
suppose that the ruling groups will be moved to gratitude or respect
by our gener~sity.~~ They will assume that our actions are really
selfishly motivated, and that our claims to the contrary are hypocrisy.
Although they are largely Western educated, these elites do not
entirely share our moral standards. In some places, the very idea
of public-spiritedness is incomprehensible; actions we think noble
appear as merely foolish.36 Where nationalism is strong and ruling
groups value increases in material welfare mainly for what they
contribute to the prestige of the new nation, our concern for the
material welfare of the individual, far from inspiring respect, may
increase the ardent nationalists' contempt for us.
These considerations suggest that if aid is to have political effect
it must work upon the educated class. Undertakings which stir
national pride or afford direct material benefits to that class are
likely to succeed best. Building an ostentatious capital city or sup-
porting schools, theatres, and supermarkets in primate cities may
do more to create politically significant sentiment in favor of the
United States than much more costly projects to prevent mass starva-
tion in the hinterland. The charge so often made, that our aid does
not reach the people who need it most, is beside the point if our
object is to exercise influence through gratitude and respect. For
example, an observer complains that our aid program in Guatemala
has been politically shortsighted because it has dealt with basic
problems :
The decisions as to the kinds of technical assistance to be given
stemmed from a laudable but politically short-sighted philosophy
that only long range and "basic" problems should be tackled-
hence the great emphasis on primary education, agricultural exten-

a5 Among some Buddhist sects, I am told by Professor Merle Fainsod,

the one who receives a gift, not the one who gives it, confers the favor.
36 John P. Gillin, an anthropologist, says of Latin America: ". . . the
notion of the 'more fortunate' elements of society actually getting down to a
man-to-man basis with the 'more unfortunate' in order to help them is
virtually unknown." In Lyman Bryson (ed.), Social Change in Latin America
Today (New York: 1960), p. 36. In the Middle East, the ruling elites
have not been tempted by our example to share their fabulous wealth with
underlying populations. See also E. C. Banfield, op. cit.
 sion, and public health. . . . Under these programs, little or no
attention was paid to whether or not the segments of the population
at which these efforts were aimed were politically influential.37
But even if gratitude and respect do follow from our aid, public
opinion may not favor any change of government policy towards us.
One may be grateful for a gift without ceasing to dislike the policies
of the giver. As Morgenthau has written:
.
. . if the recipient continues to disapprove of the political philoso-
phy, system, and objectives of the giver, despite the aid he has
received, the political effects of the aid are lost. The same is true if
he remains unconvinced that the aid received is but a natural, if
not inevitable, manifestation of the political philosophy, system,
and objectives of the giver. Economic and technical aid remains
politically ineffectual as long as the recipient says either: "Aid is
good, but the politics of the giver are bad"; or: "Aid is good, but
the politics of the giver-good, bad, or indifferent-have nothing
to do with it."38
Even at its most effective, "impact" aid is not likely to change
matters fundamentally. To make countries that are already friendly
somewhat more so will avail us little. To bring friendly countries
Into a condition of "total dependency" (assuming this to be desir-
able) would require vast amounts of aid. To change basically the
policy of uncommitted countries by this means is probably out of
the question. There is a danger, too, as President Kennedy pointed
out to Congress, that "if we encourage recipient countries to drarna-
tize a series of short-term crises as a basis for our aid . . . we will
dissipate our funds, our good will and our leader~hip."~~

37Richard N. Adams, in Social Change in Latin America Today (ed.

Lyman Bryson), op. cit., p. 235.
38Politics Among Nations, 3d ed. (New York: 1960), p. 535. Berliner
remarks that it is by no means clear that the Soviets will manage to translate
good will into political advantage. India and Yugoslavia, two of the largest
recipients of Soviet aid, have not been deterred from criticizing the Soviet
Union., op. tit., p. 180.
39 The text of President Kennedy's message appears in the New York

Times, March 23, 1961, p. 14. Cf. also the conclusions of Berliner with
regard to Soviet aid, op. kt., p. 183.
 There is also some danger that we will create bad will by our
efforts to create good will. The obligation to be grateful is often
accompanied by resentment. The people of the underdeveloped
countries are moved by strong feelings of both inferiority and superi-
ority, and it would not be surprising if receiving substantial amounts
of aid made many of them dislike us th0roughly.4~

The Alternative to Aid

It is often asserted that if we do not give them aid the under-
developed countries will eventually fall under the control of the
Soviet Union and be used by it to bring about our destruction. If
this is indeed the alternative, obviously we must give aid no matter
how small the chances of its succeeding.
There is reason to think that this is not a realistic view of the
alternative, however. For one thing, assistance for non-military
purposes (the only kind of aid under discussion here) is not our
sole means of preventing countries from falling under Soviet domi-
nation. Except as aid is the practical equivalent of military assistance
(the recipient using it, as India does, to release for military expendi-
ture funds that would otherwise have to be used for non-military
expenditure), it is not decisive in keeping a country out of the hands
of the Soviets. What is decisive is military assistance or the threat
of it.
However, even if we gave neither aid nor military assistance, it
is not likely that all of the underdeveloped countries would fall
completely under Soviet control. Nationalism would be a barrier
to Communist imperialism, as it has been to Western, and even if
all of the countries in question did become in some sense Com-
munist, the Kremlin probably could not impose a tight discipline

40 In Mexico and Brazil, and perhaps in much smaller measure in other

Latin American countries, according to Lyman Bryson, "The resentment

of the debtor and the dependent have been replaced by the more vigorous
and self-respecting hostility of the rival." Social Change in Latin America
Today, op. cit., p. 9. The extensive aid given by American Jews to Israel
is said to have engendered much ill will toward the givers.

31
upon all of them in all things. Tensions like those that now exist
between the Russians and the Chinese and between both the Russians
and the Chinese and the Yugoslavs would certainly arise. But even
if they did not-even if all of the underdeveloped countries entered
fully into a monolithic bloc hostile to the United States-we would
not necessarily be cut off and isolated. The monolith would find
trade with us to its advantage; the present restrictions on East-West
trade, it is worth noting, are mostly of our making.
Let us assume the worst, however: viz., that all of the under-
developed countries fall completely under the control of the Soviet
Union and that it uses its control to try to isolate and destroy us.
Even in this event, we could probably survive and we might even
prosper.
The economic consequences of such isolation would be endurable.
Trade with the underdeveloped countries is relatively unimportant
to us. They are comparatively cheap sources of certain raw materials,
but at some additional cost we could either produce these raw
materials ourselves or find substitutes for them from within our
borders. The cost might be no greater than that of extending aid
at the levels that would be necessary in order to achieve much by it
(say $6 billion a year). If one takes into account the higher prices
that we may have to pay for raw materials as the underdeveloped
countries develop, it is doubtful whether "aid and trade" is a better
prospect for the United States from a purely business standpoint
than "no aid and no trade;"41
Economists say that, undesirable although it would be, autarchy
is a possibility for the United States. If all trade beyond our borders
were to be permanently stopped, our gross national product would
not necessarily be greatly reduced. W e would have to get along

4 1 Aid is sometimes justified partly on the ground that it promotes our

foreign trade. Wolf, op. cit., p. 281, concludes that anticipated gains from
trade and increases in strategic materials supplies "should not be aid objec-
tives because, in effect, they can't be." According to E. S. Mason, of. cit.,
p. 16, "There is a little merit in this case but so little that it does not, in my
opinion, justify a substantial program of foreign aid and technical assistance
on these grounds alone."
without acceptable substitutes for a few things like tea, coffee, and
bananas, but everything else required to sustain our economy at its
present level for an indefinite time could be found within our
borders. Our gross national product might even increase gradually,
although not, of course, nearly as fast as it would if there were
international trade?=
Unless the technology of war changes fundamentally, the United
States and Western Europe could probably survive militarily if all
of the underdeveloped countries were in Communist hands. Until
we possessed a supply of atomic bombs, bases around the world were
essential to our defense. They are still enormously valuable, but
We do not have them in most of the under-
they are not e~sential.4~

4* These statements are based on conversations with W. W. Leontief of

Harvard. He believes that a quick transition to autarchy would create eco-

nomic disruptions comparable in severity to a minor depression. For reasons
given, it seems likely that the transition could occur rather slowly. See W. W.
Leontief, "Les Tendences futures Eventuelles des relations 6conomiques
internationales des Etats-Unis," Revue Economiqae, Paris, May 1951.
Raymond Vernon, however, sees defense advantages in husbanding scarce
raw materials and, possibly, in securing a desirable dispersal pattern. "For-
eign Trade and National Defense," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 34:1, 1955, pp.
77-88. In conversation, he has emphasized the advantage to us of the stimu-
lation of competition from abroad, e.g., the effect on the American auto-
mobile industry of compact cars. But this, of course, arises mainly from
trade with developed countries.
T. C. Schelling has pointed out to the writer that even if we maintained
a high national income we might still lack certain materials essential to the
maintenance of a competitive military position.
43 Except for certain protected underground sites for winged Mace mis-

siles in West Germany and in Okinawa, according to Hanson W. Baldwin,

"the rest of our land-based overseas missile sites could gradually be elimi-
nated, if the countries concerned agreed, without significant impairment of
our nuclear deterrent capability." Other functions of our overseas bases and
positions-protection of sea-air lines of communication, outpost and warning
systems, backup points for support of limited war operations, political and
psychological-are, he adds, still of high importance. New York Times,
November 7, 1962.
developed countries (we have none in Africa south of the Sahara,
in Latin America, and in India, for example), but those that we do
have enable us to place our missiles dose to the Soviet Union and to
maintain warning and tracking stations, observation posts, and space
exploration facilities where we need them. Even where we have
no bases we secure a military advantage by preventing the Soviet
Union from placing its bases close to us. These advantages are
very substantial indeed, but we could get along without them. If
we had no bases close to the Soviet Union, we could achieve the
same deterrent effect, although at a greater cost, by having more
missiles within our borders and on our submarines. Similarly, if the
Soviets could place their missiles close to us, they would be relieved
of some expense (since they would need fewer and smaller missiles)
but their deterrent power would not be increased. So long as our
enemies cannot prevent us from exploding a large number of nuclear
weapons on their territory, we shall be safe from any attack that
might threaten our national existence-as safe, that is, as anything
we could do would make us-and if we maintain large conventional
forces in Western Europe we can probably prevent an attack there
tooF4
Conceivably we might survive economically and militarily and yet
succumb ideologically. "If the trend of the world were toward
totalitarianism," a Senate subcommittee concluded after a study of
aid, "then it would be only a matter of time until the free way of
life in the United States would be critically threatened."45
Closely examined, this assertion is not as plausible as it at first
appears. There is, of course, no empirical evidence to support it,
and the common sense arguments against it are at least as strong as
those in favor of it. Certainly the contagiousness of an idea depends
to a large extent upon the susceptibility of those who are exposed
to it: if, for example, cow worship were to spread around the world
from India, we would be in little danger of becoming cow worship-
44 The writer has benefited from discussions of these matters with Morton

H. Halperin of the Center for International Affairs, Harvard University.

45 U. S. Congress, Senate, Special Committee to Study the Foreign Aid

Program, 85th Congress, 1st Session, Report No. 300, p. 8.

pers. Ideas do not infect those who find them preposterous or
unintelligible. The ideologies that make sense to people suddenly
emerging from pre-industrial cultures are not likely to make sense
to Americans.
Confrontation by nazism and facism, far from subverting us,
made us more than ever aware of our own values and more than
ever determined to realize them. Such progress as we have made in
recent years towards racial justice is in some measure a response to
these ideological challenges. To be sure, our response might have
been very different, especially in the long run, if the Nazis and
Fascists had won all of Europe. But this cannot be taken for granted.
Isolationism has in recent years been the doctrine of anti-democra-
tic and paranoid elements in our national life (although not all isola-
tionists have been anti-democratic or paranoid), and these would
no doubt be nourished by our withdrawal from the underdeveloped
areas. But it is not likely that American political life would be
fundamentally affected by this. If reasonable and decent people
were to conclude that withdrawal was prudent, the meaning of isola-
tionism to many people would thereby be changed, and those who
were fundamentally at odds with what is reasonable and decent
would have to get on the other side of the issue at once.
Withdrawal from the underdeveloped areas-i.e., liquidation of
our military bases and cessation of trade-would have less effect on
American cultural and intellectual life than may be supposed. The
cultural and intellectual stimulation that we get from these areas
is small and it does not reach us through military and trade con-
tacts. Military and economic withdrawal, moreover, would not
necessarily reduce other contacts. On the contrary, it would probably
make cultural and intellectual exchange freer and easier.
That we could probably survive if all of the underdeveloped
countries fell to the Communists is not, of course, a reason for
letting them fall to them if we can help it-no more than that one
can survive with a broken leg is a reason for letting one's leg be
broken. The dangers and disadvantages of such a thing to us, even
though not likely to be fatal, obviously justify very strenuous
efforts-more strenuous, perhaps, than we are now making-to
prevent it from happening. Even if aid is only moderately effective
in keeping the underdeveloped countries out of the hands of the
Communists, it is a small price to pay for a large benefit.
This, however, is very different from saying that our very existence
as a nation depends upon our giving aid. Possibly we should rely
entirely upon military assistance, rather than upon aid, to check
Soviet imperialism. In any case, we should realize that since our
survival does not depend upon the underdeveloped countries, there
is some upper limit-although perhaps one so high as to be of no
practical importance-to the value that contact with them has for us.
 DOCTRINES JUSTIFYING AID O N OTHER THAN
SECURITY GROUNDS
THOSEWHO FAVOR AID on grounds of national security usually
favor it on other grounds as well. For some people, however, these
other grounds are the principal, or even the sole, justification of it.

Altruism as a Basis for Aid

There are those who believe that a humanitarian desire to improve
the welfare of the people of the underdeveloped areas amply justifies
extensive aid and would justify it even if no security advantages
could be expected from it-even if, indeed, there were some loss of
security to be expected from it.'
The idea that a nation should promote the welfare of other nations
is new in the history of political thought and of international

1 The extent to which our aid is in fact altruistically motivated is not in

question here, but it is worth noting that authorities disagree. According to

Galbraith, "One of the things now reasonably well established in inter-
national relations is the obligation of the richer countries to help the less
fortunate lands." The Liberal Hour, op. nt., p. 22. But according to Mason,
. . . undertaking good works abroad without regard to national benefit is
not, and never has been an objective of public policy. The morality of
governments does not stretch this far." Op. cit., p. 14. Viner says that
although our aid has been "in some degree of a genuinely humanitarian
character," (p. 178) "there is no historical experience which supports the
view that national benevolence on a global scale, without expectation or
prospect of a counterflow of readily visible and material benefit, is a sturdy
plant which can thrive for a protracted period of time." In Hoselitz, ed.,
The Progress of Under-developed Areas (Chicago: 1952), p. 196. Wolf,
op. clt., p. 282, says that an effective test of a particular objective's influence
is whether a different decision would be made in its absence and that by this
test the humanitarian objective is in a "confirmatory and hence superfluous
role." But he could have applied this criterion so as to get a different result.
If there were in the world no tensions that might conceivably lead to war,
would aid be entirely eliminated? The amount that would be extended
under such circumstances is the measure of our purely humanitarian objective.
relations.' Statesmen have usually assumed that the object of policy
is to increase the relative power of one's own nation-something
that may be done by decreasing the power of others-and accordingly
they have thought themselves virtuous when they have merely re-
frained from inflicting injuries.
As applied to aid, the doctrine of altruism presents two especially
grave difficulties. One is that "doing good" may be impossible either
because we do not know what is "good" or because, if we do know,
we cannot bring it about and may, despite our best intentions, bring
about " b a d instead. The other is that it may not be a proper func-
tion for our government to do good for people who are not its
citizens.
1. It is hard to say what constitutes welfare, especially the welfare
of people whose culture is radically different from our own. Our
common humanity offers some guidance: food obviously serves the
welfare of the starving. But even the matter of food is not so simple.
By preventing starvation, we may, if we cannot at the same time
reduce the rate of population growth, lower the average income and
perhaps prevent the occurrence of those fundamental changes that
would lead to sustained economic growth. As Viner says:
The humanitarian approach {meaning the relief of current misery
at the expense of gains that would come from increasing long-run
productive capacity} in the absence of Communist ruthlessness and
discipline, may lead to a race between technological progress and
population growth, which is liable to be won by the latter and to
culminate in universal misery, the recurrent threat of famine, and
cultural and moral stagnation or even deterioration.3

In A Vindication of Natural Society, Edmund Burke remarks that the

good offices done by one nation to its neighbor would afford a very pleasing
subject for history. "But, alas," he continues, "all the history of all times,
concerning all nations, does not afford matter enough to fill ten pages though
it should be spun out by the wire-drawing amplification of a Guicciardini
himself ."
a Hoselitz, op. cit., p. 191.
 W e do not have to analyze the matter very far to see that "wel-
fare" cannot be defined in purely physical terms, i.e., as amounts of
food, clothing, and shelter. The untouchables of India might be
"better off" if resources were used to improve their social status
rather than their income. Moreover, we cannot properly compare
the income of one culture with that of another or, consequently, that
of a society before "modernization" with that of the same society
a f t e r ~ a r d . "Doing
~ good" cannot, then, be equated with raising
incomes, or with bringing about self-sustaining economic growth.
The choices that we have to make when we extend aid must in the
last analysis express a conception of the good life and of the good
society. But if we are liberals, we believe we have no way of decid-
ing for another culture what its ends of life should be. Does altruism
demand-or even allow-that we use aid to promote freedom and
democracy? Does it demand-or even allow-that we discourage
the violent nationalistic attachments which stir so many people so
deeply and for which they are willing to forego material improve-
ment and even life itself?
But even if we knew in all cases what "doing good" consists of,
we might not be able to do it. Despite our best efforts economic
development may not occur, or, if it does occur, it may not yield the
social, political, and moral benefits that are anticipated. Some
countries, after suffering the agonies of change, may arrive at a
condition on the whole worse than the one they left. Aid can be
justified on humanitarian grounds only as it actually makes people
better off; if it makes them worse off, the good intentions that moti-
vated it are beside the point.
2. Doing good for those who are not its citizens may not be a
proper function of our government. Foreign aid, like most govern-
ment activities, involves taking property from some by threat of
force in order to give it to others. From the 17th century, Western

See S . Herbert Frankel, The Economic Impact on Under-Developed

Societies (Oxford: 1953), Ch. 111.
political thought has maintained that this can be justified only as it
serves the common good.5
For example, the constitution of Massachusetts which, like the
American Constitution, reflects the philosophy of Locke, declares:
Government is instituted for the common good; for the protection,
safety, prosperity, and happiness of the people; and not for the
profit, honor, or private interest of any one man, family, or class
of men.
According to this theory and to the constitutions which reflect it,
neither state nor federal governments may take any action all the
benefits of which are intended to accrue to foreigners (i.e., which is
entirely altruistic). If governmental action to relieve starvation or
to establish democracy abroad cannot be justified in terms of the
welfare of our own people, they cannot be justified at all.
When our Government takes money from a taxpayer in New
York and gives it to someone in Mississippi it does so on the ground
that the nation is thereby benefited. The action is not altruistic. It
is done not for the sake of the recipient but of the nation, which
would suffer some loss if it were not done. In the language of
economics, the transfer of income is made to prevent the occurrence
of external effects which the members of the society want to avoid.

In his Second Treatise on Civil Government (paragraph 131), Locke

explains that since men enter into society only in order to preserve their
liberty and property, the powers of civil government may rightfully "be
directed to no other end but the peace, safety, and public good of the people."
Similarly, Rousseau, who carried the idea of popular rule much further,
says (The Social Contract, Book ZV) that the sovereign "cannot lay upon
its subjects any burden not necessitated by the well-being of the community."
The Founding Fathers were under the influence of Locke. In The Feder-
alist, No. 51, Madison justified the federal system on the grounds that it is
a means of preventing government from going beyond its proper sphere,
viz., "justice and the general good." Washington paraphrased Locke in his
letter transmitting the draft constitution to Congress: "individuals entering
into society, must give up a share of liberty to preserve the rest." (Italics
added.)
A gift that is genuinely altruistic, i.e., which is given not to prevent
such effects but simply to make the recipient happier or better off,
cannot be justified under the theory.
That it would be unconstitutional for the Federal Government to
give aid if no American defense, trade, or other interests would
thereby be served goes without saying. The Federal Government
can exercise only the powers expressly and impliedly given to it,
and doing good abroad is not one of them. But even the states,
which we are in the habit of thinking can do anything not given to
the Federal Government, cannot constitutionally give aid except to
promote the welfare of their own p e ~ p l e . ~
It may be thought that if a large number of Americans-say a
majority-want very much to have aid given through the instru-
mentality of the Government, the giving of it will ips0 fact0 serve
the common good: the common good, that is, may be defined as
"whatever will serve the convenience of a large bloc of voters." But
this is not consistent with the philosophy on which our Government
was founded. According to this philosophy, government is justified
in coercing some of its citizens (e.g., by taxing them to support aid)
not in order to serve the convenience of others (even though these
others may be an overwhelming majority), but only to maintain the
society and to make it a good ~ociety.~

This is not to say that such a measure would be found unconstitutional

by the courts. As a practical matter, no one could get standing in a court
to challenge such an act and in any case the decision might be in a broad
sense (and perhaps a narrow one as well) political. What is meant here is
that no reasonable person who takes account only of the language of the
Constitution could find justification there for a measure which is not intended
to serve any American interest. The writer has benefited from discussions
of these matters with Professor Robert G. McCloskey of Harvard.
Maintaining the society and making it a good one may perhaps require
indulging the taste of some sector of the society for something (e.g., aid on
purely humanitarian grounds) that does not contribute to the common good.
This would be the case, for example, if not indulging the sector would
alienate it from the society and thus endanger the maintenance of the society.
I

i
 These considerations may appear academic in the worst sense of
the word. As a practical matter, the state and federal constitutions
will doubtless be got around or, if necessary, changed. Locke's
philosophy, which most Americans have never heard of and many
others do not accept, may be judged obsolete. Those who judge it so
should be prepared, however, to offer other principles that will tell
us when and how far the state may justly coerce the individual. N o
one believes that it may strip him of his property or his life in order
to serve any and every "special interest9'-not even any and every
large one. Where, then, is the line to be drawn?

World Community as a Basis of Aid

Although academic political theorists do not seem to be much
concerned about these questions, a kind of common law political
theory appears to be coming into existence with regard to them. This
maintains, as does the traditional theory, that government should
restrict itself to serving the common good, but it defines the common
good in terms that transcend the nation. A government, people
seem to think, should serve the common good of the world as a
whole.
Those who take this view think that the ultimate purpose of aid
ought to be the promotion of a world community. They identify the
"enlightened self-interest" of the United States with this, and are
ready to sacrifice "narrow," or purely American, interests for the
greater welfare of mankind. They believe that the nation state is
obsolete, that we are in fact citizens of a world community, that
pending the creation of a world government it is incumbent upon
existing governments to act to some extent as if they were world
governments (i.e., to seek to serve actively the welfare of people
not their citizens), and that the United States Government, since it

It would be the case also if a good society were considered to be one in

which sector A tolerates a government program much desired by sector B
but not contributing to the common good on the understanding that at some
later time sector B will tolerate one much desired by sector A but not con-
tributing to the common good.
is the most powerful democracy, has a special obligation to lead the
way.8
Attractive as it may be, this position is full of difficulties. World
community, even if desirable, may not be a possibility. It is obvious
that the world is very far from agreeing as to what constitutes its
common good, and that it is entirely unwilling to let the United
States decide for it. It is clear, also, that the goal of achieving world
community is not perfectly compatible with that of preserving liberal
democracy in the West. How much of the latter ought we to sacri-
fice in order to achieve something of the former? This question
must also be asked with regard to other values. How far should the
United States go in sacrificing its own welfare to increase that of
the world as a whole? Should we, perhaps, permit immigration from
the underdeveloped countries on a massive scale since that would
contribute, more than anything else probably, to world welfare
and world community?
Those who think that America has a responsibility to raise the
level of living of mankind ought, if they are to be consistent, to
think that it also has a responsibility to save the world from Com-
munist tyranny, for that is an even worse thing. But the responsi-
bility, if it exists, cannot stop there. Communist tyranny is not the
only kind of tyranny and may not be the worst; our responsibility
must therefore extend to preventing, or eradicating, all tyranny,
including, of course, that which results from a people's own folly
or immorality. And even here there is no reason to suppose that our
responsibility ends. If we have a responsibility to prevent the people
of the world from acts of political folly and immorality, do we not

8Millikan and Rostow say, p. 150, that "From the revolutionary begin-
nings of our history the United States has, on balance, acted in loyalty to
the conception that its society has a meaning and a purpose which transcend
the nation." See the proposals by Adlai Stevenson for vast international
humanitarian undertakings and his question, "How can we be content in
such an age to keep our political thinking within the narrow bonds of class
or race or nation?" In Harlan Cleveland, ed., The Promise of World Ten-
sions (New York: 1961), pp. 135-36. President Kennedy justified a pro-
posal to use $10,000,000 to preserve Nubian temples on the upper Nile on
also have one to prevent them from all acts of folly and imm~rality?~
Those who expound the doctrine of our world responsibility
ought to be prepared to acknowledge that to whatever extent we
have a responsibility we must also have a right to exercise authority.
The claim that one has responsibility for another implies the inequal-
ity of the two and, consequently, the right of the superior to give,
and the duty of the inferior to accept, tutelage. The doctrine of
American responsibility is therefore really an incomplete and con-
fused version of the now unfashionable notion of the "white man's
burden." The difference between the two doctrines-a very impor-
tant one-is that whereas the old one frankly recognized the neces-
sity of joining authority to responsibility the new one passes over
the subject of authority in embarrassed silence.
The claim that we have a special responsibility for the welfare
of mankind is sometimes made to rest upon our unique commitment
to the principle of democracy; democracy, it is said, implies world

the grounds that our government has some responsibility for maintaining
the civilization in which we share. "By thus contributing to the preservation
of past civilizations," he said, "we will strengthen and enrich our own."
See Arthur S. Miller, "Toward a Concept of National Responsibility," The
Yale Review, L1:2 (December 1961), pp. 195-96.
This sort of argument can also be used to the discomfiture of those who
think that the action of a nation should always be absolutely self-interested.
Since any increase in the power of any nation represents some threat (how-
ever small, remote, and contingent) to our national interest, a perfectly self-
interested policy would require that we not only withhold aid but seek
actively to retard the development of all countries, except as we anticipate
some offsetting (net) advantage to us from their development. Commonsense
and humanity rebel against this conclusion, of course. Even Alexander
Hamilton, who was much opposed to national altruism, did not recommend
a policy of absolute selfishness; policy, he said, should be regulated by
national interest as far as justice and good faith permit. Richard B. Morris,
ed., Alexander Hamilton and the 'Pounding of the Nation (New York:
1958), p. 411.
If it is hard to know where to draw the line against national interest, it is
no less hard to know where to draw it against national altruism and world
community.
community, and commitment to it imposes upon us a duty to bring
it about. This view has been searchingly criticized by Joseph
C r ~ p s e y .Democracy,
~~ he maintains, is predicated upon the belief
that the enjoyment of natural rights depends absolutely on the divi-
sion of mankind into nations; therefore it is not a basis for the
amalgamation of the human kind into one mass, and it neither
depends upon nor leads up to a fundamental moral duty. We should
give aid as "a sign of grandeur," he says, not because the principle
of democracy imposes any obligation to do so upon us.

Aid "Because It Is Right"

Still others maintain that the United States should give aid because
the moral law requires it. According to this doctrine, the moral law
places upon the rich the duty of sacrificing to help the poor. By
performing this duty, the rich grow in moral worth, and they sin if
they do not perform it. However, moral self improvement is not,
according to the doctrine, the motive of truly charitable action. Good
actions arise out of a good will, not from a calculus of spiritual
gains and losses, and therefore a rich nation should help poor ones
not in order to improve the quality of its own national life but
simply (as President Kennedy said in his inaugural address) "because
it is right."
This doctrine assumes what many Americans do not believe: that
ethical imperatives get their force from nature or God's will and
not from mere convention. But the doctrine also is open to grave
objection by those who do believe in natural law. For the obligation
to act morally is placed upon persons, not upon entities like govern-
ments or corporations-entities which, as someone said, have neither
souls to be saved nor backsides to be kicked.
Aid given by a government is morally significant only insofar as
it expresses the intention of "persons" as distinguished from "roles."
Conceivably the rulers of a nation, acting not as "persons" (i.e., out
of their own good wills) but as "officials" (i.e., as role incumbents

lo Cropsey's paper is to appear in a volume edited by Robert A. Goldwin,

op. crt.
serving the state), might give extensive aid without their citizens
knowing or caring what was being done in their names, or perhaps
even over the lively opposition of most of the citizens. If people are
coerced into "giving" or if their money is given without their
knowledge, the gift is morally meaningless. One who taxes Peter
to give to Paul cannot gain moral credit either for himself or for
Peter. Insofar as aid is to be justified by the obligation to be charit-
able, it must be voluntary. To some extent it is voluntary even when
provided by legislative appropriation: some taxpayers want to act
charitably through the instrumentality of the government. Others,
however, do not. To the extent that a government appropriation
takes more from some (and less from others) than they would
freely choose to give, it does not apply the principle of charity.
It is pertinent to observe that design of an aid program that will
effectively attain the objective of charity is a relatively simple matter.
It is easier to intend good than actually to do it. From the moral
standpoint (and, incidentally, from that of national self improve-
ment also), it makes no difference if the actual effect of aid is to
make the recipients worse off. Even if our greatest efforts achieved
nothing or actually made matters worse, our good will would, as
Kant said, "like a jewel, still shine by its own light." Had the
Wayfarer died from being moved, the Samaritan would have been
no less good, provided, of course, that he was sufficiently ignorant
of the probable consequences of his action. According to St. Thomas,
Eventus sequens non facit actum d a m qui erat bonus, nec b o n m
qm erat malus.
Aid for National Self-Improvement
It is sometimes argued that we ought to do good to others for
the sake of improving ourselves. For example, Millikan and Rostow
say that, after national security, the justification for aid is that
"American society is at its best when wrestling with the positive
problems of building a better world." W e need, they say, "the
challenge of world development to keep us from the stagnation of
smug prosperity."ll
l1 Op. cif,, pp. 7 and 8.
 To the extent that our motive is of this kind, the philosophical
problems just discussed do not arise. This is seeming altruism, not
the real thing, because here the reason for giving is to secure advant-
ages to the giver.
The anticipated improvements in the quality of our national life
are of two main kinds. An extensive aid program, some think, would
activate and strengthen the bonds attaching the individual to the
collectivity. By being drawn into a great national effort the indi-
vidual would be made more aware of the values that are central to
the life of the society and would be distracted somewhat from the
frivolous and demoralizing influences that the private sector of the
economy-especially the mass media-ceaselessly plays upon him.
Foreign aid, like public expenditures in general, would thus be a
moral equivalent of war: it would moralize and socialize the indi-
vidual by asserting social values over private whims and tastes. This
doctrine implies an aid program of a kind that would give Ameri-
cans a strong sense of involvement in collective action.12
Some will say that the Government has no right to manipulate
the national mood or to remake the national culture; that in a democ-
racy government ought to be the product of public opinion, not the
creator of it. There is much to be said for this view, and yet it seems
clear the Government must concern itself with national mood to the
extent that "leadership" requires; moreover, if the purpose of the
state is to promote the common good-i.e., to create conditions
leading to the formation of a good society-then it must also in
certain circumstances concern itself with the quality of the culture.
The real questions, therefore, seem to be two: whether there is in
fact the cause for concern about the state of the national mind that
the critics of mass culture and of private enterprise assert, and
whether, if there is, an aid program is a suitable means of securing

The Peace Corps, Richard Rovere reports from Washington, "is at least
as much an effort to dissolve apathy and boredom in this country as it is a
scheme for improving the conditions of life in the underdeveloped nations.
It is an attempt to revive and find a fitting use for American idealism."
The New Yorker, March 25, 1961, p. 131.
the closer attachment to collective values that is necessary. Both
of these questions are, of course, open to much dispute.
The other main way in which, according to some, an extensive
aid program would improve the quality of our national life is by
stimulating and inspiring the elites within our society. Aid, it is
said, would release energies among us just as it would release them
in the underdeveloped countries. According to Myrdal:
Not merely to save the world, but primarily to save our own souls,
there should again be dreamers, planners, and fighters, in the
midst of our nations, who would take upon themselves the impor-
tant social function in democracy of raising our sights-so far ahead
that their proponents again form a definite minority in their nations
and avoid the unbearable discomfort for reformers of a climate of
substantial agreement. This is only possible if they enlarge the
scope of their interests to encompass the world scene. They must
again become internationalists, as they were when the reform move-
ments started in the wake of the Enlightenment and the French
rev~lution.~~
As this suggests, giving reformers vast resources to work with
would tend to increase both their influence and that of the very idea
of reform; the effect of extensive aid on reformers and on reform
might be something like that of the development of nuclear power
on scientists and on science. Looking at the matter from a slightly
different perspective, aid may also be valued as one of the activities
which will serve to occupy the growing leisure of an affluent middle
class in a society having a strong bent towards "service" and organi-
zational behavior.

Gunnar Myrdal, An International Economy (New York: 1956), p. 322.

 AID DOCTRINE AND DEMOCRACY
AFTER CONSIDERING ALL of the arguments that have been
brought forward, a reasonable man might still conclude that we
ought to give extensive aid to certain countries-much more of it,
perhaps, than we are now giving. Any decision must turn on proba-
bility judgments and value judgments that are highly subjective.
That a given country will or will not develop economically, that its
development will or will not lead to peace and democracy, that its
government or public opinion can or cannot be influenced to our
advantage-these are all questions about which we may form judg-
ments more or less intelligently, but they are not ones about which
we can get reliable answers. And even if we knew the probabilities
exactly, we might still differ profoundly about the amount of risk
that the United States should accept.
That many people favor giving extensive aid does not, then, re-
quire explanation. But that almost no "serious" writers oppose
giving it or even have serious doubts about it; that after more than
ten years the theory of aid has not been worked out and the argu-
ments for it have not been subjected to hard scrutiny, and that (to
the extent such a test is possible) the factual premises of aid doc-
trines have not been tested-all this does require explanation.

The Character of the Discussion

The American theory and practice of foreign aid, as Hans J. Mor-
genthau has said, "has derived by and large from certain unexamined
assumptions that are part of the American folklore of politics."l The
most influential writings are hardly more than collections of cliches
strung together with rhetorical flourishes. They are full of sweeping
statements that turn out on examination to be either meaningless or
without any supporting evidence. Nevertheless, their tone is always

The New Atlantic Community. Text of the Introductory Report to the

Fifth Congress of ffZ1 Mulino" on the Foreign Policy of the United States
and the Responsibilities of Europe, Societi Editrice I1 Mulino, Bologna,
- 1961, p. 16.
confident and often hortatory or polemical. The authors do not
acknowledge that they have nothing but common sense to go on, if
indeed they have that, or that reasonable men may hold opinions
very different from theirs. Instead of laboring to make complex what
appears to be simple, a task scholars should find congenial, writers
on aid, including some of the "serious" ones, try to make matters
seem simpler than they are.2
Most of the "serious" writing does not clarify the ends of policy.
W e may be told that the end is to promote freedom and democracy,
but the concrete meaning of these ends and the relation between
them and others like "national interest" or "national survival"
(whatever these may mean) is left unexplained. Economists often
ignore the political objectives of aid and treat economic improvement
as if it were always the only value to be ~onsidered.~ It is especially

It is "serious" public discussion that is here being criticized. Discussions

within officialdom have apparently been immensely more sophisticated. One
which has appeared in print is 86th Congress, 1st Session, House Doc. No.
215, Part 2, "Conclusions Concerning the Mutual Security Program" (1959).
This consists of papers written for the Draper Committee. See especially
those by Paul H. Nitze and John H. Ohly.
3 For example, Benjamin Higgins in a well-known textbook: "What is

important, however, is that neither private investment nor foreign aid be

used-or even appear to be used-for any purpose other than raising total
output in the country where the investment is made." Economic Develop-
ment (New York: 1959), p. 628.
Hollis B. Chenery, an economist who is a high official of the aid agency,
concedes that the threat of a Communist take-over may necessitate giving
aid for purposes that contribute very little to long-term development. But
for him the justification of this politically motivated, short-run aid is not
some immediate advantage of the United States but rather the success of
the long-term development program: "It cannot be said that such a use is
never as desirable as aid that produces long-term development, because, i f
the political diagnosis is correct, the country's development would be set
back for a number of years if the aid were not given." Italics added.
Chenery defines the long-term objective of aid as the production of self-
sustaining economic and political evolution. A careful reading of his paper
suggests, however, that for him, as for Millikan and Rostow, "economic
hard, apparently, for writers on aid to believe that technological
improvements may on balance be ~ndesirable.~ Writers on aid rarely
give any consideration to alternative ways of achieving their ends
(e.g., "one way free trade" is not considered by those who favor
loans and grants). Sometimes they have no means to suggest for
attaining ends that they say are crucial (e.g., Millikan and Rostow
do not tell how to bring about the social, political, and psychological
changes they say are indispensable). They seldom recognize that
the ends appropriate in one country or culture may not be in another,
and that, even in those instances where the same ends are appropriate
in different countries, the means required to achieve them may be
entirely different. Nor do they usually acknowledge that in choosing
one set of ends and means we forego the possibly greater advantages
associated with others that are incompatible, and that therefore we
should decide in such a way as to "balance our margins," i.e., secure
the greatest total return in terms of the several values (e.g., eco-
nomic development vs. "impact") among which our stock of re-
sources is to be rationed.
The writing on aid not only lacks the systematic relating of means
and ends that is the defining characteristic of rational planning, but
much of it conceals the hard problems of choice behind a fog of
moralizing. By "moralizing" is meant advocacy, as a basis for
action, of moral principles that do not take account of elements of
the situation which render them inapplicable or inappropriate. The
moralizer averts his gaze from those features of the real situation that
constitute the crux of the problem and then, unhampered, tells us
and political" evolution is concretely indistinguishable from "economic"
evolution. His paper appears in the collection edited by Robert A. Goldwin,
up. cit.
* The M.I.T. group thinks "A major breakthrough for development would
be the creation and production by the millions of a cheap long-lived battery
radio or television set designed to bring mass communication into villages,
bypassing the prerequisites of literacy and electricity" and that "American
effort can help." The Emerging Nations, op. cit., p. 109. That "bypassing
literacy" may make it impossible to govern the world decently is not con-
sidered.
how to act in a world different from the one in which we must act.
For example, he warns severely against extending aid to corrupt
tyrannies or reactionary ruling oligarchies. This would be good
advice if the choice were really between a corrupt tyranny and an
honest democracy. Alas, this is seldom the choice, and when it is,
the advice is usually not needed. The real problem exists when we
must choose between a corrupt tyranny and a Communist one-and
here the advice of the moralizer is at best confusing and at worst
wrong. He refuses, however, to acknowledge the real problem. If
it is pointed out to him that supporting a corrupt tyranny may in
some circumstances be necessary, he replies blandly that "the proper
and the practical courses coincide."'
Similarly, the moralizer cannot see, or else refuses to acknowledge,
the tension between the goal of world community and the goal of
preserving democracy in the West, or the tension between the security
interests of the United States and the development needs of the
underdeveloped countries. "As long as our policies are designed to
help these societies develop in directions which meet the real interests
of their own people," he tells us, "our political and our moral inter-
ests c~incide."~
Sometimes moralizing is half hidden behind an affectation of polit-
ical realism. For example, Eugene R. Black, president of the World
Bank, tells us that by sacrificing our present political advantage to
promote long-term economic development we will serve our real
political interests.' And Reirihold Niebuhr, who is known as a politi-

5 J. K. Galbraith, The Liberal Hour, op. tit., p. 2 3 .

Millikan and Blackrner, eds., o f . cit., p. 145.
7 "The issue is this: Are the political interests of the West better served
by administering economic aid in an effort to outbid the Russians for public
favor in the underdeveloped world? Or are they better served by adminis-
tering aid with the single-minded purpose of providing something which
the underdeveloped countries require for more rapid growth? If the West
is to use aid primarily to court the favor of the underdeveloped countries and
to woo them away from the Communists, it should be recognized that aid
can all too easily play into the Communists' hands. It can all too easily
result in channeling resources into uneconomic projects and programs, thereby
cal realist, explains that the art of statecraft is to find "the point of
concurrence" between the national and the international common
good; apparently he is confident that there is such a point, for he
goes on to say that "this policy means that we must try to persuade
the nation that what is good for the alliance of the free nations
is good for our own Nation in the long run."8 Such statements
conjure the crucial problems of choice out of existence by making it
appear that conflicts of interest only seem to exist-that "in the long
run" there are no conflicts and "the proper and the practical courses
coincide," presumably at the "point of concurrence."
This mentality, evident in most of the writing on aid, ignores the
very facts that constitute the problem: that vast areas of the world
show little prospect of achieving self-sustaining economic growth or
of governing themselves reasonably well within the foreseeable
future; that development, when it does take place, is as likely to be
inspired by blood and hate as by peace and rational management;
that the development of the underdeveloped countries may not on
balance be in the interest of the United States or, indeed, of civiliza-
tion; and that the measures most effective in relieving misery and
promoting economic growth are in general least effective in serving
the urgent necessities of the West. Instead of facing up to these

subverting the economics of the underdeveloped countries rather than

strengthening them. Surely, the choice should be to contribute something
that is really required for econ6mic growth. This may mean that in the
propaganda battle the West will often have to settle for letting virtue be its
own reward; however, such a settlement is, I suggest, quite in keeping with
the real security interests of the West." The Dip/omacy of Economic Devel-
opment (Cambridge: 1960), p. 46.
Secretary of State Dean Rusk has also taken this position. Too often in
the past, he said, aid has been given to counter Communist aid or to save
an economy from imminent collapse. The fostering of long-term develop-
ment "must be the paramount goal in the granting of aid in the Sixties."
Speech on May 3, 1961.
* Reinhold Niebuhr, Our Moral and Spiritual Resources for Internationa/
Cooperation, U.S. State Department, International Organization and Confer-
ence Series IV, February 1956.
tragic facts and endeavoring to frame a course of action that is
workable and represents the least among evils for us and for man-
kind, writers on aid generally proffer a few sententious principles of
everyday morality and issue stern warnings against using aid for
political purposes.'
When policy based upon such misconceptions fails, the moralizer
knows whom to blame. Not, surely, anyone in the underdeveloped
countries-not even if the obvious cause of the trouble is there. Still
less those like himself upon whose naive and sentimental notions
the policy was based. The fault, he says, is with the United States;
it was not generous enough, or not tactful enough, or not firm
Lucian W. Pye concludes from a brilliant comparison of American and
Soviet aid doctrines that many of the defects of ours arise from its basically
apolitical character: "Out of the logic of politics they [the Soviets] have
been able to realize a coherence between ends and means, between goals
and techniques. We, on the other hand, in denying the sovereignty of
politics, find ourselves without an explicit method for dealing rigorously
with the relationships between goals and techniques. We have built up our
doctrines as though little attention need be given to the links between our
practices and the end values we seek, or between economic aid and our other
instruments of policy.
"Our difficulty seems to arise, in part, from an uneasiness about the pro-
priety of discussing openly the relationship between our values and the
available means for influencing events. We are disturbed by our traditional
uncertainties about the concept of manipulation in human affairs. A further
complication is our feeling that in speaking across the gap in technology
between our society and the underdeveloped countries, it is improper and
indelicate to discuss values and objectives. Instead, we behave as though the
situation calls for innocent discussion about impersonal and technical matters.
"By putting off to the side the crucial problem of how to relate our objec-
tives and our practices to each other, we have allowed the center of the stage
to be taken over by supposedly technical economic considerations. As a
consequence we have made techniques into the molders of doctrine rather
than treating them as the servants of doctrine. We have built our ideology by
pushing beyond the realm of its relevance the analytical reasoning of eco-
nomics. In so moving from technique to doctrine we have been easily cap-
tivated by a false sense of realism." "Soviet and American Styles in Foreign -
Aid," Orbh, Vol. IV:2, 1960, pp. 171-72.
enough,1Â or it did not organize and plan effectively.ll That the
failure may have been unavoidable, the natures of givers and re-
ceivers being what they are, is a possibility that escapes him al-
together. "Giving and receiving can be attended by increasing
self-respect and friendship," he says categorically, and from this
concludes that we should "manage to make the receiver feel he is a
partner whose growing strength is important to four] own wel-
fare."12

loSome American writers on aid think this country at fault for not attach-

ing stringent conditions to aid, as if attaching conditions were a sure way to

solve the problems which necessitate the aid. For example, the Secretary
of State recently (May 31, 1961) told the Senate Foreign Relations Com-
mittee that "self-help" should be an "insistent" condition of aid; Millikan
and Rostow (op. cit; p. 129) would apply "tough criteria of productivity"
(as well as require that national development goals be democratically estab-
lished!), and Galbraith (Foreign Affairs, April 1961) insists that recipients
plan and carry out sweeping social and political reforms. These principles,
which have been much emphasized in the Alliance for Progress, ignore the
obvious fact that it is the inability, or unwillingness, of these countries to do
these things that constitutes the very problem. If the conditions were taken
seriously, the countries most in need of aid would not be able to qualify for it.
l1Along with declarations of good intentions (declarations made, how-

ever, by the giver rather than the receivers), American writers on aid place
great confidence in organizational arrangements and planning. For example,
Galbraith, after finding at least four "crucial" prerequisites of development
missing in most of the poor countries (see footnote 8, first section), is led
not to question the possibility of a successful aid program (the voters, he
says, did not intend inaction when they put the new administration into
office) but instead to propose that the underdeveloped countries be required
to make Positive Development Plans. "By establishing targets and agreeing
upon the steps to achieve them," he says, "all the barriers to development will
be brought into view." Zbid, p. 454. It does not occur to him, apparently,
that factors more fundamental than organization may have kept the barriers
from coming into view or that, even if the barriers are now brought into
view, it may be impossible to eliminate them.
12 W. Averell Harriman, "Leadership in World Affairs," Foreign Affairs,

Vol. 32:4, 1954, p. 535.

 Why Aid Doctrine Is Confused
The unsatisfactory state of the theory of aid is to be explained
in part by the variety of the situations in which it has been expected
to play a part.13 When the war ended, it meant relief to the occupied
countries, and its justification was obvious. When hastening the
restoration of the European economy appeared desirable, the mean-
ing of aid changed accordingly. The success of the Marshall Plan
encouraged efforts to assist the underdeveloped countries, and so
there was a further drastic change in the meaning of aid. Before
a new rationale for it had been found-indeed, before the necessity
of finding one was fully realized-the Korean War broke out and
its meaning changed again, this time to "defense support." When
the strategic situation was further changed by the development of
long-range missiles, the rationale of aid needed to be modified ac-
cordingly. Since ideas, as well as the institutions that embody them,
often long outlast the circumstances that give rise to them, it is
not surprising that present day aid doctrine consists largely of left-
overs and hand-me-downs.
This, however, does not entirely account for the deficiencies of aid
doctrine. In particular, it does not account for its optimistic, moral-
izing, self-deprecating, and apolitical (even anti-political) character,
or for the absence from it of rigorous criticism and dissent. To
account for these deficiencies, it is necessary to look at certain fea-
tures of our political system.
Most matters are decided politically by competition of interests."
The system gives those who have something at stake in a particular
matter a great deal of incentive to exert influence. This leads them
to work up the strongest possible case for their interest and to
assert it vigorously; it leads them also to search for weaknesses in

See Lorna and Felix Morley, The Patchwork History of Foreign Aid
(Washington: American Enterprise Association, 1961).
14 By an "interest" is meant an end which an actor seeks to attain for his

own benefit rather than for the benefit of the whole society. A "principle,"
by contrast, is a statement about what is believed to be good for the whole
society.
the arguments of their opponents and to call these to public atten-
tion. Competition of interests tends, therefore, to bring a wide range
of policy alternatives into consideration and to expose each of them
to searching criticism. When, by contrast, principles, as distinguished
from interests, are at stake, the incentive to exercise influence is
usually much less and the amount of information and criticism
generated in the course of discussion is correspondingly less. When
the principles are ones about which there is general agreement, the
amount of information and criticism is likely to be at a minimum.15
This has been the case in the discussion of aid. Some interests have
indeed been active, but these (mainly farmers and manufacturers
wanting subsidized markets) have almost all been in favor of aid
and therefore have had no incentive to analyze it critically. For the
most part, decisions about aid have been based on principles-
principles about which there was general agreement-and not on
the outcome of competition among interests. For this reason, aid
has not been discussed as informatively as have those other matters-
the farm problem, for example-about which a variety of powerful
interests contend.
Because it concerns principles much more than interests, aid as an
issue is peculiarly serviceable to the President. One of the most
conspicuous features of our political system is the necessity for him
to gather in one way or another enough influence to mitigate the
extreme decentralization of formal authority contrived by the Found-
ing Fathers. In former times, state and local political machines and
the patronage and logrolling prerogatives of the Presidency went
far toward giving him the influence he needed. These are still im-
portant, but much less so, and the amount of power the President
needs to govern the country has meanwhile greatly increased. It is
becoming ever more necessary, therefore, for him to enlarge his
power by appealing directly to the public through press and tele-
vision. Sir Henry Sumner Maine observed three-quarters of a century

l5 This argument is elaborated in E. C. Banfield, Political Influence (Glen-

coe: 1961), Ch. 12. See also Willmoore Kendall, "The Two Majorities,"
Midwest Journal of Political Science, Vol. IV:4, 1960, pp. 317-45.
ago that to Party and Corruption, the influences which had hitherto
shown themselves capable of bringing the masses of men under
civil discipline, democracy was adding a third: "generalization, the
trick of rapidly framing, and confidently uttering, general proposi-
tions on political subjects."
General formulas, which can be seen on examination to have been
arrived at by attending only to particulars few, trivial, or irrelevant,
are turned out in as much profusion as if they dropped from an
intellectual machine; and debates in the House of Commons may
be constantly read, which consisted wholly in the exchange of weak
generalities and strong personalities. On a pure Democracy this
class of general formulas has a prodigious effect. Crowds of men
can be got to assent to general statements, clothed in striking lan-
guage, but unverified and perhaps incapable of verification; and thus
there is formed a sort of sham and pretence of concurrent opinion.
There has been a loose acquiescence in a vague proposition, and
then the People, whose voice is the voice of God, is assumed to
have spoken. Useful as it is to democracies, this levity of assent is
one of the most enervating of national habits of mind.16
As the power of our central government comes to depend more
and more upon appeals from the President to the public, "general-
izations" must be manufactured at an ever faster rate and on an
ever larger scale. Great formulas for solving the nation's and the
world's problems are now an indispensable means of generating the
popular support that is required to govern the country. The Cold
War is, naturally, theprincipal subject matter about which "gen-
eralizations" can be developed. The question of the proper role of
our country in world development is another, however, and if the
Cold War were to end it would be one of the few good ones left.17

l6 Sir Henry Sumner Maine, Popdar Government (New York: 1886),

pp. 107-08.
l7 "The United States is now within sight of solutions to the range of is-
sues which have dominated its political life since 1865. Our central problem
has been to reconcile the fact of industrialization with the abiding principles
of democracy. The farm problem, the status of big business in a democratic
society, the status and responsibilities of organized labor, the avoidance of
 It is not hard to understand why generalizations about foreign aid
have popular appeal. W e are a nation of activists; we see the
relative power of our nation declining and great masses of the
world's people suffering chronic poverty while we enjoy unparalleled
prosperity. Our impulse is to do something at once. Under the
circumstances, about the only thing we can do is to give money.
There may be little reason to hope that giving it will improve the
situation, but doing so to some extent satisfies our urge for action
and it also helps to relieve our feelings of guilt at being rich when
others are poor. Moreover, it is cheap, since we do not give up any-
thing really valuable~onlymoney.
There is also at work, however, a much more fundamental and
pervasive trait of our national mind. W e have always believed that
we are the fortunate possessors of political truth, and that other
nations will, in time, have to imitate us, or be converted by us, in
order to be saved. W e have, as Kennneth W. Thompson has said,
always abhorred force, distrusted diplomacy, and put our faith in
comprehensive formulas for solving the world's problems while
exhibiting a "deeply ingrained tendency to speak in large and abso-
lute terms" and to take to all questions a good-and-bad, right-and-
wrong approa~h.'~Our faith that democracy can regenerate the
world without coercion has led us to try one legal or institutional

extreme cyclical unemployment, social equity for the Negro, the provision
of equal education opportunity, the equitable distribution of income-none
of all these great issues is fully resolved; but a national consensus on them
exists within which we are clearly moving forward as a nation. The achieve-
ment of this consensus absorbed much of the nation's creativeness and ideal-
ism over the past ninety years. If we continue to devote our attention in the
same proportion to domestic issues as in the past, we run the danger of
becoming a bore to ourselves and the world. We shall be quarreling over
increasingly smaller margins, increasingly narrower issues. While enjoying
the material fruits of a rich and complacent society, we shall become pro-
gressively isolated from the vital issues of the world." Millikan and Rostow,
op. cit., p. 194.
Kenneth W. Thompson, Christian Ethks and the Dilemmas of Foreign
Policy (Durham, N. C. : 1959), pp. 58-59.
gadget after another. As Thompson, describing the American view
of the world after 1914, puts it:
..
. War was widely attributed to the wickedness of governments
and, more specifically, to the nefarious role of secret treaties. A
philosophy of international relations was born and flourished which
because of its simplicity and directness engendered widespread pop-
ular appeal-an appeal that continues to the present day. It was a
philosophy which in a spirit of buoyant optimism looked to democ-
racy and national self-determination as twin sources of international
peace and order. The creation of popular regimes on the Anglo-
American model throughout the world was heralded as the sure
corrective to those harsh conflicts that for centuries had wracked
international life. Once the numerous subject peoples had achieved
political societies reflecting the popular will, their ancient rivalries
with "oppressor" states and the struggles between conflicting
dominions warring over territorial claims would come to an end.
The unquenchable faith of contemporary Western homo sapiens in
man's potentialities for progress spiraling ever upward found ex-
pression in assurances that a brave new world merely awaited the
fulfillment of these goals.
However, faith in the future has had its roots not only in democ-
racy and national self-determination; it also resides in the confidence
that novel international institutions have rendered diplomacy obso-
lete. Implicit 'here is a belief that the certainty of progress is
waiting at the other end of a charter, a constitution, or a court
judgment. The United Nations emerges in the minds of some of
its American champions as an organization that may confidently be
expected to do away with alliances, balance of power, secret
diplomacy, and state rivalries.19
History, Thompson says, has dealt harshly with these views and
our faith in them has been rudely shaken. He forgets, apparently,
about foreign aid. The same old zeal to make the world safe for
democracy is expressed anew in this. Aid is for the 1960's what
arbitration and the World Court were for the 1920's, and what
the United Nations was for the decade just passed.

Ibid., p. 79.
 The Dangerous Goodness of Democracy
The reason for our inveterate devotion to these millennia1 ideas
is to be found in the nature of our kind of democracy.20 Ours is
the only country in which the public at large participates actively
in the daily conduct of government; it is the only one in which the
opinions of amateurs on foreign affairs are listened to by statesmen
and taken seriously by them; consequently it is the only one in which
the moral standards of the general public are decisive in the making
of policy.21
The moral standards of a people are necessarily very different from
those of its statesmen. A statesman learns early that it is his duty
to act according to the rules of virtue, not those of goodness.22
Goodness pertains to persons, and is expressed in their everyday
relations; it calls for (among other things) kindness, liberality, com-
passion, and the doing of justice. Virtue, by contrast, pertains to
statesmen and is expressed in the actions by which they protect good
citizens from both bad citizens and foreign enemies. Virtue has
little to do with goodness, and may be entirely at odds with it in
concrete cases; frequently the statesman must act unjustly or without
kindness in order to protect the society-he must, in short, be vir-
tuous but not good. As Churchill has written, "The Sermon on the

z0 "Democracy" means government by the people, i.e., a political order in

which power is widely distributed. In some democracies, e.g., the British,
the people exercise their power mainly by giving or withholding consent
at infrequent intervals; in others e.g., our own, they exercise it by par-
ticipating continuously and intimately in the day-to-day conduct of affairs.
What is said about the dangerous goodness of "our kind of democracy"
has little application to the other kind, in which the citizen is willing to
leave the management of public affairs-and above all foreign affairs-to
his elected rulers.
21 Chester Bowles, justifying the "tough-minded" approach recommended

by him on August 14, 1962 (see footnote 27, first section), said: "It has
been pre-tested over a period of years before many audiences in most states
of the Union." I
=This discussion of goodness and virtue draws upon Leo Strauss,
thoughts on Machiauelli (Glencoe: 1958), pp. 264-65.
Mount is the last word in Christian ethics. Everyone respects the
Quakers. Still, it is not on these terms that Ministers assume their
responsibilities of guiding states,"z3
Nations, the orthodoxy of political realism tells us, do what their
vital interests require, however immoral those things may be. This
may be true of nations that are governed by statesmen free to act
as their judgment dictates. It is not, however, true of those gov-
erned, as ours is, by public opinion. A nation governed by public
opinion may act contrary to its fundamental moral standards when
swept by passion or when self-deceived. But it does not act so from
deliberation or calculation. What is more, it is strongly impelled
to express in action the positive principles of its morality, i.e., its
goodness.
American foreign policy has long been heavily tainted with good-
ness, and our country, consequently, has frequently acted against
its own interests. Political realists, overlooking the difference between
the morality of peoples and that of statesmen, have usually regarded
American goodness as mere hypocrisy and have looked in the usual
places for the "real" reasons of national interest that they were
sure must exist.24

23 Winston S. Churchill, The Gathering Storm (Boston: 1948), p. 320.

^Niebuhr, for example, finds that the Spanish-American War offers
"some of the most striking illustrations of the hypocrisy of governments."
He marvels that a man as intelligent as Walter Hines Page could speak of
the war as a chance to clean out bandits, yellow fever, malaria, and hook-
worm and to make the country safe for life and investment and orderly
self-government, and that he could write: "What we did in Cuba might
thus be made the beginning of a new epoch in history, conquest for the sole
benefit of the conquered." He sneers at McKinley's "hypocrisy" in claiming
that it came to him while on his knees in prayer "that there was nothing left
for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the Filipinos, and uplift
and civilize and Christianize them, and by God's grace do the very best we
could by them." Moral Man and Immoral Society (New York: I960),
pp. 98-102.
Perhaps there was an element of self-deception in what Page and
McKinley said, but there is a world of difference morally between self-
 The optimistic, moralizing, and apolitical nature of American
aid doctrine is a characteristic expression of this goodness. Goodness
inclines men to have faith in each other, or at any rate to give each
other the benefit of the doubt; public opinion therefore takes a
compassionate and hopeful view of the prospects for growth and
development however discouraging may be the underlying realities
of the situation. It is by moralizing that one appeals to goodness;
the discussion of the truly hard problems of choice, viz., those in
which the principles of goodness will not suffice as criteria, presup
poses virtue rather than goodness. Action that is apolitical in the
sense that it sees in the situation not the necessity of a struggle for
power but rather the opportunity to cooperate in the realization of
shared ends is consistent with goodness but not necessarily with vir-
tue.
To know when and on what terms to subordinate goodness to
virtue requires high intellectual and moral powers as well as much
experience in making-and in taking responsibility for--decisions in
important public matters. Few citizens can have all of these quali-
fications. The citizen, moreover, knows that his views will count
only along with those of millions of other citizens, and so he may
not trouble to go deeply enough into any public question to see its
full moral complexity. Hence his confidence that the proper and the
practical courses will coincide and that great affairs of states may
be decided by the standards that apply in everyday life.
A public, moreover, cannot deliberately transgress the principles
of its morality. Societies are held together by attachment to common
values, especially ones that are held sacred. To call such values
publicly into question, to consider openly the expediency of trans-
gressing them, and then actually to do so (even though in order to
realize other values) would profane and destroy the values and so
deception and hyprocrisy, i.e., the deception of others in order to gain one's
ends. Moreover, it is not clear in what sense they were self-deceived. They
seem to have had the same confident intention of doing good that the
present-day advocates of aid have, and, as Niebuhr himself says (p. 102),
the United States did in fact do much to improve education and sanitation
in the places it conquered.
weaken the mystic bonds that hold the society together. Such a thing
could happen only if the values of the society had already lost their
sacredness, and if, therefore, the society was in process of disin-
tegration. A healthy society cannot subject its ultimate moral code
to detached, rational scrutiny. If its code is to be scrutinized at all,
the scrutinizing must be done by an elite set apart for the purposeÃ
one which, like a bomb decontamination squad, possesses both a
specialized skill and a willingness to expose itself to risk for the
sake of the society. The professional statesman belongs to this elite.25
Much as we may wish it, the world cannot be ruled according to
the Sermon on the Mount or the principles of the Quakers, and a
determined effort to rule it so may lead to disaster. The goodness
and optimism inseparable from democracy represent a great peril.
The peril would be somewhat less if we gave our statesmen wide dis-
cretion in foreign affairs, as the other democracies do. Our states-
men, however, are trained to goodness, and they are selected for
it rather than for virtue. Our tradition and the exigencies of our
political system, moreover, tend more and more to subordinate them
to public opinion. Confident that its goodness is the world's best
hope, American public opinion reaches out eagerly for wider power
in world affairs ("accepts responsibility for world leadership" is the
cant phrase), thereby engendering-the United Nations is a case
in point-ever more goodness in places where virtue is required, and
thereby increasing ever more the incongruity between the reality of
the situation in which we must act and the moral principles upon
which our action is based. It is quite possible that the American

25 Saint Augustine, after remarking that a judge may torture and condemn

an innocent man "not with any intention of doing harm, but because his
ignorance compels him, and because human society claims him as a judge"
concludes that although we may acquit the judge of malice "we must none
the less condemn human life as miserable." If the judge must subordinate
goodness to virtue, he ought at least to regret the necessity. "Surely it were
proof of more profound considerateness and finer feeling were he to shrink
from his own implication in that misery; and had he any piety about him,
he would cry to God, 'From my necessities deliver Thou me.' " The City
of God, Modern Library Edition, pp. 682-83.
people may be persuaded that the indiscriminate use of aid is folly
(events may persuade them of this even though their leaders tell
them the contrary). But this will not necessarily improve our foreign
policy very greatly. The millenial and redemptionist character of
that policy will not necessarily be changed thereby; if the American
people cannot express their goodness through foreign aid they will
doubtless End some other way of expressing it. To the extent that
public opinion rules, our policy will reflect goodness. This is a
cause for concern because goodness is, by its very nature, incapable
of understanding its own inadequacy as a principle by which to
govern relations among states.
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books and Pamphlets
Galbraith, J. K. Economic Development in Perspective (Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 1962).
Goldwin, Robert A. ed. "Essays on Foreign Aid Doctrines" (title as yet unannounced),
(Chicago: Rand-McNally and Co.) .
Liska, George. The N e w Statecraft (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960).
Millikan, Max F. and Rostow, W. W. A Proposal (New York: Harper & Brothers;
1957).
Millikan, Max F. and Blackmer, D. L. M. eds. The Emerging Nations (Boston: Little,
Brown and Co., 1961).
Niebuhr, Reinhold. Our Moral and Spifitual Resources for In/ernational Cooperation,
U . 5. Department of State, International Organization and Conference Series IV,
February 1956.
Schelling, T. S. in the American Assembly. International Stability and Progress, 1957.
Wolf, Charles Jr. foreign Aid, Theory and Practice in Southern Asia (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1960).
Articles
Brzezinski, Zbigniew. "The Politics of Underdevelopment," World Politics, Vol. IX,
No. I, 1956.
Galbraith, J. K. "A Positive Approach to Foreign Aid," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 39,
No. 3, 1961.
Galbraith, J. K. "Rival Economic Theories in India," Foreign Affairs, July 1958.
Friedman, Milton. "Foreign Economic Aid: Means and Objectives," The Yale Review,
Summer 1958.
Harriman, W. Averell. "Leadership in World Affairs," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 32,
No. 4, 1954.
Lilienthal, David. "Needed: A New Credo for Foreign Aid," New York Times
Magazine, June 26, 1960.
Wright, David McCord. "Stages of Growth vs. the Growth of Freedom," Fortune,
December 1959.
Government Documents
86th Congress, 1st Session, House Document No. 215. Part 2, "Conclusions Concern-
ing the Mutual Security Program," 1959. See especially the papers by Paul H. Nitze
and John H. OhIy.
 PUBLICATIONS
STUDIES
The Rescue of the Dollar, Wilson E. Labor Unions and Public Policy, Ed-
Schmidt-1963 ward H. Chamberlain, Philip D. Brad-
ley, Gerard D. Reilly, and Roscoe
The Role of Gold, Arthur Ken@- Pound-1958. 177 pp. ($4.50)
1963
National Aid to Higher Education,
Pricing Power and "Administrative" George C. S. Benson and John M.
Inflation-Concepts, Facts and Policy Payne-1958
Implications, Henry IF. Briefs-1962
Agricultural Surpluses and Export Pol-
Depreciation Reform and Capital icy, Raymond F. Mikesell-1958
Replacement, William T. Hogan-
1962 The Economic Analysis of Labor Un-
ion power, Edward H. Chamberlin-
The Federal Antitrust Laws, Jerrold 1958
G. Van Cise-1962
Post-War West German and United
Consolidated Grants: A Means of Kingdom Recovery, David McCord
Maintaining Fiscal Responsibility, Wright-1957
George C. S. Benson and Harold F. The Regulation of Natural Gas, James
McClelland-1961 W . McKie-1957
Inflation: Its Causes and Cures, Re- Legal Immunities of Labor Unions,
vised and Enlarged Edition, Gottfried Roscoe Pound-1957
Haberler-1961
*Automation-Its Impact on Economic
The Patchwork History of Foreign Growth and Stability, Almarin Phillips
Aid, Lorna Morley and Felix Mor- -1957
ley-1961
*Involuntary Participation In Unionism,
U. S. Immigration Policy and World Philip D. Bradley-1956
Population Problems, Virgil Salera- The Role of Government in Develop-
1960 ing Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy,
*Inflation: Its Causes and Cures, Gott- Arthur Kemp-1956
fried Haberler-1960 The Role of The Federal Government
Voluntary Health Insurance in the in Housing, Paul P. Wendt-1956
United States, Rita R. Campbell and The Upper Colorado Reclamation Proj-
W . Glenn Campbell-1960 ect, Pro by Sen. Arthur V. Watkms,
Unionism Reappraised: From Classi- Con by Raymond Muley-1956
cal Unionism to Union Establishment, *Federal Aid to Education-Boon or
Goetz Briefs-1960 Bane? Roger A. Freeman-1955
United States Aid and Indian Economic States Rights and the Law of Labor
Development, P. T. Bauer-1959 Relations, Gerard D. Reilly-1955
Improving National Transportation Pol- Three Taft-Hartley Issues: Secondary
icy, John H. Frederick-1959 Boycotts, "Mandatory" Injunctions, Re-
placed Strikers' Votes, Theodore R.
The Question of Governmental Oil Im- Iseman-1955
port Restrictions, William H. Peterson
What Price Federal Reclamation? Ray-
-1959 mond Muley-1955
Labor Unions and the Concept of
Public Service, Roscoe Pound-1959 * Out of Print.
 Private Investments Abroad, Charles R. *Monetary Policy and Economic Pros-
Carroll-1954 perity: Testimony of Dr. W. W.
Farm Price Supports-Rigid or Flex- Steward (July 3-4, 1930) before the
ible, Karl Brandt-1954 Macmillan Committee with introduc-
tion by Donald B. Woodward-1950
*Currency Convertibility, Gottfried Ha- Corporate Profits in Perspective, John
berler-1954 Linter-1949
The Control of the Location of In- *Current Problems of Immigration Pol-
dustry in Great Britain, John Jewkes icy, E. P. Hutchinson-1949
-1952
Guaranteed Employment and Wage
The Walsh-Healey Public Contracts Plans. A Summary and Critique of
Act, John V . V a n Sickle-1952 the Latimer Report and Related Docu-
The Economics of Full Employment: ments, William A. Bewidge and
An Analysis of the U.N. Report on Cedric Wolfe-1948
National and International Measures The Foreign Loan Policy of the United
for Full Employment, Wilhelm Ropke States, J. B. Condliffe-1947
-1952 *Proposals for Consideration by an In-
Price Fixing for Foodstuffs, Earl L. ternational Conference on Trade and
Butz-195 1 Employment, J. B. Condliffe-1946
Manpower Needs and the Labor Sup- The Market for Risk Capital, Jules I.
ply, Clarence D. Long-1951 Bogen-1946
An Economic Approach to Antitrust For Studies 1953 and Earlier, Each
Problems, Clare E. Griffin-1951, Study 50 Cents Unless Otherwise Shown
($1.00) in Listing.
*Valley Authorities, Raymond Moley- For all Studies 1954, to Date, Each
1950 Study One Dollar.
*Farm Price and Income Supports, 0. B.
Jesness-1950 * Out of Print.

LEGISLATIVE AND SPECIAL ANALYSES

87th Congress, First Session, 1961

No. 1-The Economic Status of the ary Schools. Bills by Sens. McNamra
Aged. A Special Analysis and Hart, Cooper, et id., Morse, et d.,
No. 2-Proposals for Federal Aid to and others
Depressed Areas. Bills by Sens. No. &Proposed Social Security
Douglas, et al., Dirksen, et a!., Scott; Amendments of 1961 (not including
Reps. Flood, Gray, Van Zandf, Mor- proposed health care benefits for the
gan, and Saylor aged)
No. 3-Proposals to Provide Tempo- No. 7-Proposed Housing Act of 1961
rary Extended Unemployment Com- No. 8-Proposals to Provide Health
pensation Benefits. Bill by Rep. Mills Care for the Aged Under Social Se-
No. 4-Proposals to Amend the Fair curity. Bills by Sens. McNamara,
Labor Standards Act of 1938. Bills by Anderson, Javits; Reps Gilbert, St.
Sens. Dirksen and McNamara; Rep. Germin, King
Roosevelt No. 9-Proposals to Revise the Proce-
No. 5-Proposals for Federal Assistance dure for the Election of President and
in Financing Elementary and Second- Vice President
No. 10-Proposals for Taxation of For- No. 14ÑTh Berlin Crisis: Part I:
eign Source Income. Background. A Special Analysis
No. 11-Proposals to Prohibit Manu-
facturers of Motor Vehicles from En- No. 15-The Berlin Crisis: Part 11:
gaging in the Finance or Insurance Elements of U. S. National Strategy.
Business: Bills by Sen. Kefauver; Rep. A Special Analysis
Celler
No. 12-The "Truth in Lending" Bill. No. 16-The Berlin Crisis: Part 111:
Bill by Sen. Douglas, et al. Legal and Economic Factors, Propos-
No. 13-The Drug Bill. Bill by Sens. als, and Strategic Lines of Action. A
Kefauver and Hart Special Analysis

87th Congress, Second Session, 1962

No. 1-The Proposal to Increase the ciprocal Trade Agreements Legislation.
National Debt Ceiling A Special Analysis
No. 2-Reorganization Plan No. 1, of No. 9-Proposals to Provide Health
1962 to Create a Department of Ur- Care for the Aged Under Social Secu-
ban Affairs and Housing rity. Bills by Sen. Anderson, et a!.; Rep.
No. 3-Foreign Trade: Part I: The King
Operation, Administration, and Devel-
opment of the Trade Agreements Pro- No. 10-Tax Proposals Relating to For-
gram. A Special Analysis eign Income. Bill by Rep. Mills
No. 4-Foreign Trade: Part 11: Eco- No. 1I-Public Welfare Amendments
nomic Consequences of Trade Liberal- of 1962. Bill by Rep. Mills
ization. A Special Analysis No. 12-The Drug Control Bills and
No. 5-Foreign Trade: Part 111: Im- Other Proposals to Amend the Food,
port Adjustment Assistance and Al- Drug and Cosmetic Act. Bills by Sen.
ternatives. A Special Analysis Kefauver; Reps. Sullivan, Celler and
No. &Foreign Trade: Part IV: The Harris
European Economic Community (Com-
mon Market). A Special Analysis . No. 13-The Proposed International
Coffee Agreement. A Special Analysis
No. 7-Purchase of United Nations
Bonds. Bill by Sen. Sparkman No. 14-The Pacific Northwest Power
No. 8-Foreign Trade: Part V: Pro- Preference Bills. Bills by Sen. Andsr-
posals to Amend and Extend the Re- son; Reps. Hansen and Pfost

88th Congress, First Session, 1963

No. 1-History and Powers of the
House Committee on Rules. A Special
Analysis
Single Copy One Dollar
 Foreign aid, defined as technical assistance people. Furthermore, he states that the extent
and capital grants and loans to underdeveloped of the influence of public opinion on many of
countries for non-military purposes, has in the the recipient governments is questionable.
past decade become an important feature of the The author regards as unrealistic the assertion
foreign policy of the United States. Yet, surpris- that the failure to extend non-military aid to
ingly, few serious writers have dealt compre- underdeveloped countries will lead to their take-
hensively with the rationale, the theory of over by the Soviet Union and eventually to the
foreign aid. destruction of the United States. He feels that
military aid or the threat of it can be more
In his study, AMERICAN FOREIGN AID efficacious than economic aid in holding these
DOCTRINES, Professor Banfield critically ex- countries from Communist domination.
amines the premises of aid doctrines as to both
fact and value. As a critique of present aid Professor Banfield also considers doctrines
doctrine, his study suggests that the time is long which seek to justify aid on grounds other than
overdue for a reappraisal of our foreign aid national security. These include the doctrines
programs in terms of more realistic doctrine. of altruism and world community. Pointing out
First, he considers two doctrines of foreign aid that the idea that a nation should promote the
which are based upon promotion of the national welfare of other nations is new in the history
security of the United States. According to the of political thought and of international relations,
first, the doctrine of indirect influence, foreign Professor Banfield sees two especially grave
aid will bring about fundamental changes in the difficulties in altruism as a basis of aid. One
outlook and institutions of the recipient societies. is that "doing good" may be impossible either
These changes, resulting mainly from a rise in because we do not know what is "good" or
per capita income, supposedly will lead to because, if we do know, we cannot bring it about
others-especially the spread of freedom and and may, despite our best intentions, bring about
democracy-that will promote peace and thus, " b a d instead. The other is that it may not be
indirectly, U.S. national security. The author a proper function of our government to do
cites some of the literature of the social sciences "good for people who are not its citizens.
dealing with problems of the developing nations, Discussing the contention that aid ought to
and notes the conditions likely to hinder the eco- be designed to promote a world community, he
nomic and political development that U.S. aid observes that the world is very far from agreeing
seeks to promote. as to what constitutes its common good, and that
it is entirely unwilling to let the United States
The second doctrine, that of direct influence, decide for it. Moreover, the goal of achieving
accepts cultures as they are but seeks directly world community is not perfectly compatible
to influence the recipient governments and peo- with that of preserving liberal democracy in the
ples to act as U.S. interests require or, more West.
often, to refrain from acting in ways injurious The final section of the study offers an ex-
to the United States. Aid under this doctrine is planation of why, after more than ten years, the
designed to achieve one or more of the following theory of aid has not been better worked out,
ends: business friendship, maintenance of friend- the arguments for it have not been subjected
ly governments, enhancement of U.S. prestige, to hard scrutiny, and the factual premises of aid
encouragement of good will toward the United doctrines have not been tested. In Professor
States, and the exertion of moral force. Linking Banfield's view, much of the writing on aid has
prestige with power, Professor Banfield is not consisted of moralizing instead of realistic
impressed by the argument that an increase in analysis of the economic, social, and political
our reputation as a %on-military power, neces- problems of the nations receiving American aid.
sarily enhances our prestige. Also, he sees "good
will" and "moral force" as making their effect Dr. Banfield is professor of Government at
only by working upon public opinion rather Harvard University. and is the author of many
than upon governments. and public opinion in articles and several books, including ~ o c e r n -
most
---.- of
. the Yecinient c06ntries >omnrisfis a small rnent Project, Political Influence, and The Moral
intellectual elite in the cities, notthe mass of Basis of a ~ackwardSociety.