2nd International Conference on IoT Based Control Networks and Intelligent Systems

(ICICNIS 2021)

Performance Analysis of Lithium-Ion Battery Based on State of

Charge and State of Health for EV Applications
Mohan Thakre1, Jayesh Bhartiy2, Sunil Gawde3, Om Pagar4, Mangesh Darekar5 Bhupendra
Deshmukh6
1-6
K. K. Wagh Institute of Engineering and Research Nashik, India
1
[email protected], [email protected],[email protected], [email protected],
5
[email protected], [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The focus of this article is to make a comparison between temperature-regulated and uncontrolled charging methodologies in an attempt to decide
which of these is appropriate for enhancing battery performance while significantly reducing charging time. Temperature-controlled pulse charging
(TRPC) and constant current (CC) charging techniques have been evaluated. The temperature of the battery increases in proportion to the magnitude of
the current injected during CC charging and cannot be governed without external cooling. The performance measures are the effect on the State of
Health (SOH) as well as the expected lifespan of the battery. The computation employs 12.8 V, 40 Ah Lithium-Ion (LiFePO4) batteries to demonstrate
that increasing the temperature relation of control leads to greater charge submission at the same charging rate.

Keywords: SOC, SOH, Li-ion Battery, TRPC, CC, CC-CV, CV

Nomenclature-

Abbreviation Definition
CC Constant current
CV Constant voltage
CC-CV Constant current constant voltage
SOC State of charge
SOH State of health
PC Pulse charging
EV Electric Vehicle
LIB Lithium-ion battery

1. Introduction

Many electronic devices rely solely on battery packs for power. They are used in a wide range of applications, including automobiles, laptop computers,
CD players, and other electronic appliances. Rechargeable batteries are becoming more popular as a power source for electric vehicle applications.
There are several types of batteries used, including lithium-ion (Li-ion), lead-acid, nickel-cadmium (NiCd), and nickel-metal hydride (NiMH). Lithium-
ion batteries, on the other hand, are preferred due to their high energy density, environmental friendliness, and long life span [1]. Furthermore, lithium-
ion batteries have some economic advantages, such as being small and light, simple, having a wide operating temperature, being adaptable to fast
charging, having a long battery life, a low self-discharge rate, and emitting little hydrogen gas [2]. Battery health indicators, such as State of Charge
(SOC), State of Health (SOH), State of Function (SOF), as well as many others, were done by researchers to indicate the status of battery health [3].
SOC is a measure that reflects the state of the electric charge within the battery, whereas SOH is a measure that reflects the health of the battery [2].
The most commonly accepted definition of a battery's SOH is the ratio of its current fully charged/discharged capacity to its initial capacity; as a result,
capacity is now the most accurate measure for estimating SOH [4]. When the battery is first used, it has the power to fully discharge its energy, and its
SOH is expected to be 100 percent. The available charge stored inside a fully charged battery is expected to decrease with usage due to contamination,
resulting in a significant decrease in SOH. When SOH falls below a certain level, it is assumed to be insufficient to meet usage requirements, and the
battery is labeled as faulty [5].
Longer charging times are a major concern in the electric vehicle transition. This issue can be solved by employing the battery swapping concept or
charging the batteries quickly to reduce charge time. Battery change comes at a high expense in terms of infrastructure. As a result, the emphasis is on
pricing methods to reduce wait times. Batteries are charged faster by inserting current at a greater rate than the rest charging. Constant current (CC),
constant voltage (CV), constant current constant voltage (CCCV), pulse charging, as well as multiple stage CCCV are some charging strategies [6].
Because of the high-temperature rise, the strategies mentioned above are not used for the fast charging of lithium-ion batteries. Some intelligent
methods are used to reduce battery charging time and improve battery performance. These methods are as follows: [7] ant colony [8] fuzzy [9] neural
fuzzy [10] trial-and-error method [11] Taguchi method [12] However, these methods necessitate a large amount of computational power, which raises
the cost of the battery management system.

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Temperature is not taken into account when charging the battery in any of the above-mentioned charging strategies. The temperature of the battery rises
all through fast charging; if this temperature is not regulated, it will harm the battery's health over time [13]. A Matlab Simulink model has been
proposed in this paper for fast charging of a lithium-ion battery. To charge the lithium-ion battery in this model, the temperature-regulated pulse
charging (TRPC) strategy is used. TRPC and CC results are compared. In section 2, the battery cell structure and equivalent circuit of the battery are
discussed; in sections 3 and 4, the performance analysis of a battery and different charging strategies are discussed; in section 5, the working algorithm
of simulations is explained; and then in section 6, the results are reported.

2. Battery cell structure

The internal structure of the cylindrical Li-ion cell is shown in Fig. 1, is made up of multiple electrodes, dividers, as well as current collectors. The pore
materials in the positive and negative electrodes allow lithium ions to be intercalated or de-intercalated. Graphite is popularly used as the active
material in negative electrodes. The active substance for the positive electrode consists of one or more metal oxides. The chemical reactions that exist in
such membranes could be simplified by a LixC6/LiyXO2 battery, where X is the metal part and x and y is the number of Li atoms from each reaction.

⇔ (1)

⇔ (2)

Fig. 1 Lithium-ion cell internal structure

2.1 Equivalent Circuit

Equivalent circuit models play an important role besides studying the changes in battery performance throughout varied charging / discharging cycles.
The far more popular equivalent circuits have been evaluated in [14], and the Dual Polarization model has become an enhanced Thevenin's model that
represents an additional RC branch as shown in Fig. 2. Equivalent capacitances, including electrochemical polarization capacitances, have been used to
characterize the transient response during the cycles. The electrical behavior discovered in [15] seems to be as follows.

il
Cpa Cpc

R0

DC Uoc Rpa Rpc

Upa Upc

Fig. 2 Dual polarization model

From the above Fig. following equations can be derived
U pa  U pa / R pa * C pa  iL / C pa (3)

U pc  U pc / Rpc * C pc  iL / C pc (4)

U L  Uoc  U pa  U pc  iL Ro (5)
Where Upa and Upc are voltages across Cpa and Cpc. Cpa and Cpc are polarized capacitances. Rpa and Rpc are the resistances in the RC branch. R0 is the
internal resistance of the battery, iL is loaded current and UL is load voltage.

3. Performance analysis of battery

The performance of the battery is mainly depending on the following factors:

3.1 State of Charge

The SOC is calculated as the ratio of the available capacity Q (t) to the maximum possible charge that a battery can store, i.e. the nominal capacity Qn.

Q(t ) (6)
SOC(t)=
Qn
At which SOC represents the battery's state of charge. The rated capacity, also known as a capability at the beginning of life (BOL), has been popularly
used as a reference value. SOC is an essential factor for contributing to the success of an electrical vehicle and ensuring power responses in the context
of the relevant operational conditions. Temperature and C-rate are 2 variables that have a serious influence on SOC inside a short time. The SOC level
is determined by the properties of the active electrode materials, and each active material acts differently. The depth of discharge (DOD) is indeed a

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term that describes how profoundly a battery has been discharged. Most of the time, it is associated with SOC. In real-world commercial vehicles, it is
extremely difficult to accurately determine the lithium content of an electrode; conversely, the SOC must be approximated based on real-time voltage,
current, as well as temperature assessments.

3.2 State of health

Battery SOH estimation method

Experimental method Model based method

Machine learning
Measurement method
Method 1) Adaptive
1) Impedance filtering(KF,EKF
2)Internal 1) Fuzzy logic ,UKF,RLS..)
resistance 2)Neutral network 2)Electro
3)Capacity level 3)Support vector Chemical model
4)ICA/DVA regression 3)Other methods
5)Other methods 4)Other methods

Fig. 3 Battery SOH estimation method [16]

SOH is not just a physical quantity, but it is significantly impacted by factors such as the number of charge-discharge cycles, capacity as well as power
fade, and resistance value. Different methods of SOH estimations are shown in Fig. 3. The aging process is determined by the vehicle's utilization, the
battery as well as cell design. Temperature, SOC range, electric energy conditions, and time are all critical parameters. When a battery's capability has
declined by more than 20% from its initial capacity, it has reached the end of its life. Premised on such circumstances, and similarly to SOC, designers
can describe a battery's state of charge as follows:
1
t (8)
2 N  E (0) 0
SOH (t )  SOH (0)  Pi(t )dt

SOH (0) =1 denotes an initial SOH and N refers to the total number of cycles before the end of life. Throughout the denominator, factor 2 makes up for
both charging and discharging. A pack's life is terminated when SOH=0. In specific, N is not constant but is affected by battery operational conditions
including DOD and C rate, among many others.

3.3 Lithium-ion battery health status factors

The primary causes of battery aging and capacity loss have been assumed to have been lithium-ion deposition, solid electrolyte interface (SEI)
membrane thickening, as well as active substance loss. Lithium-ion battery mistreatment enhances the battery aging process; normal battery charging
does influence battery health as well as accelerates battery aging as well.

i. The effect of temperature on battery SOH

Fig. 4 Capacity degradation at different temperature

The temperature has a double impact on battery performance. On the one hand, high temperatures would speed up the chemical reaction within the
battery, improving the battery's efficiency and performance; on the other hand, high temperatures will speed up certain irreversible chemical reactions,
resulting in the battery's degradation. This can be observed in Fig.4. High temperatures cause the SEI membrane of a battery electrode to grow faster,
making it more difficult for lithium-ion to penetrate the membrane and increasing intra-battery resistance.

ii. Charge and discharge current magnifying effect on battery SOH

Fig. 5 Effect of discharging current on battery capacity

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 Fig. 6 Effect of charging current on battery capacity

High-multiplier discharge produces more heat inside the battery, accelerating battery aging. It was discovered that the layer SEI membrane of a high-
rate battery discharge electrode seems to be bigger than that of the surface SEI membrane of a low-rate discharge electrode which can be seen in Fig. 5,
similarly, it can be seen in Fig. 6 that battery life degrades more rapidly when charge with 2C rate as compared to 1C.

iii. The impact of discharge depth on battery SOH

Battery charge and discharge depth have an impact on battery health and aging. Cycling at reduced DOD improves the cycle life of the battery,
decreases its capacity fade. Fig. 7 shows that at 80% DOD, capacity fading is less as compared to 90 and 100% DOD.

Fig. 7 Depth of Discharge on battery

iv. Charge and discharge cut-off voltage on the battery SOH effect

Overcharging and over-release of batteries have an impact on battery health, and inappropriate voltage limits and low voltage limits have an impact on
the battery. The lower the discharge cut-off voltage, the greater the internal resistance of the battery, causing the battery internal heat, while causing an
increase in side reactions, battery active substances reduced and negative graphite sheet layer collapse, battery aging, and capacity decay. Excessive
charging cut-off voltage causes the battery to increase the internal heat, overcharging causes the negative pole to produce lithium phenomenon, and the
corresponding by-effects increase, affecting the capacity and aging of the battery.

4. Various charging strategies for battery

4.1 Constant Voltage Method:

It is an older method of charging that is still being used. Fig. 8 represents a constant voltage approach. The battery is charged using this procedure by
keeping a voltage constant from across terminals of the battery throughout the charging process as part of a variable resistor connected in series with the
battery. Whenever the battery is discharged [17], this same beginning charging current is quite high, with a very low back emf, and it decreases rapidly
as the battery picks uncharged, leading to an increased back emf. The said technique is much more widely used only for lead-acid batteries, but can also
be used for lithium-ion batteries with additional circuitry to protect the battery.

4.2 Constant Current Method:

Fig. 9 represents the constant current approach to battery charging. A current flow is kept constant across the charging process with the help of a
variable resistor connected in series with the battery or by attempting to control the source voltage in that same technique of charging. When compared
to the constant voltage technique, the constant current method takes a bit longer. Even so, if the current is supplied above the C-rating of the battery, the
temperature of a battery rises, which would be undesirable in this technique. As a result, this technique is not recommended for fast battery charging
[18]. To reduce charging time, two or more constant current rates could be used,

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 Constant
current

Charge current
Charge voltage
Cell voltage

Charge
current

Charge time Charge time

Fig. 8 Constant voltage method Fig. 9 Constant current method

4.3 Constant Current constant voltage method:

This has been the most commonly used type of charge in Lithium-ion battery chargers [19]. It is primarily divided into the following stages: (a) Trickle
charge (b) Constant current charge (c) Constant voltage charge (d) Charge termination Fig. 10 depicts a constant current, constant voltage strategy.
i. Trickle charge:
Whenever the charge level of such a battery is very low, it is charged at a decreased constant current rate which is generally about 0.1 of the full rate.
Throughout this time, a battery's voltage rises, but then when it reaches a certain threshold, the rate rises to the full charged rate.
ii. Constant current charge:
When the battery voltage rises above the trickle charge threshold, then the constant current rate stage is started. The constant current should be in the
range of 0.5C to 1C at this stage [20].
iii. Constant voltage charge:
When the battery voltage has reached its maximum charge voltage, a constant voltage charge step has been activated. A charging voltage stays
unchanged at such a point. It is important for Lithium-ion batteries as they fail catastrophically if they allow charging at a higher voltage than their
maximum voltage. To optimize its performance the tolerance for voltage regulation should be better than ±1 percentage.
iv. Charge termination:
Whenever the charging current falls below a certain level, the charger has been separated from the battery. Usually at 0.1 or 0.05 of the current full-rate
charges. For lithium-ion batteries, the lowest possible charge current or timer technique is being used to terminate the charge. The lowest possible
charge current method monitors the charge current during the CV stage and shuts down when it falls between 0.02C and 0.07C. The Timer method
controls whenever the constant voltage method begins. Charging continues for 2 hours before being terminated.

Termination
Trickle Constant charge
Constant
Cell voltage/ Charge current

charge voltage
current

Current

Voltage

Charge time

Fig. 10 Constant current constant voltage method

4.4 Temperature Regulated Pulse Charging:

This method is modifications in the pulse charging method. This method has been developed as one of the rapid charging methods for Lithium-ion
batteries [21]. A pulse used in, Temperature Regulated Pulse charging strategy is shown in Fig. 11. In this technique, a current pulse of particular pulse
width is applied continuously. The width of the pulse can be changed by changing the duty cycle. For fast charging, it is necessary to increase the C-
rate which causes overheating and overcharging of the battery. To overcome this problem a temperature-regulated pulse charging strategy is used. In
this method, two temperature limits are set, upper (Tmax) and lower limit (Tmin). To achieve the temperature limit information, battery temperature is
required and can be obtained by the datasheet of the battery. Charging starts at ambient temperature, as time passes, battery temperature rises and when
it touches the set upper limit (Tmax), the battery supply got disconnected and battery temperature start reducing to its lower limit (Tmin). When battery
temperature reaches its lower limit (Tmin) then voltage source got connected to the battery and battery temperature start increasing and this cycle repeats
until the battery is charged.

Ton Toff
Charge current

Charge time

Fig. 11 Temperature regulated pulse charging

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 5. Proposed work:

In this paper two simulation models are developed i) fast charging of Li-ion battery using TRPC method. ii) Model for studying the aging effect Li-ion
battery for different charging strategies. The working of these two models is explained below. The battery used in these simulations is LiFeMgPO4,
which has a capacity of 40 Ah and a rated output voltage is 12.8V.

5.1 Fast charging of Li-ion battery using TRPC method.

Fig. 12 depicts the TRPC technique's procedure. Fig. 13 depicts a block diagram of the temperature-regulated pulse charging control strategy. The
switching circuit receives two inputs: battery temperature (Tbat) and percentage of SOC. Battery charging has been divided into two modes for a
temperature-regulated pulse charging strategy. In the first mode, Tbat has existed between maximum and minimum temperatures (Tmax and Tmin).
Throughout that mode, a constant current is applied to the battery. In the second mode, if Tbat ≥ Tmax, the current is set to zero until Tbat falls below Tmin.
The procedure was repeated for each cycle. These cycles are repeated until the battery is charged to 95% capacity. Temperature-regulated pulse
charging for Li-ion cells was proposed in this study to reduce recharge time.
The comparative analysis has been implemented to identify a suitable charging strategy besides fast charging of EVs. Fig. 15 depicts the operational
waveform of the temperature-regulated pulse charging strategy. Whenever a current significantly higher than the normal charging current (xC/10) has
been injected into the battery (x > 1), the temperature goes up from ambient (Tamb) to steady-state temperature (TSS). If a large level of 'x' is injected into
the battery, the battery temperature (Tbat) rises above the upper allowed and it may even cause thermal runaway.
To sustain temperature regulation, two operating temperatures were set: maximum (Tmax) and minimum (Tmin), and also an adjusted temperature band
T = 8°C. So if Tbat exceeds the final limit Tmax, the MOSFET turns off and Tbat starts to decline to the lowest possible set limit. When Tbat = Tmin then the
MOSFET turns on, the current is supplied to the battery, and the cycle is repeated until the batteries are fully charged to 95% SOC. For this charging,
three control operation levels are set: Tmax, Tmin,, and maximum SOC.

Start
Switching
Set Tmax, Initial SOC% ,Final circuit
SOC% & Tmin

Turn on the dc supply

Icharging
Battery

DC Supply
Measure battery
Temperature (Tbat)

If No
Tbat=T
max

Yes Battery
DC supply disonnected

Measure battery
Temperature(Tbat)
Temperature
If No & SOC
Tbat=T measurement
min

Yes
Turn on the dc supply
Comparator &
Measure SOC% Pulse
generator

No If
SOC=SOC
max

Yes
Stop

Fig. 12 TRPC method Flowchart Fig. 13 Functional block diagram of TRPC

5.2 Model for studying the aging effect of Li-ion battery.

In this model, the li-ion battery is charged and discharged for a large number of cycles. During this aging process, the maximum capacity of the battery
is monitored. The flow chart of this model is shown in Fig. 14. Initially, SOCmax, SOCmin and SOCint, and Tamb are set. According to the logic of the flow
chart if a battery SOC is less than SOCmin then the battery is charged and then batteries SOC has monitored if Batteries SOC is greater than or equal to
SOCmax then the battery is discharged. Again batteries SOC is monitored and if the batteries’ SOC is less than or equal to SOCmin then again the battery
is charged.

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 Start

Set initial SOCbat%, SOCmin%, SOCmax%,&

Tamb

Monitor SOCbat%

If No
socbat<=s
ocmin

Yes

Battery charging start

Monitor SOCbat%

If No
Socbat>=s
ocmax

Yes
Battery start discharging

Stop
Fig. 14 Aging of battery flowchart

This process repeated many times. This causes the aging of the battery and as the battery is aged its maximum capacity decreases, the result of this
capacity fade is discussed in the next section. Here we have taken two cases in the first case CC strategy is used for charging and the battery is
discharged at 1C. In the second case, the TRPC strategy is used for charging and the battery is discharged at 1C. The result of these two cases is
discussed in the next section.

6. Simulation result and discussion

The result for the above two simulation models is discussed below.
i) In the TRPC charging simulation model the Tmax and Tmin are 27°C and 35°C, corresponding to that switching pulse shown in Fig. 15 .which is given
to the MOSFET. The charging current pulse is shown in Fig. 16. The variation in cell temperature is shown in Fig. 17

Fig. 15 Switching pulse of MOSFET Fig. 16 Current vs time graph

If the lithium-ion battery is charged using the CC method in which the charging current rate is 2C and the same battery is charged at 2C rate using the
TRPC method then the battery charge faster in the CC method as compare to the TRPC method. But it is practically not possible to use the CC method
at a 2C rate because the battery temperature rises critically. This can damage the battery. Where, as in TRPC method temperature lies in the band of
27°C and 35°C. This comes under the operating range of a Lithium-ion battery.

Fig. 17 Temperature vs time graph

ii) In the aging model charging current for the TRPC method is 2C and the same charging current is given in the CC method. The output of the aging
model is shown in Fig. 18. From Fig. 18 it is clear that the maximum capacity of the battery decreases rapidly in the CC method because the
temperature is not regulated in this method.

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 Fig. 18 Battery capacities fade

7. Conclusion

The current work includes the development of 2 Matlab/Simulink designs: one for temperature-regulated pulse charging of a lithium-ion battery and
another one for determining the aging effect of a lithium-ion battery. The second simulation model reveals that when the battery is fast charged using
the constant current strategy, the maximum capacity of the battery fades rapidly in comparison to when the battery has been fast charged using the
(TRPC) method. This is because the temp of a battery is not controlled inside the CC technique. In the case of TRPC, the temperature is regulated, so
the battery capacity does not fade as quickly. Furthermore, for the same temperature variation, this same TRPC method is faster than the CC method.
As a result, the CC strategy cannot be used for fast charging in EVs. While the TRPC method can be used for EV fast charging. By implementing this
strategy, the charging time of the battery can be reduced while maintaining battery health.

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