As Book 1 Final W Ms

1
CONTENTS
1 ATOMS, MOLECULES & STOICHIOMETRY 5

MOLES & STOICHIOMETRY WS 1 15
MOLES & STOICHIOMETRY WS 2 21
2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE + MASS SPECTROMETRY 37

ATOMIC STRUCTURE WS 1 65
ATOMIC STRUCTURE WS 2 78
3 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION 99
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION WS 1 109
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION WS 2 120
4 CHEMICAL BONDING 131

SHAPES OF MOLECULES WS 1 161
COVALENT BONDING WS 1 169
COVALENT BONDING WS 2 176
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES WS 1 177
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES WS 2 187
OVERALL BONDING WS 1 194
OVERALL BONDING WS 2 210
5 ENERGETICS 220
ENERGETICS WS 1 225
DATA BOOKLET 237
PARSA ASIF
3
HOMEWORK
DATE PARTICULARS
PARSA ASIF
4
DATE PARTICULARS
PARSA ASIF
5
Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry
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PARSA ASIF ATOMS, MOLECULES & STOICHIOMETRY

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15
MOLES & STOICHIOMETRY WS 1

1 Nickel makes up 20 % of the total mass of a coin. The coin has a mass of 10.0 g.
How many nickel atoms are in the coin?
A 2.05 × 1022 B 4.30 × 1022 C 1.03 × 1023 D 1.20 × 1024

2 On collision, airbags in cars inflate rapidly due to the production of nitrogen.
The nitrogen is formed according to the following equations.
2NaN3 → 2Na + 3N2
10Na + 2KNO3 → K2O + 5Na2O + N2
How many moles of nitrogen gas are produced from 1 mol of sodium azide, NaN3?
A 1.5 B 1.6 C 3.2 D 4.0

3
3 What is the number of molecules in 500 cm of oxygen under room conditions?
22
A 1.25 x 10
22
B 1.34 x 10
22
C 3.0 x 10
26
D 3.0 x 10
–21
4 Analytical chemists can detect very small amounts of amino acids, down to 3 10 mol.
How many molecules of an amino acid (Mr = 200) would this be?
A 9 B 200 C 1800 D 360 000

5 Which of these samples of gas contains the same number of atoms as 1g of hydrogen (Mr :
H2, 2)?
A 22 g of carbon dioxide (Mr : CO2, 44)
B 8 g of methane (Mr : CH4, 16)
C 20 g of neon (Mr : Ne, 20)
D 8 g of ozone (Mr : O3, 48)
6 Which mass of gas would occupy a volume of 3 dm 3 at 25 °C and 1 atmosphere pressure?

[1 mol of gas occupies 24 dm3 at 25 °C and 1 atmosphere pressure.]
A 3.2 g O2 gas
B 5.6 g N2 gas
C 8.0 g SO2 gas
D 11.0 g CO2 gas
CEDARCOLLEGE MOLES & STOICHIOMETRY WS1

16
7 Most modern cars are fitted with airbags. These work by decomposing sodium azide to liberate
nitrogen gas, which inflates the bag.
2NaN3 → 3N2 + 2Na
A typical driver’s airbag contains 50 g of sodium azide.
Calculate the volume of nitrogen this will produce at room temperature.
A 9.2 dm3 B 13.9 dm3 C 27.7 dm3 D 72.0 dm3

8 N2O4 is a poisonous gas. It can be disposed of safely by reaction with sodium hydroxide.
N2O4(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + NaNO2(aq) + H2O(l)
What is the minimum volume of 0.5 mol dm–3 NaOH(aq) needed to dispose of 0.02 mol of N2O4?
A 8 cm3 B 12.5 cm3 C 40 cm3 D 80 cm3

9 A household bleach contains sodium chlorate(I), NaClO, as its active ingredient. The
concentration of NaClO in the bleach can be determined by reacting a known amount with
aqueous hydrogen peroxide, H2O2.
NaClO(aq) + H2O2(aq) → NaCl(aq) + O2(g) + H2O(l)
When 25.0 cm3 of bleach is treated with an excess of aqueous H2O2, 0.0350 mol of oxygen gas
is given off.
What is the concentration of NaClO in the bleach?
A 8.75 × 10–4 mol dm–3

B 0.700 mol dm –3
C 0.875 mol dm–3
D 1.40 mol dm–3
10 Titanium(IV) oxide, TiO2, is brilliantly white and much of the oxide produced is used in the
manufacture of paint.
What is the maximum amount of TiO2 obtainable from 19.0 tonnes of the ore ilmenite,
FeTiO3? A 10.0 tonnes B 12.7 tonnes C 14.0 tonnes D 17.7 tonnes
11 The foul smell that skunks spray is due to a number of thiols, one of which is methanethiol,
CH3SH, which burns as follows.
CH3SH + 3O2 → CO2 + SO2 + 2H2O
A sample of 10 cm3 of methanethiol was exploded with 60 cm 3 of oxygen.

What would be the final volume of the resultant mixture of gases when cooled to
room temperature?
A 20 cm3 B 30 cm3 C 50 cm3 D 70 cm3

17
12 The reaction between aluminium powder and anhydrous barium nitrate is used as the
propellant in some fireworks. The metal oxides and nitrogen are the only products.
Which volume of nitrogen, measured under room conditions, is produced when 0.783 g
of anhydrous barium nitrate reacts with an excess of aluminium?
A 46.8 cm3 B 72.0 cm 3 C 93.6 cm3 D 144 cm3

13 The amount of calcium ions in a sample of natural water can be determined by using an ion-
exchange column as shown in the diagram.
water sample
ion-exchange resin
A 50 cm3 sample of water containing dissolved calcium sulphate was passed through the ion-
exchange resin. Each calcium ion in the sample was exchanged for two hydrogen ions. The
resulting acidic solution collected in the flask required 25 cm3 of 1.0 × 10–2 mol dm–3 potassium
hydroxide for complete neutralisation.
What was the concentration of the calcium sulphate in the original sample?
A 2.5 × 10–3 mol dm–3

B 1.0 × 10–2 mol dm–3
C 2.0 × 10–2 mol dm–3
D 4.0 × 10–2 mol dm–3
14 A sample of potassium oxide, K2O, is dissolved in 250 cm 3 of distilled water. 25.0 cm 3 of this
solution is titrated against sulfuric acid of concentration 2.00 mol dm –3. 15.0 cm 3 of this sulfuric
acid is needed for complete neutralisation.
Which mass of potassium oxide was originally dissolved in 250 cm 3 of distilled water?
A 2.83 g B 28.3 g C 47.1 g D 56.6 g

18
15 In some countries, anhydrous calcium chloride is used as a drying agent to reduce dampness in houses.
The anhydrous salt absorbs enough water to form the dihydrate CaCl 2.2H2O.
What is the percentage increase in mass?
A 14% B 24% C 32% D 36%

16 Ferrochrome is an alloy of iron and chromium. Ferrochrome can be dissolved in dilute sulfuric
acid to produce a mixture of FeSO4 and Cr2(SO4)3. The FeSO4 reacts with K2Cr2O7 in acid
solution according to the following equation.
14H+ + 6Fe2+ + Cr2O72– → 2Cr3+ + 6Fe3+ + 7H2O

When 1.00 g of ferrochrome is dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid, and the resulting solution
titrated, 13.1 cm 3 of 0.100 mol dm –3 K2Cr2O7 is required for complete reaction.
What is the percentage by mass of Fe in the sample of ferrochrome?
A 1.22 B 4.39 C 12.2 D 43.9
17 When an evacuated glass tube of volume 200 cm 3 is filled with a gas at 300 K and 101 kPa, the
mass of the tube increases by 1.06 g.
What is the identity of the gas?
A argon
B krypton
C neon
D xenon
18 1.00 g of carbon is combusted in a limited supply of pure oxygen. 0.50 g of the carbon
combusts to form CO2 and 0.50 g of the carbon combusts to form CO.
The resultant mixture of CO2 and CO is passed through excess NaOH(aq) and the remaining
gas is then dried and collected.
What is the volume of the remaining gas? (All gas volumes are measured at 25 °C and 1
atmosphere pressure.)
A 1 dm3 B 1.5 dm3 C 2 dm3 D 3 dm3

19 Which mass of solid residue will be obtained from the thermal decomposition of 4.10 g of
anhydrous calcium nitrate?
A 0.70 g B 1.00 g C 1.40 g D 2.25 g

20 The shell of a chicken’s egg makes up 5% of the mass of an average egg. An average egg has
a mass of 50 g.
Assume the egg shell is pure calcium carbonate.
How many complete chicken’s egg shells would be needed to neutralise 50 cm 3 of 2.0 mol
dm–3 ethanoic acid?
A 1 B 2 C 3 D 4

19
21 1.00 g of a metallic element reacts completely with 300 cm3 of oxygen at 298 K and 1 atm pressure
to form an oxide which contains O2– ions.
The volume of one mole of gas at this temperature and pressure is 24.0
dm3. What could be the identity of the metal?
A calcium
B magnesium
C potassium D
sodium
22 The reaction between aluminium powder and anhydrous barium nitrate is used as the
propellant in some fireworks. The metal oxides and nitrogen are the only products.
Which volume of nitrogen, measured under room conditions, is produced when 0.783 g
of anhydrous barium nitrate reacts with an excess of aluminium?
A 46.8 cm3 B 72.0 cm 3 C 93.6 cm3 D 144 cm3

23 4.70 g of an ammonium salt is heated with excess aqueous sodium hydroxide. The volume of
ammonia gas given off, measured at room temperature and pressure, is 1.41 dm 3.
Which ammonium salt was used?
A ammonium bromide (Mr = 97.9)
B ammonium carbonate (Mr = 96)
C ammonium nitrate (Mr = 80)
D ammonium sulfate (Mr = 132.1)
24 A sample containing 0.40 mol of calcium nitrate was decomposed by heating in a roaring
Bunsen burner flame until there was no further decomposition.
What are the products of this reaction?
1 0.40 mol of calcium oxide

2 0.40 mol of nitrogen, N2(g)
3 0.40 mol of oxygen, O2(g)
25 A piece of rock has a mass of 2.00 g. It contains calcium carbonate, but no other basic
substances. It neutralises exactly 36.0 cm 3 of 0.500 mol dm –3 hydrochloric acid.
What is the percentage of calcium carbonate in the 2.00 g piece of rock?
A 22.5% B 45.0% C 72.0% D 90.1%

26 A 0.005 mol sample of anhydrous calcium carbonate was completely thermally decomposed to
give 100 cm3 of gas measured at a certain temperature and pressure.
In a separate experiment carried out at the same temperature and pressure, a 0.005 mol sample
of anhydrous calcium nitrate was completely thermally decomposed. The volume of gaseous
products was measured.
What total volume of gaseous products was produced from the calcium nitrate?
A 50 cm3 B 100 cm3 C 200 cm3 D 250 cm3

20
27 An excess of chlorine gas, Cl 2, is passed through 60 cm3 of cold aqueous 0.1 mol dm–3 sodium
hydroxide. In a separate experiment an excess of chlorine gas is passed through 60 cm 3 of hot
aqueous 0.1 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide until no further reaction takes place.
How much more sodium chloride will be produced by the reaction with hot NaOH than with
cold NaOH?
A 0.002 moles
B 0.003 moles
C 0.005 moles
D 0.006 moles
28 Which mass of urea, CO(NH2)2, contains the same mass of nitrogen as 101.1 g of
potassium nitrate?
A 22 g B 30 g C 44 g D 60 g

21
MOLES & STOICHIOMETRY WS 2

1 When an excess of chlorine was reacted with 0.72 g of titanium, 2.85 g of a chloride A
was formed.
(i) Calculate the amount, in moles, of titanium used.
(ii) Calculate the amount, in moles, of chlorine atoms that reacted.
iii) Hence, determine the empirical formula of A.
iv) Construct a balanced equation for the reaction between titanium and chlorine.
..................................................................................................................................
[4]
CEDARCOLLEGE MOLES & STOICHIOMETRY WS 2

22
2
Ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4, is widely used as a fertiliser.
In order to determine its percentage purity, a sample of ammonium sulfate fertiliser was
analysed by reacting a known amount with an excess of NaOH(aq) and then titrating the
unreacted NaOH with dilute HCl.
(a) Ammonium sulfate reacts with NaOH in a 1 : 2 ratio.

Complete and balance the equation for this reaction.
(NH4)2SO4 + 2NaOH → .......NH3 + ................ + ................

[2]
(b) A 5.00 g sample of a fertiliser containing (NH4)2SO4 was warmed with 50.0 cm3 (an
excess) of 2.00 mol dm–3 NaOH.
When all of the ammonia had been driven off, the solution was cooled.
The remaining NaOH was then titrated with 1.00 mol dm –3 HCl and 31.2 cm3 were
required for neutralisation.
(i) Write a balanced equation for the reaction between NaOH and HCl.
....................................................................................................................................
(ii) Calculate the amount, in moles, of HCl in 31.2 cm3 of 1.00 mol dm–3 HCl.
(iii) Calculate the amount, in moles, of NaOH in 50.0 cm 3 of 2.00 mol dm–3 NaOH.
(iv) Use your answers to (i), (ii) and (iii) to calculate the amount, in moles, of
NaOH used up in the reaction with (NH4)2SO4.

23
(v) Use your answer to (iv) and the equation in (a) to calculate the amount, in moles,
of (NH4)2SO4 that reacted with NaOH.
(vi) Use your answer to (v) to calculate the mass of (NH4)2SO4 that reacted with NaOH.
vii) Hence, calculate the percentage purity of the ammonium sulfate fertiliser.
[7]

24
3
Washing soda is hydrated sodium carbonate, Na2CO3.xH2O.
A student wished to determine the value of x by carrying out a titration, with the
following results.
5.13 g of washing soda crystals were dissolved in water and the

solution was made up to 250 cm 3 in a standard volumetric flask.
25.0 cm3 of this solution reacted exactly with 35.8 cm3 of 0.100 mol
dm–3 hydrochloric acid and carbon dioxide was produced.
(a) (i) Write a balanced equation for the reaction between Na2CO3 and HCl .
....................................................................................................................................
(ii) Calculate the amount, in moles, of HCl in the 35.8 cm 3 of solution used in the titration.
(iii) Use your answers to (i) and (ii) to calculate the amount, in moles, of Na 2CO3 in
the 25.0 cm3 of solution used in the titration.
(iv) Use your answer to (iii) to calculate the amount, in moles, of Na2CO3 in the 250
cm3 of solution in the standard volumetric flask.

25
(v) Hence calculate the mass of Na2CO3 present in 5.13 g of washing soda crystals.
[6]
(b) Use your calculations in (a) to determine the value of x in Na 2CO3.xH2O.
[2]

26
4 Compounds of phosphorus have many uses in everyday life, e.g. fertilisers, matches and in
water softeners.
(a) State the full electronic configuration of phosphorus.
...............................................................................................................................................[1]
(b) Phosphoric acid, H3PO4, is used in the manufacture of phosphate fertilisers.
Deduce the oxidation number of phosphorus in H 3PO4.
...............................................................................................................................................[1]
(c) The salt sodium phosphate, Na3PO4, is a water-softening agent.
(i) Write the equation for the complete neutralisation of phosphoric acid with aqueous
sodium hydroxide.
............................................................................................................................................
Sodium phosphate was prepared from 50.0 cm 3 of 0.500 mol dm–3 H3PO4 and an excess of
aqueous sodium hydroxide.
(ii) How many moles of H3PO4 were used?
(iii) Use your equation in (c)(i) to calculate how many moles of sodium hydroxide are
required.
[3]
(d) Phosphorus sulphide, P4S3, is used in small amounts in the tip of a match. On striking a
match, this compound burns.
(i) Construct an equation for this reaction.
............................................................................................................................................
(ii) Both oxides formed in (i) dissolve in water to give acidic solutions. Construct an equation
for the reaction of each oxide with water.
............................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................[4]

27
5
Methanoic acid, HCO2H, was formerly known as formic acid because it is present in the sting of ants
and the Latin name for ant is formica. It was first isolated in 1671 by John Ray who collected a large
number of dead ants and extracted the acid from them by distillation.
In this question, you should give all numerical answers to two significant figures. At room
temperature, pure methanoic acid is a liquid which is completely soluble in water.
When we are stung by a ‘typical’ ant a solution of methanoic acid, A, is injected into
our skin.
Solution A contains 50% by volume of pure methanoic acid. A
‘typical’ ant contains 7.5 × 10–6 dm3 of solution A.
(a) (i) Calculate the volume, in cm3, of solution A in one ant.
volume = .................................. cm 3
(ii) Use your answer to (i) to calculate the volume, in cm3, of pure methanoic acid
in one ant.
volume = .................................. cm 3
(iii) Use your answer to (ii) to calculate how many ants would have to be distilled
to produce 1 dm3 of pure methanoic acid.
number = .......................................
[3]

28
When we are stung by an ant, the amount of solution A injected is 80% of the total
amount of solution A present in one ant.
The density of pure methanoic acid is 1.2 g cm –3.
(b) (i) Calculate the volume, in cm 3, of pure methanoic acid injected in one ant sting.
volume = .................................. cm 3
(ii) Use your answer to (i) to calculate the mass of methanoic acid present in one
ant sting.
mass = ......................................... g
[3]
Bees also sting us by using methanoic acid. One simple treatment for ant or bee stings is
to use sodium hydrogencarbonate, NaHCO3.
(c) (i) Construct a balanced equation for the reaction between methanoic acid and
sodium hydrogencarbonate.
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) In a typical bee sting, the mass of methanoic acid injected is 5.4 × 10 –3 g.
Calculate the mass of NaHCO3 needed to neutralise one bee sting.
mass = ......................................... g
[3]

29
6
Zinc is an essential trace element which is necessary for the healthy growth of animals and
plants. Zinc deficiency in humans can be easily treated by using zinc salts as dietary
supplements.
(a) One salt which is used as a dietary supplement is a hydrated zinc sulfate,
ZnSO4.xH2O, which is a colourless crystalline solid.
Crystals of zinc sulfate may be prepared in a school or college laboratory by reacting

dilute sulfuric acid with a suitable compound of zinc.
Give the formulae of two simple compounds of zinc that could each react with dilute
sulfuric acid to produce zinc sulfate.
....................................................... and ....................................................... [2]
(b) A simple experiment to determine the value of x in the formula ZnSO 4.xH2O is to
heat it carefully to drive off the water.
ZnSO4.xH2O(s) → ZnSO4(s) + xH2O(g)
A student placed a sample of the hydrated zinc sulfate in a weighed boiling tube and
reweighed it. He then heated the tube for a short time, cooled it and reweighed it when cool.
This process was repeated four times. The final results are shown below.
mass of mass of tube + mass of tube + salt

empty tube / g hydrated salt / g after fourth heating / g
74.25 77.97 76.34
(i) Why was the boiling tube heated, cooled and reweighed four times?
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
(ii) Calculate the amount, in moles, of the anhydrous salt produced.
(iii) Calculate the amount, in moles, of water driven off by heating.

30
(iv) Use your results to (ii) and (iii) to calculate the value of x in ZnSO4.xH2O.
[7]
(c) For many people, an intake of approximately 15 mg per day of zinc will be sufficient
to prevent deficiencies.
Zinc ethanoate crystals, (CH3CO2)2Zn.2H2O, may be used in this way.
(i) What mass of pure crystalline zinc ethanoate (Mr = 219.4) will need to be taken
to obtain a dose of 15 mg of zinc?
(ii) If this dose is taken in solution as 5 cm3 of aqueous zinc ethanoate, what would
be the concentration of the solution used?
Give your answer in mol dm–3.
[4]

31
7
A sample of a fertiliser was known to contain ammonium sulfate, (NH 4)2SO4, and sand
only. A 2.96 g sample of the solid fertiliser was heated with 40.0 cm 3 of NaOH(aq), an
excess, and all of the ammonia produced was boiled away.
After cooling, the remaining NaOH(aq) was exactly neutralised by 29.5 cm 3 of 2.00 mol
dm–3 HCl.
In a separate experiment, 40.0 cm3 of the original NaOH(aq) was exactly neutralised
by 39.2 cm3 of the 2.00 mol dm–3 HCl.
(a) (i) Write balanced equations for the following
reactions. NaOH with HCl
....................................................................................................................................
(NH4)2SO4 with NaOH
....................................................................................................................................
(ii) Calculate the amount, in moles, of NaOH present in the 40.0 cm 3 of the original
NaOH(aq) that was neutralised by 39.2 cm 3 of 2.00 mol dm –3 HCl.
(iii) Calculate the amount, in moles, of NaOH present in the 40.0 cm 3 of NaOH(aq)
that remained after boiling the (NH4)2SO4.
(iv) Use your answers to (ii) and (iii) to calculate the amount, in moles, of NaOH
that reacted with the (NH4)2SO4.

32
(v) Use your answers to (i) and (iv) to calculate the amount, in moles, of (NH 4)2SO4
that reacted with the NaOH.
(vi) Hence calculate the mass of (NH4)2SO4 that reacted.
(vii) Use your answer to (vi) to calculate the percentage, by mass, of (NH 4)2SO4
present in the fertiliser.
Write your answer to a suitable number of significant figures.
[9]
(b) The uncontrolled use of nitrogenous fertilisers can cause environmental damage to
lakes and streams. This is known as eutrophication.
What are the processes that occur when excessive amounts of nitrogenous fertilisers
get into lakes and streams?
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... [2]
(c) Large quantities of ammonia are manufactured by the Haber

process. Not all of this ammonia is used to make fertilisers.
State one large-scale use for ammonia, other than in the production of
nitrogenous fertilisers.
..................................................................................................................................... [1]

33
8
Chile saltpetre is a mineral found in Chile and Peru, and which mainly consists of sodium nitrate,
NaNO3. The mineral is purified to concentrate the NaNO3 which is used as a fertiliser and in some
fireworks.
In order to find the purity of a sample of sodium nitrate, the compound is heated in
NaOH(aq) with Devarda's alloy which contains aluminium. This reduces the sodium nitrate
to ammonia which is boiled off and then dissolved in acid.
3NaNO3(aq) + 8Al (s) + 5NaOH(aq) + 18H2O(l) → 3NH3(g) + 8NaAl (OH)4(aq) The ammonia
gas produced is dissolved in an excess of H2SO4 of known concentration. 2NH3 + H2SO4 →
(NH4)2SO4
The amount of unreacted H2SO4 is then determined by back-titration with NaOH of known
concentration.
H2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
(a) A 1.64 g sample of impure NaNO3 was reacted with an excess of Devarda's alloy.
The NH3 produced was dissolved in 25.0 cm 3 of 1.00 mol dm –3 H2SO4.
When all of the NH3 had dissolved, the resulting solution was titrated with
NaOH(aq). For neutralisation, 16.2 cm3 of 2.00 mol dm–3 NaOH were required.
(i) Calculate the amount, in moles, of H2SO4 present in the 25.0 cm3 of 1.00 mol
dm–3 H2SO4.
(ii) Calculate the amount, in moles, of NaOH present in 16.2 cm3 of 2.00 mol dm–3 NaOH.
(iii) Use your answer to (ii) to calculate the amount, in moles, of H 2SO4 that reacted
with 16.2 cm3 of 2.00 mol dm–3 NaOH.
(iv) Use your answers to (i) and (iii) to calculate the amount, in moles, of H 2SO4
that reacted with the NH3.

34
(v) Use your answer to (iv) to calculate the amount, in moles, of NH3 that reacted
with the H2SO4.
(vi) Use your answer to (v) to calculate the amount, in moles, of NaNO3 that reacted
with the Devarda's alloy.
(vii) Hence calculate the mass of NaNO3 that reacted.
(viii) Use your answer to (vii) to calculate the percentage by mass of NaNO 3 present
in the impure sample.
Write your answer to a suitable number of significant figures.
[9]
(b) The above reaction is an example of a redox reaction.

What are the oxidation numbers of nitrogen in NaNO3 and in NH3?
NaNO3 ....................... NH3 ....................... [1]

35
9 A sample of a hydrated double salt, Cu(NH4)x(SO4)2.6H2O, was boiled with an excess of

sodium hydroxide. Ammonia was given off.
The ammonia produced was absorbed in 40.0 cm3 of 0.400 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid. The
resulting solution required 25 cm3 of 0.12 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide to neutralise the excess
acid.
(a) Write the ionic equation for the reaction between ammonium ions and hydroxide ions.
.............................................................................................................................................. [1]
(b) (i) Calculate the amount, in moles, of hydrochloric acid in 40.0 cm3 of 0.400 mol dm–3 solution.
[1]
(ii) Calculate the amount, in moles, of sodium hydroxide needed to neutralise the excess
acid. This will be equal to the amount of hydrochloric acid left in excess.
[1]
(iii) Calculate the amount, in moles, of hydrochloric acid that reacted with ammonia.
[1]
(iv) Calculate the amount, in moles, of ammonium ions in the sample of the double salt.
[1]
(v) The sample contained 0.413 g of copper. Use this information and your answer to (iv)
to calculate the value of x in Cu(NH4)x(SO4)2.6H2O.
[2]
(vi) Calculate the Mr of Cu(NH4)x(SO4)2.6H2O.
[1]
[Total: 8]

36
10
Spathose is an iron ore that contains iron(II) carbonate, FeCO3. The percentage of iron(II) carbonate
in spathose can be determined by titration with acidified potassium dichromate( VI) solution using a
suitable indicator.
The ionic equation is shown below.
Cr O 2–(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6Fe2+(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 6Fe3+(aq) + 7H O(l)

2 7 2
(a) A 5.00 g sample of spathose was reacted with excess concentrated hydrochloric acid and
then filtered.
The filtrate was made up to 250 cm 3 in a volumetric flask with distilled water.
A 25.0 cm3 sample of the standard solution required 27.30 cm 3 of 0.0200 mol
dm–3 dichromate(VI) solution for complete reaction.
(i) Calculate the amount, in moles, of dichromate(VI) ions used in the titration.
amount = ............................ mol [1]
(ii) Use your answer to (i) to calculate the amount, in moles, of Fe2+ present in the 25.0
cm3 sample.
amount = ............................ mol [1]
(iii) Use your answer to (ii) to calculate the amount, in moles, of Fe2+ present in the 250
cm3 volumetric flask.
amount = ............................ mol [1]
(iv) Use your answer to (iii) to calculate the mass of iron(II) carbonate present in the
sample of spathose.
mass = ............................ g [2]
(v) Calculate the percentage of iron(II) carbonate in the sample of spathose.
percentage of iron(II) carbonate = ............................ % [1]

37
Atomic Structure
Atomic particles:
Atom are made up of 3 fundamentals (or subatomic particles) – protons, neutrons and electrons
Protons and neutrons (collectively known as nucleons) reside in the nucleus, while electrons are found
in regions of space around the nucleus
Relative charges and relative masses

Protons are positively charged. Each proton has a relative charge of +1 and a relative mass of
1 a.m.u
Neutrons are uncharged. Each neutron has a relative charge of 0 and a relative mass of 1 a.m.u
Electrons are negatively charged. Each electron has a relative charge of -1 and a relative mass
of 1/1840 a.m.u
Protons and neutrons in the nucleus make the nucleus very dense.
The nucleus provides nearly all the mass but very little of the volume of an atom. Most of the
rest of the atom is an empty space where the electrons move
The nucleus is exceedingly small compared to the size of the atom itself. The diameter of an
atom is typically 105 times the diameter of its nucleus.
The electrons are attracted electrostatically by positively charged protons
In an atom the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons i.e., atoms are
electrically neutral
Behavior in electric field

Protons are deflected towards negative potential
Electrons are deflected towards positive potential
Neutrons (uncharged) are not deflected at all
PARSA ASIF ATOMICSTRUCTURE

38
The size of deflection depends on the relative masses of the particles. Lighter particles
are deflected more than the heavier particles
Since electrons are lighter than protons, they are deflected more than protons.
Magnitude of deflection Charge

Mass
The diagram shows the results obtained wen beams of H and He nuclei are passed between
2 plates carrying a curtain electric charge
The polarity of the deflection may be deduced from the direction of the deflection of the beam.
The magnitude of the deflection of the beam is proportional to charge/mass ratio
For H charge/mass = 1/1 = 1 For
He charge/mass = 2/4 = ½
Since charge to mass ratio of H is twice that of He, hence H is deflected twice as much as He
Numerically charge = proton number, mass = mass number
The angle of deflection of other particles (eg 2H and 3He nuclei) may be determined by comparing
the charge/mass ratio with that of known
particles Example
1
H nuclei has a charge/mass ratio = 1, and angle of deflection = 4°
2
H nuclei has a charge/mass ratio = ½ , and angle of deflection = 2° (4 x ½ )
3
He nuclei has a charge/mass ratio = ⅔ , and angle of deflection = 2 ⅔ ° (4 x ⅔ )

39
Proton and nucleon number

A nuclide is a specific combination of protons and neutrons in a nucleus It can be
A
represented as XZ where X is the symbol of the element
A= number of protons and neutrons (mass number or nucleon
number)
Z= no. of protons (atomic number or proton number)
Thus (A-Z) gives the number of neutrons in the atom
e.g 1: to deduce the number of protons, neutrons and electrons present in the following particles,
given proton and nucleon numbers (and charges)
Note:
In a neutral atom number of electrons is equal to number of protons
In a negative ion (anion), the number of electrons is greater than the number of protons since
a negative ion is formed by adding electrons(s) to a neutral atom
In a positive (cation) the number of electrons is less than the number of protons since a positive
ion is formed by removing electron(s) from a neutral atom
● Identity of any species may be deduced from its proton and nucleon numbers

40
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number (same number of protons)
but different mass number (different number of neutrons)
Isotopes are distinguished based on different number of neutrons present.
Isotopes have the same chemical but different physical properties (eg density, rate of diffusion
– properties depending on mass)
Atoms or ions are called
o Isoelectronic if they contain the same number of electrons

E.g. H2O, Na+, Al3+ and F- (each has 10 electrons)
o Isotonic if they contain same number of neutrons
o Isotopic if they contain the same number of protons
● Some isotopes are unstable - the nucleus decays (breaks down) and emits radiation (alpha,
beta and gamma)
● These isotopes are radioactive and are called radioisotopes

41
Eg hydrogen has 3 isotopes 1H (hydrogen), 2D (Deuterium), 3T (Tritium)

3
T (Tritium) is unstable – the nucleus decays emitting β radiation
3 3
T (Tritium) He + β
Atomic orbitals
Electrons do not travel in fixed orbits around the nucleus i.e., they are not localized in fixed orbits.
Instead, they travel in a region of space around the nucleus called an atomic orbital
An atomic orbital is a region of space round the nucleus in which the probability of finding a
particular electron (in a free atom) is the greatest – 98%.
Electrons can occupy 4 types of orbitals which differ from each other in shape and in their orientation
in space. These are called s, p, d and f orbitals
S orbitals are spherical

P orbitals are dumbbell shaped and can be arranged in different directions
Note: in drawing shapes of orbitals the x-, y- and z- axes must be shown as to illustrate the 3D
property of the orbitals
Shells and subshells

A shell is a group of orbitals that are about the same distance out from the nucleus.
Shells are numbered starting with the shell nearest to the nucleus and working outwards
Each successive shell has a different number of orbitals in it
In the nth shell there are n sub-shells, n2 orbitals and a maximum of 2n2 electrons
A subshell is a group of orbitals with the same energy level but differ in their orientation in space e.g.
the second shell (n=2) contains 2 sub shells:
A subshell containing one s orbitals (2s) and
A subshell containing three p orbitals (2px, 2py, 2pz)

42
Electronic energy levels

In an atom the orbitals have definite amounts of energy called
energy levels
These energy levels have a convergent pattern
Note: 4s has a slightly lower energy level than 3d orbitals

MASS SPECTROMETRY
1. Number of isotopes (e.g. Chlorine has 2 isotopes)

2. Mass of isotopes (e.g. Cl-35/Cl-37)
3. Relative/%abundance (e.g. 75%/25% or 3:1)
Calculate the relative atomic mass by using the following formula:

Mass spectrometer:
1. Vaporization
2. Ionization
3. Acceleration (electric field)
4. Deflection (magnetic field) d α charge/mass
5. Detection
Outcomes:
 There are two possible outcomes:
i. With fragmentation:
 The molecule breaks into atoms
35
Cl+ 37 +
Cl
 For example, propanone (C3H6O)
ii. Without fragmentation:
 Part of the molecule breaks the remaining continues to exist as a molecule
 Since the Mr is 58, the peak corresponding to this Mr is called the molecular ion
peak (M+) peak
 M+ peak  corresponds to the Mr (A)
 (M+1 peak)  peak that has a mass of 1 amu more than Mr is due to the C-13
isotope.
Mass of more than 1 amu compared to the Mr (=58) is m+1 = 59 (D)
 [M+1]+ peak  C-13 isotope
% abundance of C-13 = 1.10%
 The ratio of [M]+ : [M+1]+ is used to calculate the total number of C atoms
Organic compounds containing Halogens (Cl/Br)
1. One Cl or Br atom attached
o For example, CH3Cl [chlorine has 2 isotopes, 35Cl (75%) and 37Cl (25%) the difference is 2
amu) OR CH3Br (bromine has 2 isotopes, 79Br (50%) and 81Br (50%) the difference is 2 amu)
o If one halogen is present there will be an [M+2] + peak
[M]+ : [M+2]+
Cl 3:1 (75% and 25% = 3:1)
Br 1:1 (50% and 50% =1:1)
2. Two halogens in an organic compound
35
a. Cl and 35Cl  70
35
b. Cl and 37Cl  72
37
c. Cl and 37Cl  74
o Due to the difference between a and can [M+4]+ may be seen.
[M]+ : [M+2]+ : [M+4]+
Cl 9:6:1
Br 1:2:1
Case # 1: Both halogens are Cl [35Cl (75%) and 37Cl]

[M+] (70) 35Cl-35Cl+ = ¾ x ¾ = 9/16
[M+2]+ (72) +35Cl-37Cl OR +37Cl-35Cl = ( ¾ x ¼ ) + ( ¼ x ¾ ) = 6/16
[M+4]+ (74) 37Cl-37Cl+ = ¼ x ¼ = 1/16
70 : 72 : 74
9:6:1
[M] : [M+2]+ : [M+4]+
+
9:6:1
Case # 2: both halogens are Br [79Br (50%) and 81Br (50%)]
[M+] peak 79Br-79Br+  158  ½ x ½ = 1
[M+2]+ peak +79Br-81Br OR +81Br-79Br  160  ( ½ x ½ )+(½ x½)=2
[M+4]+ peak 81Br-81Br  162  ( ½ x ½ ) = 1
158 : 160 : 162

1:2:1
[M]+ : [M+2]+ : [M+4]+
ONE HALOGEN ATTACHED: [M]+ and [M+2] + peak

[M]+ : [M+2] +
Cl 3:1
Br 1:1
TWO HALOGENS PRESENT: [M]+ and [M+2] + and [M+4] +

[M]+ : [M+2] + : [M+4]+
Cl 9:6:1
Br 1:2:1
Case # 3: one halogen is Br and one halogen is Cl

 For example, CH2BrCl
[M]+ (128) CH235Cl 79Br+ OR CH235Cl+ 79Br  ( ¾ x ½ ) + ( ¾ x ½ ) = 12/16

[M+2] + (130) CH2+37Cl 79Br OR CH237Cl+79Br  ( ¼ x ½ ) + ( ¼ x ½ )
OR +
CH2 Cl Br OR CH2 Cl Br  ( ¾ x ½ ) + ( ¾ x ½ )
+35 81 35 +81
=16/16
[M+4] (132) CH2 Cl Br OR CH2 Cl Br  ( ¼ x ½ ) + ( ¼ x ½ ) = 4/10
+ +37 81 37 +81
[M]+ : [M+2] + : [M+4]+

12 : 16 : 4
3:4:1
43
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65
ATOMIC STRUCTURE WS 1
SECTION A
1 Which one the following has more neutrons than electrons and more electrons
than protons?
A 19F-- C 9Be
B 37Cl-- D 9Be2+
2 Chlorine exists as two isotopes 35Cl with an abundance of 75.5% and 37Cl with an
abundance of 24.5%.
Phosphorus has only one isotope, 31P. The mass spectrum of PCl3 has four lines at m/z
= 136, 138, 140 and 142.
Which one of these lines will have the smallest height?
A 136 C 138
B 140 D 142
3 Antimony has two isotopes 121Sb and 123Sb. The relative atomic mass of a naturally
occurring sample of antimony is measured as 121.75.
Which one of the following is the best approximate estimate of the percentage of
121Sb present in the naturally occurring sample?
A 20% C 40%
B 60% D 80%
4 When sulfur, 32S is bombarded with neutrons 1n, two particles are formed. One of them
is a hydrogen atom, 1H and the other is an element, X.
32S + 1n 1H +X
Which one of the following correctly represents X?
A 32S C 33S
B 32P D 33P
5 What is the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in boron-11?
A 5 protons, 5 electrons and 11 neutrons C 5 protons, 5 electrons and 6 neutrons
B 5 protons, 5 electrons and 10.8 D 11 protons, 11 electrons and 5 neutrons

neutrons
CEDAR COLLEGE ATOMIC STRUCTURE WS 1

66
6 What is the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in 34S2--?

A 18 protons, 16 electrons and 18 neutrons C 16 protons, 18 electrons and 18 neutrons
B 16 protons, 18 electrons and 18 neutrons D 16 protons, 16 electrons and 18 neutrons
7 Which statements about the isotopes of chlorine, 35Cl and 37Cl are correct?
I. They have the same chemical properties.
II. The have the same atomic number.
III. The have the same physical properties.
A I and II only C II an III only
B I and III only D I, II and III
8 A sample of element X contains 69% of 63X and 31% of 65X. What is the relative atomic
mass of X in this sample?
A 63.0 C 65.0
B 63.6 D 69.0
9 What is the relative atomic mass of an element with the mass spectrum shown below?
A 24 C 26
B 25 D 27

67
10 In the radioactive decay of an isotope of lead to an isotope of bismuth, a particle 0X is emitted.

–1
Which particle is 0X?

–1
A electron
B ion
C neutron
D proton
[S’02 Q1]
11 The diagram shows the mass spectrum of a sample of naturally-occurring copper.
7
6
5
relative
abundance 4
3
2
1
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68
m/e
What is the relative atomic mass of this copper?

A 63.3 B 63.5 C 63.6 D 64.0
[S’02 Q3]
12 Which isotope of an element in the third period of the Periodic Table contains the same number
of neutrons as 3216 S?
23
A 11 Na
24
B 12 Mg
28
C 14 Si
31
D 15P
[S’03 Q3]
13 Unnilpentium is an artificial element. One of its isotopes is

262
105Unp. Which of the following statements is correct?
262
A 105Unp has a nucleon number of 105.
260 262
B The atom X is an isotope of Unp.
105 105
262
C There are 262 neutrons in 105Unp.
262
D The proton number of 105Unp is 262.
[W’03 Q4]

68
14 The diagram shows the mass spectrum of a sample of zinc. Use the data to calculate the
relative atomic mass of the sample.
100
80
relative 60
abundance / %
40
20
0
64 65 66 67
Ar
A 65 B 65.25 C 65.5 D 65.66

[W’04 Q2]
15 It is now thought that where an element exists as several isotopes, the stable ones
usually contain a ‘magic number’ of neutrons. One of these magic numbers is 126.
Which isotope is unstable?
A 209Bi B 208Pb C 210Po D 208

Tl
[W’04 Q4]
16 In which species are the numbers of electrons and neutrons equal?

9 Be 19 F C 23 Na+ D 18 O2–
4 9 11 8
[S’05 Q4]
17 Which ion has more electrons than protons and more protons than neutrons?
[H=11H;D= 12H;O= 168O]

A D– B H3O+ C OD– D OH–
[W’05 Q2]
18 A sample of chlorine containing isotopes of mass numbers 35 and 37 was analysed in a

mass-spectrometer.
How many peaks corresponding to Cl +2were recorded?
A 2 B 3 C 4 D 5
[S’06 Q2]

69
19 A radioactive isotope of thallium, 201 Tl, is used to assess damage in heart muscles after a heart
81
attack.
Which statement about 20181 Tl is correct?
A This isotope has a nucleon number of 120.

B The number of electrons in one atom of this isotope is 81.
C The number of neutrons in one atom of this isotope is 201.
201
D 201 Tl.
82 X is an isotope of 81
[S’06 Q4]
20 The isotopic composition of an element is indicated below.
4
3
relative
abundance 2
0
9 10 11 12
mass number
What is the relative atomic mass of the element?
A 10.2 B 10.5 C 10.8 D 11.0

[S’07 Q1]
21 John Dalton’s atomic theory, published in 1808, contained four predictions about
atoms. Which of his predictions is still considered to be correct?
A Atoms are very small in size.

B No atom can be split into simpler parts.
C All the atoms of a particular element have the same mass.
D All the atoms of one element are different in mass from all the atoms of other elements.
[S’07 Q3]

70
22 The diagrams show the possible paths of subatomic particles moving in an electric field in a
vacuum.
+ + +
electrons neutrons protons
– – –
1 2 3
Which diagrams are correct?
A 1 and 2 only
B 1 and 3 only C
2 and 3 only D 1,
2 and 3
[S’07 Q4]
23 Skin cancer can be treated using a radioactive isotope of phosphorus, 1532 P . A compound
containing the phosphide ion 32P3− , wrapped in a plastic sheet, is strapped to the affected
15
area.
What is the composition of the phosphide ion, 3215P3− ?
protons neutrons electrons
A 15 17 18
B 15 17 32
C 17 15 17
D 32 17 15
[S’08 Q3]
24 Hard water contains calcium ions and hydrogencarbonate ions arising from dissolved
calcium hydrogencarbonate, Ca(HCO3)2.
How many electrons are present in the hydrogencarbonate anion?
A 30 B 31 C 32 D 33
[W’08 Q4]

71
25 An element X consists of four isotopes. The mass spectrum of X is shown in the
diagram. 100
80
60
relative
abundance
% 40
20
0
90 91 92 93 94
m/e
What is the relative atomic mass of X?

A 91.00 B 91.30 C 91.75 D 92.00
[W’09 1 Q4]
26 Helium, He, is the second element in the Periodic Table.
Tritium is the isotope of hydrogen 3H.
What is the same in an atom of 4He and an atom of

3
H? A the number of electrons
B the number of neutrons C
the number of protons D the
relative atomic mass
[S’11 2 Q1]
27 In which species are the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons all different?
11 19 − 23 + 24 2+
A 5 B B 9 F C 11
Na D 12
Mg
[S’12 2 Q2]
28 The 68Ge isotope is medically useful because it undergoes a natural radioactive process to give an isotope
of a different element, 68X, which can be used to detect tumours. This transformation of 68Ge occurs when
an electron enters the nucleus and changes a proton into a neutron.
Which statement about the composition of an atom of 68X is
correct?
A It has 4 electrons in its outer p orbitals.
B It has 13 electrons in its outer shell.
C It has 37 neutrons.
D Its proton number is 32.
[S’12 1 Q2]

72
29 Use of the Data Booklet is relevant to this question.
In which species are the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons all different?
30 In which species are the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons all different?
322− 39 +
27 Al 35 Cl − S K
A 13 B 17 C 16 D 19
[S’13 1 Q5]
The most common ion-molecule reaction in gas clouds of the Universe is as shown.
H2(g) + H2+(g) → H(g) + H +(g)
3
What could be the composition of an H + ion?
3
A 2 1 1
B 2 1 2
C 3 0 1
D 3 0 2
[S’14 3 Q4]
In some types of spectroscopy, it is important to know if ions are isoelectronic. This means
that they contain equal numbers of electrons.
Which ion is not isoelectronic with K+?

A Ca2+ B Cl – C S2– D Ti3+
[W’14 3 Q2]
In which option do all three particles have the same electronic configuration and the
same number of neutrons?
A 15 N3– 16 O2– 19 – F
B 18 O2– 19 F– 20 Ne
C 19F– 20Ne 23Na+
D 22 Ne 23 Na 24 Mg2+
[S’15 2 Q1]

73
34 Which species contains the smallest number of electrons?
A B3+ B Be2+ C H– D He+

[M’16 2 Q4]
35 When nuclear reactions take place, the elements produced are different from the elements that
reacted. Nuclear equations, such as the one below, are used to represent the changes that occur.
235 1 144 Ba + 89 Kr + 3 1 0n
92 U + 0 n → 56 36
The nucleon (mass) number total is constant at 236 and the proton number total is constant at
92.
In another nuclear reaction, uranium-238 is reacted with deuterium atoms, 21 H. An isotope of a

new element, J, is formed as well as two neutrons.
238 U + 21H → J + 2 1n0

92
What is isotope J?
A 238Np B 238Pu C 240 Np D 240Pu

[S’16 1 Q4]
36 The relative atomic mass of copper is 63.5.
Which chart is a correct mass spectrum that would lead to this value?
A B
100%
abundance abundance 50%
33%
17%
61 62 63 64 65 66 61 62 63 64 65 66
m/e m/e
C D
74% abundance
abundance
33% 33%
22%
26%
12%
61 62 63 64 65 66 61 62 63 64 65 66
m/e m/e
[S’16 3 Q4]

74
1
the mass of
37 Neutrons are passed through an electric field. The mass of one neutron relative 12
to a 12C atom and any deflection in the electric field is recorded.

Which row is correct?
mass of behaviour of beam of

neutron neutrons in an electric field
A 0 deflected
B 1 deflected
C 0 not deflected
D 1 not deflected
[S’18 3 Q2]

75
SECTION B
For each of the questions in this section, one or more of the three numbered statements 1 to 3
may be correct.
Decide whether each of the statements is or is not correct (you may find it helpful to put a tick
against the statements that you consider to be correct).
The responses A to D should be selected on the basis of
A B C D
1, 2 and 3 1 and 2 2 and 3 1 only

are only are only are is
correct correct correct correct
No other combination of statements is used as a correct response.
1 60
The isotope cobalt-60 ( 27 Co ) is used to destroy cancer cells in the human
body. Which statements about an atom of cobalt-60 are correct?

1 It contains 33 neutrons.
2 Its nucleus has a relative charge of 27+.
3 It has a different number of neutrons from the atoms of other isotopes of cobalt.
[S’04 Q31]
2
The relative molecular mass of a molecule of chlorine is 72. Which
properties of the atoms in this molecule are the same?
1 radius
2 nucleon number
3 relative isotopic mass
[S’05 Q31]
The technetium–99 isotope (99Tc) is radioactive and has been found in lobsters and
seaweed adjacent to nuclear fuel reprocessing plants.
Which statements are correct about an atom of

99Tc? 1 It has 13 more neutrons than protons.
2 It has 43 protons.
3 It has 99 nucleons.
[S’07 Q31]

76
4 On a scale in which the mass of a 12C atom is 12 the relative molecular mass of a
particular sample of chlorine is 72.
Which properties of the atoms in this sample are always the
same? 1 radius
2 nucleon number
3 isotopic mass
[S’09 1 Q31]
5 The phosphide ion 1531P 3– and sulfide ion 1632 S 2– have the same number of which sub-
atomic particles?
1 neutrons
2 electrons
3 protons
[S’12 2 Q32]
6 The 1H3+ ion was first characterised by J. J. Thomson over a century 6Li is a rare isotope of
ago. lithium which forms the 6Li+ ion.
Which statements are correct?
1 Both ions contain the same number of protons.
2 Both ions contain the same number of electrons.
3 Both ions contain the same number of neutrons.

[S’04 3 Q31]
7 In 2011 an international group of scientists agreed to add two new elements to the
Periodic Table. Both elements had been made artificially and were called ununquadium
(Uuq) and ununhexium (Uuh).
Uuq Uuh
proton number 114 116

nucleon number 289 292
Which statements about these elements are correct?
1 One atom of Uuh has one more neutron than one atom of Uuq.
2 One Uuq2– ion has the same number of electrons as one atom of Uuh.
3 One Uuh+ ion has the same number of electrons as one Uuq – ion.
[S’143Q31]
8 Which statements are correct when referring to the isotopes of a single element?
1 The isotopes have different masses.
2 The isotopes have different numbers of nucleons.
3 The isotopes have different chemical reactions.

[S’143Q32]

77
Which statements about the phosphide ion, 31P3–, and the chloride ion, 35Cl –, are correct?
1 They have the same number of electrons.

2 They have the same number of neutrons.
3 They have the same number of protons.
[S’15 2 Q31]
10 X is a particle with 18 electrons and 20
neutrons. What could be the symbol of X?
38 Ar
1 18
40
2 20 Ca2+
39 +
3 19K
[S’16 1 Q31]
11 A sample of boron contains aluminium as the only impurity. A mass spectrum of the
mixture shows three lines corresponding to three ions, X+, Y+ and Z+.
ion X+ Y+ Z+
m/e 10 11 27
percentage 15.52 74.48 10.00
abundance
1 There are more electrons in Z+ than in X+.

2 The Ar of boron in the sample is 10.83 to four significant figures.
3 There are more protons in Y+ than in X+.

12 In which pairs do both species have the same number of electrons?
1 35Cl and 37Cl
2 35Cl – and 40Ar
40
3 Ar and 40K+
[S’18 2 Q32]

78
ATOMIC STRUCTURE WS 2
1 Give the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons present in each of the following atoms:
a) 40Ar c) 197Au+
b) 127I d) 52Cr3+
2 This question concerns the following five species:
16O2-- 19F 20Ne 23Na 25Mg2+
a) Which two species have the same number of neutrons? ........................................
b) Which two species have the same ratio of neutrons to protons? ........................................
c) Which two species do not have 10 electrons? ........................................
3 The element Rhenium (Re) has two main isotopes, 185Re with an abundance of 37.1%
and 187Re with an abundance of 62.9%.
Calculate the weighted mean atomic mass of rhenium.
4 Antimony has two main isotopes, 121Sb and 123Sb. A forensic scientist was asked to help
a crime investigation by analysing the antimony in a bullet. This was found to contain
57.3% of 121Sb and 42.7% of 123Sb.
a) Calculate the relative atomic mass of the sample of antimony from the bullet. (Write
your answer to three significant figures)
b) State one similarity and one difference between isotopes in terms of subatomic particles.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
CEDAR COLLEGE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

79
5 Bromine exists as a molecule with two bromine atoms combined together. Bromine has
two isotopes: bromine-79 and bromine-81
a) A molecule of bromine containing two atoms of bromine can be written as 79Br2. Write the
formulae for the two other possible molecules of bromine.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
b) The mass spectrum of molecules of bromine is shown below:
i. Explain why these peaks are observed.

...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
ii. The peaks at 79 and 81 are the same height. What does this tell you about the
relative abundances of the two isotopes?
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
iii. Explain why the peak at 160 is twice the height of the peaks at 158 and 162.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
6 a) Explain why the relative atomic mass of copper is not an exact whole number?
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................

80
b) The relative atomic mass of copper is 63.5. Calculate the relative abundance of the
two copper isotopes with the relative isotopic masses of 63.0 and 65.0.
7 Chlorine exists as a molecule with two chlorine atoms combined together. Chlorine has
two isotopes: chlorine-35 and chlorine-37.
The mass spectrum of chlorine os shown below:
a) The peak at 35 is three times as high as the peak at 37. Calculate the relative atomic
mass of chlorine.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
b) Explain why the peaks are observed at 70, 72 and 74.

...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
c) The heights of the peaks at 70, 72 and 74 are in the ratio 9 :6 :1. Explain why the heights
are in this ratio.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................

81
8 The data about silicon in the table below were obtained from a mass spectrometer.
m/z % abundance
28 92.2
29 4.7
30 3.1
Calculate the relative atomic mass of silicon to one decimal place.
9 (a) Define an isotope in terms of its sub-atomic particles.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
[1]
(b) In a mass spectrometer some hydrogen chloride molecules will split into atoms. The
mass spectrum of HCl is given. Chlorine has two isotopes. The hydrogen involved here
1
is the isotope 1H only.
100
80
60
relative
abundance
40
20
0
35 40
m /e
(i) What particle is responsible for the peak at mass 35? .............................................
(ii) What particle is responsible for the peak at mass 38? .............................................
[2]
(c) Use the relative heights of the peaks to determine the proportions of the two isotopes
of chlorine. Explain simply how you obtained your answer.
[2]

82
(d) Use your answer to (c) to explain why chlorine has a relative atomic mass of 35.5.
[1]
10 Iron and cobalt are adjacent elements in the Periodic Table. Iron has three main
naturally occurring isotopes, cobalt has one.
(a) Explain the meaning of the term isotope.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................... [2]
56
(b) The most common isotope of iron is Fe; the only naturally occurring isotope of
59
cobalt is Co.
Use the Data Booklet to complete the table below to show the atomic structure of
56 59
Fe and of Co.
number of
isotope protons neutrons electrons
56
Fe
59 Co
[3]
(c) A sample of iron has the following isotopic composition by mass.
isotope mass 54 56 57
% by mass 5.84 91.68 2.17
(i) Define the term relative atomic mass.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................

83
(ii) By using the data above, calculate the relative atomic mass of iron to
three significant figures.
[5]
11 In the 19th and 20th centuries, scientists established the atomic theory and showed that
three sub-atomic particles, electron, neutron and proton, exist. The masses and charges of
these three particles were subsequently determined.
When separate beams of electrons, neutrons or protons are passed through an electric
field in the apparatus below, they behave differently.
+ –
beam of particles
(a) (i) Which of these three particles will be deflected the most by the electric field?
.........................................
(ii) In which direction will this particle be deflected?
..................................................................................................................................
(iii) Explain your answer.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[4]

84
(b) (i) Define the term proton number.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Why is the proton number of an atom of an element usually different from
the nucleon number of an atom of the element?
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[2]
12 Magnesium, Mg, and radium, Ra, are elements in Group II of the Periodic
Table. Magnesium has three isotopes.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... [2]
A sample of magnesium has the following isotopic composition by mass.
% by mass 78.60 10.11 11.29
(b) Calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, of magnesium to four significant figures.
Ar = ………………
[2]

85
Radium, proton number 88, and uranium, proton number 92, are radioactive elements.
226 238
The isotope Ra is produced by the radioactive decay of the uranium isotope U.
226
(c) Complete the table below to show the atomic structures of the isotopes Ra and
238U.
number of
isotopes protons neutrons electrons

226 Ra
238U
[3]
(d) Radium, like other Group II elements, forms a number of ionic compounds.
(i) What is the formula of the radium cation?
………………
(ii) Use the Data Booklet to suggest a value for the energy required to form one mole
of the gaseous radium cation you have given in (i) from one mole of gaseous
radium atoms. Explain your answer.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................. [3]
13 The element magnesium, Mg, proton number 12, is a metal which is used in many
alloys which are strong and light.
Magnesium has several naturally occurring isotopes.
(a) What is meant by the term isotope?
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [2]

86
(b) Complete the table below for two of the isotopes of magnesium.
number of number of number of

isotope
24 Mg
26 Mg
[2]
A sample of magnesium had the following isotopic composition:

24 25 26
Mg, 78.60%; Mg, 10.11%; Mg, 11.29%.
(c) Calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, of magnesium in the sample.
Express your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures.
[2]
14 Sulfur, S, and polonium, Po, are both elements in Group VI of the Periodic
Table. Sulfur has three isotopes.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................... [2]
(b) A sample of sulfur has the following isotopic composition by mass.
% by mass 95.00 0.77 4.23
Calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, of sulfur to two decimal places.
Ar = ...............
[2]

87
(c) Isotopes of polonium, proton number 84, are produced by the radioactive decay
of several elements including thorium, Th, proton number 90.
213 232
The isotope Po is produced from the thorium isotope Th.
213 232
Complete the table below to show the atomic structures of the isotopes Po and Th.
number of
isotope protons neutrons electrons
213 Po
232 Th
[3]
Radiochemical reactions, such as nuclear fission and radioactive decay of isotopes, can be
represented by equations in which the nucleon (mass) numbers must balance and the
proton numbers must also balance.
235 1
For example, the nuclear fission of uranium-235, U, by collision with a neutron, n,
92 0
produces strontium-90, xenon-143 and three neutrons.
90 143 1
235U + 1n Sr + Xe + 3 n
92 0 38 54 0
In this equation, the nucleon (mass) numbers balance because: 235 + 1 = 90 + 143 + (3x1).
The proton numbers also balance because: 92 + 0 = 38 + 54 + (3x0).

232
(d) In the first stage of the radioactive decay of Th, the products are an isotope of
90
element E and an alpha-particle, 4 He.
2
(i) By considering nucleon and proton numbers only, construct a balanced

equation for the formation of the isotope of E in this reaction.
4
232Th ................. + He
90 2
Show clearly the nucleon number and proton number of the isotope of E.
nucleon number of the isotope of E ...........
proton number of the isotope of E .............
(ii) Hence state the symbol of the element E.
............ [3]

88
15 (a) Explain what is meant by the term nucleon number.
....................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. [1]
(b) Bromine exists naturally as a mixture of two stable isotopes, 79Br and 81Br, with relative
isotopic masses of 78.92 and 80.92 respectively.
(i) Define the term relative isotopic mass.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) Using the relative atomic mass of bromine, 79.90, calculate the relative isotopic
abundances of 79Br and 81Br.
[3]
(c) Bromine reacts with the element A to form a compound with empirical formula ABr 3.
The percentage composition by mass of ABr3 is A, 4.31; Br, 95.69.
Calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, of A. Give

your answer to three significant figures.
Ar of A = ......................... [3]

89
16 A sample of strontium, atomic number 38, gave the mass spectrum shown. The percentage
abundances are given above each peak.
100
82.58
percentage
abundance
9.86 7.00
0.56
0
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
atomic mass units
(ii) Explain why there are four different peaks in the mass spectrum of strontium.
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(iii) Calculate the atomic mass, Ar, of this sample of strontium.

Give your answer to three significant figures.
Ar = ............................... [2]

90
17 (a) Chemists recognise that atoms are made of three types of particle.
Complete the following table with their names and properties.
name of particle relative mass relative charge
1/1836
[3]
(b) The relative atomic mass of an element can be determined using data from its mass spectrum.
The mass spectrum of element X is shown, with the percentage abundance of each
isotope labelled.
60
49.61
50
40
percentage
abundance 30
23.77
20
10 9.37 7.63 8.73
0.89
0
73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83
m/e
(i) Define the terms relative atomic mass and isotope.
relative atomic mass ...........................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
isotope ................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
[3]

91
(ii) Use the data in the mass spectrum to calculate the relative atomic mass, A r, of X.
Give your answer to two decimal places and suggest the identity of X.
Ar of X ....................................
identity of X ....................................
[2]
(c) The element tellurium, Te, reacts with chlorine to form a single solid product, with a
relative formula mass of 270. The product contains 52.6% chlorine by mass.
(i) Calculate the molecular formula of this chloride.
molecular formula ...................................... [3]

92
18 (a) Chemists recognise that atoms are made of three types of particle.
Complete the following table with their names and properties.
name of particle relative mass relative charge
+1
1/1836
[3]
(b) Most elements exist naturally as a mixture of isotopes, each with their own relative isotopic
mass. The mass spectrum of an element reveals the abundances of these isotopes, which
can be used to calculate the relative atomic mass of the element.
Magnesium has three stable isotopes. Information about two of these isotopes is given.
relative percentage
isotope
isotopic mass abundance
24 Mg 24.0 79.0
26 Mg 26.0 11.0
(i) Define the term relative isotopic mass.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) The relative atomic mass of magnesium is 24.3.
Calculate the percentage abundance and hence the relative isotopic mass of the
third isotope of magnesium. Give your answer to three significant figures
percentage abundance = .................................
isotopic mass = .................................

[3]

93
(c) Neon has three stable isotopes.
isotope mass number percentage abundance
1 9.25
2 20 90.48
3 21 0.27
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) Use the relative atomic mass of neon, 20.2, to calculate the mass number of isotope 1.
mass number = ................................... [2]

94
20
(a) Complete the table to show the composition and identity of some atoms and ions.
name of nucleon atomic number of number of number of overall

element number number protons neutrons electrons charge
lithium 6 3 +1
............. ............. .............
oxygen 9 10
............. ............. ............. .............
54 26 26 24
............. ............. .............
17 18 0
............. ............. ............. .............
[4]
(b) Beams of protons, neutrons and electrons behave differently in an electric field due to their
differing properties.
The diagram shows the path of a beam of electrons in an electric field.
Add and label lines to represent the paths of beams of protons and neutrons in the same field.
electron beam
[3]

95
(d) A sample of strontium exists as a mixture of four isotopes. Information about three of
these isotopes is given in the table.
mass number 86 87 88
abundance 9.86% 7.00% 82.58%
(i) Calculate the abundance of the fourth isotope.
abundance = ............................. % [1]
(ii) The relative atomic mass of this sample of strontium is
87.71. Calculate the mass number of the fourth isotope.
mass number = ............................... [2]

96
21
A sample of oxygen exists as a mixture of three isotopes. Information about two of these isotopes is
given in the table.
mass number 16 17
abundance 99.76% 0.04%
(i) Calculate the abundance of the third isotope.
abundance = ............................. % [1]
(ii) The relative atomic mass of this sample of oxygen is 16.0044.
Calculate the mass number of the third isotope. You must show your working.
mass number = ............................... [2]

97
22
A naturally occurring sample of cerium contains only four isotopes. Data for three of the
isotopes are shown in the table.
isotope 136 Ce 138 Ce 140 Ce 142 Ce

relative to be
135.907 137.906 139.905
isotopic mass calculated
percentage to be
0.185 0.251 88.450
abundance calculated
The Ar of the sample is 140.116.
Use these data to calculate the relative isotopic mass of the fourth isotope in this
sample of cerium.
Give your answer to three decimal places.
relative isotopic mass =................................ [3]

98

99
Electronic Configuration
Electronic Configuration
The electronic configuration of an element describes how the electrons of its atoms are arranged in
their shells, sub shells and orbitals
In an atom, the orbitals are filled in order of increasing energy (starting from 1s)
according to the following rules
1. The added electron will always occupy the orbital with the lowest
energy first (Aufbau principle)
2. Each orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons of opposite spins (Pauli
Exclusion Principle)
3. When filling a subshell each orbital must be occupied singly (keeping
electron spins the same) before they are occupied in pairs
i.e. electrons ‘pair up’ as soon as each sub level is half filled (Hund’s Rule
of Multiplicity)
Paired electrons can only be stable when they spin in opposite directions so that the magnetic
attraction that results from their opposite spins can counterbalance the electrical repulsion resulting
from their identical charges
Electrons occupy the 4s orbital first (lower energy) before filling the 3d orbitals
Exceptions
The configuration 4s1 3d5 is more stable than 4s2 3d4 (because half-filled 4s and 3d subshells
are more stable)
The configuration 4s1 3d10 is more stable than 4s2 3d9 (because completely filled 3d
subshell is more stable)
The 4s electrons are also removed first in the formation of positive ions. This is because once the 3d orbitals
are occupied by electrons, these electrons repel the 4s orbital to a slightly higher energy level
Ground State:
An atom is in ground state when the electrons are in the orbitals of the lowest available energy level.
Most atoms are in their ground state at room temperature
Excited State:
An atom is in excited state when one or more electrons absorb energy and are promoted to a
higher energy level
Example: C (ground state) :1s2 2s2 2px1 2py12pz0
C*(excited state):1s2 2s1 2px1 2py12pz1

100
A summary of electronic configuration of elements (upto Z=38)
Writing electronic configuration:

1. Using the ‘electron-in-boxes’ representation e.g.
Note: an orbital cannot be occupied by two electrons with the same spin

101
2. Using Nobel Gas ‘Core’
3. Using s,p,d,f notation
4. Using energy levels
Note:
For Cr the configuration [Ar] 3d5 4s1 is more stable than [Ar] 3d4 4s2 For
Cu the configuration [Ar] 3d104s1 is more stable than [Ar] 3d9 4s2
The valence electrons always appear at the end of the configuration (underlined in the above
examples). The outermost electrons are largely responsible for the chemical properties and
the reaction of an element
The number of valence electrons will indicate the Group in which the elements are placed in the
Periodic Table
The outmost quantum shell number will indicate the Period in which the elements are placed in
the Periodic Table

102
First Ionization Energy

The first ionization energy of an element is defined as the amount of energy required to remove one electron
from each atom in a mole of gaseous atoms producing one mole of a gaseous cations.
- Ionization energies normally have positive values since energy is absorbed in removing an electron
- The successive ionization energies of an element increase with the removal of each electron
because the remaining electrons are attracted more strongly by the constant positive charge on
the nucleus
- The number of ionization energies that an element can have equals its atomic number.
Factors Influencing Ionization Energies
The ionization energy of an element is influenced by:
1. Size of the positive nuclear charge

As the nuclear charge increases, its attraction for the outermost electron increases and
more energy is required to remove an electron.
i.e., ionization energy increases
2. Size of atom ion (i.e., distance of the outermost electron from the nucleus)
As atomic/ionic size increases, the attraction of the positive nucleus for the negative
electron decreases and less energy is required to remove an electron.
i.e., ionization energy decreases
3. Screening (shielding) effect of inner electrons

The outermost electron is screened (shielded) from the attraction of the nucleus by the
repelling effect of the inner electrons. As shielding increases, the attraction of the positive
nucleus for the negative electron decreases and less energy is required to remove an
electron. i.e., ionization energy decreases
Trend Down a Group
Ionization energy decreases down a group (in spite of the higher charge on the nucleus) due
to increasing atomic size and increasing screening (shielding) effect.
- Down a group, the atomic radius increases due to increasing number of shells of electrons.
- The outer electrons are, therefore, further from the nucleus and are better shielded by the
inner shells of electrons. They become less strongly attracted by the positive nucleus and so,
less energy is required to remove the electron.
Trend Across a Period
Ionization energy increases across a period of due to increasing nuclear charge and decreasing
atomic radius
Since the electrons all go into the same shell, the shielding of the ionizing electrons is about the
same. The outer electrons are, therefore, increasingly more strongly attracted by the positive
nucleus and so, more energy is required to remove an electron.

103
Variation of First I.E. (up to Z = 20)
Discontinuities:
Ionization energy increases in a 2-3-3 step across a period (i.e., not a linear
increase) The discontinuities in the increase trend are:
(a) First ionization energy of Al is lower than that of Mg
This is because less energy is required to remove a 3p electron in Al than a 3s electron in

Mg since the 3p electron is further away from the nucleus and it also experiences slightly
better shielding (from the 3s electrons).
Similarly, first ionization energy of B is lower than that of Be.
This is because less energy is required to remove the outer 2p electron of B since it is
further away from the nucleus.
(b) First ionization energy of S is lower than that of P
In S, the two electrons occupying the same orbital (i.e., 3p) give rise to interelectron repulsion.
Thus, less energy is required to remove an electron from the paired 3p electrons in S.
Similarly, first ionization energy of O is lower than that of N.
Less energy is required to remove an electron from paired 2p electrons in O since repulsion
is experienced between the paired electrons. The first ionisation energy of O is, therefore,
lower than expected (had the B-C-N trend continued.
First ionisation energy of Na is lower than that of Ne
The outer electron of Na is in the third shell (3s orbital) and is further from the nucleus than
the outer electrons (in 2s and 2p orbitals) of Ne.
Thus, the outermost (3s) electron in Na experiences more effective shielding by the inner shells
of electrons and less energy is required to remove it. The first ionisation energy of Na is,
therefore, lower than that of Ne.

104
Successive ionisation energy

The following information can be obtained from ionisation energy data
1. Total number of electrons in an atom
- equal to the number of the separate ionisation energies possessed by the atom
2. Number of quantum shells occupied and the number of electrons in each
- Deduced by plotting successive ionisation energies against the order of removal of
electrons from the atom
3. Number of sub shells occupied and the number of electrons in each
- Deduced by plotting successive ionisation energies in quantum shells against the order
of removal of electrons
e.g. 1 : successive ionization energies for potassium atom
Potassium atom has a total of 19 electrons which fall into four groups
The first electron is relatively easy to remove, the next eight electrons are more difficult to remove, a
second group of eight electrons are even more difficult to remove and the last 2 electrons are very
difficult to remove
This suggest that potassium has:

Two electrons very close to the nucleus (in the 1st quantum shell, which are most difficult
to remove)
Eight electrons further out (in the 2nd quantum shell)
Another eight electrons even further out (in the 3rd quantum shell)
One further away still (in the 4th quantum shell)
Hence the electron arrangement in potassium is written as 2,8,8,1
e.g. 2: ionisation energies in the 3rd quantum shell of potassium

The steady rise in ionisation energy for successive removal of the first
six electrons followed by a sharp increase suggests that the last two
electrons are more strongly attracted to the nucleus.
This shows that the electron shell is further divided into
sub shells (labelled 3s and 3p) and are occupied by two
and six electrons respectively

105
Interpret successive I.E. data

Successive I.E data may be used to deduce the electronic configuration of an element and hence
the position of that element within the Periodic Table.
e.g. given the first seven ionization energies of an element (in kJ mol -1)
790, 1600, 3200, 4400, 16100, 19800 and 23800
Work out the difference between successive ionisation energy values
There is a big increase in ionisation energy when the 5 th electron is removed, showing that
the first four electrons are removed from the outermost shell while the 5th electron is
removed from the next inner shell.
Hence, the element has four electrons in the outermost shell and so, belongs to Group IV in
the periodic Table
The outer configuratuon of the element is ns2 np

99
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PARSA ASIF ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

100
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109
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION WS 1
1 Successive ionisation energies of an element X in kj/mol are as follows:
578 1817 2745 11578 14831 18378
Which one of the following is X?
A boron C aluminium
B carbon D silicon
2 Which one of the rows giving information about the fourth period of the periodic table
is correct?
Total The Maximum

number of number of number of
orbitals different electrons in
ty es of
p the shell
orbital
A 4 2 8
B 9 2 18
C 9 3 8
D 9 3 18
3 What is the order of increasing energy of the orbitals within a single energy level?
Ad>s<f<p Cp<s<f<d
Bs<p<d<f Df<d<p<s
4 What is the condensed electronic configuration for Co3+?
A [Ar]4s23d5 C [Ar]3d6
B [Ar]4s23d4 D [Ar]4s13d5
5 Which are the values of the successive ionisation energies for an element in Group 14 of
the periodic table?
A 496, 738, 578, 789, 1012, 1000 C 1086, 2353, 4621, 6223, 37832, 47278
B578, 1817,2745,11578, 14831,18378 D 1314, 1000, 941, 869, 812
CEDAR COLLEGE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION WS 1

110
6 Which are the values for the first ionisation energies of consecutive elements in the
same period?
A 496, 738, 578, 789, 1012, 1000 C 1086, 2353, 4621, 6223, 37832, 47278
B578, 1817,2745,11578, 14831,18378 D 1314, 1000, 941, 869,812
In the gas phase, aluminium and a transition element require the same amount of energy to
form one mole of an ion with a 2+ charge.
What is the transition element?
A Co B
Cr C
Cu D
Ni
[W’02 3]
8 The successive ionisation energies, in kJ mol–1, of an element X are given below.
870 1800 3000 3600 5800 7000 13 200
What is X?
A 33As B 40Zr C 52Te D 53I
[S’03 4]
9 Which of the following particles would, on losing an electron, have a half-filled set of p orbitals?
A C– B N C N– D O
+
[S’04 5]
10 The table gives the successive ionisation energies for an element X.
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th
ionisation energy / kJ mol–1 950 1800 2700 4800 6000 12300
What could be the formula of the chloride of X ?
A XCl B XCl2 C XCl3 D XCl4

[W’03 5]

111
11 What is the order of increasing energy of the listed orbitals in the atom of titanium?
A 3s 3p 3d 4s
B 3s 3p 4s 3d
C 3s 4s 3p 3d
D 4s 3s 3p 3d
[S’04 4]
12 An atom has eight electrons.
Which diagram shows the electronic configuration of this atom in its lowest energy state?
[W’04 5]
13 The first six ionisation energies of four elements, A to D, are given. Which
element is most likely to be in Group IV of the Periodic Table?
ionisation
energy / kJ mol−1
A 494 4560 6940 9540 13400 16600
B 736 1450 7740 10500 13600 18000
C 1090 2350 4610 6220 37800 47000
D 1400 2860 4590 7480 9400 53200

[S’05 3]
14 What is the electronic configuration of an element with a second ionisation energy higher
than that of each of its neighbours in the Periodic Table?
A 1s22s22p63s2
B 1s22s22p63s23p1
C 1s22s22p63s23p2
D 1s22s22p63s23p3
[S’05 3]

112
15 In 1999, researchers working in the USA believed that they had made a new element and that it
had the following electronic structure.
[Rn] 5f146d107s27p6.
In which group of the Periodic Table would you expect to find this element?
A II B IV C VI D 0
[S’11 2 13]
16 Gallium nitride, GaN, could revolutionise the design of electric light bulbs because only a
small length used as a filament gives excellent light at low cost.
Gallium nitride is an ionic compound containing the Ga 3+ ion.

What is the electron arrangement of the nitrogen ion in gallium nitride?
A 1s2 2s2
B 1s2 2s2 2p3
C 1s2 2s2 2p4
D 1s2 2s2 2p6
[S’06 3]
The electronic structures of calcium, krypton, phosphorus and an element X are
shown. Which electronic structure is that of element X?
A 1s22s22p63s23p3
B 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
C 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2
D 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6
[W’06 3]
In forming ionic compounds, elements generally form an ion with the electronic structure of
a noble gas.
Which ion does not have a noble gas electronic structure?
A I– B Rb+ C Sn2+ D Sr2+ [W’07 2]
19 In which pair do both atoms have one electron only in an s orbital in their ground states?
A Ca, Sc B Cu, Be C H, He D Li, Cr

[W’08 3]

113
20 The first seven ionisation energies of an element between lithium and neon in the Periodic
Table are as follows.
1310 3390 5320 7450 11 000 13 300 71 000 kJ mol–1
What is the outer electronic configuration of the element?
A 2s2 B 2s22p1 C 2s22p4 D 2s22p6

[S’09 1 3]
21 Which element has an equal number of electron pairs and of unpaired electrons within orbitals
of principal quantum number 2?
A beryllium B
carbon
C nitrogen
D oxygen
[W’11 1 3]
Which graph represents the number of unpaired p orbital electrons for atoms with proton
numbers 13 to 18?
A B
number of number of
unpaired unpaired
electrons electrons
0 0
13 14 15 16 17 18 13 14 15 16 17 18
proton number proton number
C D
number of number of
unpaired unpaired
electrons electrons
0 0
13 14 15 16 17 18 13 14 15 16 17 18
proton number proton number
[S’09 1 4]

114
23 In which set do all species contain the same number of electrons?

A Co2+, Co3+, Co4+
B F–, Br –, Cl –
C Na+, Mg2+, Al 3+
D K2SO4, K2SeO4, K2TeO4
[W’13 2 4]
24 Element X forms X– ions that can be oxidised to element X by acidified potassium

manganate(VII).
What could be the values of the first four ionisation energies of X?
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
A 418 3070 4600 5860

B 577 1820 2740 11 600
C 590 1150 4940 6480
D 1010 1840 2040 4030
[W’13 3 4]
25 Atoms of element X have six unpaired
electrons. What could be element X?
A carbon
B chromium C
iron
D selenium
[S’14 1 1]
26 For the element sulfur, which pair of ionisation energies has the largest difference between them? A
third and fourth ionisation energies
B fourth and fifth ionisation energies C

fifth and sixth ionisation energies
D sixth and seventh ionisation energies

[M’16 2 2]

115
27 Elements X and Y are in the same group of the Periodic Table.
The table shows the first six ionisation energies of X and Y in kJ mol –1.
X 800 1600 2400 4300 5400 10400

Y 1000 1800 2700 4800 6000 12300
What could be the identities of X and Y?
X Y
A antimony, Sb arsenic, As
B arsenic, As antimony, Sb
C selenium, Se tellurium, Te
D tellurium, Te selenium, Se
[S’16 2 3]
28 Which isolated gaseous atom has a total of five electrons occupying spherically shaped orbitals?
A boron
B fluorine C
sodium
D potassium
[S’16 2 5]
29 Carbon and silicon have the same outer electronic structure.
Why is a Si–Si bond weaker than a C–C bond?
A Silicon atoms have a larger atomic radius than carbon atoms.

B Silicon has a greater nuclear charge than carbon.
C Silicon has a smaller first ionisation energy than carbon.
D Silicon is more metallic than carbon.
[S’16 2 6]
30 Sodium azide, NaN3 is an explosive used to inflate airbags in cars when they crash. It consists
of positive sodium ions and negative azide ions.
What are the numbers of electrons in the sodium ion and the azide ion?
sodium ion azide ion
A 10 20
B 10 22
C 12 20
D 12 22

116
31 What is the electronic configuration of an isolated Ni2+ ion?
A 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2
B 1s22s22p63s23p63d84s2
C1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2
D 1s22s22p63s23p63d8
32 Which ion has the same electronic configuration as Cl –?
A F– B P+ C Sc3+ D Si4+
33 This question refers to isolated gaseous atoms.
In which atom are all electrons paired?
A Ba B Br C S D Si
[S’18 1 Q1]
34 Element X has a higher first ionisation energy than element Y.
Two students state what they believe is one factor that helps to explain this.
student 1 “X has a higher first ionisation energy than Y because an atom of X has
more protons in its nucleus than an atom of Y.”
student 2 “X has a higher first ionisation energy than Y because X has a smaller
atomic radius than Y.”
Only one of the two students is correct.
What could X and Y be?
X Y
A carbon boron
B magnesium aluminium
C oxygen nitrogen
D oxygen sulfur
[S’18 1Q10]
35 The electronic configuration of an atom of sulfur is 1s22s22p63s23p4.

How many valence shell and unpaired electrons are present in one sulfur atom?
valence shell unpaired

electrons electrons
A 2 1
B 4 2
C 6 0
D 6 2
[S’182Q2]

117
36 The table refers to the electron distribution in the second shell of an atom with eight
protons. Which row is correct for this atom?
orbital shape orbital shape
number of number of
orbital type orbital type
electrons electrons
A p 2 s 4
B p 4 s 2
C s 2 p 4
D s 4 p 2
[S’18 3 Q3]

118
SECTION B
may be correct.
A B C D
1, 2 and 3 1 and 2 2 and 3 1 only

1 In which pairs do both species have the same number of unpaired p

electrons? 1 O and Cl +
2 F+ and Ga–
3 P and Ne+
[S’12 3 32]
The isotope 99Tc is radioactive and has been found in lobsters and seaweed adjacent to nuclear
fuel reprocessing plants.
Which statements are correct about an atom of 99Tc?

1 It has 13 more neutrons than protons.
2 It has 43 protons.
3 It has 99 nucleons.
[S’07 31]
3 Which statements are correct when referring to the atoms 23Na and
24
Mg? 1 They have the same number of full electron orbitals.
2 They have the same number of neutrons.
3 They are both reducing agents.
[S’13 3 32]

119
4 Carbon and nitrogen are adjacent in the Periodic
Table. Which properties do they both have?
1 There is an empty 2p orbital in one atom of the element.

2 The principal quantum number of the highest occupied orbital is 2.
3 They form compounds in which their atoms form bonds with four other atoms.
[S’13 1 32]
5 Compound X is made from two elements. One element has the second highest value of first
ionisation energy in its group and the other element has the third highest value of first ionisation
energy in its group.
Which compounds could be compound X?
1 calcium chloride
2 magnesium bromide
3 potassium sulfide
[S’16 3 31]
6 X is an element that has
● its outer electrons in the 4th principal quantum shell,

● a higher 1st ionisation energy than calcium.
1 bromine
2 krypton
3 xenon

120
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION WS2
1 Complete the electronic configurations of atoms of the following elements:
a) Phosphorus: [Ne]................. b) Cobalt: [Ar].................
2 Fill in the outer electrons of a phosphorus atom in the boxes below:
3s 3p
3 The successive ionisation energies of an element, X, are given in the table. To which
group of the periodic table does element X belong?
−
Ionisation Ionisation energy/kJ mol 1
1st 1 000
2nd 2 260
3rd 3 390
4th 4 540
5th 6 990
6th 8 490
7th 27 100
8th 31 700
9th 36 600
10th 43 100
...........................................................
4 The first ionisation of elements sodium to argon is shown below.

energyionisationFirst
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K

121
a) Explain why the general trend from sodium to argon is upward but why the value for
sulfur is less than that for phosphorus.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
b) Mark on the graph where the value for potassium would be.
c) Explain why the value for the second ionisation energy of sodium is very much larger
than that of its first ionisation.
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
5 Write down the complete electronic configurations for the following elements:
a) Mn: .........................................................................................
b) Mn2+: .........................................................................................
c) Cu2+: ..........................................................................................
6 a) Explain what you understand by the word ‘orbital’ as applied to electrons.

...............................................................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................................................................
b) Draw an s- and a p- orbital.
c) How does a 1s orbital differ from a 2s orbital?

...............................................................................................................................................................................
d) How many electrons are there in:
i. a 3d orbital? ..........................
ii. orbitals with a principal quantum number of 3? ..............................

122
1 Electrons are arranged in energy levels.
(a) An orbital is a region in which an electron may be found.
Draw diagrams to show the shape of an s orbital and of a p orbital.
s orbital p orbital
[2]
(b) Complete the table below to show how many electrons completely fill each of the following.
number of electrons
a d orbital
a p sub-shell
the third shell (n = 3)

[3]
(c) The energy diagram below is for the eight electrons in an oxygen atom. The diagram
is incomplete as it only shows the two electrons in the 1s level.
energy
1s
Complete the diagram for the oxygen atom by:
(i) adding labels for the other sub-shell levels, [1]
(ii) adding arrows to show how the other electrons are arranged. [1]

123
(d) Successive ionisation energies provide evidence for the arrangement of electrons in atoms.
Table 1.1 shows the eight successive ionisation energies of oxygen.
Table 1.1
ionisation number 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th
ionisation
1314 3388 5301 7469 10 989 13 327 71 337 84 080
–1
energy / kJ mol
(i) Define the term first ionisation energy.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... [3]
(ii) Write an equation, with state symbols, to represent the third ionisation energy of
oxygen.
..................................................................................................................................... [2]
(iii) Explain how the information in Table 1.1 provides evidence for two electron shells in
oxygen.
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... [2]

124
2 Sir James Jeans, who was a great populariser of science, once described an atom of carbon
as being like six bees buzzing around a space the size of a football stadium.
(a) (i) Suggest what were represented by the six bees in this description.
...................................................................................................................................
(ii) Explain (in terms of an atom of carbon) what stopped the bees from flying away
from the space of the football stadium.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(iii) What is missing from Jeans’ description when applied to an atom of carbon?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
[3]
(b) The diagram below represents the energy levels of the orbitals in atoms of the second
period, lithium to neon.
(i) Label the energy levels to indicate the principal quantum number and the type of
orbital at each energy level.
energy
nucleus
(ii) In the space below, sketch the shapes of the two types of orbital.

125
(iii) Complete the electron configurations of nitrogen and oxygen on the energy
level diagrams below, using arrows to represent electrons.
nitrogen oxygen
(iv) Explain, with reference to your answer to (iii), the relative values of the first
ionisation energies of nitrogen and oxygen. The values are given in the Data
Booklet and should be quoted in your answer.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
[6]
(c) (i) State the formulae of the negatively charged ions formed by these elements in
simple binary compounds (nitrides and oxides).
...................................................................................................................................
(ii) Why do nitrogen and oxygen form negative ions, but not positive ions, in simple
binary compounds?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
[2]
[Total : 11]

126
3 In the 19th and 20th centuries, scientists established the atomic theory and showed that
three sub-atomic particles, electron, neutron and proton, exist. The masses and charges
of these three particles were subsequently determined.
When separate beams of electrons, neutrons or protons are passed through an electric
field in the apparatus below, they behave differently.
+ –
beam of particles
(a) (i) Which of these three particles will be deflected the most by the electric field?
.........................................
(ii) In which direction will this particle be deflected?
..................................................................................................................................
(iii) Explain your answer.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[4]
(b) (i) Define the term proton number.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Why is the proton number of an atom of an element usually different from
the nucleon number of an atom of the element?
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[2]

127
(c) Protons and neutrons have been used in nuclear reactions which result in the formation of
artificial elements. In such processes, protons or neutrons are accelerated to high speeds and
then fired like ‘bullets’ at the nucleus of an atom of an element.
Suggest why neutrons are more effective than protons as ‘nuclear bullets’.
..........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... [2]
(d) In some cases, when neutrons are fired at atoms of an element, the neutrons
become part of the nucleus of those atoms.
What effect does the presence of an extra neutron have on the chemical properties
of the new atoms formed? Explain your answer.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... [2]
[Total: 10]

128
4 The first six successive ionisation energies of an element D are shown in Table 4.1
below. Table 4.1
1
element ionisation energy/ kJ mol—
1st 2nd 3rd 4th Sth 6th
D 1086 2353 4621 6223 37832 47278
(a) Define the term first ionisation energy.
(b) Write an equation, with state symbols, to represent the third ionisation energy
of element D.
(c) Use Table 4.1 to deduce which group of the Periodic Table contains element
D. Explain your answer.
explanation ................. .......... ......... .... ..... .......................... . ....... ........ ...................

129
5 (a) Explain what is meant by the term ionisation energy.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. [3]
(b) The first seven ionisation energies of an element, A, in kJ mol –1, are
1012 1903 2912 4957 6274 21269 25398.
(i) State the group of the Periodic Table to which A is most likely to belong. Explain your
answer.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) Complete the electronic configuration of the element in Period 2 that is in the same group
as A.
1s2 ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ [1]
(c) Another element, Z, in the same period of the Periodic Table as A, reacts with chlorine to form
a compound with empirical formula ZCl 2. The percentage composition by mass of ZCl 2 is Z,
31.13; Cl , 68.87.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) Calculate the relative atomic mass, Ar, of Z. Give

your answer to three significant figures.
Ar of Z = .......................... [2]

130
6 (c) The fifth to eighth ionisation energies of three elements in the third period of the Periodic Table are
given. The symbols used for reference are not the actual symbols of the elements.
ionisation energies, kJ mol–1

fifth sixth seventh eighth
X 6274 21 269 25 398 29 855
Y 7012 8496 27 107 31 671
Z 6542 9362 11 018 33 606
(i) State and explain the group number of element Y.
group number ...............................
explanation .........................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
[1]
(ii) State and explain the general trend in first ionisation energies across the third period.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(iii) Explain why the first ionisation energy of element Y is less than that of element X.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(iv) Complete the electronic configuration of element Z.
1s2 ......................................................................................................................................... [1]

131
Chemical Bonding
Intra-molecular forces (with in a molecule) Inter-molecular forces (between molecules)

Ionic bond H bonds (aka Vander Waal’s forces)
Metallic bond Temporary dipole – induced dipole forces
Covalent Bond Permanent dipole forces
Dative covalent bond (coordinate bond)
Intra molecular forces:

Ionic bond: defined as the strong electrostatic force of attraction between two oppositely charged ions
which are formed due to complete electron transfer.
Metals cation losing election decrease in I.E

Nonmetals anion gaining election increase in I.E
Electron affinity
First electron affinity (ea1): always exothermic
Defined as the energy released when one electron is added to each atom in a mole of gaseous atom
to form 1 mol of mono-negative gaseous ion
Exothermic because the electron added makes forces with the existing electrons
Second electron affinity (ea2)

Second electron affinity is defined as the energy required when 1 electron is added to each mono negative gaseous
ion in a mole of mono-negative gaseous ion to form 1 mole of di-negative gaseous ions
Successive electron affinity will always be endothermic because adding an electron to a negative
ion (Anion) will have a force of repulsion. In order to add the electron energy is provided to
overcome the repulsion: therefore, this is endothermic
The greater the electron affinity the more susceptible to gain electron and become anion
PARSA ASIF CHEMICALBONDING

132
Covalent bonding:
strong electrostatic force of attraction formed between 2 atomic nuclei
Covalent bonds:
1. Sigma bond
Strong covalent bond formed by complete/end to end/head to head overlap of orbitals such that the
shared pair of electron lies between two nuclei
2. Pi bonds:
Relatively weaker covalent bonds formed by incomplete/partial/lateral/sideways overlap of two
p orbitals such that the shared pair of electrons lies above and below the nuclei
All single bonds are sigma

In a double bond: one sigma bond, 2 pi bonds
In a triple bond: one sigma bond, 3 pi bonds
Sigma is stronger because it has stronger attraction by the nucleus compared to the pi bond

133
Bond energy
SI unit: kJ/mol
Energy required (endothermic) to break 1 mol of covalent bond that exists between 2 atoms in gaseous
states
Example
Strength of covalent bond:
Strength of covalent bond α bond energy

bond length
Bond length
Distance between the two nuclei/ inter-nuclear distance between 2 atoms making a covalent
bond It is inversely related to bond strength
As we go from H-F to H-I

bond length/ inter-nuclear
distance increases because
of increase in atomic radius
As bond length increases,
bond strength decreases
Bond energy:
We can use bond energy to calculate ΔHr
Dative covalent bonding/co-ordinate bonding

Coordinate bonds are formed when one species has a vacant orbital and
the other has at least one lone pair of electrons
Conditions:
1. One of the species must have at least 1 lone pair of electrons
2. The other electron must have a vacant orbital empty
Both electrons making the coordinate bond come from the same atom
Bond energy of a dative bond is the same as a covalent bond

134
Hybridisation:
Process of making atomic orbitals to form degenerate (same energy)
hybrids Sp3, sp2 ,sp
Steric Hybridisation Shape Bond Example

# Angle
6 Sp3d2 Octahedral 180, SF6
90
5 Sp3d Trigonal 120, PCl5
bipyramidal 180
4 Sp3 Tetrahedral 109.5 CH4
3 Sp2 Trigonal 120 Ethene,
planar AlCl3
2 Sp Linear 180 CO2,
BeCl2,
ethyne
VSPER Theory (Valence shell electron repulsion pair theory)

According to this theory
Bond pair-bond pair repulsion is the least
Bond pair-lone pair repulsion is intermediate
Lone pair-lone pair repulsion is the maximum
Steric # Hybridisation Shape Bond Example
Angle
6 Sp3d2 Octahedral 180, SF6
90
5 Sp3d Trigonal 120, PCl5
bipyramidal 180
4 Sp3 Tetrahedral 109.5 CH4
3 Sp2 Trigonal 120 Ethene,
planar AlCl3
2 Sp Linear 180 CO2,BeCl2,
ethyne
Electronegativity
Ability of an element to pull the shared pair of electron towards itself
Electronegativity increases across the period and decreases down the group
F, O, N, Cl
F is the most electronegative
Cs and Fr are least electronegative
Pauling’s Scale: denotes a number/value to the electronegativity of the elements

135
VALUE OF ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Na 1
Al 1.5
Cl 3
Bonds between
1. Na and Cl: The difference in electronegativity of 2 elements (3-1 =2) is <1.6 Ionic bonding
2. Al and Cl: The difference in EN of 2 elements (3-1.5=1.5) is >1.6 Covalent bonding
<0.9: Polar covalent
>0.9: Non polar covalent
C and H have similar electronegativity (non polar)

B and H have similar electronegativity (non polar)
Polar molecule: F, O, N, Cl
Dipole: representation (using an arrow) of where the shared pair of electron lies (δ+ δ-)
Dipole moment: net dipole/ overall dipole

Polar molecules have a dipole moment
Deduce polarity in a molecule

1. Shape of molecule
2. Symmetry of a molecule (if the central atom has the same type of atom around it symmetric)
Lone pair always disturbs polarity
Examples:
Tetrahedral:
CH4, Cl4 : non polar molecules
CCl3H, CH3Cl : polar molecules
Trigonal Planar:
AlCl3, BF3: non polar molecules
AlCl2H, BH2F: polar molecules
Linear:
CO2, H2O: Polar bonds, polar molecules
136
Intermolecular forces
1. Temporary dipole – induced dipole forces (weakest)
2. Permeant dipole forces (intermediate)
3. Hydrogen bonding (strongest)
Factors depending on IMF

1. Meting and boiling points α strength of IMF
2. State of elements (solid, liquid, gas) α strength of IMF
3. Volatility α 1/ strength of IMF
4. Solubility α Hydrogen bonding
Temporary dipole - induced dipole forces

In all molecules, but in non-polar molecules there are only these forces
Explain how IMF between methane (CH4) moles are formed
Methane is a non-polar molecule and has temporary dipole induced dipole forces
Since the EN between C and H is similar, the bond is non polar and if we momentarily pause the
movement of electrons they may lie close to one of the two atoms making it δ- and making the other
side δ+. A temporary dipole is formed which induces a dipole in the neighboring molecule forming
temporary dipole induced dipole forces
Permanent dipole force

E.g. H-Br, H-Cl
Stronger than induced dipole forces due to a fixed dipole
Q. Enlist all IMF in HCL molecule

1. Permanent dipole force
2. temporary dipole induced dipole forces
Q. Explain the difference in boiling points between Br2(l) and HBr

HBr has greater BP compared to Br2 which has weaker IM i.e. temporary dipole induced dipole forces,
which can be broken easily and less energy is required to overcome them, therefore lower BP compared
to HBr

137
Q. Explain why the state changes from Cl2(g), to I2(s)

Br2(l), Temporary dipole induced dipole forces
Strength of VWF α no. of electrons & SA

Vander Waal Forces permanent + temporary dipole
Cl2 , Br2 and I2 have temporary dipole induced dipole forces
I2 is a solid at rtp because strength of IMF is the strongest due to highest number of electrons
Br2 is a liquid a rtp because strength of IMF is relatively weaker due to lesser no. of electrons
Cl2 is a gas a rtp because strength of IMF is weakest due to least no. of electrons
Stronger IMF solid

Intermediate IMF liquid
Weakest IMF gas
Q. Explain the difference in BP of HCl, HBr and HI?

HCl, HBr and HI have permanent dipole forces
HI has the highest BP due to strongest IMF due to highest number of electrons
HBr has relatively lower BP compared to HI due to weaker strength of IMF due to lesser number
of electrons.
HCl has the least BP due to the weakest IMF due to the least number of electrons
Q. Explain the difference in boiling point of butane and 2-methyl propane?

Both isomers have temporary dipole induced dipole forces. Butane has a larger surface area hence
stronger IMF and higher BP as more energy is required to overcome the strong forces Compared to
the 2-methylpropane which has smaller surface area, weaker IMF and lower BP
Q. 3 isomers of CH2H12
Pentane.
Nature of IMF: Temporary dipole induced dipole forces
High BP (largest SA), Strongest IMF
2-methyl butane Intermediate

strength of IMF
2-2 dimethyl propane

Lowest BP
Least strength of IMF due to smallest surface area
The more branching in a molecule, surface area deceases so IMF decreases

138
Hydrogen Bonding
Strongest IMF
Requirements
1. occurs between H-O, H-F, H-N
2. EN element must have at least one lone pair of electron
Enlist IMF in H2O

1. Hydrogen Bonding
2. Permanent dipole force
3. Temporary dipole induced dipole forces
e.g. NH3
e.g. H-F
Q. Why is NH3 soluble in water? Show using a diagram

Because NH3 can make H bonds with water
Q. Explain why ethanol is soluble in water

Because ethanol can make H bonds with water
Q. Explain why HF has the highest BP compared to other Hydrogen halides (HCl, HBr, HI)
HF has a higher BP because it has stronger IMF i.e., H bonds which require more energy to overcome
compared to HCl, HBr and HI which have permanent dipole forces which are relatively weaker
HF: H bonds
HCl, HBr, HI: Permanent dipole forces

139
Polar covalent bonds

C-Cl, C-I, N-H,C-Br, O-H, H-Cl
Ionic bonds with covalent character

NaCl ↓ cd, ↓pp Ionic
MgCl2 Ionic
AlCl3 ↑ cd ↑pp Covalent
Charge density α charge/mass

Polarizing power α charge density
Ability of cation to pull the electron of the anion
Polarizing power α distortion of anion α covalent nature
Covalent character in ionic bond

Cation: ↑ cd ↑pp } α charge/radius
Anion: ↑ polarizability α charge and radius
Polarizability α charge and radius

AlCl3 is covalent (Acidic)
Al3+ has high polarizing power
Cl- has high polarizability (↑ radius)
Al3+ has high polarizing power

O2- has low polarizability (↓ radius)
Be and Al
Be2+ and Al3+
↑ charge (↑ charge density) ↓
radius (↓ Polarizing power)
BeCl2 : covalent
BeO: Ionic with covalent character

140
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PARSA ASIF CHEMICAL BONDING

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161
BONDING WS 4
SHAPES OF MOLECULES
SECTION A
1 Which is the most likely shape of a molecule of hydrazine, N 2H4?
H H
90
A N N
H H
H H
90
B H N N H
H 120 H
C N N
H H
107 H
D N N H
HH
2 Chemists have been interested in the properties of hydrogen selenide, H 2Se, to compare it
with ‘bad egg’ gas hydrogen sulphide, H 2S.
Which set of data would the hydrogen selenide molecule be expected to have?
number of lone pairs bond angle

on Se atom
A 1 104 °
B 2 104 °
C 2 109 °
D 2 180 °
3 Which molecule is
planar?
A NF3
B C2Cl 4
C C 3H 6
D C3H8
162
4 What are the bond angles in the PH3 molecule likely to be?
A 90 o B 104 o C 109 o D 120 o
5 Lycra® is a polyurethane fibre used in the fashion industry. It is a polymer made from two
monomers, one of which has the following formula.
O=C=N–(CH2)n –N=C=O
What is the O–C–N bond angle in this molecule?
A 90° B 109° C 120° D 180°
6 Organic nitrates in photochemical smog can cause breathing difficulties. The
diagram shows an example of an organic nitrate molecule.
What is the correct order of the bond angles shown in ascending order (smallest first)?
A 1→2→3 B 2→1→3 C 3→1→2 D 3→2→1
7 Methyl isocyanate, CH3NCO, is a toxic liquid which is used in the manufacture of some
pesticides.
In the methyl isocyanate molecule, the sequence of atoms is H 3C — N C O.
What is the approximate angle between the bonds formed by the N atom?
A B C D
N C O N C O N C O
H3C N C O
HC HC H3C
3 3
104 109 120 180
CEDAR COLLEGE SHAPES OF MOLECULES WS 1

163
8 The antidote molecule shown can help to prevent liver damage if someone takes too many
paracetamol tablets.
What is the order of decreasing size of the bond angles x, y and z?
largest smallest
A x y z
B x z y
C y z x
D z y x
9 Which molecule or structure does not contain three atoms bonded at an angle between 109°
and 110°?
A ethanoic acid B
graphite
C propane
D silicon(IV) oxide
10 In which pair do the molecules have the same shape as each other?
A H2O and CO2

B H2O and SCl 2 C
NH3 and BH3
D SCl 2 and BeCl 2
11 X is an element in Period 2.
In which fluoride is the F – X – F angle the largest?
A BF3 B CF4 C NF3 D OF2

164
12 Which series shows molecules in order of increasing bond angle?

A CH4 BF3 NH3
B H 2O CO2 BF3
C NH3 CH4 CO2
D NH3 CH4 H 2O
13 Which row of the table is correct?
shape bonds present

ammonia ammonium ammonia ammonium
molecule ion molecule ion
A pyramidal regular tetrahedral

B pyramidal regular tetrahedral
C regular tetrahedral pyramidal
D regular tetrahedral pyramidal
14 Dicarbon monoxide, C2O, is found in dust clouds in space. The structure of this molecule is
C=C=O. The molecule contains no unpaired electrons.
How many lone pairs of electrons are present in a molecule of C2O?
A 1 B 2 C 3 D 4
15 Al Cl 3 vapour forms molecules with formula Al 2Cl 6 as it is cooled.
What happens to the bond angles during the change from Al Cl 3 to Al 2Cl 6?
A Some decrease, some remain the same.

B Some increase, some remain the same.
C They all decrease.
D They all increase.
16 Which pair has species with different shapes?

A BeCl 2 and CO2
B CH4 and NH4+ C
NH3 and BF3 D
SCl 2 and H2O

165
17 Each of the four species in this question are isolated and gaseous.
Which species is not planar?
A BF3 B CH3+ C C 2H 4 D NH3
18 Sodium borohydride, NaBH4, and boron trifluoride, BF3, are compounds of boron. What
are the shapes around boron in the borohydride ion and in boron trifluoride?
borohydride ion boron trifluoride
A square planar pyramidal

B square planar trigonal planar
C tetrahedral pyramidal
D tetrahedral trigonal planar
19 Histamine is produced in the body to help fight infection. Its shape allows it to fit into receptors
which expand blood vessels.
H H H N C
y
C
xN C C N
z H
H C
H H
H
histamine
What are the bond angles x, y and z in histamine, from the smallest to the largest?
smallest largest
bond angle bond angle
A x y z
B y x z
C y z x
D z y x
20 Which molecule is planar?
A C2Cl 4 B C3H6 C C 3H 8 D NF3
21 In which hydride is the H–X–H bond angle the smallest?
A BH3 B CH4 C C 2 H6 D NH3

166
22 The characteristic smell of garlic is due to alliin.
H H O NH2
y z
xC C CH2 S CH2 C H
H CO2H
alliin
What are the approximate bond angles x, y and z in a molecule of alliin?
x y z
A 90o 90o 109o

B 120o 109o 90o
C 120o 120o 109o
D 180o 109o 109o
23 Which feature is present in both ethene and

poly(ethene)? A bond angles of 109
B π covalent bonds
C σ covalent bonds
D sp3 orbitals
[S’18 2 Q1]
24 Which statement describes the bond between carbon and hydrogen in an ethene molecule?
A a π bond between an s orbital and an sp2 orbital B a

π bond between an s orbital and an sp3 orbital C a σ
bond between an s orbital and an sp2 orbital D a σ
bond between an s orbital and an sp3 orbital
[S’18 3 Q4]

167
SECTION B
may be correct.
A B C D
1, 2 and 3 1 and 2 2 and 3 1 only

1 Which of the following molecules and ions have a regular trigonal planar shape?
1 Al Cl3
2 CH3+
3 PH3
2 Which molecules are planar?
1 BCl3
2 NH3
3 PH3
3 In which sequences are the molecules quoted in order of increasing bond angle within the
molecule?
1 H2 O NH3 CH4
2 H2 O SF6 BF3
3 CH4 CO2 SF6
4 Which descriptions of the ammonium ion are
correct? 1 It contains ten electrons.
2 It has a bond angle of 109.5°.

3 It has only three bonding pairs of electrons.

168
5 Which elements can form π bonds in their
compounds? 1 carbon
2 oxygen
3 nitrogen
6 Urea is a product of animal metabolism. It can also be used as a fertiliser.
H
N
x
H
O C
H
N
H
urea
The diagram shows angle x in this molecule.
Which statements about the structure of urea are correct?
1 Angle x is approximately 120°.
2 The molecule has two π bonds.

3 The molecule has only three lone pairs of electrons.
7 Which statements are correct?
1 The hydrogen bonds in ice are more regularly arranged than in water. 2
The solidification of water to form ice is exothermic.
3 Pure water is less dense than ice.
[S’18 1 Q32]

169
BONDING WS 1
COVALENT BONDING
SECTION A
1 Which molecule contains only six bonding electrons?
A C2 H4 B C2 F 6 C H2 O D NF3
2 Which diagram describes the formation of a π bond from the overlap of its orbitals?
3 The CN– ion is widely used in the synthesis of organic compounds.
What is the pattern of electron pairs in this ion?
bonding pairs of lone pairs on lone pairs on

electrons carbon atom nitrogen atom
A 2 1 1
B 2 2 1
C 3 1 1
D 3 1 2
4 In which species does the underlined atom have an incomplete outer shell?
A Al 2Cl 6 B CH3+ C Cl 2O D H2Cl C•
5 In which species does the underlined atom have an incomplete outer shell?
A BF3 B CH3– C F 2O D H3O+
CEDAR COLLEGE COVALENT BONDS WS 1

170
6 Aluminium chloride sublimes at 178 oC.
Which structure best represents the species in the vapour at this temperature?
A B C D
Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Al + 3Cl Al 3+(Cl –) 3
Al Al Al Al
Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl
7 In this question, the methyl group, CH3, is represented by Me.
Trimethylamine, Me3N, reacts with boron trifluoride, BF3, to form a compound of formula
Me3N.BF3.
How may this reaction be written in terms of the shapes of the reactants and products?

171
8 Which statement about ammonia is completely correct?
A Ammonia acts as a nucleophile by accepting a pair of electrons when it reacts with

bromoethane.
B Ammonia can form a co-ordinate bond with a hydrogen ion to form an ammonium ion.
C Ammonia is a base and accepts hydroxide ions.
D The shape of the ammonia molecule is pyramidal with bond angles of 109.5°.
9 Which element is expected to show the greatest tendency to form some covalent
compounds?
A aluminium
B calcium
C magnesium D
sodium
10 A crystal of iodine produces a purple vapour when gently heated.
Which pair of statements correctly describes this process?
type of bond broken formula of purple species
A covalent I
B covalent I2
C induced dipole-dipole I2
D permanent dipole-dipole I2
11 What is the correct number of bonds of each type in the Al 2Cl 6 molecule?
co-ordinate
covalent
(dative covalent)
A 6 1
B 6 2
C 7 0
D 7 1
12 When solid aluminium chloride is heated, Al 2Cl 6 is
formed. Which bonding is present in Al 2Cl 6?
A covalent and co-ordinate (dative covalent)

B covalent only
C ionic and co-ordinate (dative covalent)
D ionic only
172
13 Which element shows the greatest tendency to form covalent compounds? A
boron
B magnesium C
neon
D potassium
14 Which diagram represents the overlap of two orbitals which will form a π bond?
15 Nitrogen, N2, and carbon monoxide, CO, both have Mr = 28.

The boiling point of N2 is 77 K.
The boiling point of CO is 82 K.
What could be responsible for this difference in boiling points?

A CO molecules have a permanent dipole, the N 2 molecules are not polar. B
N2 has σ and π bonding, CO has σ bonding only.
C N2 has a strong N≡N bond, CO has a C=O bond.
D The CO molecule has more electrons than the N 2 molecule.
16 Solid carbon dioxide, CO2, is similar to solid iodine, I2, in its structure and properties. Carbon is in
Group 14. Silica, SiO2, is a Group 14 compound.
Which statement about solid CO2 and solid SiO2 is correct?
A Both solids exist in a lattice structure.
B Both solids have a simple molecular structure.
C Both solids have atoms joined by single covalent bonds. D
Both solids change spontaneously to gas at s.t.p.

173
17 What is the correct number of bonds of each type in the Al 2Cl 6 molecule?
co-ordinate
covalent
(dative covalent)
A 6 1
B 6 2
C 7 0
D 7 1
18 Solid aluminium chloride sublimes at 178 oC.

Which structure best represents the species in the vapour at this temperature?
A B C D
Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Al 3+(Cl –)3
Al
Al Al Al Al
Cl
Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl

174
SECTION B
may be correct.
A B C D
1, 2 and 3 1 and 2 2 and 3 1 only

1 Which of the following statements are correct for the sequence of compounds below
considered from left to right?
NaF MgO Al N SiC
1 The electronegativity difference between the elements in each compound increases.

2 The formula-units of these compounds are isoelectronic (have the same number
of electrons).
3 The bonding becomes increasingly covalent.
2 Sodium hydrogensulfide, NaSH, is used to remove hair from animal hides.
Which statements about the SH– ion are correct?

1 It contains 18 electrons.
2 Three lone pairs of electrons surround the sulfur atom. 3

Sulfur has an oxidation state of +2.
3 Which elements have atoms which can form π bonds with atoms of other elements?
1 oxygen
2 nitrogen
3 fluorine

175
4 The chlorine oxide free radical, ClO•, is formed during the depletion of the ozone layer by
chlorofluoroalkanes (CFCs).
Cl • + O3 → ClO• + O2
Which features are present in the chlorine oxide free radical?
1 an odd number of electrons

2 a single covalent bond
3 a dative covalent bond from oxygen to chlorine
5 Which molecules have an overall dipole
moment? 1 carbon monoxide, CO
2 phosphine, PH3
3 carbon dioxide, CO2
6 Which elements can form π bonds in their
compounds? 1 carbon
2 oxygen
3 nitrogen
7 In the gas phase, aluminium chloride exists as the dimer, Al 2Cl6.
By using this information, which of the following are structural features of the Al2Cl6 molecule? 1
Each aluminium atom is surrounded by four chlorine atoms.
2 There are twelve non-bonded electron pairs in the molecule.

3 Each aluminium atom contributes electrons to four covalent bonds.

176
BONDING WS 2
COVALENT BONDING
1 Ethyne is a linear molecule with a triple bond, C÷C, between the two carbon atoms.
Draw a ‘dot-and-cross’ diagram of an ethyne molecule.
[1]
2 At low temperatures, aluminium chloride vapour has the formula Al 2Cl6.

Draw a ‘dot-and-cross’ diagram to show the bonding in Al 2Cl6.
Show outer electrons only.
Represent the aluminium electrons by .
Represent the chlorine electrons by x.
[6]

177
BONDING WS 3
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
SECTION A
1 A slow stream of water from a tap can be deflected by an electrostatically charged plastic
rod because water is a polar molecule.
liquid
burette
negatively charged rod
Why is a water molecule polar?

A Molecules are bonded together by hydrogen bonds.
B The oxygen and hydrogen atoms have different electronegativities.
C The oxygen atom has two lone pairs of electrons.
D Water is able to dissociate into ions.
2 When heated, solid iodine readily forms iodine vapour.
What does this information suggest about the nature of the particles in these two physical
states of iodine?
solid vapour
A ionic atomic
B ionic molecular
C molecular atomic
D molecular molecular
CEDAR COLLEGE INTERMOLECULAR FORCES WS 1

178
3 The African weaver ant defends its territory by spraying an intruder with a mixture of compounds. The ease
by which these compounds are detected by other ants depends upon the volatility, which decreases as the
strength of the intermolecular forces in the compound increases.
Which compound would be the most volatile?
A CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
B CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CHO
C CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2NH2
D CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH
4 The gecko, a small lizard, can climb up a smooth glass window. The gecko has millions of microscopic
hairs on its toes and each hair has thousands of pads at its tip. The result is that the molecules in the
pads are extremely close to the glass surface on which the gecko is climbing.
What is the attraction between the gecko’s toe pads and the glass surface?
A co-ordinate bonds
B covalent bonds
C ionic bonds
D van der Waals’ forces
5 In which process are hydrogen bonds
broken? A H2(l) → H2(g)

B NH3(l) → NH3(g)
C 2HI(g) → H2(g) + I2(g) D
CH4(g) → C(g) + 4H(g)
A covalent I
B covalent I2

179
7 When dangerous chemicals are transported by road, vehicles must carry signs that indicate what
measures should be taken in the event of a spillage of the chemical carried.
Which material must be used if there were a spillage of metallic sodium?
A ethanol
B jets of water C
sand
D water spray
8 Which molecule has the largest overall dipole?
A B C D
Cl Cl H Cl
C C O C O C O C O
Cl Cl H Cl
9 Which statement explains why the boiling point of methane is higher than that of neon?
[Ar: H, 1; C, 12; Ne, 20]
A A molecule of methane has a greater mass than a molecule of neon. B

Molecules of methane form hydrogen bonds, but those of neon do not.
C Molecules of methane have stronger intermolecular forces than those of neon. D
The molecule of methane is polar, but that of neon is not.
A covalent I
B covalent I2

180
11 The ability of an atom in a covalent bond to attract electrons to itself is called its electronegativity.
The greater the difference between the electronegativities of the two atoms in the bond, the more
polar is the bond.
Which pair will form the most polar covalent bond between the atoms?
A chlorine and bromine B

chlorine and iodine
C fluorine and chlorine D
fluorine and iodine
12 In which change would only van der Waals’ forces have to be overcome?
A evaporation of ethanol C2H5OH(l) → C2H5OH(g)

B melting of ice H2O(s) → H2O(l)
C melting of solid carbon dioxide CO2(s) → CO2(l)
D solidification of butane C4H10(l) → C4H10(s)
13 Which molecular structure will have the smallest overall dipole?
A B C D
H3C Cl H3C Cl Cl Cl Cl CH3
C C C C C C C C
Cl H2C H H3C Cl H3C CH3 H3C Cl
14 How do the strengths of the covalent bonds within molecules, and the van der Waals’ forces
between molecules, vary going down Group VII from chlorine to bromine to iodine?
strength of strength of
covalent bonds van der Waals’ forces
A decrease decrease
B decrease increase
C increase decrease
D increase increase

181
15 At room temperature and pressure, H2O is a liquid and H2S is a
gas. What is the reason for this difference?
A O has higher first and second ionisation energies than S.

B The covalent bond between O and H is stronger than the covalent bond between S and H.
C There is significant hydrogen bonding between H 2O molecules but not between H2S
molecules.
D The instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces between H 2O molecules are stronger than the
instantaneous dipole-induced dipole forces between H 2S molecules.
16 The presence of dipoles helps to explain why the element Br2 and the compound CHCl 3 exist as
liquids at room temperature.
Which types of dipole are involved?
Br2 CHCl 3
induced dipoles and permanent induced dipoles and permanent
A
dipoles dipoles
induced dipoles and permanent
B induced dipoles only
dipoles
C induced dipoles and permanent
induced dipoles only
dipoles
D
induced dipoles only induced dipoles only
17 Nitrogen, N2, and carbon monoxide, CO, both have Mr =

28. The boiling point of N2 is 77 K.

A CO molecules have a permanent dipole, the N2 molecules are not polar. B
N2 has σ and π bonding, CO has σ bonding only.
D The CO molecule has more electrons than the N2 molecule.
A B C D
Cl Cl H Cl
C C O C O C O C O
Cl Cl H Cl

182
A B C D
H CH3 CH3 Cl H3C Cl
C C O C O C C C
CH3 Cl Cl CH3
H CH3 3
20 Which type of bonding is never found in

elements? A covalent
B ionic
C metallic
D van der Waals’ forces
21 Which statement can be explained by intermolecular hydrogen bonding?
A Ethanol has a higher boiling point than propane.

B Hydrogen chloride has a higher boiling point than silane, SiH4.
C Hydrogen iodide forms an acidic solution when dissolved in water.
D Propanone has a higher boiling point than propane.
22 Nitrogen, N2, and carbon monoxide, CO, both have Mr = 28.

The boiling point of N2 is 77 K.

A CO molecules have a permanent dipole, the N 2 molecules are not polar.
B N2 has σ and π bonding, CO has σ bonding only.
D The CO molecule has more electrons than the N 2 molecule.

183
23 The boiling points of methane, ethane, propane and butane are given.
compound CH4 CH3CH3 CH3CH2CH3 CH3CH2CH2CH3

boiling point / K 112 185 231 273
Which statement explains the increase in boiling point from methane to butane?
A Closer packing of molecules results in stronger van der Waals’ forces.

B More covalent bonds are present and therefore more energy is required to break the
bonds.
C More electrons in the molecules results in stronger van der Waals’ forces.
D More hydrogen atoms in the molecules results in stronger hydrogen bonding.
24 Which compound has a boiling point that is influenced by hydrogen bonding?
A CH3CHO B CH3OCH3 C HCO2CH3 D HCO2H

[S’18 1 Q2]
25 Why is the boiling point of ammonia, NH3, higher than the boiling point of phosphine,
PH3?
A Ammonia molecules are polar; phosphine molecules are not.
B Ammonia molecules have significant hydrogen bonding; phosphine molecules do not.

C N–H covalent bonds are stronger than P–H covalent bonds.
D There is one lone pair in each ammonia molecule but no lone pair in each phosphine
molecule.
[S’18 3 Q1]

184
SECTION B
may be correct.
A B C D
1, 2 and 3 1 and 2 2 and 3 1 only

1 Boron is a non-metallic element which is placed above aluminium in Group III of the Periodic Table. It
forms a compound with nitrogen known as boron nitride which has a graphite structure.
Which of the following conclusions can be drawn from this information?
1 The empirical formula of boron nitride is BN.
2 The boron and nitride atoms are likely to be arranged alternately in a hexagonal pattern.
3 Boron nitride has a layer structure with van der Waals’ forces between the layers.
2 What is involved when a hydrogen bond is formed between two molecules? 1 a
hydrogen atom bonded to an atom less electronegative than itself
2 a lone pair of electrons
3 an electrostatic attraction between opposite charges
3 Which physical properties are due to hydrogen bonding between water molecules?
1 Water has a higher boiling point than H2S.

2 Ice floats on water.
3 The H−O−H bond angle in water is approximately 104°.

185
4 Which types of intermolecular forces can exist between adjacent urea molecules?
C
H2N NH2
urea
1 hydrogen bonding
2 permanent dipole-dipole forces
3 temporary induced dipole-dipole forces
5 The concepts of bond energy, bond length and bond polarity are useful when comparing
the behaviour of similar molecules, e.g. thermal stability.
For example, it could be said
“Compared with the HCl molecule, the bond ……….X…………. of the HI molecule is
………..Y..............”
Which pairs of words correctly complete the above sentence?

X Y
1 energy greater
2 length greater
3 polarity less
6 Kevlar has the structure below.
O O O O
C C N N C C N N
H H H H
Compared to a steel rope of similar dimensions, a Kevlar rope is both lighter and stronger.
Which properties of Kevlar help to explain these facts?
1 The fibres of Kevlar align due to hydrogen bonding.
2 The mass per unit length is less in a Kevlar rope than in a steel rope.
3 The Kevlar molecule has no permanent dipole.

186
7 Water has some unusual physical properties compared to other hydrides of Group 16 elements. Some
of these properties are due to hydrogen bonds. These intermolecular forces are much stronger in
water than they are in H2S, for example.
1 Hydrogen bonds cause the melting point of ice to be higher than expected.
2 Hydrogen bonds cause the surface tension of water to be higher than expected.
3 Hydrogen bonds cause the viscosity of water to be higher than expected.
8 The three statements that follow are all true.
Which of these can be explained, at least in part, by reference to hydrogen
bonding? 1 At 0 °C ice floats on water.
2 The boiling point of propan-2-ol is 82 °C. The boiling point of propanone is 56 °C. 3
At 20 °C propanone and propanal mix completely.
9 The intermolecular forces between iodine molecules are instantaneous dipole-induced

dipole forces.
Which statements explain why iodine has these intermolecular forces?
1 An iodine molecule is polar and experiences an attraction from a lone pair of electrons on
an adjacent molecule.
2 An iodine molecule has a fluctuating dipole because the electrons in a molecule are
more mobile than the nuclei.
3 The electron charge cloud within an I 2 molecule may become unsymmetrical and may
then attract other I2 molecules.

187
BONDING WS 2
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES
SECTION A
1 Ethene, C2H4, and hydrazine, N2H4, are hydrides of elements which are adjacent in the
Periodic Table. Data about ethene and hydrazine are given in the table below.
C2H4 N2H4
melting
–169 +2
point/°C
boiling
–104 +114
point/°C
solubility in
insoluble high
water
solubility in
high high
ethanol
(a) Ethene and hydrazine have a similar arrangement of atoms but differently shaped
molecules.
(i) What is the H-C-H bond angle in ethene?
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Draw a ‘dot-and-cross’ diagram for hydrazine.
(iii) What is the H-N-H bond angle in hydrazine?
..................................................................................................................................
[4]
(b) The melting and boiling points of hydrazine are much higher than those of ethene.
Suggest reasons for these differences in terms of the intermolecular forces each
compound possesses.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................[3]

188
5 The structural formulae of water, methanol and methoxymethane, CH3OCH3, are given
below.
(a) (i) How many lone pairs of electrons are there around the oxygen atom in
methoxymethane?
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Suggest the size of the C–O–C bond angle in methoxymethane.
..................................................................................................................................
[2]
The physical properties of a covalent compound, such as its melting point, boiling point,
vapour pressure, or solubility, are related to the strength of attractive forces between the
molecules of that compound.
These relatively weak attractive forces are called intermolecular forces. They differ in their
strength and include the following.
A interactions involving permanent dipoles
B interactions involving temporary or induced dipoles
C hydrogen bonds
(b) By using the letters A, B, or C, state the strongest intermolecular force present in each of
the following compounds.
For each compound, write the answer on the dotted line.
ethanalCH3CHO..............
ethanolCH3CH2OH..............
methoxymethane CH3OCH3..............
2-methylpropane (CH3)2CHCH3.............. [4]

189
(c) Methanol and water are completely soluble in each other.
(i) Which intermolecular force exists between methanol molecules and water
molecules that makes these two liquids soluble in each other?
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Draw a diagram that clearly shows this intermolecular force. Your diagram should
show any lone pairs or dipoles present on either molecule that you consider to be
important.
[4]
6 Neon and argon can both be obtained by fractional distillation of liquid air as they have
different boiling points.
Neon has a boiling point of 27.3 K. The boiling point of argon is 87.4 K.
(i) Name the force that has to be overcome in order to boil neon or argon and explain what
causes it.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [3]
(ii) Explain why argon has a higher boiling point than neon.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]

190
7 Carbon disulphide, CS2, is a volatile, stinking liquid which is used to manufacture

viscose rayon and cellophane.
(a) The carbon atom is in the centre of the CS2 molecule.
Draw a ‘dot-and-cross’ diagram of the carbon disulphide
molecule. Show outer electrons only.
[2]
(b) Suggest the shape of the molecule and give its bond angle.
shape .........................................................
bond angle ................................................. [2]
Hydrogen sulphide, H2S, is a foul-smelling compound found in the gases from volcanoes.
Hydrogen sulphide is covalent, melting at –85 °C and boiling at –60 °C.
(c) (i) Draw a ‘dot-and-cross’ diagram to show the structure of the H 2S molecule.
(ii) Predict the shape of the H2S molecule.
.............................................................
(iii) Oxygen and sulphur are both in Group VI of the Periodic Table.
Suggest why the melting and boiling points of water, H2O, are much higher than
those of H2S.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................ [4]

191
8 (a) Fill the gaps in the table for each of the given particles.
name type electron

charge symbol
of isotope of particle configuration
carbon-13 1s22s22p2
37
–1 17 Cl –
sulfur-34 atom 0
iron-54 cation 1s22s22p63s23p63d6
[5]
(b) One of the factors that determines the type of bonding present between the particles of a
substance is the relative electronegativities of the bonded particles.
(i) Explain the meaning of the term electronegativity.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) Name and describe the type of bonding you would expect to find between particles with
equal electronegativities.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(iii) Name and describe the type of bonding you would expect to find between particles with
very different electronegativities.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]

192
(c) The boiling points of some molecules with equal numbers of electrons are given.
hydrogen
substance fluorine argon methanol
chloride
F2
formula Ar HCl CH3OH
boiling point / K 85 87 188 338
(i) Explain why the boiling points of fluorine and argon are so similar.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) Explain why the boiling point of hydrogen chloride is higher than that of fluorine.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(iii) Explain why methanol has the highest boiling point of all these molecules.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]

193
9 Elements and compounds which have small molecules usually exist as gases or liquids.
(a) Chlorine, Cl2, is a gas at room temperature whereas bromine, Br 2, is a liquid under the same
conditions.
Explain these observations.
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. [2]
(b) The gases nitrogen, N2, and carbon monoxide, CO, are isoelectronic, that is they have the
same number of electrons in their molecules.
Suggest why N2 has a lower boiling point than CO.
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. [2]

194
OVERALL BONDING WS1

SECTION A
1 Which of the following exists in the solid state as a giant covalent lattice?
A ice
B iodine
C silicon(IV) oxide D
tin(IV) chloride
2 Why does copper wire conduct electricity when a potential difference is applied?
A Bonding electrons in the crystal lattice move.

B Copper(II) ions move to the cathode.
C The atoms of copper become ionised. D
The crystal lattice breaks down.
3 When heated, solid iodine readily forms iodine vapour.
What does this information suggest about the nature of the particles in these two physical states of
iodine?
solid vapour
A ionic atomic
B ionic molecular
C molecular atomic
D molecular molecular
4 Which of the following solids has a simple molecular lattice?
A magnesium oxide
B sodium
C silicon(IV) oxide
D sulphur
CEDAR COLLEGE OVERALL BONDING WS 1

195
5 Why does the exothermic reaction
C(diamond) C(graphite) H = –3 kJ mol–1
not occur spontaneously?
A A tetrahedral configuration is always more stable than a planar one.

B Diamond has only strong covalent bonds whereas graphite has both covalent bonds and
van der Waals’ forces.
C The change from diamond to graphite has a high activation energy.
D The density of graphite is less than that of diamond.
6 A substance commonly found in the house or garden has the following properties.
It is combustible.
It is an electrical insulator.
It melts over a range of temperature.
A brass
B paper
C poly(ethene)
D silicon(IV) oxide
7 Which solid exhibits more than one kind of chemical

bonding? A brass
B copper C
diamond D
ice
8 Magnesium oxide is used to line industrial furnaces because it has a very high melting
point. Which type of bond needs to be broken for magnesium oxide to melt?
A co-ordinate
B covalent
C ionic
D metallic

196
9 Three substances, R, S, T, have physical properties as shown.
electrical conductivity
substance mp / oC bp / oC
of solid of liquid
R 801 1413 poor good

S 2852 3600 poor good
T 3550 4827 good not known
What could be the identities of R, S and T ?
R S T
A NaF KCl Cu
B NaBr BaO SiO2
C NaCl MgO C [graphite]
D NaBr CaO C [diamond]
10 The diagram shows part of the lattice structures of solids X and Y. [In X, represent particles
of different elements.]
X Y
What are the types of bonding present in X and Y?
X Y
A covalent metallic
B ionic covalent
C ionic metallic
D metallic ionic

197
11 What are the lattice structures of solid diamond, iodine and silicon(IV) oxide?
giant molecular simple molecular
A diamond, silicon(IV) oxide iodine

B diamond, iodine silicon(IV) oxide
C iodine diamond, silicon(IV) oxide
D silicon(IV) oxide diamond, iodine
12 Which solid has a simple molecular

lattice? A calcium fluoride
B nickel
sulfur
13 Three substances, R, S and T, have physical properties as shown.
substance R S T
mp / o C 801 2852 3550

bp / o C 1413 3600 4827
electrical conductivity of solid poor poor good
What could be the identities of R, S and T ?
R S T
A MgO NaCl C [graphite]

B MgO NaCl SiO2
C C [graphite]
NaCl MgO
D SiO2
NaCl MgO

198
14 Three elements, X, Y and Z, have the physical properties shown in the table.
element melting point boiling point density

/ °C / °C / g cm-3
X –7 59 3.12
Y 98 883 0.97
Z 649 1107 1.74
What could be the identities of X, Y and Z?
X Y Z
A Br2 Al Si
B Br2 Na Mg
C I2 Mg Na
D
I2 Si K
15 Three compounds have the physical properties shown in the table.
compound P Q R
melting point / °C 2852 993 –119
boiling point / °C 3600 1695 39
conductivity (solid) poor poor poor
conductivity (liquid) good good poor
conductivity (aqueous) insoluble good insoluble
What might be the identities of P, Q and R?
P Q R
A MgO KCl NH3

B MgO NaF C2H5Br
C SiO2 KCl C2H5Br
D SiO2 NaF HCl

199
16 Which solid contains more than one kind of bonding?
A iodine
B silicon dioxide C
sodium chloride D
zinc
17 Which diagram correctly shows the bonding in the ammonium ion, NH 4+?
18 Some car paints contain small flakes of silica,
SiO2. In the structure of solid SiO2
● each silicon atom is bonded to x oxygen atoms,

● each oxygen atom is bonded to y silicon atoms,
● each bond is a z type bond.
What is the correct combination of x, y and z in this statement?
x y z
A 2 1 covalent
B 2 1 ionic
C 4 2 covalent
D 4 2 ionic

200
19 Which pair of elements has chemical bonds of the same type between their atoms in the solid
state?
A aluminium and phosphorus B

chlorine and argon
C magnesium and silicon D
sulfur and chlorine
20 Which statement can be explained by intermolecular hydrogen bonding?
A Butane has a higher boiling point than propane.

B Hydrogen bromide forms an acidic solution when dissolved in water.
C SiH4 has a higher boiling point than CH4.
D Water has a higher boiling point than CH4.
21 Which compound is the only gas at room temperature and pressure?

A CH3CH2CH2NH2 Mr = 59.0
CH3CH2CH2OH Mr = 60.0
CH2OHCH2OH Mr = 62.0
CH3CH2Cl Mr = 64.5
22 Two conversions are outlined below.
NH4+ NH3
C 2H 4 C2 H6
What similar feature do these two conversions have?
A a lone pair of electrons in the product B

change in oxidation state of an element
C decrease in bond angle of the species involved D
disappearance of a K bond

201
23 Magnesium oxide is used to line industrial furnaces because it has a very high melting
point. Which type of bond needs to be broken for magnesium oxide to melt?
A co-ordinate B
covalent
C ionic
D metallic
24 The table gives the radii, in pm, of some ions. [1 pm = 10 –12 m]

ion radii
Na+ 102
Mg2+ 72
Cs+ 167
Cl – 181
O2– 140
Caesium chloride, CsCl, has a different lattice structure from both sodium chloride, NaCl, and
magnesium oxide, MgO.
CsCl lattice NaCl and MgO lattice
Which factor appears to determine the type of lattice for these three compounds?
A the charge on the cation

B the ratio of the ionic charges C
the ratio of the ionic radii
D the sum of the ionic charges

202
25 Al Cl 3 vapour forms molecules with formula Al 2Cl 6 as it is cooled.
What happens to the bond angles during the change from Al Cl 3 to Al 2Cl 6?
A Some decrease, some remain the same.

B Some increase, some remain the same.
C They all decrease.
D They all increase.
26 Substances X, Y and Z are all solids. Some of their physical properties are given in the table.
substance X Y Z
melting point / °C 772 114 1610

boiling point / °C 1407 183 2205
electrical conductivity conducts does not conduct does not conduct

of the liquid state
What type of lattice could each substance have?
X Y Z
A giant molecular simple molecular ionic

B ionic giant molecular simple molecular
C ionic simple molecular giant molecular
D simple molecular ionic giant molecular
27 Four substances have the physical properties
shown. Which substance is an ionic solid?
electrical electrical
electrical
melting point boiling point conductivity conductivity
conductivity
/ °C / °C of molten of aqueous
of solid
substance solution
A –115 –85 poor poor good

B 660 2470 good good insoluble
C 993 1695 poor good good
D 1610 2230 poor poor insoluble

203
28 Which solid contains more than one kind of bonding?
A copper
B diamond C
ice
D magnesium oxide
29 Al Cl3 reacts with LiAl H4 and (CH3)3N to give (CH3)3NAlH3.

Which statement about (CH3)3NAl H3 is correct?
A It contains hydrogen bonding. B

It is dimeric.
C The Al atom has an incomplete octet of electrons.
D The bonds around the Al atom are tetrahedrally arranged.
30 Solid carbon dioxide, CO2, is similar to solid iodine, I2, in its structure and properties. Carbon is in
Group 14. Silica, SiO2, is a Group 14 compound.
Which statement about solid CO2 and solid SiO2 is correct?
A Both solids exist in a lattice structure.
B Both solids have a simple molecular structure.
C Both solids have atoms joined by single covalent bonds.
D Both solids change spontaneously to gas at s.t.p.
31 Which solid has a simple molecular

lattice? A calcium fluoride
B nickel
sulfur

204
32 Some car paints contain small flakes of silica,
SiO2. In the structure of solid SiO2
● each silicon atom is bonded to x oxygen atoms,

● each oxygen atom is bonded to y silicon atoms,
● each bond is a z type bond.
What is the correct combination of x, y and z in these statements?
x y z
A 2 1 covalent
B 2 1 ionic
C 4 2 covalent
D 4 2 ionic
33 Three substances have the physical properties shown in the table.
melting point boiling point conductivity conductivity conductivity

substance
/ °C / °C (solid) (liquid) (aqueous)
U 420 907 good good insoluble

V 993 1695 poor good good
W –70 58 poor poor hydrolyses, resulting

solution conducts well
What could be the identities of U, V and W?
U V W
A Na KCl SiCl 4
B Na NaF C2H5Br
C Zn KCl HCl
D Zn NaF SiCl 4
34 Which solid contains more than one type of

bonding?
A iodine
B silicon dioxide
C sodium chloride D
zinc
[S’18 1 Q6]

205
SECTION B
may be correct.
A B C D
1, 2 and 3 1 and 2 2 and 3 1 only

1 Which of the following are features of the structure of metallic copper?

1 ionic bonds
2 delocalised electrons
3 lattice of ions
2 Silicon tetrachloride, SiCl4, is a liquid of low boiling point. In the presence of water it
decomposes to form silicon(IV) oxide and hydrogen chloride.
What types of bonding occur in
SiCl4(I)? 1 co–ordinate bonding
2 covalent bonding
3 van der Waals forces
3 Which pairs of compounds contain one that is giant ionic and one that is simple molecular?
1 Al 2O3 and Al 2Cl 6

2 SiO2 and SiCl 4
3 P4O10 and PCl 3
4 Boron is a non-metallic element which is placed above aluminium in Group III of the Periodic Table. It forms
a compound with nitrogen known as boron nitride which has a graphite structure.
2 The boron and nitride atoms are likely to be arranged alternately in a hexagonal pattern. 3 Boron
nitride has a layer structure with van der Waals’ forces between the layers.

206
5 Compound X
• does not conduct electricity when in a liquid state,
• when added to water produces a solution that readily conducts electricity.
What could X be?
1 MgCl2
2 SiCl4
3 PCl3
6 Which of the following solids contain more than one type of chemical
bond? 1 brass (an alloy of copper and zinc)
2 graphite
3 ice
7 Which physical properties are due to hydrogen bonding between water
molecules? 1 Water has a higher boiling point than H2S.

2 Ice floats on water.
3 The H−O−H bond angle in water is approximately 104°.
8 Which diagrams represent part of a giant molecular structure?
1 2 3
=C =C = Na
= Cl
9 Which are features of the structure of metallic
copper? 1 a lattice of ions
3 ionic bonds

207
SECTION B
may be correct.
A B C D
1, 2 and 3 1 and 2 2 and 3 1 only

1 Which of the following are features of the structure of metallic

copper? 1 ionic bonds
3 lattice of ions
2 Silicon tetrachloride, SiCl4, is a liquid of low boiling point. In the presence of water it decomposes to
form silicon(IV) oxide and hydrogen chloride.
What types of bonding occur in SiCl4(I)?
1 co–ordinate bonding
2 covalent bonding
3 van der Waals forces
3 Which of the following statements are correct for the sequence of compounds below considered
from left to right?
NaF MgO Al N SiC
1 The electronegativity difference between the elements in each compound increases.

2 The formula-units of these compounds are isoelectronic (have the same number of
electrons).
3 The bonding becomes increasingly covalent.
4 Which pairs of compounds contain one that is giant ionic and one that is simple
molecular? 1 Al 2O3 and Al 2Cl 6
2 SiO2 and SiCl 4
3 P4O10 and PCl 3
5 Which of the following solids contain more than one type of chemical
bond? 1 brass (an alloy of copper and zinc)
2 graphite
3 ice

208
6 Which diagrams represent part of a giant molecular structure?
1 2 3
=C =C = Na
= Cl
7 Boron is a non-metallic element which is placed above aluminium in Group III of the Periodic Table. It forms a
compound with nitrogen known as boron nitride which has a graphite structure.
2 The boron and nitride atoms are likely to be arranged alternately in a hexagonal pattern. 3 Boron
nitride has a layer structure with van der Waals’ forces between the layers.
8 The Group IV elements carbon, silicon and germanium all exist in a diamond structure. The bond
lengths in these structures are given below.
element X C Si Ge
bond length X–X / nm 0.154 0.234 0.244
Why does the bond length increase down the group?
1 Orbital overlap decreases down the group.
2 Atomic radius increases down the group.
3 Nuclear charge increases down the group.
9 Which of these substances have a giant

structure? 1 silicon(IV) oxide
2 baked clay found in crockery
3 phosphorus(V) oxide
10 Which substances have a giant

structure? 1 calcium oxide
2 calcium
3 baked clay found in crockery

209
11 In the gas phase, aluminium chloride exists as the dimer, Al2Cl6.

By using this information, which of the following are structural features of the Al2Cl6
molecule? 1 Each aluminium atom is surrounded by four chlorine atoms.
2 There are twelve non-bonded electron pairs in the molecule.

3 Each aluminium atom contributes electrons to four covalent bonds.
12 Which substances contain delocalised

electrons? 1 cyclohexene
2 graphite
3 sodium
13 Which compounds contain covalent
bonds? 1 aluminium chloride
2 ammonia
3 calcium fluoride

210
OVERALL BONDING WS 2
1 (a) Give the full electron configuration of the following.
(i) Mg ............................................................................................................................
2+
(ii) Mg .........................................................................................................................
(iii) O ..............................................................................................................................
2–
(iv) O ...........................................................................................................................
[2]
(b) (i) Describe, with the aid of a diagram, the lattice structure of magnesium oxide.
(ii) Use your diagram to interpret and explain two physical properties of magnesium
oxide.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
(iii) State two large scale uses of magnesium oxide.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[5]
CEDAR COLLEGE ENERGETICS

211
2
(a) Salt, sodium chloride, forms transparent colourless crystals. Describe the bonding in sodium
chloride crystals, give the formula of each particle and sketch part of the crystal structure.
[3]
(b) Explain why crystals of sodium chloride do not conduct electricity, but molten
sodium chloride does.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................[2]

212
3 Drawing diagrams where appropriate, suggest in terms of structure and bonding,

explanations for the following.
(i) the high melting point and boiling point of Al2O3
(ii) the low boiling point of SO3
(iii) the melting point of SiO2 is much higher than that of P4O10
7]

213
4
Copper and iodine are both solids which have different physical and chemical properties. Each
element has the same face-centred crystal structure which is shown below.
The particles present in such a crystal may be atoms, molecules, anions or cations. In
the diagram above, the particles present are represented by .
(a) Which type of particles are present in the iodine crystal? Give their
formula. particle ....................................
formula .................................... [2]
(b) When separate samples of copper or iodine are heated to 50 °C, the copper remains
as a solid while the iodine turns into a vapour.
(i) Explain, in terms of the forces present in the solid structure, why copper remains
a solid at 50 °C.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Explain, in terms of the forces present in the solid structure, why iodine turns into
a vapour when heated to 50°C.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[4]

214
5
Suggest, in terms of the structure and bonding, explanations for the following. You
should draw diagrams where you think they will help your answer.
(i) the high melting point of sodium chloride
(ii) the low melting point of silicon tetrachloride
[4]

215
6 The elements carbon and silicon are both in Group IV of the Periodic Table.
Carbon is the second most abundant element by mass in the human body and silicon is
the second most common element in the Earth’s crust.
Carbon and silicon each form an oxide of general formula XO 2.

At room temperature, CO2 is a gas while SiO2 is a solid with a high melting point.
(a) Briefly explain, in terms of the chemical bonds and intermolecular forces present in each
compound, why CO2 is a gas and SiO2 is a solid at room temperature.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................... [3]
(b) Draw a simple diagram to show the structure of SiO2. Your diagram should contain at least
two silicon atoms and show clearly how many bonds each atom forms.
[2]

216
7 Copper, proton number 29, and argon, proton number 18, are elements which have
different physical and chemical properties.
In the solid state, each element has the same face-centred cubic crystal structure which
is shown below.
The particles present in such a crystal may be atoms, molecules, anions or cations. In
the diagram above, the particles present are represented by .
(a) Which types of particle are present in the copper and argon
crystals? In each case, give their formula.
element particle formula
copper
argon
[2]
At room temperature, copper is a solid while argon is a gas.
(b) Explain these observations in terms of the forces present in each solid structure.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................... [4]

217
8 Separate samples of the oxides MgO and SiO2 are melted.

Each molten sample is then tested to see whether or not it conducts electricity.
Suggest what would be the results in each case. Explain your answers.
MgO .................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
SiO2 .................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
[4]
9 (c) Cerium is a lanthanoid metal that shows similar chemical reactions to some elements in the
third period. Most of cerium’s compounds contain Ce3+ or Ce4+ ions.
(i) Cerium shows the same structure and bonding as a typical metal. Draw a
labelled diagram to show the structure and bonding in cerium.
[2]
(ii) Cerium(IV) oxide, CeO2, is a ceramic.
Suggest two physical properties of cerium(IV) oxide.
1. .........................................................................................................................................
2. .........................................................................................................................................
[2]

218
10 Sodium and silicon also react directly with chlorine to produce the chlorides shown.
melting difference between the

chloride
point / °C electronegativities of the elements
NaCl 801 2.2
SiCl 4 –69 1.3
(i) Describe what you would see during the reaction between sodium and chlorine.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [2]
(ii) Explain the differences between the melting points of these two chlorides in terms of
their structure and bonding. You should refer to the difference between the
electronegativities of the elements in your answer.
NaCl structure and bonding ...............................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
SiCl 4 structure and bonding ................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
explanation .........................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................... [4]

219
11 Structure and bonding can be used to explain many of the properties of substances.
(a) Copper, ice, silicon(IV) oxide, iodine and sodium chloride are all crystalline
solids. Complete the table with:
● the name of a type of bonding found in each crystalline solid,
● the type of lattice structure for each crystalline solid.
crystalline solid type of bonding type of lattice structure
copper
ice
silicon(IV) oxide
iodine
sodium chloride
[5]
(b) (i) Name the strongest type of intermolecular force in ice.
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
(ii) Draw a fully labelled diagram of two water molecules in ice, showing the force in (i)
and how it forms.
[3]

220
CHEMICAL ENERGETICS
Deals with the feasibility of a reaction based on energy
Exothermic Endothermic
Energy is Always released Energy is Always absorbed

Ea ↓ Ea ↑
△ H < 0 (negative) △ H > 0 (positive)
↑ Temperature ↓Temperature
△ Hr = Enthalpy of formation (P) – Enthalpy of formation (R)
Standard conditions: 25°C, 1atm
Standard Enthalpy change of Reaction:
Energy change that occurs when reactants as given in the chemical equation, react
according to their molar quantities to form products under standard conditions
(25°C, 1atm)
Standard Enthalpy change of Formation:
Energy change that occurs when 1mol of a substance is formed from its constituent
elements in their standards state under standard conditions (25°C, 1atm)
SiUnit: kJ/mol

221
Ø
△ H : 1 Bond energies (Bonds Broken (Reactant) – Bonds formed (Product))
Ø
2 △Hf = (△Hf Ø(Products) – △HfØ(Reactants))
△Hf of all elements in their pure form = 0

Cl2 (g)
Br2 (l)
I2 (s)
Na (s)
H2 (g)
Mg (s)
K (s)
Hess’s Law:
The overall enthalpy change of a reaction is independent of the route taken
Example:
A= -1207
B= -635
C= -394
(B+C) = A + △ Hr
(B+C) - A = △ Hr
△ Hr = (-635 + -394) - -1207 = 178
Standard enthalpy of combustion (△ Hc)

Energy released when 1 mol of a substrate undergoes complete combustion under standard
conditions (25C, 1atm)
SI unit: kJ/mol
For O2, CO2 and water: △ Hc is zero

222
Use △ HC to find △Hr

△Hr can be found:
1. Bond energies (△Hr = Bonds Broken (Reactant) – Bonds formed (Product)
Ø Ø Ø
2.△ Hf (△Hr = △ Hf (Products)- △Hf (Reactants))
Method 1: △ (△Hr = △Hf(Products) – △Hf(Reactants))

Method 2: Hess’s cycle
Enthalpy change of hydration (△Hhydration)

Energy released when one mol of gaseous ion is fully hydrated under standard conditions
(25C, 1atm)
Exothermic
△Hhydration α charge/radius
F- (radius ↓ △Hhydration ↑) more exothermic
↑ Cl-
Br- (radius ↑ △Hhydration ↓) less exothermic
Na+ (charge ↓ radius ↑ △Hhydration ↓) less
↓ exothermic △Hhydration
Mg2+
Al3+ (charge ↑, radius ↓ △Hhydration ↑) most
exothermic △Hhydration

223
Example
Enthalpy of atomization (△Hatm)

Energy required to form 1 mol of gaseous atom from its constituent element/compound
in their standard state under standard conditions (25C, 1atm)
Always endothermic
Following can only be applied to those which naturally exist as gases (F2, Cl2, H2, N2, O2)
Bond energy= △Hatm x2
△Hatm = Bond energy/2
Examples:
Enthalpy of solution (△Hsol)

Energy change the occurs when 1 mol of a particular substance is added to enough
solvent that further dilution produces no further change in enthalpy, under standard
conditions (25C, 1atm)
△Hsol < 0 (soluble)
△Hsol > 0 (insoluble)
Examples:
1. 1 NaCl (s) + H2O NaCl (aq)
2. 1 MgCl2 (s) + H2O MgCl2 (aq)
3. 1 NH3 (g) + H2O NH3 (aq)
Enthalpy of neutralization (△Hn)

Energy released when 1 mol of H20 is formed by reacting aqueous acid with an
alkali under standard conditions (25C, 1atm)
Always exothermic
Acid + Alkali salt + 1H2O
Example:
1. HCl + NaOH NaCl + 1H2O

224
Enthalpy of vaporization(△Hvap)
Energy required to transform 1 mol of liquid to gaseous
state Always endothermic
Examples
1. 1H20 (l) H20 (g)
2. 1Br2 (l) Br2 (g)
3. 1NH3 (l) NH3 (g)
ENTHALPY CHANGE
Endothermic (+) Exothermic/ Endothermic (- Exothermic (-)
/+)
Bond energy △Hr △Hc
Ionization energy △Hf △Hn
△Hatm △Hsol △Hhyd
△Hvap
Calorimetry
Q=mc△T
Q= energy absorbed by water
m = mass of water
c = specific heat capacity
△T = change in temrpature

225
ENERGETICS WORKSHEET
1 For which equation is the enthalpy change correctly described as an enthalpy change
of formation?
A 2NO(g) → N2(g) + O2(g) B

2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)
C H2O(l) + NaCl(s) → NaCl(aq)
D K(s) + Mn(s) + 2O2(g) → KMnO4(s)
2 An exothermic chemical reaction proceeds by two stages.
stage 1 stage 2
reactants intermediate products
The activation energy of stage 1 is 50 kJ mol–1. The overall enthalpy change of reaction is
–100 kJ mol–1.
Which diagram represents the reaction pathway for this reaction?
A B C D
100 100 100 100

75 75 75 75
50 50 50 50
25 25 25 25
0 0 0 0
-25 reactants -25 reactants -25 reactants -25 reactants
-50 -50 products
-50 -50 products
-75 -75 -75 -75
-100 products -100 -100 products -100
progress of progress of progress of progress of
reaction reaction reaction reaction
3 In the conversion of compound X into compound Z, it was found that the reaction proceeded by way
of compound Y, which could be isolated. The following steps were involved.
X → Y ; ∆H, positive
Y →Z;∆H,
negative Which reaction profile fits these data?
A B C D
Y
Y
X
erg
Y Z
en
y
energy
energy
X
Z
Z X Y
X
Z
progress of progress of progress of progress of

reaction reaction reaction reaction

226
4 Which statement about the standard enthalpy change of formation of carbon dioxide is correct?
A It is equal to the standard enthalpy change of combustion of carbon.

B It is equal to twice the bond energy of the C=O bond.
C It is the energy released when one mole of carbon dioxide is formed from carbon at the
temperature of combustion of the carbon.
D It is the same for carbon dioxide produced from graphite and from diamond.
5 The following energy cycle represents the enthalpy changes in the formation of carbon
dioxide from its constituent elements in their standard states.
What substances are present at level Y in this diagram?
level Y
0
energy
Hf
A C(g) + 2O(g)
B C(g) + O2(g)
C C(s) + O2(g)
D CO2(g)
6 50 cm3 of 2.50 mol dm –3 hydrochloric acid was placed in a polystyrene beaker of negligible heat
3 –
capacity. Its temperature was recorded and then 50 cm of 2.50 mol dm NaOH at the same
temperature was quickly added, with stirring. The temperature rose by 17 °C.
–1 –1
The resulting solution may be considered to have a specific heat capacity of 4.2 J g K .
What is an approximate value for the molar enthalpy change of neutralisation of

hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide from this experiment?
227
7 In a calorimetric experiment 1.60 g of a fuel is burnt. 45 % of the energy released is absorbed by
200 g of water whose temperature rises from 18 °C to 66 °C. The specific heat capacity of water
is 4.2 J g–1 K–1.
What is the total energy released per gram of fuel burnt?

A 25 200J B 56 000J C 89 600J D 143 360J
8 The equation below represents the combination of gaseous atoms of non-metal X and of
hydrogen to form gaseous X2H6 molecules.
2X(g) + 6H(g) → X2H6(g) ∆H = –2775 kJ mol–1

–
The bond energy of an X–H bond is 395 kJ mol .
What is the bond energy of an X–X bond?
A– 405.0 kJ mol–1
B– 202.5 kJ mol–1
C +202.5 kJ mol–1
D +405.0 kJ mol–1
9 Methanol may be prepared by the reaction between carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
CO(g) + 2H2(g) → CH3OH(g)
The relevant average bond energies are given below.
E(C≡O) 1077 kJ mol–1

E(C–O) 360 kJ mol–1
E(C–H) 410 kJ mol–1
E(H–H) 436 kJ mol–1
E(O–H) 460 kJ mol–1
What is the enthalpy change of this reaction?
A –537 kJ mol–1
B –101 kJ mol–1
C +101 kJ mol–1
D +537 kJ mol–1
10 Which equation represents the change corresponding to the enthalpy change of atomisation of
iodine?
A ½ I2 (g) → I(g)
B I2(g) → 2I(g)
C ½ I2 (s) → I(g)
D I2(s) → 2I(g)

228
11. Some bond energy values are listed below.
bond –1
bond energy / kJ mol
C–H 410
C–Cl 340
Cl–Cl 244
Br–Br 193
These bond energy values relate to the following four reactions.
Br2 → 2Br
2Cl → Cl2
CH3 + Cl → CH3Cl S
CH4→CH3+H
What is the order of enthalpy changes of these reactions from most negative to most positive
AP→Q→R→S
BQ→R→S→P
CR→Q→P→S
DS→P→Q→R
12. Which equation represents the standard enthalpy change of atomisation of bromine?
A Br2(l) → 2Br(g)
B Br2(g) → 2Br(g)
C ½ Br2 (l) Br (g)
D ½ Br2 (g) Br (g)
13. The gaseous oxides of nitrogen have positive enthalpy changes of formation.
Which factor is likely to make the most significant contribution to these enthalpy changes?
A the high bond energy of the nitrogen molecule, N 2

B the high electron affinity of nitrogen atoms C
the high electron affinity of oxygen atoms
D the similarity of the electronegativities of oxygen and nitrogen
14. Hydrazine, N2H4, is widely used as a rocket fuel because it reacts with oxygen as
shown, producing ‘environmentally friendly’ gases.
N2H4(l) + O2(g) → N2(g) + 2H2O(g) ∆H = –534 kJ mol–1
Despite its use as a rocket fuel, hydrazine does not burn spontaneously in
oxygen. Which statement explains why hydrazine does not burn spontaneously?
A Hydrazine is a liquid.
B.The activation energy is too high C.
The N N bond is very strong.
D The reaction is exothermic.

229
15. Skiers trapped by snowstorms use heat packs to keep warm. The heat may be generated by
the reaction below.
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3(s) ; ∆HO = –1648 kJ
What is the standard enthalpy change of formation of iron(III) oxide?
A 0 kJ mol–1
B –824 kJ mol–1
C –1648 kJ mol–1
D –3296 kJ mol–1
16. At 600 °C oxides of nitrogen react with unburnt hydrocarbons in a catalytic converter in a car
exhaust. The equation using methane as representative of a hydrocarbon molecule would be as
follows.
4NO + CH4 2N2 + CO2 + 2H2O
Which statement is likely to be true about the energy change of this reaction?
A It is endothermic as heat energy is converted into chemical energy.

B It is exothermic as a high temperature is required.
C It is exothermic as the triple bond N O is broken.
D It is exothermic as the products have large negative enthalpy changes of formation.
17. Hydrazine was used as a fuel for the Messerschmidt 163 rocket fighter in World War II and for
the American Gemini and Apollo spacecraft. It has the following formula.
What is the enthalpy change of atomisation of 1 mol of gaseous hydrazine?
A 550 kJ
B 1720 kJ
C 1970 kJ
D 2554 kJ
18. The ‘flash’ produced by nineteenth century photographers to take indoor photographs
was obtained from the following reaction.
3Mg + KClO3 3MgO+ KCl
The standard enthalpy changes of formation are given

below.
o
H / kJ mol–1
f
MgO –602
KCl –437
KClO3 –391
230
What is the standard enthalpy change of the ‘flash’ reaction?
A –3(–602) + (–437) – (–391)

B (–602) + (–437) – (–391)
C 3(–602) + (–437) – (–391)
D (–602) + 3(–437) – 3(–391)
19. Titanium occurs naturally as the mineral rutile, TiO2. One possible method of extraction
of titanium is to reduce the rutile by heating with carbon.
TiO2(s) + 2C(s) → Ti(s) + 2CO(g)

The standard enthalpy changes of formation of TiO2(s) and CO(g) are –
940 kJ mol-1 and –110 kJ mol respectively.
What is the standard enthalpy change of this reaction?
A –830 kJ mol–1
B –720 kJ mol–1
C +720 kJ mol–1
D +830 kJ mol–1
20. Hydrogen peroxide slowly decomposes into water and oxygen. The enthalpy change of
reaction can be calculated using standard enthalpies of formation.
(hydrogen peroxide(l))= –187.8 Kj mol–1
(water(l))= –285.8 kJ mol–1

Using a Hess cycle, what is the enthalpy change of reaction for this decomposition?
2H2O2(l) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
A +98 kJ mol–1
B −98 kJ mol–1 C
−196 kJ mol–1
D −947.2 kJ mol–1

231
21. The first stage in the industrial production of nitric acid from ammonia can be represented by
the following equation.
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Using the following standard enthalpy change of formation data, what is the
value of the standard enthalpy change, ∆Ho, for this reaction?
compound ∆Hfo / kJ mol–1
NH3(g) –46.1
NO(g) +90.3
H2O(g) –241.8
A +905.2 kJ mol–1
B –105.4 kJ mol–1
C –905.2 kJ mol–1
D –1274.0 kJ mol–1
22.
23. The standard enthalpy changes of formation of iron(II) oxide, FeO(s), and aluminium
oxide, Al2O3(s), are –266 kJ mol–1 and –1676 kJ mol–1 respectively.
What is the enthalpy change under standard conditions for the following reaction?
3FeO(s) + 2Al (s) → 3Fe(s) + Al 2O3(s)
A + 878 kJ B – 878 kJ C –1942 kJ D –2474 kJ
24. Why does the exothermic reaction
C(diamond) C(graphite) H = –3 kJ mol–1
not occur spontaneously?
A A tetrahedral configuration is always more stable than a planar one.

B Diamond has only strong covalent bonds whereas graphite has both covalent bonds and
van der Waals’ forces.
C The change from diamond to graphite has a high activation energy.
D The density of graphite is less than that of diamond.

232
25. Enthalpy changes of combustion can be used to determine enthalpy changes of formation. The
following equation represents the enthalpy change of formation of butane.
4C(s) + 5H2(g) → C4H10(g)
By using the following standard enthalpy of combustion data, what is the value
of the standard enthalpy change of formation, , for this reaction?
compound o
carbon –394
hydrogen –286
butane –2877
A–5883 kJ mol–1
B–129 kJ mol–1
C+129 kJ mol–1
D+2197 kJ mol–1
26. Which of these compounds, on complete combustion of one mole, will release the
greatest amount of energy?
A CH3CH2CH2OH
B CH3CH2CH3
C CH3CH2CO2H
D CH3COCH3
27. .Given the following enthalpy changes,
I2(g) + 3Cl2(g) → 2ICl3(s) ∆Ho = –214 kJ mol–1

I2(s) → I2(g) ∆Ho = +38 kJ mol–1
What is the standard enthalpy change of formation of iodine trichloride, ICl 3(s)?
A +176 kJ mol–1
B –88 kJ mol–1 C
–176 kJ mol–1 D
–214 kJ mol–1
28. Iodine trichloride, ICl3, is made by reacting iodine with chlorine.

o
I2(s) + Cl2(g) → 2ICl(s) ; ∆H = +14 kJ mol–1
o
ICl(s) + Cl2(g) → ICl3(s) ; ∆H = –88 kJ mol–1
By using the data above, what is the enthalpy change of the formation for
solid iodine trichloride?
A –60 kJ mol–1
B –74 kJ mol–1 C
–81 kJ mol–1 D –
162 kJ mol–1

233
29. The enthalpy change of formation, ∆Hf, of hydrated calcium ions is the enthalpy change of
the following reaction.
Ca(s) + aq – 2e– → Ca2+(aq)

The following enthalpy changes are not quoted in the Data Booklet.
Ca(s) → Ca(g) ∆Ha = 177 kJ mol–1

Ca2+(g) + aq → Ca2+(aq) ∆Hhyd = –1565 kJ mol–1
What is the enthalpy change of formation of hydrated calcium ions?
A–1388 kJ mol–1
B–798 kJ mol–1
C–238 kJ mol–1
D+352 kJ mol–1
30. Given CO(g) + 1/2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) ∆Ho = –283 kJ mol–1
H2 (g) + 1/2 O (g) → H2O(l) ∆Ho = –286 kJ mol–1
H2O(g) → H2O(l) ∆Ho = –44 kJ mol–1
what is the change in enthalpy, ∆Ho, for the following reaction?
CO2(g) + H2(g) → CO(g) + H2O(g)
A –525 kJ mol–1 B –41 kJ mol–1 C +41 kJ mol–1 D +525 kJ mol–1
31. Red lead oxide, Pb3O4, is used in metal priming paints. It can be made by heating PbO in air.
6PbO(s) + O2(g) → 2Pb3O4(s)
Which two values are needed to calculate the enthalpy change for this reaction?
A enthalpy change of combustion of lead and enthalpy change of formation of Pb 3O4

B enthalpy change of combustion of PbO and enthalpy change of formation of Pb 3O4
C enthalpy change of formation of PbO and enthalpy change of atomisation of O 2
D enthalpy change of formation of PbO and enthalpy change of formation of Pb 3O4
32. The standard enthalpy changes of formation of HCl and HI are –92 kJ mol –1 and +26 kJ
mol–1 respectively.
Which statement is most important in explaining this difference?
A Chlorine is more electronegative than iodine.

B The activation energy for the H2/Cl2 reaction is much less than that for the H2/I2 reaction.
C The bond energy of HI is smaller than the bond energy of HCl.
D The bond energy of I2 is smaller than the bond energy of Cl2.

234
33. The standard enthalpy change for the reaction
2NF3(g) → 2N(g) + 6F(g) is ∆H o = +1668 kJ

What is the bond energy of the N–F bond?
A –556 kJ mol–1
B –278 kJ mol–1
C +278 kJ mol–1
D +556 kJ mol–1
34. Which reaction is endothermic? A
2HBr → H2 + Br2
B N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 C
2SO2 + O2 → 2SO3 D
SO3 + H2O → H2SO4
35. Hess’s Law can be used to calculate the average C-H bond energy in methane.
= standard enthalpy change of atomisation
= standard enthalpy change of formation
= standard enthalpy change of combustion
Which data values are needed in order to perform the calculation?
36. The standard enthalpy changes of formation of HCl and HI are –92 kJ mol –1 and +26 kJ
mol–1 respectively.
Which statement is most important in explaining this difference?

A Chlorine is more electronegative than iodine.
B The activation energy for the H2 + Cl2 reaction is much less than that for the H2 + I2
reaction.
C The bond energy of HI is smaller than the bond energy of HCl.
D The bond energy of I2 is smaller than the bond energy of Cl2.
37. Which bond in the structure below has the lowest bond energy?
H F
A C
B
H C C Cl
D
H H

235
37. The equation for a reaction is shown.
H2(g) + 1 O2(g) → H2O(l) ; ∆H = x kJ mol–1

2
Which pair of descriptions is fully correct for this reaction?
type(s) of enthalpy change value of x
A formation only positive

B formation only negative
C combustion, formation positive
D combustion, formation negative
38. Propanone has the molecular formula C3H6O.

The enthalpy change of combustion of hydrogen is –286 kJ–mol .
The enthalpy change of combustion of carbon is –394 kJ –mol .
–
The enthalpy change of combustion of propanone is –1786 kJ mol .
Using this information, what is the enthalpy change of formation of propanone?
A.–1106 kJ mol–1
B–540 kJ mol–1
C–254 kJ mol–1
D+1106 kJ mol–1
39. A reaction which causes the presence of oxides of nitrogen in car exhausts is the formation
of NO.
N2 + O2 → 2NO ∆H = +180 kJ mol–1 What
is the bond energy in kJ mol–1 of the bond between the atoms in NO?
A 655 B 835 C 1310 D 1670
40. In the table below,
• ‘+’ means that this type of standard enthalpy change can only have positive values,
• ‘–’ means that this type of standard enthalpy change can only have negative values,
• ‘+ / –’ means that either positive or negative values are possible.
Which row is correct?
atomisation formation solution
A + + +/–
B + +/– +/–
C – +/– –
D – – +

236
41. A student calculated the standard enthalpy change of formation of ethane, C2H6, using a
method based on standard enthalpy changes of combustion.
He used correct values for the standard enthalpy change of combustion of ethane (–
1560 kJ mol–1) and hydrogen (–286 kJ mol–1) but he used an incorrect value for the
standard enthalpy change of combustion of carbon. He then performed his calculation
correctly. His final answer was –158 kJ mol–1.
What did he use for the standard enthalpy change of combustion of carbon?
A.–1432 kJ mol-1
B.–860 kJ mol–1
C.–430 kJ mol–1
D.–272 kJ mol–1
42. Which process could be used to calculate the bond energy for the covalent bond X-Y by
dividing its ∆H by n?
A XYn(g) → X(g) + nY(g)
B 2XYn (g) → 2XYn-1(g) + Y2(g)
C Y(g) + XYn-1(g) → XYn(g)
D nXY(g) → nX(g) + n Y (g)

2
43. The enthalpy change of the neutralisation given below is –114 kJ mol– .
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
By using this information, what is the most likely value for the enthalpy
change of the following neutralisation?
Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → BaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
A –57 kJ mol–1 B –76 kJ mol–1 C –114 kJ mol–1 D –228 kJ mol–1

44. Ethyne, C2H2, completely combusts, as shown in the equation.
H C C H+212OO→H2O+2CO2
Using the average bond enthalpies in the table, what is the enthalpy change of
combustion of ethyne?
A –980 kJ mol–1 B –540 kJ mol–1 C +540 kJ mol–1 D +980 kJ mol–1

237
45. The reaction pathway for a reversible reaction is shown below.
30
energy
–1
/ kJ mol
50
extent of reaction
Which statement is correct?
A The activation energy of the reverse reaction is +80 kJ mol–1.

B The enthalpy change for the forward reaction is +30 kJ mol–1.
C The enthalpy change for the forward reaction is +50 kJ mol–1.
D The enthalpy change for the reverse reaction is +30 kJ mol–1.
46. This question should be answered using bond enthalpy data. The equation for the complete
combustion of methane is given below.
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
What is the enthalpy change of combustion of methane?
A.–1530 kJmol-1
B.–1184kJ mol–1
C.–770 kJ mol–1
D.–688 kJ mol–1
47. A student mixed 25 cm3 of 0.10 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution with 25 cm 3 of 0.10 mol dm–3
hydrochloric acid and noted a temperature rise of 2.5 °C.
What is the enthalpy change of the reaction per mole of NaOH?
A –209 kJ mol–1 B
–104.5 kJmol1
C –209 J mol–1
D –522.5 J mol–1
48. Which energy change corresponds to the enthalpy change of atomisation of hydrogen at 298 K?
A the bond energy of a H – H bond

B half the bond energy of a H – H bond
C minus half the bond energy of a H – H bond
D minus the bond energy of a H – H bond

238
49. Propanone has molecular formula C3H6O.
The enthalpy change of combustion of hydrogen is –286 kJ mol-1.
The enthalpy change of combustion of carbon is –394 kJ mol –1.
The enthalpy change of formation of propanone is –254 kJ mol –1.

Using this information, what is the enthalpy change of combustion of propanone?
A –2644 kJ mol-1
B –2294 kJ mol-1
C –1786 kJ mol-1
D –426 kJ mol–1
50. This question should be answered using bond enthalpy data. The equation for the complete
combustion of methanal is given below.
H2C=O + O2 → CO2 + H2O
What is the enthalpy change of combustion of methanal?
A +416 kJ mol–1
B +396 kJ mol–1
C –344 kJ mol–1
D –690 kJ mol–1
a. Equations involving four enthalpy changes

are shown.
Na(g) → Na+(g) + e– ∆H = W
Na(g) → Na2+(g) + 2e– ∆H =X
Na(s) → Na(g)∆H =Y
Na(s) → Na2+(g) + 2e– ∆H = Z
What is the second ionisation energy of sodium?
A 2W B X–W C Y–W D Z–Y

239
51. A student carried out an experiment to determine the enthalpy change for the combustion
of methanol.
The following results were obtained by the student.
start temperature of the water 20 °C

final temperature of the water 53 °C
mass of alcohol burner before burning 259.65 g
mass of alcohol burner after burning 259.15 g
mass of glass beaker plus water 150.00 g
mass of glass beaker 50.00 g
How much of the heat energy produced by the burning of methanol went into the water?
A 209J B 13 794J C 20 691J D 22 154J
52. A student mixed 25.0 cm3 of 0.350 mol dm–3 sodium hydroxide solution with 25.0 cm3 of
0.350 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid. The temperature rose by 2.50 °C. Assume
that no heat was lost to the surroundings.
The final mixture had a specific heat capacity of 4.20 J cm –3 K–1.
What is the molar enthalpy change for the reaction?
A –150 kJ mol–1
B –60.0 kJ mol–1 C
–30.0 kJ mol–1 D –
0.150 kJ mol–1

240
53. Enthalpy changes that are difficult to measure directly can often be determined using Hess’
Law to construct an enthalpy cycle.
Which enthalpy change is indicated by X in the enthalpy cycle shown?
C(s) + 2H2(g) + 2O2(g)
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
A – 4 × the enthalpy of combustion of

hydrogen
B + 4 × the enthalpy of combustion
of hydrogen
C – 2 × the enthalpy of formation
of water
D + 2 × the enthalpy of formation of water
54. The enthalpy change of formation of carbon dioxide is –394 kJ mol–1.

The enthalpy change of formation of water is –286 kJ mol–1.
The enthalpy change of formation of methane is –74 kJ mol –1.
What is the enthalpy change of combustion of methane?
A –892 kJ mol–1
B –606 kJ mol–1
C +606 kJ mol–1
D +892 kJ mol–1
55. The diagram shows the skeletal formula of cyclopropane.
The enthalpy change of formation of cyclopropane is +53.3 kJ mol –1 and the enthalpy
change of atomisation of graphite is +717 kJ mol–1.
The bond enthalpy of H – H is 436 kJ mol–1 and of C – H is 410 kJ mol–1.
What value for the average bond enthalpy of the C – C bond in
cyclopropane can be calculated from this data?
A 187 kJ mol–1 B 315 kJ mol–1 C 351 kJ mol–1 D 946 kJ mol–1

241
56. The enthalpy change of formation of Mn(NO3)2(s) is –696 kJ mol–1.

The enthalpy change of formation of MnO2(s) is –520 kJ mol–1. The
enthalpy change of formation of NO2(g) is +33 kJ mol–1.
On heating, Mn(NO3)2 decomposes into MnO2 and NO2.
Mn(NO3)2(s) → MnO2(s) + 2NO2(g)
What is the value of the standard enthalpy change of this reaction?
A –242 kJ mol–1
B –209 kJ mol–1
C +209 kJ mol–1
D +242 kJ mol–1
57. Which reaction has an enthalpy change equal to the standard enthalpy change of formation of
propane?
A 3C(g) + 4H2(g) → C3H8(g) B

3C(g) + 8H(g) → C3H8(g) C
3C(s) + 4H2(g) → C3H8(g) D
3C(s) + 4H2(g) → C3H8(l)
58. A student investigates four different fuels. Each fuel is used separately to raise the temperature
of 1 dm3 of water from 20 °C to 100 °C. Each fuel undergoes complete combustion. All other
conditions are the same in each experiment.
Which fuel would produce the smallest amount of carbon dioxide in these experiments?
energy released
fuel
per mole of fuel
A ethanol 1367 kJ mol–1

B methane 890 kJ mol–1
C methanol 715 kJ mol–1
D propane 2220 kJ mol–1
59. Ethanol is increasingly being used as a fuel for cars.
The standard enthalpy change of formation of carbon dioxide is –393 kJ mol–1.

The standard enthalpy change of formation of water is –286 kJ mol–
1.
The standard enthalpy change of formation of ethanol is –277 kJ mol –1.

What is the standard enthalpy change of combustion of ethanol?
A–1921 kJ mol–1
B–1367 kJ mol–1
C–956 kJ mol–1
D– 402 kJ mol–1

242
60. In an experiment to calculate the enthalpy change of combustion of a fuel, 1.5 g (0.0326
mol) of the fuel was used to heat 200 g of water. The temperature of the water rose from
25 °C to 55 °C. The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J g–1 K–1.
There is significant heat loss in this experiment. Therefore, the experimental value for
the enthalpy change of combustion, ∆Hc, of the fuel will be different from the
theoretical value Using the information above, what is the experimental value for the
enthalpy change of combustion, ∆Hc, of the fuel?
A–1410 kJ mol–1
B–769 kJ mol–1
C–30.7 kJ mol–1
D–16.7 kJ mol–1
61. The reaction pathway diagram below illustrates the energies of the reactants, the products
and the transition state of a reaction.
transition state
E
1
energy E2 reactants
E
3
products
extent of reaction
Which expression represents the activation energy of the forward reaction?

A E1–E2 B E2–E1 C E2–E3 D E3–E2
62. For which equation is the enthalpy change correctly described as an enthalpy change
of formation?
A C(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g)

1
B C(s) + 2 O2(g) → CO(g)
C 2N(g) + 4O(g) → N2O4(g)

D 2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2(g)

243
63. Hydrogen sulfide, H2S, is released from volcanoes. It reacts with oxygen in the air to form
sulfur dioxide.
2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) → 2H2O(l) + 2SO2(g)
∆Hfo [H2S(g)] = –21 kJ mol–1

∆Hfo [H2O(l)] = –286 kJ mol–1
∆Hfo [SO2(g)] = –297 kJ mol–1
What is the standard enthalpy change of this reaction?
A–1208 kJ mol–1
B–1124 kJ mol–1
C–562 kJ mol–1
D–541 kJ mol–1
64. Nitrogen monoxide is an atmospheric pollutant that is formed inside car engines by
an endothermic reaction between nitrogen and oxygen.
N2(g) + O2(g) → 2NO(g) ∆H = +66 kJ mol–1 Which
labelled diagram correctly represents the energy profile for this reaction?
A B
Ea Ea
energy H energy H
extent extent
of of
reaction reaction
C D
E
a Ea
energy H energy H
extent extent
of of
reaction reaction

244
65. When 0.47 g of a hydrocarbon was completely burnt in air, the energy released heated 200 g
of water from 23.7 °C to 41.0 °C.
What was the amount of energy absorbed by the water?
A 0.47 × 4.18 × 17.3 J

B 0.47 × 4.18 × (273 + 17.3)J
C 200 × 4.18 × 17.3 J
D 200 × 4.18 × (273 + 17.3)J
66. The standard enthalpy changes of combustion of glucose and ethanol are given as –2820 and
–1368 kJ mol–1 respectively.
Glucose, C6H12O6, can be converted into ethanol.
C6H12O6(s) → 2C2H5OH(l) + 2CO2(g)
What is the standard enthalpy change for this reaction?
A –1452 kJ mol–1
B –84 kJ mol–1
C +84 kJ mol–1
D +1452 kJ mol–1
67. The diagram shows a reaction pathway for an endothermic reaction.
Which arrow represents the activation energy for the forward reaction?
enthalpy B
/ kJ mol–1 A D
00
extent of reaction

245
68. Metaldehyde, (CH3CHO)4, is used as a solid fuel for camping stoves. The equation for
the complete combustion of metaldehyde is shown.
(CH3CHO)4(s) + 10 O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 8H2O(l)
= standard enthalpy change of combustion.
Which expression will give a correct value for the enthalpy change of
formation of metaldehyde?
A metaldehyde – (8 carbon + 8 hydrogen)
B metaldehyde – (8 carbon + 16 hydrogen)
C(8 carbon + 8 hydrogen) – metaldehyde
D(8 carbon + 16 hydrogen) – metaldehyde
69. A student performed an experiment to measure the enthalpy change of combustion of ethane.
He used the following values for the standard enthalpy changes of combustion of
carbon and hydrogen.
carbon = –394 kJ mol–1
hydrogen = –286 kJ mol–1
He calculated the enthalpy change of formation of ethane to be –140 kJ mol –1.
What was his experimental value for the standard enthalpy change of combustion of ethane?
A–2364 kJ mol–1
B–1506 kJ mol–1
C–1112 kJ mol–1
D–540 kJ mol–1
70. Carbon monoxide and methanol can react together to form ethanoic acid.
CO(g) + CH3OH(l) CH3CO2H(l)
Standard enthalpy changes of combustion are given in the table.
standard enthalpy change

compound
of combustion,
CO –283.0 kJ mol–1
CH3OH –726.0 kJ mol–1
CH3COH –874.1 kJ mol–1
What is the value for for the reaction between carbon monoxide and methanol?
A.–1883.1 kJ mol–1
B –134.9 kJ mol–1
C +134.9 kJ mol–1
D +1883.1 kJ mol–1

246
71. Solid sulfur consists of molecules made up of eight atoms covalently bonded together.
The bonding in sulfur dioxide is O=S=O.
enthalpy change of combustion of S8, S8(s)= –2376kJ mol–1

energy required to break 1 mole S8(s) into gaseous atoms = 2232 kJ mol–
1
O=O bond enthalpy = 496 kJ mol–1
Using these data, what is the value of the S=O bond enthalpy?
A 239 kJ mol–1 B 257 kJ mol–1 C 319 kJ mol–1 D 536 kJ mol–1
72. In an experiment, the burning of 1.45 g (0.025 mol) of propanone was used to heat 100 g of water.
The initial temperature of the water was 20.0 °C and the final temperature of the water was
78.0 °C.
Which experimental value for the enthalpy change of combustion for

propanone can be calculated from these results?
A–1304 kJ mol–1
B–970 kJ mol–1
C–352 kJ mol–1
D–24.2 kJ mol–1
73. Hess’ law may be used to determine enthalpy changes using average bond energies, as
shown in the diagram.
U is the sum of the average bond energies of the reactants, and V is the sum of
the average bond energies of the products.
For the reaction shown below, which expression will give a value for W, the
enthalpy change of combustion of methane?
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

A U–V B U+V C 2(U–V) D V–U

247
SECTION B
For the following questions, the responses A to D should be selected on the basis of
A B C D
1, 2 and 3 1 and 2 2 and 3 1 only

1 The conversion of graphite has only a small positive value of AH.
C (graphite) → C (diamond) AH = +2.1 kJ mol –1
However, the production of synthetic diamonds using this reaction is very
difficult. Which statements help to explain this?
1 The activation energy of the reaction is large.
2 An equilibrium exists between diamond and graphite.

3 Only exothermic reactions can be made to occur readily.
2 Sodium ions can be formed from sodium atoms.
Na(s) → Na+(g)
Which quantities are required to calculate the enthalpy change of formation

of gaseous sodium ions?
1 enthalpy change of atomisation of sodium
2 first ionisation energy of sodium
3 enthalpy change of formation of sodium
3 The conversion of graphite into diamond is an endothermic reaction ( H = +3 kJ mol –1).
C(graphite) C(diamond)
(i) The enthalpy change of atomisation of diamond is smaller than that of graphite.
(ii) The bond energy of the C–C bonds in graphite is greater than that in diamond.
(iii) The enthalpy change of combustion of diamond is greater than that of graphite.

248
74. The diagram illustrates the energy changes of a set of reactions.
H = –134 kJ mol–1
R S
H = +92 kJ mol–1
H = –75 kJ mol–1
T U
Which of the following statements are correct?
1 The enthalpy change for the transformation U → R is + 42 kJ mol –1 .

2 The enthalpy change for the transformation T → S is endothermic. 3 The
enthalpy change for the transformation R → T is – 33 kJ mol–1 .
2 Which of the enthalpy changes of the following reactions can only be obtained by application of
Hess’ Law?
1 The hydration of anhydrous copper sulphate to form crystals of CuSO 4.5H2O. 2

The formation of methane from its elements.
3 The combustion of glucose, C6H12O6.
3 Nitrogen and oxygen react in a hot car engine to form nitrogen monoxide which is a serious
pollutant in our cities and in the countryside. However, nitrogen and oxygen do not react at room
temperature.
Which statements help to explain why nitrogen and oxygen do not react at room temperature?
1 The reaction is endothermic.

2 A high activation energy is required.
3 Nitrogen has a high bond energy.
4 Hydrazine, N2H4, is widely used as a rocket fuel because it reacts with oxygen as shown,
producing ‘environmentally friendly’ gases.
N2H4(l) + O2(g) → N2(g) + 2H2O(g) ∆H = –534 kJ mol–1
Despite its use as a rocket fuel, hydrazine does not spontaneously burn in oxygen.
Why does hydrazine not burn spontaneously?
1 The activation energy is too high.
2 The N≡N bond is very strong.

3 Hydrazine is a liquid.

249
75. For which reactions does the value of ∆Ho represent both a standard enthalpy change of combustion
and a standard enthalpy change of formation?
a) C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
b) 2C(s) + O2(g) → 2CO(g)
c) CO(g)+1 (O) → CO2(g)
2
2
76. An energy profile diagram is shown.
reactants
enthalpy, H Y
Z X
products
progress of reaction
What do the labels on the diagram represent?
1 W = ∆H of the forward reaction, Y = E a of the backward reaction
2 Z = ∆H of the backward reaction, Y = E a of the backward reaction 3 X
= ∆H of the forward reaction, W = Ea of the forward reaction
77. The diagram shows the reaction pathway for a reversible reaction.
energy 90
/ kJ mol–1
30
extent of reaction
1 The enthalpy change for the backward reaction is +90 kJ mol –1.
2 The forward reaction is exothermic.
3 The enthalpy change for the forward reaction is –30 kJ mol –1.

250
78. The reaction pathway for a reversible reaction is shown below.
50
energy
/ kJ mol–1
20
extent of reaction
1 The enthalpy change for the backward reaction is –20 kJ mol –1.
2 The forward reaction is endothermic.
3 The activation energy for the forward reaction is +70 kJ mol–1.
79. The bond energy of the Br – O bond is 235 kJ mol –.
Which reactions are exothermic?

1 OH• + HBr → H2 + BrO•
2 OH• + HBr → H2O + Br• 3 H• +
HBr → H2 + Br•
80. Which names can be applied to the enthalpy change of the reaction shown?
H2(g) + 1/2O2 (g) → H2O(l)
2
1. enthalpy change of formation

2. enthalpy change of combustion
3. enthalpy change of hydration
81. Compared with the HI molecule, the bond ……P…… of the HBr molecule is ……Q……
Which pairs of words correctly complete the above sentence?
P Q
1 energy greater
2 length less
3 polarity greater
15. Which statements are correct for all exothermic reactions?

a) ∆H for the reaction is negative.
b) On a reaction pathway diagram the products are shown lower than the reactants.
c) The reaction will happen spontaneously.

251
16 The diagram illustrates the enthalpy changes of a set of reactions
H = –134 kJ mol–1
R S
H = +92 kJ mol–1
H = –75 kJ mol–1
T U
1 The enthalpy change for the transformation U R is + 42 kJ mol –1.

2 The enthalpy change for the transformation T S is endothermic.
3 The enthalpy change for the transformation R T is – 33 kJ mol –1.
17. A chemist puts a sample of dilute aqueous hydrochloric acid into beaker 1. She adds
a sample of zinc and measures the rate of production of hydrogen gas .
She then puts a different sample of dilute aqueous hydrochloric acid into beaker 2.
She adds a different sample of zinc and measures the rate of production of
hydrogen gas.
The rate of the reaction in beaker 2 is greater than the rate of the reaction
in beaker 1. Which factors could help to explain this observation?
1. The reaction in beaker 1 has a higher activation energy than the reaction in beaker 2.
2. The zinc in beaker 1 is in larger pieces than the zinc in beaker 2.

3. The acid in beaker 1 is at a lower concentration than the acid in beaker 2.
82. An ethanol burner can be used to heat water. If appropriate measurements are taken, a value
for the enthalpy of combustion of ethanol can be calculated. The equation
heat transferred = –mc∆T
is used as part of the calculation.
Which symbols are correctly described?

1. ∆T is the change in temperature of the water.
2. m is the mass of water used in the experiment.
3. c is the specific heat capacity of ethanol.

252
1. The unsaturated hydrocarbon Z is obtained by cracking hexane and is important in
the chemical industry.
The standard enthalpy change of combustion of Z is –2059 kJ mol –1.
(d) Define the term standard enthalpy change of combustion.
..........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... [2]
When 0.47 g of Z were completely burnt in air, the heat produced raised the temperature
of 200 g of water by 27.5 °C.
(e) (i) Calculate the amount of heat released in this experiment.
(ii) Use the data above and your answer to (i) to calculate the relative molecular mass of Z.
[4]
2 (i) Explain how enthalpy changes, H values, for covalent bonded molecules can be
calculated from bond energies.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(ii) Use bond energies from the Data Booklet to calculate H for the following
dissociation. 2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g)
[3]

253
(d) The equation for the complete combustion of ethyne is given below.
Use appropriate bond energy data from the Data Booklet to calculate a value for
the enthalpy change of combustion of ethyne.
C2H2(g) + ⁵⁄₂O2(g) 2CO2(g) + H2O(g)
[3]
(e) The value for the standard enthalpy change of combustion of ethyne is –1300 kJ mol –1.
(i) Define the term standard enthalpy change of combustion.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Explain why your answer to (d) does not have the same value as the
standard enthalpy change of combustion.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[3]

254
3 Urea, CO(NH2)2, is a naturally occurring substance which can be hydrolysed with

water to form ammonia according to the following equation.
H2O(l) + CO(NH2)2(aq) CO2(aq) + 2NH3(aq)
The standard enthalpy changes of formation of water, urea, carbon dioxide and
ammonia (in aqueous solution) are given below.
–1
compound H f /kJ mol
H2O(l) – 287.0
CO(NH2)2(aq) – 320.5
CO2(aq) – 414.5
NH3(aq) – 81.0
Use these data to calculate the standard enthalpy change for the hydrolysis of urea.
[2]

255
4 Alkanes such as methane, CH4, undergo few chemical reactions. Methane will, however,
react with chlorine but not with iodine.
Relevant standard enthalpy changes of formation for the reaction of methane with chlorine to
form chloromethane, CH3Cl, are given below.
H fo/ kJ mol–1
CH4 –75
CH3Cl –82
HCl –92
i. (a) (i) Use the data to calculate H reaction for the formation of CH3Cl.
CH4 + Cl 2 CH3Cl + HCl
ii. The corresponding reaction with iodine does not take place.
Use bond energy data from the Data Booklet to calculate a ‘theoretical
value’ for Hreaction for the following equation.
CH4 + I2 CH3I + HI
iii. Suggest why this reaction does not in fact occur.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[5]

256
5 Hydrazine reacts with oxygen according to the following equation.
N2H4(l) + O2(g) N2(g) + 2H2O(g)
(i) Use the data in the table to calculate the standard enthalpy change of this
reaction.
–1
compound H /kJ mol
f
N2H4(l) 50.6
H2O(g) –241.8
–1
H = ................................................ kJ mol
Although the above reaction is highly exothermic, hydrazine does not burn spontaneously in
oxygen.
Suggest a reason for this.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Suggest why using hydrazine as a rocket fuel could be regarded as

being ‘environmentally friendly’.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[4]

257
257
[6]
258
8. Ethanol, C2H5OH, is a most important industrial chemical and is used as a solvent,
a fuel and an intermediate in large scale organic synthesis.
Ethanol is prepared industrially by the reaction of ethene and steam in the presence of a catalyst.
C2H4(g) + H2O(g) C2H5OH(g)

The standard enthalpy change of the reaction can be determined by using the standard
enthalpy changes of combustion, Hc, at 298 K.
Hc / kJ mol–1
C2H4(g) 1411
C2H5OH(l) 1367
(a) Calculate the standard enthalpy change for the following
reaction. C2H4(g) + H2O(l) C2H5OH(l)
[2]
(b) (i) Define the term standard enthalpy change of combustion.
...............................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(ii) Explain why the state symbols for water and ethanol given in the equation in (a)
have been changed from those quoted in the industrial process.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
(iii) Write the equation for the complete combustion of ethanol.
...................................................................................................................................
[4]

259
8 Carbon, hydrogen and ethene each burn exothermically in an excess of air.

o –1
C(s) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) Hc =–393.7 kJ mol
o –1
H2 (g) + ½O (g) H2 O(l) Hc =–285.9 kJ mol
o –1
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O(l) Hc =–1411.0 kJ mol
o
Use the data to calculate the standard enthalpy change of formation, f H , in kJ
–1
mol , of ethene at 298 K.
2C(s) + 2H2(g) C2H4(g)
o
H f
= ....................................... kJ mol–1
[3]
9 Calculate the standard enthalpy change of formation of CS 2 from the following data.
Include a sign in your answer.
standard enthalpy change of combustion of CS2 = –1110 kJ mol–1
standard enthalpy change of formation of CO2 = –395 kJ mol–1
standard enthalpy change of formation of SO2 = –298 kJ mol–1
[3]

260
10 Ketene, C2H2O, is a member of a class of unsaturated organic compounds that is widely

used in pharmaceutical research for the synthesis of organic compounds.
Use the data below to calculate the standard enthalpy change of formation of ketene.
H o/ kJ mol–1
standard enthalpy change of
–395
formation of CO2
–286
combustion of H2
–1028
combustion of CH2=C=O
[6]

261
_
11 (a) (i) What is meant by the standard enthalpy change of formation, AH o ,f of a compound?
Explain what is meant by the term standard.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
_
(ii) Write an equation, with state symbols, for the A o of water.
H f
...............................................................................................................................
_
(iii) Explain why the AfH o for water is identical to the standard enthalpy change of
combustion of hydrogen.
...................................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................[4]
(b) When calcium is placed in water, aqueous calcium hydroxide is formed and hydrogen
is given off.
(i) Write the equation for the reaction of calcium with water.
...................................................................................................................................
(ii) When 1.00 g of calcium is placed in 200 g of water, the temperature increases by
12.2 °C when the reaction is completed. The specific heat capacity of water, c, is
4.2 J g–1 K–1.
Calculate the heat released in the experiment.

262
(iii) Calculate the standard enthalpy change of reaction in k J mol –1 for your equation
in (b)(i).
[4]
(c) (i) State Hess’ Law.
..................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
_
(ii) Use Hess’ Law and your result in (b)(iii) to calculate the A o H f of Ca(OH)2 (aq).
You also need the H f of water which is –286 k J mol
[4]
(d) Calculate the volume of hydrogen, measured at room temperature and

pressure, liberated in the experiment described in (b)(ii).
[2]

263
12 For some chemical reactions, such as the thermal decomposition of potassium hydrogencarbonate,
KHCO3, the enthalpy change of reaction cannot be measured directly.
In such cases, the use of Hess’ Law enables the enthalpy change of reaction to be
calculated from the enthalpy changes of other reactions.
(a) State Hess’ Law.
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................... [2]
In order to determine the enthalpy change for the thermal decomposition of

potassium hydrogencarbonate, two separate experiments were carried out.
experiment 1
30.0 cm3 of 2.00 mol dm–3 hydrochloric acid (an excess) was placed in a conical
flask and the temperature recorded as 21.0 °C.
When 0.0200 mol of potassium carbonate, K2CO3, was added to the acid and the mixture
stirred with a thermometer, the maximum temperature recorded was 26.2 °C.
(b) (i) Construct a balanced equation for this reaction.
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Calculate the quantity of heat produced in experiment 1, stating your units.
Use relevant data from the Data Booklet and assume that all solutions have
the same specific heat capacity as water.
(iii) Use your answer to (ii) to calculate the enthalpy change per mole of K 2CO3.
Give your answer in kJ mol–1 and include a sign in your answer.
(iv) Explain why the hydrochloric acid must be in an excess.
..................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................. [4]

264
15
Alcohols such as methanol, CH3OH, are considered to be possible replacements for fossil fuels
because they can be used in car engines.
(a) Define, with the aid of an equation which includes state symbols, the standard enthalpy
change of combustion, , for methanol at 298 K.
equation ............................................................................................................................
definition ...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... [3]
Methanol may be synthesised from carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Relevant values
for this reaction are given in the table below.
compound
CO(g) –283
H2(g) –286
CH3OH(g) –726
(b) Use these values to calculate for the synthesis of methanol, using the
following equation. Include a sign in your answer.
CO(g) + 2H2(g) → CH3OH(g)
= .................. kJ mol–1
[3]

265
experiment 2
The experiment was repeated with 0.0200 mol of potassium hydrogencarbonate, KHCO 3.
All other conditions were the same.
In the second experiment, the temperature fell from 21.0 °C to 17.3 °C.
(c) (i) Construct a balanced equation for this reaction.
..................................................................................................................................
(ii) Calculate the quantity of heat absorbed in experiment 2.
(iii) Use your answer to (ii) to calculate the enthalpy change per mole of
KHCO3. Give your answer in kJ mol–1 and include a sign in your
answer.
[3]
(d) When KHCO3 is heated, it decomposes into K 2CO3, CO2 and H2O.
2KHCO3 K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O
Use Hess’ Law and your answers to (b)(iii) and (c)(iii) to calculate the
enthalpy change for this reaction.
Give your answer in kJ mol–1 and include a sign in your answer.
[2]

266
16
With the prospect that fossil fuels will become increasingly scarce in the future, many compounds
are being considered for use in internal combustion engines. One of these is DME or dimethyl
ether, CH3OCH3. DME is a gas which can be synthesised from methanol. Methanol can be
obtained from biomass, such as plant waste from agriculture.
(a) Define, with the aid of an equation which includes state symbols, the standard enthalpy
change of combustion, , for DME at 298 K.
equation ............................................................................................................................
definition ...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................... [3]
(b) DME may be synthesised from methanol. Relevant enthalpy changes of formation,
, for this reaction are given in the table below.
compound
CH3OH(l) –239
CH3OCH3(g) –184
H2O(l) –286
Use these values to calculate for the synthesis of DME, using the following equation.
2CH3OH(l) → CH3OCH3(g) + H2O(l)
= ......................... kJ mol–1
[3]

267
17
The standard enthalpy changes of formation of NH3(g) and H2O(g) are as follows.
NH3(g),Hf = –46.0 kJ mol–1 H2O(g),Hf = –242 kJ mol–1

Use these data and the value of given below to calculate the standard enthalpy change of
formation of NO(g).
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g) H = –906 kJ mol–1
[4]

268
18
A 1.00 cm3 sample of C14H30 was completely burnt in air.
The heat produced raised the temperature of 250 g of water by 34.6 °C.
Assume no heat losses occurred during this experiment.
The density of C14H30 is 0.763 g cm–3.
(i) Use relevant data from the Data Booklet to calculate the amount of heat released
in this experiment.
(ii) Use the data above and your answer to (i) to calculate the energy produced by
the combustion of 1 mol of C14H30.
[5]
19 Ethanal reacts with hydrogen cyanide, in the presence of a small amount of NaCN, as shown.
CH3CHO + HCN → CH3CH(OH)CN

(a) Use bond energies from the Data Booklet to calculate the enthalpy change for this
reaction. Include a sign with your answer.
enthalpy change = .................................... kJ mol –1 [3]

20
Chemical reactions are accompanied by enthalpy changes.
(a) Explain the meaning of the term standard enthalpy change of reaction.
....................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................. [2]
(b) The enthalpy change of hydration of anhydrous magnesium sulfate, H hyd MgSO4, can be calculated
by carrying out two separate experiments.
In the first experiment 45.00 g of water was weighed into a polystyrene cup and 3.01 g of
MgSO4 was added and stirred until it was completely dissolved. The temperature of the
water rose from 23.4 °C to 34.7 °C.
(i) Calculate the amount of heat energy transferred to the water during this dissolving process.
You can assume that the specific heat capacity of the solution is the same as that of water,
4.18 J g–1 K–1.
heat energy = .......................... J [1]
(ii) Calculate the amount, in moles, of MgSO4 dissolved.
amount = .......................... mol [1]

(i) Calculate the enthalpy change of solution, Hsoln, of MgSO4(s).
You must include a sign with your answer.
Hsoln, of MgSO4(s) = .......................... kJ mol–1 [1]

222
In the second experiment, the enthalpy change of solution for the hydrated salt,
MgSO4.7H2O(s), was calculated and found to be +9.60 kJ mol –1.
(ii) Use the equation below for the hydration of anhydrous magnesium sulfate to construct a suitable,
fully labelled energy cycle that will allow you to calculate the enthalpy change for this reaction,
Hhyd MgSO4.
MgSO4(s) + 7H2O(l) → MgSO4.7H2O(s)
[1]
(iii) Calculate the enthalpy change for this reaction, Hhyd MgSO4. Include a sign in your answer.
Hhyd MgSO4 = .......................... kJ mol–1 [1]

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Moles and Stoichiometry MS 1
1. A 8. D 15. C 22. B
2. B 9. D 16. D 23. C
3. A 10. A 17. D 24. D
4. C 11. C 18. A 25. B
5. C 12. B 19. C 26. D
6. C 13. A 20. B 27. A
7. C 14. B 21. A 28. B

Moles and Stoichiometry MS 2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Atomic Structure MS 1
Section A
1. B 11. A 21. A 31. D
2. D 12. D 22. A 32. D
3. B 13. B 23. A 33. B
4. B 14. B 24. A 34. D

5. C 15. B 25. B 35. A
6. B/C 16. D 26. B 36. C
7. A 17. D 27. C 37. D
8. B 18. B 28. C
9. skip 19. B 29. B
10. A 20. C 30. D
Section B
1. A 5. B 9. B
2. D 6. B 10. A
3. B 7. A 11. B
4. D 8. B 12. A
Atomic Structure WS 2
1a 22n 18p 18e b 74n 53p 53e c 118n 79p 78e d 28n 24p 21e
2a Ne and F b O and Ne c Na and Mg
3 186.258
4 121.854
4b same number of protons different number of neutrons
5a 81Br2 or 79Br-81Br
I) 2 isotopes and 3 molecules (so 3 molecular peaks)
ii) relative abundance same so ratio same 1:1
III) made of 79Br and 81Br both equally abundant (50%) so

abundance = 100%
6a) isotopes diff abundance so calculate → answer not an exact

number
b) 25%
7) a) (35 x 3) + (37 x 1 ) / 4 = 35.5
b) chlorine= 3 molecules made of 2 isotopes
c) 70= 35Cl x 2 so (3/4 x 3/4)= 9/16

72 = 35 Cl and 37Cl OR 37 Cl and 35 Cl so (3/4 x 1/4) +(3/4 x 1/4) =
6/16
74= 37Cl x 37Cl= (1/4 x 1/4) = 1/16
8 28.1
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
20
21
22
Electronic Configuration WS 1
Section A
1. A 7. A 13. C 19. D 25. B 31. D
2. D 8. C 14. B 20. C 26. D 32. C
3. B 9. C 15. D 21. D 27. A 33. A
4. B 10. C 16. D 22. D 28. C 34. D
5. C 11. B 17. C 23. C 29. A 35. D
6. D 12. B 18. A 24. D 30. B 36. B
Section B
1. B 4. C
2. A 5. A
3. C 6. B
Electronic Configuration WS 2
1a 3s2 3p3 b 4s2 3d7
3 group 6
4 a Due to the electron repulsion of the paired electrons in sulfur, less

energy is required to remove 1 mole of electrons from its sub-level, as
there is less of an attraction of these electrons towards its nucleus.
c Next electron is closer to the nucleus thus more energy required
5a 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2 b 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2
c 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2
6a where electrons are most likely to be at the given moment

b
c 2s has higher energy
di2
ii 18
1a
1b 2, 6, 18
1c
1d The first ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove 1

electron from each atom of an element in 1 mole of gaseous atoms, to
form 1 mole of gaseous ions with a +1 charge.
ii O2+(g) → O3+(g) + e−
iii big jump in energy from 6th to 7th thus change in shells thus 2
shells
2
3
4a The first ionisation energy is the energy needed to remove 1

electron from each atom of an element in 1 mole of gaseous atoms, to
form 1 mole of gaseous ions with a +1 charge.
b D2+(g) → D3+(g) + e−
c group 4 because greatest jump is between 4th and 5th which means
there was a change in shell
5
6
Shapes of Molecules MS 1
Section A
1. D 9. B 17. D
2. B 10. B 18. D
3. B 11. A 19. A
4. B 12. C 20. A
5. D 13. A 21. D
6. C 14. C 22. C
7. C 15. C 23. C
8. C 16. C 24. C
Section B
1. B 5. A
2. D 6. D
3. D 7. B
4. B
Covalent Bonding MS 1
Section A
1. D 7. C 13. A
2. B 8. B 14. B
3. C 9. A 15. A
4. D 10. C 16. A
5. A 11. B 17. B
6. A 12. A 18. A
Section B
1. C 5. B
2. B 6. A
3. B 7. D
4. B
Covalent Bonding MS 2
1
2
Intermolecular Forces MS 1
1. B 7. C 13. D 19. B 25. B
2. D 8. B 14. B 20. B
3. A 9. C 15. C 21. A
4. D 10. C 16. C 22. A
5. B 11. D 17. A 23. C
6. C 12. C 18. B 24. D
Section B
1. A 4. A 7. A
2. C 5. C 8. B
3. B 6. B 9. C
Intermolecular Forces MS 2
1
2
3
4
5
6
Overall Bonding MS 1
1. C 8. C 15. B 22. C 29. D
2. A 9. C 16. A 23. C 30. A
3. D 10. B 17. C 24. C 31. D
4. D 11. A 18. C 25. C 32. C
5. C 12. D 19. D 26. C 33. D
6. C 13. C 20. D 27. C 34. A
7. D 14. B 21. D 28. C
Section B
1. C 4. A 7. B
2. C 5. C 8. B
3. D 6. C 9. B
Section B
1. C 6. B 11. D
2. A 7. A 12. C
3. C 8. B 13. B
4. D 9. B
5. C 10. A
Overall Bonding MS 2
1ai. 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 ii. 1s2 2s2 2p6 iii. 1s2 2s2 2p4 iv. 1s2 2s2 2p6
bi.
ii. Good conductor, high boiling point
iii. water treatment, bricks/cement

2
3
4
6
7
9
10
11
Energetics MS 1
1. D 14. B 27. B 40. B 53. D 66. B
2. C 15. B 28. C 41. C 54. A 67. B
3. A 16. D 29. D 42. A 55. B 68. C
4. A 17. B 30. C 43. C 56. D 69. B
5. A 18. C 31. D 44. A 57. C 70. B
6. C 19. C 32. C 45. A 58. B 71. D
7. B 20. C 33. C 46. D 59. B 72. B
8. D 21. C 34. A 47. A 60. B 73. A
9. B 22. A 35. A 48. B 61. A
10. C 23. B 36. A 49. C 62. B
11. C 24. C 37. D 50. C 63. B
12. C 25. B 38. C 51. B 64. A
13. A 26. B 39. A 52. B 65. C

Section B
1. D 7. D 13. B
2. B 8. D 14. A
3. A 9. C 15. B
4. D 10. C 16. D
5. B 11. B 17. B
6. A 12. C
1
2
3
4
6
7
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Cambridge Pre-U Revised Syllabus
Cambridge International Advanced Subsidiary and Advanced Level

in Chemistry (9701)
For use from 2016 in all papers for the above

syllabus, except practical examinations.
CSTxxx
**
Contents: Tables of Chemical Data
Page no.
1 Important values, constants and standards 3

2 Ionisation energies (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th) of selected elements in kJ mol–1 4
3 Bond energies 5
4 Standard electrode potential and redox potentials, E at 298K (25 °C) 7
5 Atomic and ionic radii 10
6 Typical proton (1H) chemical shift values (δ) relative to TMS = 0 12
7 Typical carbon (13C) chemical shift values (δ) relative to TMS = 0 13
8 Characteristic infra-red absorption frequencies for some selected bonds 14
9 The orientating effect of groups in aromatic substitution reactions 15
10 Names, structures and abbreviations of some amino acids 16
11 The Periodic Table of Elements 17
2
1 Important values, constants and standards
molar gas constant R = 8.31 J K–1 mol–1
the Faraday constant F = 9.65 × 104 C mol–1
the Avogadro constant L = 6.02 × 1023 mol–1
the Planck constant h = 6.63 × 10–34 J s
speed of light in a vacuum c = 3.00 × 108 m s–1
mp = 1.67 × 10–27 kg
rest mass of proton, 11H
mn = 1.67 × 10–27 kg
rest mass of neutron, 1 n
0
0 me = 9.11 × 10–31 kg
rest mass of electron, e
−1
electronic charge e = –1.60 × 10–19 C
molar volume of gas Vm = 22.4 dm3 mol–1 at s.t.p.

Vm = 24.0 dm3 mol–1 under room conditions
(where s.t.p. is expressed as 101 kPa,
approximately, and 273 K [0 °C])
ionic product of water Kw = 1.00 × 10–14 mol2 dm–6

(at 298 K [25 °C])
specific heat capacity of water = 4.18 kJ kg–1 K–1

(= 4.18 J g–1 K–1)
3
2 Ionisation energies (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th) of selected elements, in kJ mol–1
Proton
number First Second Third Fourth
H 1 1310 – – –
He 2 2370 5250 – –
Li 3 519 7300 11800 –
Be 4 900 1760 14800 21000
B 5 799 2420 3660 25000
C 6 1090 2350 4610 6220
N 7 1400 2860 4590 7480
O 8 1310 3390 5320 7450
F 9 1680 3370 6040 8410
Ne 10 2080 3950 6150 9290
Na 11 494 4560 6940 9540
Mg 12 736 1450 7740 10500
Al 13 577 1820 2740 11600
Si 14 786 1580 3230 4360
P 15 1060 1900 2920 4960
S 16 1000 2260 3390 4540
Cl 17 1260 2300 3850 5150
Ar 18 1520 2660 3950 5770
K 19 418 3070 4600 5860
Ca 20 590 1150 4940 6480
Sc 21 632 1240 2390 7110
Ti 22 661 1310 2720 4170
V 23 648 1370 2870 4600
Cr 24 653 1590 2990 4770
Mn 25 716 1510 3250 5190
Fe 26 762 1560 2960 5400
Co 27 757 1640 3230 5100
Ni 28 736 1750 3390 5400
Cu 29 745 1960 3350 5690
Zn 30 908 1730 3828 5980
Ga 31 577 1980 2960 6190
Br 35 1140 2080 3460 4850
Rb 37 403 4632 3900 5080
Sr 38 548 1060 4120 5440
Ag 47 731 2074 3361 –
I 53 1010 1840 2040 4030
Cs 55 376 2420 3300 –
Ba 56 502 966 3390 –
4
3 Bond Energies
3(a) Bond energies in diatomic molecules (these are exact values)
Homonuclear Heteronuclear
Bond Energy / kJ mol–1 Bond Energy / kJ mol–1
HH 436 HF 562
DD 442 HCl 431
N≡N 944 HBr 366
O= O 496 HI 299
P≡P 485 C≡O 1077
S=S 425
FF 158
Cl Cl 242
BrBr 193
II 151
5
3(b) Bond energies in polyatomic molecules (these are average values)
Homonuclear Heteronuclear
Bond Energy / kJ mol–1 Bond Energy / kJ mol–1
CC 350 CH 410
C=C 610 CCl 340
C≡C 840 CBr 280
C….C (benzene) 520 CI 240
NN 160 CN 305
N=N 410 C=N 610
OO 150 C≡N 890
SiSi 222 CO 360
PP 200 C=O 740
SS 264 C=O in CO2 805
NH 390
NCl 310
OH 460
SiCl 359
SiH 320
SiO (in SiO2(s)) 460
Si=O (in SiO2(g)) 640
PH 320
PCl 330
PO 340
P=O 540
SH 347
SCl 250
SO 360
S=O 500
6
4 Standard electrode potential and redox potentials, E at 298 K (25 oC)
For ease of reference, two tables are given:
(a) an extended list in alphabetical order;

(b) a shorter list in decreasing order of magnitude, i.e. a redox series.
(a) E in alphabetical order
Electrode reaction E /V
Ag+ + e– Ag +0.80
Al 3+ + 3e– Al –1.66
Ba2+ + 2e– Ba –2.90
Br2 + 2e– 2Br– +1.07
Ca2+ + 2e– Ca –2.87
Cl2 + 2e– 2Cl – +1.36
2HOCl + 2H+ + 2e– Cl2 + 2H2O +1.64
Cl O– + H2O + 2e– Cl – + 2OH– +0.89
Co2+ + 2e– Co –0.28
Co3+ + e– Co2+ +1.82
[Co(NH3)6]2+ + 2e– Co + 6NH3 –0.43
Cr2+ + 2e– Cr –0.91
Cr3+ + 3e– Cr –0.74
Cr3+ + e– Cr2+ –0.41
Cr2O72– + 14H+ + 6e– 2Cr3+ + 7H2O +1.33
Cu+ + e– Cu +0.52
Cu2+ + 2e– Cu +0.34
Cu2+ + e– Cu+ +0.15
[Cu(NH3)4]2+ + 2e– Cu + 4NH3 –0.05
F2 + 2e– 2F– +2.87
Fe2+ + 2e– Fe –0.44
Fe3+ + 3e– Fe –0.04
Fe3+ + e– Fe2+ +0.77
[Fe(CN)6]3– + e– [Fe(CN)6]4– +0.36
Fe(OH)3 + e– Fe(OH)2 + OH– –0.56
2H+ + 2e– H2 0.00
2H2O + 2e– H2 + 2OH– –0.83
I2 + 2e– 2I– +0.54
K + + e– K –2.92
Li+ + e– Li –3.04
Mg + 2e–
2+
Mg –2.38
Mn2+ + 2e– Mn –1.18
Mn3+ + e– Mn2+ +1.49
MnO2 + 4H+ + 2e– Mn2+ + 2H2O +1.23
MnO4– + e– MnO42– +0.56
MnO4 + 4H+ + 3e–
–
MnO2 + 2H2O +1.67
MnO4– + 8H+ + 5e– Mn2+ + 4H2O +1.52
NO3– + 2H+ + e– NO2 + H2O +0.81
NO3– + 3H+ + 2e– HNO2 + H2O +0.94
NO3– + 10H+ + 8e– NH4+ + 3H2O +0.87
7
Na+ + e– Na –2.71
Ni2+ + 2e– Ni –0.25
[Ni(NH3)6]2+ + 2e– Ni + 6NH3 –0.51
H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e– 2H2O +1.77
HO2– + H2O + 2e– 3OH– +0.88
O2 + 4H+ + 4e– 2H2O +1.23
O2 + 2H2O + 4e– 4OH– +0.40
O2 + 2H+ + 2e– H2O2 +0.68
O2 + H2O + 2e– HO2– + OH– –0.08
Pb2+ + 2e– Pb –0.13
Pb4+ + 2e– Pb2+ +1.69
PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e– Pb2+ + 2H2O +1.47
SO42– + 4H+ + 2e– SO2 + 2H2O +0.17
S2O82–+ 2e– 2SO42– +2.01
S4O62–+ 2e– 2S2O32– +0.09
Sn2+ + 2e– Sn –0.14
Sn4+ + 2e– Sn2+ +0.15
V2+ + 2e– V –1.20
V3+ + e– V2+ –0.26
VO + 2H+ + e–
2+
V3+ + H2O +0.34
VO2+ + 2H+ + e– VO2+ + H2O +1.00
VO3– + 4H+ + e– VO2+ + 2H2O +1.00
Zn2+ + 2e– Zn –0.76
All ionic states refer to aqueous ions but other state symbols have been omitted.
8
(b) E in decreasing order of oxidising power
(a selection only – see also the extended alphabetical list on the previous pages)
F2 + 2e– 2F– +2.87

S2O82–+ 2e– 2SO42– +2.01
H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e– 2H2O +1.77
MnO4– + 8H+ + 5e– Mn2+ + 4H2O +1.52
PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e– Pb2+ + 2H2O +1.47
Cl2 + 2e– 2Cl – +1.36
Cr2O7 + 14H+ + 6e–
2–
2Cr3+ + 7H2O +1.33
O2 + 4H+ + 4e– 2H2O +1.23
Br2 + 2e– 2Br– +1.07
ClO – + H2O + 2e– Cl – + 2OH– +0.89
NO3– + 10H+ + 8e– NH4+ + 3H2O +0.87
NO3– + 2H+ + e– NO2 + H2O +0.81
Ag+ + e– Ag +0.80
Fe3+ + e– Fe2+ +0.77
I2 + 2e– 2I– +0.54
O2 + 2H2O + 4e– 4OH– +0.40
Cu2+ + 2e– Cu +0.34
SO4 + 4H+ + 2e–
2–
SO2 + 2H2O +0.17
Sn4+ + 2e– Sn2+ +0.15
S4O62–+ 2e– 2S2O32– +0.09
2H+ + 2e– H2 0.00
Pb2+ + 2e– Pb –0.13
Sn2+ + 2e– Sn –0.14
Fe2+ + 2e– Fe –0.44
Zn2+ + 2e– Zn –0.76
2H2O + 2e– H2 + 2OH– –0.83
V2+ + 2e– V –1.20
Mg2+ + 2e– Mg –2.38
Ca2+ + 2e– Ca –2.87
K + + e– K –2.92
9
5 Atomic and ionic radii
(a) Period 1 atomic / nm ionic / nm
single covalent H 0.037 H– 0.208
van der Waals He 0.140
(b) Period 2 atomic / nm ionic / nm
metallic Li 0.152 Li+ 0.060
Be 0.112 Be2+ 0.031
single covalent B 0.080 B3+ 0.020
C 0.077 C4+ 0.015 C4– 0.260
N 0.074 N3– 0.171
O 0.073 O2– 0.140
F 0.072 F– 0.136
van der Waals Ne 0.160
(c) Period 3 atomic / nm ionic / nm
metallic Na 0.186 Na+ 0.095
Mg 0.160 Mg2+ 0.065
Al 0.143 Al 3+ 0.050
single covalent Si 0.117 Si4+ 0.041
P 0.110 P3– 0.212
S 0.104 S2– 0.184
Cl 0.099 Cl – 0.181
van der Waals Ar 0.190
(d) Group 2 atomic / nm ionic / nm
metallic Be 0.112 Be2+ 0.031
Mg 0.160 Mg2+ 0.065
Ca 0.197 Ca2+ 0.099
Sr 0.215 Sr2+ 0.113
Ba 0.217 Ba2+ 0.135
Ra 0.220 Ra2+ 0.140
10
(e) Group 14 atomic / nm ionic / nm
single covalent C 0.077 C4+ 0.015
Si 0.117 Si4+ 0.041
Ge 0.122 Ge2+ 0.093
metallic Sn 0.162 Sn2+ 0.112
Pb 0.175 Pb2+ 0.120
(f) Group 17 atomic / nm ionic / nm
single covalent F 0.072 F– 0.136
Cl 0.099 Cl – 0.181
Br 0.114 Br– 0.195
I 0.133 I– 0.216
At 0.140
(g) First row transition atomic / nm ionic / nm

elements
metallic Sc 0.164 Sc3+ 0.081
Ti 0.146 Ti2+ 0.090 Ti3+ 0.067
V 0.135 V2+ 0.079 V3+ 0.064
Cr 0.129 Cr2+ 0.073 Cr3+ 0.062
Mn 0.132 Mn2+ 0.067 Mn3+ 0.062
Fe 0.126 Fe2+ 0.061 Fe3+ 0.055
Co 0.125 Co2+ 0.078 Co2+ 0.053
Ni 0.124 Ni2+ 0.070 Ni3+ 0.056
Cu 0.128 Cu2+ 0.073
Zn 0.135 Zn2+ 0.075
11
6 Typical proton (1H) chemical shift values (δ) relative to TMS = 0
type of chemical shift

environment of proton example structures
proton range (δ)
alkane –CH3, –CH2–, >CH– 0.9–1.7
alkyl next to C=O CH3–C=O, –CH2–C=O, >CH–C=O 2.2–3.0
alkyl next to aromatic

CH3–Ar, –CH2–Ar, >CH–Ar 2.3–3.0
ring
alkyl next to
CH3–O, –CH2–O, –CH2–Cl, >CH–Br 3.2–4.0
electronegative atom
attached to alkyne ≡C–H 1.8–3.1

C–H
attached to alkene =CH2, =CH– 4.5–6.0
attached to aromatic ring H 6.0–9.0
aldehyde R C 9.3–10.5
alcohol RO–H 0.5–6.0
phenol OH 4.5–7.0
O-H
(see
note
O
below)
carboxylic acid R C 9.0–13.0
O H
alkyl amine R–NH– 1.0–5.0
aryl amine NH2 3.0–6.0

N-H
(see
note O
below)
R C
amide 5.0–12.0
N H
Note: δ values for –O-H and –N-H protons can vary depending on solvent and concentration
12
7 Typical carbon (13C) chemical shift values (δ) relative to TMS = 0
hybridisation of environment of carbon example structures chemical

the carbon atom shift range
atom (δ)
sp3 alkyl CH3–, –CH2–, –CH< 0–50
sp3 next to alkene/arene CH2 10–40

–CH2–C=C,
sp3 next to carbonyl/carboxyl –CH2–COR, –CH2–CO2R 25–50
sp3 next to nitrogen –CH2–NH2, –CH2–NR2, 30–65

–CH2–NHCO
next to chlorine
sp3 (-CH2-Br and -CH2-I are in –CH2–Cl 30–60
the same range as alkyl)
sp3 next to oxygen –CH2–OH, –CH2–O–CO– 50–70
C C
sp2 alkene or arene C C 110–160
>C=C<, C C
sp2 carboxyl R–CO2H, R–CO2R 160–185
sp2 carbonyl R–CHO, R–CO–R 190–220
sp alkyne R–C≡C– 65–85
sp nitrile R–C≡N 100–125
13
8 Characteristic infra-red absorption frequencies for some selected bonds
appearance of peak
functional groups absorption range (in
bond (s = strong,
containing the bond wavenumbers) /cm–1
w = weak)
C–O alcohols, ethers, esters 1040–1300 s
aromatic compounds,
C=C 1500–1680 w unless conjugated
alkenes
amides, 1640–1690 s
C=O ketones and aldehydes 1670–1740 s
esters, 1710–1750 s
C≡C alkynes 2150–2250 w unless conjugated
C≡N nitriles 2200–2250 w
alkanes, CH2–H 2850–2950 s

C–H
alkenes/arenes, =C–H 3000–3100 w
N–H amines, amides 3300–3500 w
carboxylic acids, RCO2–H 2500–3000 s and very broad

O–H H–bonded alcohol, RO–H 3200–3600 s
free alcohol, RO–H 3580–3650 s and sharp
14
9 The orientating effect of groups in aromatic substitution reactions.
The position of the incoming group, Y, is determined by the nature of the group, X, already bonded
to the ring, and not by the nature of the incoming group Y.
X X
2
+ Y+ + H+
3
4
Y
X- groups that direct the incoming X- groups that direct the incoming
Y group to the 2- or 4- positions Y group to the 3- position
–NH2, –NHR or –NR2 –NO2
–OH or –OR –NH3
–NHCOR –CN
–CH3, –alkyl –CHO, –COR
–Cl –CO2H, –CO2R
15
10 Names, structures and abbreviations of some amino acids
structure of side chain R- in
NH2
name 3-letter abbreviation 1-letter symbol
R CH
CO2H
alanine Ala A CH3–
aspartic acid Asp D HO2CCH2–
cysteine Cys C HSCH2–
glutamic acid Glu E HO2CCH2CH2–
glycine Gly G H–
lysine Lys K H2NCH2CH2CH2CH2–
phenylalanine Phe F CH2
serine Ser S HOCH2–
tyrosine Tyr Y HO CH2
CH3
valine Val V CH
CH3
16
The Periodic Table of Elements
Group
1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
1 2
H He
hydrogen helium
Key 1.0 4.0
3 4 atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be atomic symbol B C N O F Ne
lithium beryllium name boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
6.9 9.0 relative atomic mass 10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
23.0 24.3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 39.9
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
39.1 40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9 58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8
17
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon
85.5 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 – 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 116.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba lanthanoids
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
caesium barium hafnium tantalum tungsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 – – –
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 114 116
actinoids
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cr Fl Lv
francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium copernicium flerovium livermorium
– – – – – – – – – – – – –
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
lanthanoids La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.4 – 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.1 175.0
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
actinoids Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
– 232.0 231.0 238.0 – – – – – – – – – – –
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1

1 ATOMS, MOLECULES & STOICHIOMETRY 5

MOLES & STOICHIOMETRY WS 2 21

2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE + MASS SPECTROMETRY 37

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION WS 2 120

4 CHEMICAL BONDING 131

COVALENT BONDING WS 1 169

COVALENT BONDING WS 2 176

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES WS 1 177

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES WS 2 187

OVERALL BONDING WS 1 194

OVERALL BONDING WS 2 210

DATA BOOKLET 237

Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry

PARSA ASIF ATOMS, MOLECULES & STOICHIOMETRY

PARSA ASIF ATOMS, MOLECULES & STOICHIOMETRY

PARSA ASIF ATOMS, MOLECULES & STOICHIOMETRY

PARSA ASIF ATOMS, MOLECULES & STOICHIOMETRY

PARSA ASIF ATOMS, MOLECULES & STOICHIOMETRY

PARSA ASIF ATOMS, MOLECULES & STOICHIOMETRY

PARSA ASIF ATOMS, MOLECULES & STOICHIOMETRY

PARSA ASIF ATOMS, MOLECULES & STOICHIOMETRY

PARSA ASIF ATOMS, MOLECULES & STOICHIOMETRY

PARSA ASIF ATOMS, MOLECULES & STOICHIOMETRY

MOLES & STOICHIOMETRY WS 1

How many nickel atoms are in the coin?

A 2.05 × 1022 B 4.30 × 1022 C 1.03 × 1023 D 1.20 × 1024

The nitrogen is formed according to the following equations.

2NaN3 → 2Na + 3N2

10Na + 2KNO3 → K2O + 5Na2O + N2

A 1.5 B 1.6 C 3.2 D 4.0

A 9 B 200 C 1800 D 360 000

6 Which mass of gas would occupy a volume of 3 dm 3 at 25 °C and 1 atmosphere pressure?

CEDARCOLLEGE MOLES & STOICHIOMETRY WS1

2NaN3 → 3N2 + 2Na

A typical driver’s airbag contains 50 g of sodium azide.

Calculate the volume of nitrogen this will produce at room temperature.

A 9.2 dm3 B 13.9 dm3 C 27.7 dm3 D 72.0 dm3

N2O4(g) + 2NaOH(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + NaNO2(aq) + H2O(l)

A 8 cm3 B 12.5 cm3 C 40 cm3 D 80 cm3

NaClO(aq) + H2O2(aq) → NaCl(aq) + O2(g) + H2O(l)

What is the concentration of NaClO in the bleach?

A 8.75 × 10–4 mol dm–3

CH3SH + 3O2 → CO2 + SO2 + 2H2O

A sample of 10 cm3 of methanethiol was exploded with 60 cm 3 of oxygen.

A 20 cm3 B 30 cm3 C 50 cm3 D 70 cm3

CEDARCOLLEGE MOLES & STOICHIOMETRY WS1

A 46.8 cm3 B 72.0 cm 3 C 93.6 cm3 D 144 cm3

A 2.5 × 10–3 mol dm–3

CEDARCOLLEGE MOLES & STOICHIOMETRY WS1

What is the percentage increase in mass?

A 14% B 24% C 32% D 36%

14H+ + 6Fe2+ + Cr2O72– → 2Cr3+ + 6Fe3+ + 7H2O

A 1.22 B 4.39 C 12.2 D 43.9

What is the identity of the gas?

A 1 dm3 B 1.5 dm3 C 2 dm3 D 3 dm3

A 0.70 g B 1.00 g C 1.40 g D 2.25 g

Assume the egg shell is pure calcium carbonate.

CEDARCOLLEGE MOLES & STOICHIOMETRY WS1