Soran university Prepared by:

Ibrahim hasan
Faculty of education
Mathematic department
Topology Abdulla salim
Idres Muhammad
Supervision:
M.wrya

Definition Theorem
Theorem. Let (𝑋, 𝜏) be a 𝑇-space and let 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑋. Then
Definition. Let (𝑋, 𝜏) be a 𝑇-space, 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑋, and 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋. We say that 𝑥 is a limit Theorem 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′.
Proof. We’ll show that 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′ ⊆ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) and 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′.
point of 𝐴 if every neighborhood of 𝑥 intersects 𝐴 in a point other than 𝑥. ● First we’ll show that 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′ ⊆ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴). We know that 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴).
𝑥 is a 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐭 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐴 ⟺ ∀ nbd 𝑉 of 𝑥, 𝑉 ∩ (𝐴 ∖ {𝑥}) ≠ ∅, Theorem. Let (𝑋, 𝜏) be a 𝑇-space, 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑋, and let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋. Then Now let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴′
or 𝑥 ∈ 𝜕𝐴 if and only if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴′ ⇒ ∀ nbd 𝑉 of 𝑥, 𝑉 ∩ (𝐴 ∖ {𝑥}) ≠ ∅
𝑥 is a 𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐢𝐭 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐴 ⟺ ∀ nbd 𝑉 of 𝑥, (𝑉 ∖ {𝑥}) ∩ 𝐴 ≠ ∅, every neighborhood of 𝑥 intersects both 𝐴 and 𝑋 ∖ 𝐴 = 𝐴′. ⇒ ∀ nbd 𝑉 of 𝑥, 𝑉 ∩ 𝐴 ≠ ∅
𝑥 ∈ 𝜕𝐴 ⟺ ∀ nbd 𝑉 of 𝑥, 𝑉 ∩ 𝐴 ≠ ∅ ∧ 𝑉 ∩ 𝐴′ ≠ ∅. ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴)
The set of all limit points of 𝐴 is denoted by 𝐴′. Proof. ⇒ 𝐴′ ⊆ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴).
𝑥 ∈ 𝜕𝐴 ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) ∩ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴′) ∴ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′ ⊆ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴).
Definition. In a 𝑇-space (𝑋, 𝜏), a sequence (𝑥ₙ) = (𝑥₁,x₂,…) converges to 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 ⟺ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) ∧ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴′) ● Now we’ll show that 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′.
if for every neighborhood 𝑉 of 𝑥, there is a positive integer 𝑁 such that 𝑥ₙ ∈ 𝑉 ⟺ (∀ nbd 𝑉 of 𝑥, 𝑉 ∩ 𝐴 ≠ ∅) ∧ (∀ nbd 𝑉 of 𝑥, 𝑉 ∩ 𝐴′ ≠ ∅) Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) but 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴.
⟺ ∀ nbd 𝑉 of 𝑥, 𝑉 ∩ 𝐴 ≠ ∅ ∧ 𝑉 ∩ 𝐴′≠ ∅. 𝑥 ∈ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) ⇒ ∀ nbd 𝑉 of 𝑥, 𝑉 ∩ 𝐴 ≠ ∅
for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁.
⇒∀ nbd 𝑉 of 𝑥, 𝑉 ∩ (𝐴 ∖ {𝑥}) ≠ ∅
In this case we say that 𝑥 is a limit of the sequence (𝑥ₙ) = (𝑥₁,x₂,…) and we Theorem. Consider (ℝⁿ, 𝜏usual͘). Let 𝐴 ⊆ ℝⁿ , and 𝑥 ∈ ℝⁿ. If 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴′
write lim 𝑥ₙ= 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴’, then there is a sequence of points in 𝐴 that converges to ∴ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′.
𝑥 Therefore
𝑐𝑙(𝐴) = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′.
Definition. Let 𝐴 be a subset of a 𝑇-space (𝑋, 𝜏). The boundary of 𝐴, denoted Corollary. 𝐴’⊆ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴).
𝜕𝐴, is the set Corollary. 𝐴 is closed if and only if 𝐴′ ⊆ 𝐴.
𝜕𝐴 = 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) ∖ 𝑖𝑛𝑡(𝐴) = 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) ∩ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴𝑐 ). Theorem. Let 𝐴 be a subset of a 𝑇-space (𝑋, 𝜏). Then Proof. 𝐴 is closed ⟺𝐴 = 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) ⟺𝐴 = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴’⟺𝐴’ ⊆ 𝐴.
Any 𝑥 ∈ 𝜕𝐴 is called a boundary point of 𝐴. (i). 𝜕𝐴 = 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) ∩ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴վ).
(ii). 𝜕𝐴 = 𝜕(𝐴վ). Theorem. Let (𝑋, 𝜏) be a Hausdorff 𝑇-space. Then for any convergent sequence (𝑥ₙ) in 𝑋, limit
(iii). 𝜕𝐴 is closed. of (𝑥ₙ) is unique.
(iv). 𝜕𝐴 ∩ 𝑖𝑛𝑡(𝐴) = ∅. Proof. Let (𝑋, 𝜏) be a Hausdorff space.
(v). 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) = 𝑖𝑛𝑡(𝐴) ∪ 𝜕𝐴. By contradiction suppose that
(vi). 𝜕𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴 if and only if 𝐴 is closed. ∃ convergent (𝑥ₙ) in 𝑋, lim 𝑥ₙ is not unique.
(vii). 𝜕𝐴 ∩ 𝐴 = ∅ if and only if 𝐴 is open. Thus
(viii). 𝜕𝐴 = ∅ if and only if 𝐴 is clopen. ∃ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 = lim xₙ ∧ 𝑦 = lim 𝑥n ∧ 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦.
Since 𝑋 is Hausdorff,
∃ nbd 𝑉ₓ of 𝑥,∃ nbd 𝑉ᵤ of 𝑦, 𝑉x ∩ 𝑉u=∅.
Now by definition of convergent sequences
Example Lim 𝑥ₙ= 𝑥 ⟹ ∃ 𝑁 ∈ ℤ+, and Lim 𝑥ₙ = 𝑦 ⟹ ∃ 𝑀 ∈ ℤ+
Thus for 𝑚 = max{𝑁, 𝑀} we have 𝑥ₘ∈ vₓ∩vᵤ=∅, which contradicts vₓ∩vᵤ=∅
Therefore for any convergent sequence (𝑥ₙ) in 𝑋, limit of (𝑥ₙ) is unique.

Example . Consider the sequence 𝑥ₙ =(-1)ⁿ/n , in (ℝ, 𝜏st), show that xₙ→0.
Solution. Let 𝑉 = (𝑎, 𝑏) be any basis neighborhood of 0, then 𝑎 < 0 < 𝑏.
Example
Let 𝑑 = min{|𝑎|, |𝑏|} > 0. Then 𝑎 = −|𝑎| ≤ −𝑑 < 0 < 𝑑 ≤ |𝑏| = 𝑏.
We know that (?) there is some 𝑁 ∈ ℤ+ such that ¹/ₙ<d Example Consider 𝐴 = {¹/ₙ ∈ ℝ | 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+} as a subset of ℝ with the standard topology. Show that 𝐴′= {0}.
Thus for every integer 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁 we have Solution. Let 𝑥 ∈ ℝ. There are three cases for 𝑥:
𝑎 ≤ −𝑑 < −¹/ₙ<¹/ₙ< 𝑑 ≤ 𝑏, Case 1. Suppose that 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
so Then 𝑥 = 1/𝑛 for some 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+.
∀𝑛 ≥ 𝑁, 𝑎 <(-1)ⁿ/n <b Let 𝑑 =½(¹/ₙ - ¹/n+1) >0
i.e. Consider the open interval 𝑉 =(¹/ₙ -d, ¹/ₙ +d)
∀𝑛 ≥ 𝑁, xₙ =(-1)ⁿ/n ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑉 . Then 𝑉 is a basis element and so is open in the standard topology.
Therefore by definition 𝑥ₙ converges to 0. Thus 𝑥 =¹/ₙ ∈ 𝑉 ∈ 𝜏, but 𝑉 ∩ (𝐴 ∖ {𝑥}) = ∅.
Therefore 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴′.
Example . Consider the sequence 𝑥ₙ =(-1)ⁿ/n , in (ℝ, 𝜏st), show that xₙ does not converge at all.
Solution.[0,1) is a neighborhood of 0, and the sequence 𝑥ₙ Example. Consider 𝐴 = (0,1] as a subset of ℝ with the standard topology. Find 𝐴′.
enters this neighborhood but never stays in it because 𝑥ₙ has infinite many Solution. In the usual topology the closed interval [0,1] is closed and we see that it is the smallest closed set containing 𝐴 (?).
negative terms. In fact, in the lower limit topology on ℝ, this sequence does not converge at all. Thus 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) = [0,1]. So 𝐴′ ⊆ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) = [0,1].
Also we see that for any 𝑥 ∈ 𝑐𝑙(𝐴), and any basis element (𝑎, 𝑏),
Example . Consider the sequence 𝑥ₙ= 𝑛 in (ℝ, 𝜏cf). Determine the convergence of (𝑥ₙ). 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) ⟹ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∩ (𝐴 ∖ {𝑥}) ≠ ∅,
Solution. Let 𝑥 ∈ ℝ be any real number. We’ll show that 𝑥ₙ converges to 𝑥 (!). so 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴’. Thus 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) ⊆ ’.
Let 𝑉 ∈ 𝜏cf be any neighborhood of 𝑥. Therefore 𝐴′ = 𝑐𝑙(𝐴) = [0,1].
Then 𝑥 ∈ 𝑉 ≠ ∅, and 𝑉 is cofinite.
So 𝑉’ is finite. Example. Consider ℚ as a subset of ℝ with the standard topology. Find ℚ′
Thus {𝑥ₙ } ∩ 𝑉’ = {1,2, … } ∩ 𝑉, is finite,Now we have two cases: Solution. Let 𝑥 ∈ ℝ be any real number.
Case 1. Suppose that {1,2, … } ∩ 𝑉’= ∅, then {1,2,… } ⊆ 𝑉 , i.e. 𝑥ₙ= 𝑛 ∈ 𝑉 for every Let 𝑉 = (𝑎, 𝑏) be any basis element such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝑉 .
integer 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁 = 1. We know that between any distinct real numbers 𝑎, 𝑏 there are infinitely many rational numbers (?).
Case 2. Suppose that {1,2, … } ∩ 𝑉’ ≠ ∅. As {1,2,… } ∩ 𝑉’ Thus 𝑉 ∩ (ℚ ∖ {𝑥}) ≠ ∅, so 𝑥 ∈ ℚ′.
is finite and nonempty we can consider 𝑚 = max({1,2,… } ∩ 𝑉’). Hence ℝ ⊆ ℚ’. Also ℚ′⊆ ℝ.
Let 𝑁 = 𝑚 + 1 > 𝑚. Therefore ℚ′ = ℝ.
Then for every integer 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁, we have 𝑛 ≥ 𝑚 + 1 > 𝑚 = max({1,2,… } ∩ 𝑉’), so
𝑥ₙ = 𝑛 ∉ {1,2,… } ∩ 𝑉’,so 𝑥ₙ ∈ 𝑉 . Example.The infinite comb.
Thus in any case there is an integer 𝑁 such that 𝑛 ≥ 𝑁 implies 𝑥ₙ∈ 𝑉 . Solution. If we regard 𝐶 as a subset of ℝ² in the standard topology, every point of 𝐶 is a limit point of 𝐶, as are the points in the vertical line
Therefore 𝑥ₙ converges to 𝑥. segment 𝑌 = {(0, 𝑦) | 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1} because as showed below, every nbd of each point (0, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑌 intersects some vertical segments in 𝐶.
Besides the points in 𝐶 ∪ 𝑌 , there are no other limit points of 𝐶, so 𝑐𝑙(𝐶) = 𝐶 ∪ 𝑌 .
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