EMILIO AGUINALDO COLLEGE

Gov. D. Mangubat Ave., Brgy. Burol Main, City of Dasmariñas, Cavite 4114, Philippines
Tel. Nos. (046) 416-4339/41 www.eac.edu.ph

MODULE 5: GEOTECHNICAL application, e.g. foundation engineering, foundations of buildings with respect to
ENGINEERING has come to require a scientific approach. soil design and structure.

I. Introduction “Geotechnics” – is a term currently The said incident was so significant that
used to describe both the theoretical and it led the engineers for a more careful
Geotechnical engineering is a practical application of the discipline. process of construction of the Colosseum
specialization within civil engineering Recent computational and computer on 73 A.D at Rome, Italy. It was built
that is concerned with the analysis, advances are extending our ability to over a dried lake, and the Romans had to
design and construction of foundations, predict the ehaviour of soil and soil- make sure it was completely drained
slopes, retaining structures, water systems under a wide variety of before laying foundation over the
embankments, tunnels, levees, wharves, conditions. In recent years, the activities remaining clay bed so it would not bend
landfills and other systems that are made of geotechnical engineers have also over like the prior case of building a
of or are involved geoenvironmental engineering. foundation. Since then, the Romans had
supported by soil or rock. From a the idea of how the state of soil should
Geoenvironmental Engineers – be observed and analyzed before making
scientific perspective, geotechnical design strategies for the clean-up of
engineering largely involves defining the any step of construction.
contaminated soils and groundwater and
soil’s strength an deformation properties. develop In the late ‘80s, the workforce was
It is the study of the behavior of soils challenged by the size of a copper statue
under the influence of loading forces and management systems for contaminated with a total height of 305’6”. The Statue
soil-water interactions. This knowledge sites. of Liberty cannot stand by itselfso a big
is applied to the design of foundations, iron framework was put inside to support
retaining walls, earth dams, clay liners,  History of Geotechnical
Engineering the structure and was decided to be
and geosynthetics for waste containment. placed on a small island where it can
This branch of engineering plays a key The history of geotechnical engineering stand alone without anyone who will be
role in all civil engineering projects built is quite long but at the same time it is at risk—at the Liberty Island, Upper
on or in the ground for the assessment of interesting. Ancestors in the olden days New York Bay, in New York City. Other
natural hazards. Geotechnical used soil for an extensive variety of difficulties related to geotechnical
engineering or also known as activities from building creation to engineering arise continuously, however
Geotechnics is applied mostly when irrigation and flood control. But during civil engineers always come up with
planning an infrastructure such as roads these times the practice of geotechnical better solutions and help the
and tunnels as well as bridges and development of the field to further
engineering was applied by trial and progress. As time passed by,
buildings. This discipline involves error observational experience in
numerical data analysis, evaluating the geotechnical engineering also developed.
empirical experimentation, basically, it Builders began taking a more
stability of cliffs and slopes,and was more of an art than a science.
assessing load-bearing capacity. scientifically based approach, including
By the 18th century as civilization detailed examination ofsubsurface
Geotechnical engineering includes advanced further, numerous engineering materials.
specialist fields such as: problems related to building foundations From the early 1700s to the early 1900s
1. Soil and Rock Mechanics began to emerge. The Leaning Tower of scientists such as Coulomb, Darcy,
Pisa which is a tourist attraction today Rankine, Boussinesq, Mohr and
2. Geophysics for example presented a very unique Atterberg published fundamental
challenge at that time. The tower leaned theories on soil mechanics and water
3. Hydrogeology
because it is constructed on a soft ground flow through soil. Several prominent
4. Geology composed mostly of clay, fine sand, and organizations and societies were formed
shells without using enough stones to in the early 1900s to advance this field of
The specialism involves using scientific make a strong foundation. This tower engineering. Particular recognition is
methods and principles of engineering to plays an important role in the history of given to Karl von Terzaghi who is
collect and interpret the physical geotechnical engineering as it serves as considered as the "father of soil
properties of the ground for use in an eye-opener for civil engineers to take mechanics and geotechnical
building and construction. Its practical a more specific approach to set up better engineering" because of his classic book
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Gov. D. Mangubat Ave., Brgy. Burol Main, City of Dasmariñas, Cavite 4114, Philippines
Tel. Nos. (046) 416-4339/41 www.eac.edu.ph

Erdbaumechanik(Soil Mechanics)  Advantages & Disadvantages action would be to reduce the amount of
published in 1925. His book literally Of Geotech rainfall that occurs. We need rain
revolutionized the field of geotechnical because it is nature’s natural water filter.
engineering. He developed the principle Advantages of Geotechnical If we don’t receive it, then it would be
of effective stress in soils, the framework engineering difficult to raise crops and food
for the bearing capacity of foundations 1. Geo engineering could be very resources could become scarce.
theory, and the theory for predicting the
potent. 2. It won’t solve all our problems.
rate of settlement due to consolidation of
clayey soils. By adding higher levels of sulfur dioxide One of the biggest issues that we have
In 1925, he established the country’s first directly into the atmosphere, it might be today is ocean acidification.
academic program in Soil Mechanics at entirely possible to offset all of the Geoengineering does not solve this
the Massachusetts Institute of warming effects that happen because of problem whatsoever. We would still be
Technology (MIT); In 1930, his work carbon dioxide. The efforts would create needing to deal with droughts and
led to the appointment of a Special aerosols that would reflect sunlight famines as they occur, and because there
Committee on Earthworks and straight back into space instead of would be weather changes associated
Foundations by the American Society of concentrating the sun’s rays onto the with the inclusion of extra sulfur dioxide,
Civil Engineers (ASCE). planet below. we might actually be dealing with more
disastrous effects from the shift of
 International Society for Soil 2. It could be extremely affordable. climates then from the immediate issues
Mechanics and Geotechnical Under some theories, geo engineering of global warming.
Engineering could be accomplished through the use 3. It only cools the equatorial
International Society for Soil Mechanics of a simple 2 inch hose that was regions effectively.
and Geotechnical Engineering stretched into the atmosphere. By
( ISSMGE ) is a society representing pumping the sulfur dioxide into the air, it In order to stop the melting of the ice at
would then become very feasible to stop the North Pole and South Pole, the planet
Engineers Academics and Contractors all
over the world that actively participate in the effects of global warming before they would have to be cooled down enough
geotechnical engineering. The can continue to create chaos within a that it would meet pre-industrial levels of
regional climate. warmth to stop the ice sheets at the Polar
International Society had its origins in
the Regions frommelting. Because extra
3. We have proof that levels of sulfur dioxide would be
First International Conference on Soil geoengineering works. required to accomplish this, it would also
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering The reason why this type of plan to stop create a sky that looked whiter than it did
held in Harvard in 1936. A total of 206 global warming is so exciting is because blue.
delegates attended from 20 countries. In we have documented evidence that it
order to ensure continuation of this very II. Education
will work. There is historical evidence
successful initiative, an Executive that shows large volcanic eruptions have The qualifications needed to become a
Committee was set up with Karl been able to stop global warming cycles geotechnical engineer include at least a
Terzaghi as President and Arthur in the past. The distribution of sulfur bachelor’s degree in civil engineering or
Casagrande as Secretary. In 1997, dioxide into the atmosphere simply geotechnical engineering. A program
Council approved a change in name to replicates the effects that a volcano accredited by ABET is needed in order
the International Society for Soil would create naturally. to gain licensure, which is required to
Mechanics and Geotechnical work as a professional engineer (PE). A
Engineering to reflect more accurately Disadvantages of Geotechnical few universities offer graduate degrees in
the activities of the Society. Then it engineering geotechnical engineering. With this
passed its great time expanding itself profession, relevant subjects may include:
1. Geoengineering could change
round the globe. The aim of society is
weather patterns dramatically. 1. Engineering Geology
the promotion of international co-
operation amongst engineers and Any time a scientific proposal to limit 2. Geology
scientists for the advancement and the amount of sunshine is brought up, the
expansion of knowledge in the field of natural consequence of taking such an 3. Geophysics
geotechnics.
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Gov. D. Mangubat Ave., Brgy. Burol Main, City of Dasmariñas, Cavite 4114, Philippines
Tel. Nos. (046) 416-4339/41 www.eac.edu.ph

4. Geotechnology • do not fall down due to foundation provide design and analysis of ponds
failure. containing discarded oil sands materials,
5. Mineral/Mining Engineering water extraction from soil and sand, and
Geotechnical engineers are in demand. steam injection into wells; and evaluate
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERS – are According to the Bureau of Labor
specialists that use engineering underground water layers trapped in
Statistics, civil engineer employment is rocks (aquifers). They also provide
principles and applications to research, projected to grow 11% over the next
investigate, assess construction sites, advice on environmental restoration.
decade or so, which is higher than the
conduct lab tests, create design for average job growth rate. All structures •Reservoir Geomechanics
structures, supervise construction and require strong foundations, from bridges Engineer (Oil & Gas Operations)—
present reports. Their ultimate goal is to to buildings to dams. Therefore,
ensure the project is safe and sustainable geotechnical engineers are always in analyze the strength of soils, drill hole
to the structure's stability against demand as long as new construction stability, stress constraint, permeability
earthquakes, mudslides and other natural projects are being built. A geo-technical of rock formations and the degree of
events. Their skills are used for drilling engineer has an important job role in trapped hydrocarbons in underground
wells, constructing production and analyzing soil, rock, groundwater, and reservoirs
storage facilities, transporting petroleum other earth materials prior to major
products and examining ground water •Geomechanics Engineers (Marine
construction projects. This analysis can Operations)—
flow. help determine what materials must be
• Build and maintain relationships with used in the structure’s foundation or analyze the relationship between
clients and other professionals involved overall design, or whether the project physical structures and marine geology,
in the site, throughout each project needs additional measures to ensure it is anchoring systems, sediment erosion,
safe. Thus, there are several job slope stability, and foundations for
• Maintain safety standards on site opportunities that a Geotechnical offshore and coastal structures.
Engineer can get locally, and even
• Be mindful of cost implications when
internationally given the fact that there
you make recommendations
are countless projects requiring the aid of MODULE 5: WATER RESOURCES
a Geotechnical Engineer in order to ENGINEERING
III. Job Demands and Environment
ensure the safety of different
of Geotechnical Engineering infrastructure in different types of
● Importance Of Geotechnical environment. Geotechnical engineers
I. INTRODUCTION
Engineering perform the following functions within
the framework of the following jobs: ● History
Geotechnical engineers are responsible
for evaluating subsurface and soil •Geotechnical or Geological ➔ Local
conditions and materials, using the Engineers (General)—
During the Spanish colonization in the
principles of soil and rock mechanics.
provide analysis and mapping of Philippines, civil engineering was not by
They are commonly appointed as
technical results obtained from seismic virtue of academic title. There were no
consultants on construction projects.
surveys, and investigate subsurface schools for civil engineering and the
Engineers also examine environmental
conditions and materials to determine only engineers with academic degrees
issues such as floodplains and water
their properties and risks were Spaniards. Indio builders were
tables. The studies of the geological
called Maestro de Obras (Master
material properties on a construction site •Geotechnical or Geological
Builders). It is equivalent as of today to
are important to allow Engineer (Oil Sands Projects)—
construction foreman. The first artesian
design and construction of stable design open pit walls, mine waste dumps wells were built in Betis, Pampanga by
structures that: and dam structures used in oilsands Fr. Manuel Camanes. The watersystem
mining, and analyze slope stability, in Manila (now Metropolitan
• do not settle; Waterworks and Sewerage System) had
seepage and hydraulic separation on
• deform or crack, and; damstructures. its beginning from the water works

•Hydrogeological Engineer— constructed by Fr. Juan Peguero in 1686.

The first irrigation system was built in
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Gov. D. Mangubat Ave., Brgy. Burol Main, City of Dasmariñas, Cavite 4114, Philippines
Tel. Nos. (046) 416-4339/41 www.eac.edu.ph

Tanay, Rizal by Fr. Jose Delgado. Cavite and improving the water resources were used to lift water to ground level.
Friar Land Irrigation System is one of management in the country. Stepwells have been mainly used in the
the oldest irrigation systems in the Indian subcontinent. The Minoan
country. The public supply of fresh water ➔ International civilization in ancient Greece used
to the city dates from the early 18th underground clay pipes for sanitation
In Water Resources Engineering, the
century. Before this, Manila had to be and water supply. Knossos, its capital,
analysis and synthesis of various water
content with a fresh water supply based has a well-organized system for bringing
problems was not limited through the use
on cisterns. They did not get running clean water, removing wastewater, and
of different analytical tools in hydrologic
water until 1878, when the municipal preventing storm sewage canals from
engineering as well as hydraulic
waterworks was established by Governor overflowing. In ancient Rome, public
engineering but it also focused on
Domingo Moriones, through the funding latrines (toilets) were built over the
theaspects of design and management.
of Don Francisco Carriedo y Peredo. In Cloaca Maxima. They also had indoor
Over the past 9000 to 10,000 years ,
1882, the first public water fountain plumbing – a system of aqueducts and
water resource engineering has
gushed forth its waters, and Manila was pipes connecting homes, public wells
progressed as humans have developed
successfully provided with fresh and fountains to watersources.
the skills and techniques required to
watersupply.
construct hydraulic systems to store and ★ Medieval Europe
In 1909, during the American colonial transport water. Early examples include
era, Wawa Dam (Montalban Dam) was irrigation networks developed by the Open drains, or gutters, for waste water
built over the Marikina River in Egyptians and Mesopotaminas, and the run-off, known as kennels, ran along the
Rodriguez, Rizal. It was constructed to Hobokam in North America. The oldest center of some streets in London. In
provide the water needs for Metro large dam in the world was the Sadd-el Paris, they were called “split streets”, as
Manila. It used to be the only source of Kafara Dam constructed in Egypt the wastewater running along the middle
water in Manila until Angat Dam was between 2950 and 2690 B.C. The oldest physically splits the streets. In 1370,
built; Wawa was later abandoned. known distribution of pressurized water Hugues Aubird designed the first closed
Furthermore, the first national irrigation (about 2000 B.C.), was in the ancient sewer Paris, measuring 300 meters long;
system (NIS) was the San Miguel River town of Knossos on Crete. and was constructed on Rue Montmartre
Irrigation System in Tarlac, inaugurated (Montmartre Street). The original
★ Ancient Asia purpose of designing and constructing a
in 1913. Meanwhile, the earliest records
of communal irrigations systems (CIS) closed sewer in Paris was more on
Asians have already utilized a water
was on 1914, mostly located holding back the stench coming from the
supply and sewer system during the
odorous wastewater rather than for waste
in the Ilocos area and known as the Bronze and early Iron Ages. The
management.
zanjera. Caliraya Dam was constructed Mesopotamians introduced the clay
in 1939 during the Japanese occupation sewer pipes in wells around 4000 BCE, ★ Islamic Countries
with the earliest examples found in the
in the Philippines. It was an embankment
dam located in Lumban, Laguna. Lake Temple of Bel at Nippur and at Cities of the medieval Islamic world had
Caliraya initially supplied one of the Eshnunna. It was utilized to remove water supply systems powered by
oldest hydroelectric plants in the country, wastewater from sites and capture hydraulic technology that supplied
and later became a popular recreational rainwater. The first sanitation systems drinking water along with much greater
were built in prehistoric Iran. The quantities of water for ritual washing,
area for watersports and fishing.
Pyramid of Sahure in ancient Egypt was mainly in mosques and hammams
In the 1960's, the Philippines became discovered to have a network of copper (baths). They also had sophisticated
one of the top countries in the world that drainage pipes. The Indus Valley waste disposal and sewage systems with
produces engineers. Numerous Civilization showed early evidence of interconnected networks of sewers. Al-
waterworks like construction of dams, public water supply and sanitation. In the Karaji, a 10th century Persian
improvement of water supply and city of Lothal, houses had their own mathematician and engineer, wrote a
irrigation systems were accomplished private toilet which was connected to a book entitled “The Extraction of Hidden
since then. At present, civil engineers covered sewer network made of bricks. Waters”, which presented ground-
with specialization in water resources The earliest evidence of urban sanitation breaking ideas and descriptions of
engineering continue to share their was seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro hydrological and hydrogeological
expertise and contribute in developing andRakhigarhi. Devices like shadoofs perceptions such as components of the

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 EMILIO AGUINALDO COLLEGE
Gov. D. Mangubat Ave., Brgy. Burol Main, City of Dasmariñas, Cavite 4114, Philippines
Tel. Nos. (046) 416-4339/41 www.eac.edu.ph

hydrological cycle, groundwater quality, This unique engineering accomplishment increasing population and continuous
and driving factors of groundwater flow. was one of the technical advancements demand for more water stimulates this
He also gave an early description of a achieved by the Maya during their 2000- fast-growing industry (Environmental
water filtration process. year history. It enhanced the inconstant Science, 2020).
natural water supply. They developed
★ The Maya technologies, and sciences that were not
"discovered" by the Europeans until the II. BODY
The Maya civilization was one of the
nineteenth century. The Maya also built
most dominant indigenous groups of
canals and dams, wells, and reservoirs, ● Branches of Water Resources
Mesoamerica. They had one of the most
and terraces and raised fields to control Engineering
sophisticated and complex civilizations
and conserve water.
in the Western Hemisphere. Unlike other a. Water and Waste Engineer
indigenous populations, they are
centered in one geographical block b. Water and Sewer Engineer
covering the entire Yucatan Peninsula ★ Definition of Water Resources
c. Wastewater Engineer
and modern-day Guatemala; Belize and Engineering
parts of Mexico, and the western part of
Honduras and El Salvador. The Maya Water resources engineering is a
excelled at agriculture, pottery, profession that deals with the provision a. Water and Waste Engineer
hieroglyph, writing, calendar-making, of water for the use of humans and the
different development techniques for the In contrast to other water resources
astronomy, etc. As America’s first civil engineers, the responsibilities of Water
engineers, the Maya developed unique prevention of floods. Water resources
engineering also includes planning and and Waste Engineers are shifted towards
water resource technologies that more on the following:
successfully supported a dense management of facilities such as canals
population of 1800 to 2600 people per for irrigations, sewers for drainage to 1) Designing or overseeing projects
square mile (O’kon, 2007). The region of avoid waterlogging and all other to involving provision of potable water,
Puuc (Pook) in Yucatan Peninsula has no control the usage and preservation of disposal of wastewater and sewage, or
water sources – no streams, lakes,rivers, water. Sokanu (n.d.) stated that water prevention of flood-related damage;
or springs – so the Maya developed a engineers have many responsibilities, be
way to sustain large populations in this it technical and non-technical. 2) preparing environmental
environment. They become excellent in Significantly, the profession makes it documentation for water resources,
managing rainwater using massive sure that citizens are provided with a regulatory program compliance, data
systems of cisterns called chultuns to continuous supply of clean, management and analysis, and field
collect and store rainwater. uncontaminated water for drinking, work;
living, and recreational purposes. Not
A chultun is a bottle-shaped cavity, only they design water management 3) and performing hydraulic modeling
excavated by the ancient Maya into the systems, but often oversee the and pipeline design. They also provide
soft limestone bedrock typical of the construction and maintenance of these technical direction or supervision to
Maya area in the Yucatan peninsula systems as well, including the junior engineers, engineering or
(Maestri, 2019). Archaeologists and demonstration of knowledge in the water computer-aided design (CAD)
historians report that chultuns were used industry and environmental issues. technicians, or other technical personnel.
for storage purposes, for rainwater or Moreover, they are also acquainted to be b. Water andSewer Engineer
other things, and after abandonment for in charge of creating and developing
trash and sometimes even burials. The equipment and systems that are Water and Sewer Engineer's works are
word chultun probably came from two applicable for water resource associated with paving and grading
Yucatec Mayan words chulub and tun, management for water treatment drainage design in project types ranging
which mean rainwater and stone. facilities, underground wells, and natural from large-scale to small work; creating
However, archaeologist Dennis E. springs. These systems must be capable master plan scale, smaller neighborhoods
Puleston suggested that the term is from of giving the citizens a safe, clean, and site-specific, small scale, and
tsul (clean) and tun (stone). In modern unpolluted, and continuous reserve of detailed designs. Their expertise also
Maya language, the term refers to a hole water which is good for drinking, living, encompasses all phases of project
in the ground that is wet or holds water. and recreational purposes. In fact, the development, including conceptual
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Gov. D. Mangubat Ave., Brgy. Burol Main, City of Dasmariñas, Cavite 4114, Philippines
Tel. Nos. (046) 416-4339/41 www.eac.edu.ph

planning, stormwater modeling, detailed there should be someone managing these The EPA is a U.S. government agency
design and analysis, utility coordination, resources. This is where water resources that regulates environmental law to
government agency permitting, and engineers do their jobs. Significantly, protect the country's natural resources
project construction. An example of their water resource engineers, as mentioned and public health. Water Resource
specific work is designing utility above may be charged to develop new Engineers must be familiar with the
drainage projects, which require building systems or processes for private or country's laws and regulations
3-D surface models to delineate drainage government entities that can preserve surrounding water in order to build safe,
basins; extracting data on surface area freshwater sources and find new legal systems that can benefit the public.
and volumes; then extracting those
results into pipe flow diagrams; and ones. This may require the assistance of Water Resource Engineers can also
finally importing this information into civil engineers in designing water browse through these organizations and
stormwater models (CMA, 2014). purification methods through websites for valuable resources:
desalination or creating new
c. Wastewater Engineer •American Academy of Water
equipment for contaminant transport Resource Engineers (AAWRE)—
Lastly, wastewater engineers are when water is used for irrigation
responsible for performing activities that purposes. In addition, understanding This is a non-profit organization
can effectively manage orsafely transport what works and what doesn’t when it dedicated to advancing the education and
water that is no longer usable. This comes to water resource management is knowledge of ethical practices to Water
includes wastewater treatment and often a combined effort and may involve ResourceEngineers. Significantly, they
detecting the degree to which water is a number of different analyses, including provide a Diplomate, Water Resource
polluted through technologies such as hydrologic, which is the study of the Engineer (D.WRE) certification that
remote sensing. Also, the profession may water cycle and directions in which it helps Water Resource Engineers gain
provide insight to businesses or flows, which may be influenced by specialized knowledge in the industry
government entities on how to better weather and other environmental forces. and increase hire ability.
clean or channel wastewater away from •American Society of Civil
sources like rivers and estuaries so they In addition, they do develop new
equipment and systems for water Engineers (ASCE)—
don’t become contaminated (UCR, n.d.).
resource management facilities. Water ASCE, a professional organization for
resource systems are something we rely civil engineers, provides education and
on a day to day basis of our life. Some career opportunities, conferences around
 Importance of Water systems that they have done are those
Resources Engineering the country, as well as links to
dams that stored water, where they can professional publications and other
Resources, by their very nature, are finite. be released for irrigation and drinking information resources. This can be a
There are only a small handful that are purposes during drought conditions. And valuable resource to civil engineers,
naturally renewable – such as wind, solar, during floods, water which is in the including Water Resource Engineers.
hydro and biomass. While water may be thousand
renewable in terms of the many different million cube amount can be diverted
ways it can be used and reused, it’s not from low lying areas can reduce the •National Water Resource Board
as abundant as it once was, which many effect of damage. (NWRB)—
earth scientists and climatologists point
to as a function of climate change. The ● Some Water Resources The National Water Resources Board is
Bureau of Reclamation provides some Engineering Agency and a government agency coordinating and
perspective as to just how limited this Organizations regulating all water resources
resource is in terms of usability, despite management development activities.
its vastness. If the world’s water supply Water Resource Engineers and those They are tasked to formulate and
who wish to become Water Resource develop policies regarding water
were roughly 26 gallons, the amount of
freshwater available for safe usage Engineers can look to the following utilization and appropriation, the control
would be the equivalent to 0.003 liters. government sites for guidance: and supervision of water utilities and
That’s equal to roughly a half-teaspoon. •Water Laws & Regulations From franchises, and the regulation and
This means that allocation of water the U.S. Environmental Protection rationalization of water rates. Its main
resources is very imperative and that Agency (EPA)— objective is to achieve a scientific and
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Tel. Nos. (046) 416-4339/41 www.eac.edu.ph

orderly development of all water ensuring safety, equity and sustainability, operation of public transportation
resources of the Philippines consistent at minimal levels of congestion and cost. systems. A public transportation is a
with the principles of optimum transportation system that operates to
utilization, conservation and protection According to Partha Chakroborty and move the general public fromone point
to meet present and future needs. Animesh Das in their book “Principles of to another. The design of a public
Transportation Engineering” in 2017, the transportation system includes the design
followingare the important disciplines of routes (including stop locations),
in the field of transportation engineering. design ofschedules, determination of fare
MODULE 5: WATER RESOURCES
ENGINEERING • Traffic Engineering structures, and crew scheduling.

I. Introduction This area of transportation engineering • Transport Planning

manages the analysis, design, and Transport planning deals with planning
Mobility has always been crucial to operation of transportation facilities
human society. In today’s world, the transportation facilities that will be able
utilized by to meet the present and future needs in a
need for efficient and safe transportation
has increased so much that the vehicles of different transportation sustainable manner. This field focuses on
transportation facilities of a state are modes. Such an examination assumes issues like estimation of future demands,
considered a mark of its progress, utmost significance in the case of needs and problems; generation of
leading to a direct correlation between roadways as the number of vehicles alternative transportation solutions;
the two. using the transportation facilities are the studying the financial, economic, and
highest as well as the most varied in technological implications of these
Transportation has consistently played terms of their type, origins and alternatives; and analyzing their impact
an essential role in the advancement of destinations, purposes, etc. The USA on the environment, land-use and
society as it aids in a country’s based Institute of Transportation demographic trends of an area. Transport
development by facilitating trade Engineers, ITE, characterizes traffic planners are also entrusted with the task
between regions, reducing travel time engineering as “that phase of of choosing the right alternative and
cost, and improving accessibility, transportation engineering which deals preparing a plan for its implementation.
initially with regard to trade routes and with planning, geometric design and
harbors, but more recently with respect • Transport Economics
traffic operations of roads, streets and
to land- and air-based frameworks too. highways, their networks, terminals, This area studies the various economic
Consequently, a branch of civil abutting lands, and relationship with costs and benefits of building and
engineering, specifically transportation other modes of transportation.” operating different transportation
engineering, is the one accountable with facilities. The area focuses on (i)
the design, operation, planning and • Pavement Engineering identifying the economic costs and
management of transportation benefits and their incident sectors, (ii)
This area of transportation engineering
infrastructure, mobility service, traffic, deals with the structural analysis and studying the numerous techniques
and travellers for various travel modes design of the way used by different available and formulating new
with the application of technology and Transportation modes. Specifically, techniques to estimate these costs and
scientific principles (Civil Engineering pavement engineering is concerned with benefits, (ii) analyzing the financing and
and Engineering Mechanics, 2020). Thus, (i) the analysis, structural design, cost recovery aspects of transportation
it is the transportation engineer’s construction, and maintenance projects, and (iv) suggest economic ways
responsibility to plan, design, build, of solving certain transportation
of roadway pavements, runways, problems.
operate and maintain the systems of
taxiways, and rail tracks and their
transport, in such a way as to provide for
drainage and other associated structures,
the safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable,
and (ii) the materialsused in the Additionally, the other important
convenient,
construction of all such structures.
economical, and environmentally disciplines as described by the National
• Public Transportation Programme on Technology Enhanced
sustainable movement of people and
goods. They quantify and optimize our The area of public transportation is Learning (NPTEL) are enumerated
mobility infrastructure networks to meet concerned with the analysis, design, and below.
travel and freight demands, while
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• Geometric design assumes maximum importance in the passenger transport or (ii) organizations
roadways where a tremendously large for transportation modes that cater to
It deals with physical proportioning of number of drivers interact with each goods transport. The transportation
other transportation facilities, in contrast other and the facilities wherein safety system must be sensitive to the needs of
with the structural design of the facilities. should always be considered. its users.
The topics include the cross-sectional
features, horizontal alignment, vertical • Vehicle
alignment and intersections.
The vehicles which are used in ● Transportation Engineering
• Environmental impact transportation have certain Specialties
assessment characteristics (e.g. turning radius,
braking distance, accelerating Transportation engineering includes
The environmental impact assessment capabilities, etc.) which influence the different specialties as there are various
attempts in quantifying the design and operation of the transportation systems being used today
environmental impacts and tries to transportation facility. such as roadways, railways, waterways,
evolve strategies for the mitigation and and airways.
reduction of the impact due to both • Way
construction and operation. The primary
impacts are fuel consumption, air Every mode of transportation uses a
specified path that is either constructed ➔ Highway Engineering
pollution, and noise pollution.
or charted. For example, in the case of
The history of highway engineering
• Accident analysis andreduction roadways and railways, the way (road or
gives an idea about the roads of ancient
rail track) has to be laid out and
One of the silent killers of humanity is times. The first mode of transport was by
constructed while in the case of
transportation. This discipline of foot followed by the use of animals for
waterways and airways, the ways used
transportation looks at the causes of transporting both men and materials.
are only charted paths on water bodies or
accidents, from the perspective of in the atmosphere. These have led to the development of
humans, roads, and vehicles and
formulates plans for the reduction. • Control foot-paths. The earliest large-scale road
•Intelligent transportsystem In order to ensure safety and efficiency construction is attributed to Romans who
of operation, there are system level
With the conception of smart city controls imposed on the movement of constructed an extensive system of roads
transmuting cities into digital societies, the vehicles. These controls should be
making the life of its citizens easy in radiating in many directions from Rome.
static (in the form of rules or road signs
every facet, the Intelligent Transport like “No U Turn” or “One-Way”) or They mixed lime and volcanic pozzolana
System becomes an indispensable dynamic (in the form of rail or road to make mortar and they added gravel to
component among all. Intelligent signals, or instructions from air traffic this mortar to make concrete. Thus,
transportation systems offer better controllers, etc.). concrete was a major Roman road
mobility, efficiency, and safety with the making innovation.
help of state-of-the-art-technology. • Terminal
The next major development in the road
This is a location where the vehicles of a
mode stop for various reasons including construction occurred during the regime
Accordingly, along with the mentioned (i) boarding (loading) and alighting
disciplines are the basic elements to be (unloading) of passengers (or goods), (ii) of Napoleon. The significant
considered in transportation engineering resting when not in use, (iii) refueling, contributions were given by Tresaguet in
identified by Chakroborty and Das which (iv) maintenance, etc.
are briefly described in the following: 1764. than the lavish and locally
• User unsuccessful revival of Roman practice.
• Driver
Obviously, any transportation system This created major drainage problems
Every mode of transportation has a runs to provide service to its users. The which were counteracted by making the
driver who controls the vehicle used in users are (i) the public at large for
the mode of transportation. This element transportation modes that cater to
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surface as impervious as possible, integration. Similarly, pavement and bridge, such as the beam bridge or the
cambering the surface and providing suspension bridge. Bridge foundations
roadway engineering is applied which
deep side ditches. The British engineer have to be carefully selected and
involves setting of alignments, planning constructed since they will bear the
John Macadam introduced what can be bridge and the vehicle loads. A bridge is
the cuts and fills to construct the
considered as the 1st scientific road a structure built to span and provide
roadway, designing the base course and passage over a river, chasm, road, or any
construction method. The modern roads
pavement, and selecting the drainage other physical hurdle. There are several
by and large follow Macadam's
construction method. Use of bituminous system. (Transportation Engineering, types of bridges. Here are the five (5)
most abundant and common types:
concrete and cement concrete are the 2020). Engineers in this specialization:
most important developments. 1. Girder bridges
• handle the planning, design,
Development of new equipment helps in construction, and operation of highways, It is the most common and most basic
the faster construction of roads. roads, and other vehicular facilities as bridge type. In its simplest form, a log
With the advancement of better roads well as their related pedestrian realms,
across a creek is an example of a girder
and efficient control, more and more • estimate the transportation needs of the
public and then secure the funding for bridge.
investments were made in the road sector
the project, a) Box Girder: Takes the shape of a b
especially after the World wars. It is
Highway Engineering which is • analyze locations of high traffic ox. This has two webs and two flanges.
responsible for the design, construction volumes and high collisions for safety b) Pi Girders: Named for their likeness
and maintenance of Highway Roads and and capacity, to the mathematical symbol for pi.

Systems, urban streets as well as parking • use civil engineering principles to c) I-beam: Very simple to design and
improve the transportation system, and build and works very well in most cases.
facilities. Its important aspects include
overall planning of routes, financing, • utilizes the three design controls which However, if the bridge contains any
are the drivers, the vehicles, and the curves, the beams become subject to
environmental impact evaluation, and
roadways themselves. Interestingly, twisting forces or torque.
value engineering to compare
alternatives. Consequently, traffic Highway Engineering has expanded to 2. Arch bridges
engineering is employed which involves include a new area of focus for this
planning for the volumes of traffic to be discipline on the implementation and use Arch bridges are the types of bridges
handled, the methods to accommodate of intelligent transport systems that will which pose a classic architecture and the
these flows, the lighting and signing of eventually revolutionize the way
oldest after the girder bridges. Unlike
highways, and general layout. Older humans travel day to day.
techniques include signs, signals, simple girder bridges, arches are well
markings, and tolling while newer ➔ Bridge Engineering
suited to the use of stone. Arches use a
technologies involve intelligent
transportation systems, including Bridge Engineering deals with the
curved structure which provides a high
advanced traveller information systems planning and construction of bridges.
resistance to bending forces. Arches can
(such as variable message signs), Bridge planning, design, and
only be used where the ground or
construction is an important function of foundation is solid and stable because
advanced traffic control systems (such as
civil engineering. The bridge design will unlike girder and truss bridges, both ends
ramp meters), and vehicle infrastructure
be basically determined by the type of
of an arch are fixed in the horizontal
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direction (i.e. no horizontal movement is passes from the Forces pass from often not possible with other bridge
deck, to the stay the deck, to the types. Trusses are also classified by the
allowed in the bearing). Structurally cables, to the suspenders, to the
there are four basic arch type bridges: bridge towers, and main cable, to the basic design used.

a) Hinge-less: This uses no hinges and lastly, to the bridge towers, and a) Warren truss: Most common truss.
foundations to the foundation. Used in spans of between 50-100m.
allows no rotation at the foundations.
b) Pratt truss: Identified by its diagonal
b) Two-hinged: The two hinged arch
uses hinged bearings which allow 4. Rigid frame bridges members which, except for the end ones,
rotation. This is perhaps the most
commonly used variation forsteel arches. Rigid frame bridges are sometimes also all slant down and in toward the center
known as Rahmen bridges. The cross of the span.
c) Three hinged: This adds an
sections of the beams in a rigid frame c) Howe truss: Diagonal members face
additional hinge at the top or crown of
bridge are usually Ishaped or boxshaped. the opposite direction and handle
the arch.
compressive forces.
Though there are many possible shapes,
d) Tied arches: The tied arch is a
variation on the arch which allows the styles used almost exclusively these
construction even if the ground is not
➔ Railway Engineering
solid enough to deal with the horizontal days are:
forces. A railway is a permanent track
a) Pi-shaped frame: Are used
composed of a line of parallel metal rails
3. Cable stayed bridges frequently as the piers and supports for
fixed to sleepers, for transport of
inner city highways.
A typical cable stayed bridge is a passengers and goods in trains. The
b) Batter post frame:Well suited for railways have the advantage over the
continuous girder with one or more river and valley crossings. Piers tilted at roadways that they can carry a large
towers erected above piers in the middle an angle can straddle the crossing number of passengers and large and
of the span. From these towers, cables heavy loads to long distances.
stretch down diagonally (usually to both effectively without construction of
sides) and support the girder. Though Rails can be divided into three types:
foundations.
only a few cables are strong enough to
1. Double Headed Rails
support the entire bridge, their flexibility c) V-shaped frame: V shaped frames
makes them weak to a force we rarely make effective use of foundations. Each 2. Bull Headed Rails
consider: the wind. These bridges can be
distinguished by the number of spans, V-shaped pier provides two supports to 3. Flat Footed Rails
number of towers, girder type, number of ● What does Railway Engineer do?
the girder, reducing the number of
cables, etc. Typical towers used are
Single, Double, Portal, and A-shaped foundations. • An Engineer could be expected to be
towers. Some typical varieties are Mono, involved in the design, construction,
Harp, Fan, and Star arrangements. 5. Truss bridges
maintenance and operation of all trains
CABLE Of all the types of bridges, truss bridges
SUSPENSION
STAYED are most common, usually in steel and rail transport systems (monitoring
BRIDGES BRIDGES bridges. Trusses are comprised of many and controlling the rail network and the
small beams that together can support a
trains). It encompasses a wide range of
Have cables Called suspenders large amount of weight and span great
attached to the attached to the engineering disciplines, including civil
tower(s), which are bridge and main distances. Because the truss is a hollow
then supported by cable which is then engineering, computer engineering,
skeletal structure, the roadway may pass
foundations. attached to the
electrical engineering, mechanical
tower over or even through the structure
Force transmission allowing for clearance below the bridge engineering, industrial engineering and
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production engineering. b) Artificial harbor – Constructed to restrooms and eateries for the port

Railway engineers possess mechanical Perform the functions of a port. visitors. If there is no hospital in the
design skills and knowledge of
propulsion systems that allows them to c) Semi-natural harbours – This is vicinity it becomes obligatory for the
design train vessels. port to provide with primary medical
protected on sides by headlands services.
• A railway engineer is responsible for protection and requires man made d) Fishing facilities: Fishing ports
providing insight and technical protection only at the entrance. allow its customer with fishing aids and

engineering expertise on railway projects d) Ice-free harbors – For harbors near amenities.

and systems such as traction power, train the North and South Poles e) Warm water facility: Warm water
port provides warm water even in
and traffic signal controls, fare collection, ★ Ports
frosting winters.
rail vehicles and more. Ports serve as the transfer hubs for trade
f) Loading and Unloading Facility: It
which are usually built near natural is the mandatory part of every port to
allow loading and unloading of freight as
➔ Port and Harbor Engineering harbors. These are land facilities well as people in a ship.

Planning and engineering of ports and constructed to transfer goods between

g) Infrastructure and Equipment’s:
harbors covers planning of marine water and land. A port has piers, basins, stacking or
storage areas, warehouses to store
terminals and small craft harbors, ship • Docks or berths where vessels moor; various ferry equipment. Each port is
• Equipment and p equipped with essential equipment for
berthing and maneuvering considerations, e.g. hauling equipment’s, draggers,
port navigation, marine structures, inland ersonnel to load and cranes, trucks, loaders, etc.

navigation, marine construction planning, unload vessels; h) Workshop: It is the place where one

sediment management, and port • Connections to land transportation can get spare parts and accessories of a
economics. Port and Harbor engineers (such as highways, railways, and vessel. Also, the vessels which have
handle the design, construction, and pipelines); and gone out of order are repaired and
operation of ports and harbors, canals, catered in the workshop.
• Cargo storage areas.
and other maritime facilities. ➢ Types of Ports
Some common port facilities provided
by the most common sorts of ports
★ Harbor 1. Inland Port – a port on a navigable
throughout the world are as follows: lake, river (fluvial port), or canal with
Harbor is defined as a parking or storage
a) Special Warehouse: For storing access to a sea or ocean, which therefore
space along the coastline which consists
the shipment and for maintaining regular
of a thick wall, where boats, barges and allows a ship to sail from the ocean to
stock. the port to load or unload its cargo.
ships can take shelter from bad weather Important functions of Inland ports are
b) Port Reception: It has details of all
or are kept for future. There are different summarized below as:
shipment scheduled and a guide for the
types of the harbour which includes: a) There should be well-established
port facilities.
a) Natural harbor – a landform where a distribution centres for freight
c) Other facilities: Hotels, restaurants, distribution
portion of ocean or sea is protected and
is so deep to allow vessels to take refuge.
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b) It should be made available for congestion at a nearby seaport. stopover port, in between home ports of
a particular vessel.
ensuring proper storage of hulks and 4. Warm-water Port — These are the
c) Cargo Ports - These are the special
containers ports in which the water is maintained at
ports to handle cargo only. These ports
c) There should be well established warmer temperature. The biggest
advantage where a warm water port is are also known as “bulk ports”, “break
logistic department to handle all logistics
concerned is that the water does not bulk ports” or “container ports”. Cargo
activities
freeze during the frosty winters. like wood, liquid chemicals or fuel, food
d) There should be a proper warehouse Therefore, it is free to operate all year
to house spare parts of cargo and other round without a temporary shutdown grains, automobiles, etc. are handled by

machinery during the freezing time. The main Bulk ports whereas containerized cargo
reasons for which warm water ports or cargo in containers is handled by the
2. Fishing Port –a port or harbor for
are considered important are as follows: Container ports.
landing and distributing fish. The only
a) It allows trade throughout the year, The Philippines is another archipelagic
port that depends on an ocean product
because in chilling winter, warm-water nation with a total of 429 ports that make
and depletion of fish may cause a fishing port is still operational and reach the it possible for locals to move from one
port to be uneconomical. A fishing port import-export demand of the nation. island to another comfortably.
comprises: b) These ports made inland waterway ● What does a Port Engineer do?
a) Hangers: Special areas employed for trading possible in countries like
Port Engineers are in charge with the
the preservation of goods and products. Ethiopia.
maintenance and repair of marine vessels
b) Supply post: Responsible for satiating c) These are the main reason for the
of all kinds, but usually larger cargo
the fuel and freshwater demand by the expansion of an empire around the globe.
ships. They are the ones who manage the
ship. 5. Seaport— most common types of
ports around the world which are used repairs and maintenance functions of the
c) Operation and Administration
for commercial shipping activities. These
building: Building in which plans are furnished operating fleet to be able to
made for the voyage and fishing and ports are built on a sea location and
management for all legal as well as minimize loss of revenue and cost of
health issues. enable the accommodation of both small
repairs. Port Engineers get to know every
d) Premises: Houses the deals in fish that and large vessels. Seaports form some of
vessel in the fleet, including its needs
is either purchase of fish or sale of fish. the biggest and busiest ports in the world. and the time it is required. These
Engineers work together with the crew at
3. Dry Port – inland terminals that can a) Cruise Ports - specializes in dealing
land as well as at the sea to coordinate
be interconnected with a seaport via road with the activities of cruise ships and regular maintenance. When repairs are
or rail transportation facilities, and they needed, they often price out the parts and
provide the platform for the passengers the work to be done to get the best deal
usually act as centres of multimodal
for the company.
to enter and disembark the cruises.
logistics. A dry port proves useful in the
● Importance of Port and Harbor
b) Port of Call - is paid a brief visit b
trade of importing and exporting cargo
Engineering
y a ship on the voyage, also used for
and can help to lessen the inevitable carrying out repair works. It serves as a According to Tsinker, G. (1997), port

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construction has been given very little of areas, access roads fromthe city side design of airport facilities. These
to airport, and handling of passengers,
attention due to the fact that Marine engineers must use the analysis of
baggage and freight. The following are predominant wind direction to determine
Structures Engineering is very broad by
itself whereas it involves various array of the important terms in relation to airport the runway orientation, determine the
size of runway border, and safety areas,
engineering disciplines such as civil, engineering:
various wing tip to wing tip clearances
structural, geotechnical, hydraulic, 1. Aviation – means flying with the aid for all gates and must designate the clear
of a machine, heavier than air
strength of materials, corrosion, naval zones in the entire port.
2. Aircraft – includes glider, aeroplane,
architecture and other knowledge of • The airport engineer plans, prepares
helicopter, rocket etc.
which is needed to produce a sound and and/or supervises planning studies for
3. Aeroplane –
economical design of a modern port or improvements, redevelopment and
a power driven and heavier than air
marine terminal. Port and Harbor flying machine. expansion of the airport, public parking
Engineering exhibits geotechnical and 4. Airport – an aerodrome (area used facilities, airport roadway systems,
structural aspects of port construction for arrival or departure of an aircraft) ground transportation systems,
which is principally intended for the use
which are an essential feature in this of commercialservices. surveillance systems, checks on plans
field. submitted by architects and contractors,
5. Airfield – part of the airport which
This engineering field focuses on the oversees construction, and handles real
includes the area for landing and take-off
improvement of transportation systems estate and zoning problems.
of aircrafts
with regards to the bodies of water while • Airport engineers analyze survey
6. Landing Area – used for landing
still on the reclamation and conservancy and take-off of the aircraft. reports, maps, blueprints and other data.
of land. 7. Runway – a properly prepared and They collect and test soil samples to
built strip of high-quality road used for
•Airport Engineering determine the strength of soil used for a
landing and take-off of planes.
Airport is a facility where passengers foundation, and they use mathematical
8. Terminal Area –provides space for
connect from ground transportation to air models to compute various requirements,
airline operations, office for airport
transportation. The world first airport including load, stress factors and other
management and provides facilities like
was built in 1928 at Croydon near
London (England). It was the main rest room, restaurant. etc. for passengers. structural requirements. Engineers
airport for London till it was closed review government standards and ensure
down in 1959, after World War II. It is 9. Apron – paved area in front of that construction is compliant with
now open as a visitor centre for aviation. terminal building (between landing area building codes, city ordinances and other
and terminal building) for parking of the
Airport Engineering involves the design government regulations.
aircraft
and construction of facilities for the ➔ Pipeline Engineering
● What does Airport Engineer do?
landing, take off, movement of aircraft According to Petropedia, a Pipeline
on the ground, parking of aeroplanes on • Airport engineers design and construct
Engineer works on the systems that are
loading aprons, maintenance and repairs airports. They must account for the
used to transport gas and oil products.
impacts and demands of aircraft in their
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They are the individuals who are chemical engineering. fuels used for construction equipment.

responsible for the development of •What is a Pipeline? b) Increased noise pollution as a result of

pipeline routes, determining technical Pipelines are pipes, usually underground, construction and pumping stations.

specifications like the pipe size and that transport and distribute fluids. When c) Soil erosion and contamination from

placement. They play a very significant discussing pipelines in an energy context, construction and any leaks.

role in planning the location of depots, the fluids are usually either oil products d) Loss of plant life as a result of
or natural gas. If hydrogen fuel gets
stations for maintenance, and other construction, surface disturbances, and
extensively developed, pipelines will be
installations of accessories that help in needed to transport this secondary fuel. changes in water flows.

the project. In addition to that, they are Outside of an energy context, pipelines e) Water resource disturbances in terms
of quantity and quality as a result of
also responsible for taking care transport other fluids like water. These erosion, herbicides, and leaks.
of environmental issues and regulatory lines vary in diameter depending on their
limitations that affect the pipelines. use, and are generally located
When the installation of pipelines underground. There are two major types

commences, a Pipeline Engineer of pipelines, liquids pipelines and natural

participates in the quality control gas pipelines. Liquid pipelines transport

process. The engineer is responsible for crude oil or natural gas in liquid form to
refineries where they undergo distillation
every single operation from the
beginning till the end of oil supply. A and other production processes. Natural
Pipeline Engineer carries out the gas pipelines are used solely for the
inspection of installations, perform tests
and also checks the components that are transport of natural gas to processing
against the given plans and specifications.
The engineer is required to develop plants and are used for distribution.
creative solutions immediately whenever ● Environmental Concerns
a problem arises during the development
process even when under pressure to Although they are a necessary part of the
avoid costly delays. Pipeline engineers
use and transportation of assorted
are responsible for the design,
petroleum products, there are
construction, operation, quality control,
environmental concerns with the
and maintenance of pipelines and p
construction and operation of pipelines
ipeline transportation systems. Pipeline
that vary depending on how and where
engineers can have a variety of
the pipelines are being built. Some of the
engineering-related backgrounds,
including civil engineering, concerns include:
mechanical engineering, a) Reduction of air quality as a result of
structural engineering, materials dust production during construction and
engineering and
emissions due to the combustion of fossil
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