BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – Elementary Kinetic Theory of Gases

Venturi anemometers
The venturi effect can be used to measure flow velocity through the pressure
differential. This method was used in early aviation to measure flight speed.

Continuity eq.(subsonic)+Bernouilli eq.(no friction, no gravity)

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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – Elementary Kinetic Theory of Gases
Venturi effect – Formula 1 diffusers
The Venturi effect is used in F1
diffusers 1977

The effect is critically dependant

on the distance between the
underbody and the ground and if
the car hits a bump during a turn
the “down-force” (required to stick
the car to the road) can be
suddenly lost. This is dangerous The flow is accelerated in this
and the reason why diffusers are channel, lowering the static
controversial pressure and creating a down-
force

The diffuser acts as an expansion chamber to manage the air

as it exits from underneath the car and reintegrates it
with higher-pressure ambient air. Smoothing this transition
reduces turbulence and drag in the car's wake and improves
airflow under the car
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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – Elementary Kinetic Theory of Gases
tŝŶĚdƵŶŶĞůƐ
Wind tunnels are conducts which include a fan to move the air, devices to smooth the flow and remove turbulence
and a test section where an stationary aerodynamic model is inmmersed in a moving flow

If the flow velocity is constant, the physics of the flow is equivalent to the model moving through fluid at rest

Wind tunnels can be used to observe the flow development, measure aerodynamic forces and moments and obtain
pressure distributions

There are also smoke and water tunnels (or channels), mainly used for flow visualisation

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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – Elementary Kinetic Theory of Gases
Wind Tunnels

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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – Elementary Kinetic Theory of Gases
Wind Tunnels

Many pictures shown in the

rest of the presentation are
obtained from smoke or
water tunnels

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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – Elementary Kinetic Theory of Gases
Wind Tunnels

A technique called “Particle

Image Velocimetry” allows to
obtain velocity vector fields
using a camera and a
computer to correlate
consecutive images

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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID DYNAMICS
CONTINUITY EQUATION
Lets assume a conduct into
which a flow with constant
velocity v1 and density ρ1 “Streamtube”
e.g. pipe
enters through an area A1

u2 dt
ρ2

ρ1
u1 dt

M 1 = ρ 1 V 1 = ρ 1 u 1 dt A 1 = ρ 2 V 2 = ρ 2 u 2 dt A 2
Continuity Equation
If the flow is stationary, i.e., the inflow and outflow uf
f
ff
1f
f
ff uf
f
ff
ff
f
f
velocities and densities are constant with time, all the ρ1 = ρ2 2
mass that enters must exit in the same time period: A2 A1
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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID DYNAMICS
CONTINUITY EQUATION
If there is no change in fluid density, e.g.., the fluid is incompressible (like a liquid)
or the velocities are much lower than the speed of sound (slow subsonic flow), the
densities are equal on both sides of the continuity equation and can be thus
simplified:

uf
f
ff
1f
f
ff uf
f
ff
2f
f
ff
ρ1 = ρ2
A2 A1 “Streamtube”
e.g. pipe

u2 dt
ρ

ρ
u1 dt

uf
f
ff
Aff
f
f1f
f
ff
1f
f
ff uf
f
ff
2f
f
ff u2 = u1 ·
= A2
A2 A1
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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID DYNAMICS
BERNOUILLI EQUATION u2

Assuming an incompressible fluid ->

density = ρ = constant P2, A2

u1
P1, A1

Considering a conduct in which a fluid flows in the conditions shown in the figure;
The work done by the pressure to “push” the flow a distance ∆l into the conduct is
ΔW (where V is the volume of fluid entering or exiting the conduct);
Pressure

∆ W = A P∆ l = P V
Volume
Work distance
Force

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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID DYNAMICS
BERNOUILLI EQUATION

The total work done on the fluid control volume is the difference between the work
done by the inflow (P2) and outflow (P1) pressures
b c
∆ W = P2 @ P1 V

The change in internal energy of a given volume V of the fluid as it changes velocity
and height as it travels through the conduct is;
f g
1ff
f
f 1f
ff
f
b c
∆E= m u 2 @ m u 1 + m gz 2 @ m gz 1
2 2
2 2
Change in Kinetic energy Change in Potential energy

As the energy is conserved (the flow is stationary and there are no dissipative effects
–no friction), the external work must be the same as the change in internal energy in
the fluid volume
f g f g
b c 1f
f
ff f
1f
ff
∆ W = ∆ E = P2 @ P1 V = 2
m u 2 + m gz 2 @ 2
m u 1 + m gz 1
2 2

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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID DYNAMICS
BERNOUILLI EQUATION

Dividing the previous equation by the volume V and recalling that;

f
f
mf
ff
f
ρ =
V
c f1 g f g
ff
ff 1f
f
ff 2
b
∆ w = ∆ e = P2 @ P1 = ρ u 22 + gz 2 @ ρ u 1 + gz 1
2 2

Re-arranging terms;

1ff
f
f 2 1f
f
ff 2
P2 + ρ u 2 + gz 2 = P 1 + ρ u 1 + gz 1
2 2
Which can be expressed in the form of the Bernouilli equation;

1f
f
ff 2
ρ gz+ ρ u + P = constant
2
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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID DYNAMICS
BERNOUILLI EQUATION total energy
density

1f
f
ff 2
ρ gz+ ρ u + P = constant
2
Potential
energy kinetic internal
density energy energy
density density

The Bernouilli equation expresses the energy conservation principle: as the fluid
moves through the conduct it exchanges its total energy (which remains constant) into
kinetic, potential and internal energy
If the variation in height is small or the density of the fluid is small (as in the case of
airflow over objects), the potential energy term is ignored, resulting in:

1f
f
ff 2
ρ u + P = constant
2
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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID STATICS
Pressure gradients: Hydrostatic Equation
In a vertical column of fluid, the force of gravity has the effect of generating a pressure
gradient.
The weight of the column of fluid, at each height (h), is balanced by the fluid pressure
at that height. This is described by the hydrostatic equation.

Lower Pressure
(P+dP)dA
mg dA

Gravity
` a
dh ρh

PdA
Higher Pressure

` a
dP = @ ρ h g dh
Hydrostatic equation

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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID DYNAMICS
Pressure gradients: Conservation of Momentum

Higher Lower
u
pressure pressure

A
Considering now a fluid volume in
which there is a pressure difference in
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
P
dP the horizontal direction (pressure
P+ dx gradient: dP/dx)
dx
u ff
f
f
duf
ff
f
u+ dx The fluid moves from the region of
dx
dx higher pressure into zones of lower
pressure, with local velocity u(x)

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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID DYNAMICS
Pressure gradients: Conservation of Momentum
As the fluid is moving, it does so with
A an acceleration caused by this force:
F=m·a
f
ff
f
ff
ff
f
P
dP
P+ dx ff
f
f
duf
ff
f ; m = ρ dx A
dx F= m
dt
u f
f
f
duf
ff
ff Volume differential
u+ dx
dx dV
f g f g
ff
f
ff
ff
f ff
f
ff
ff
f dx
ff
f
ff
ff
dx dp du
@ dx A = m
Taking a differential slice of the fluid of dx dx dt
width dx, the net force caused by the
pressure gradient is: m = m
t=
dV dx $ A
dP
F = P $ A - (P + dx) $ A
dx
f g
ff
f
f
dpf
ff
f ff
f
f
duf
ff
f
dP @ = ρu
F =- dx $ A dx dx
dx
Conservation of Momentum Equation

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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID DYNAMICS
DYNAMIC PRESSURE

Starting from the equation of conservation of linear momentum for a fluid (in
one dimension):
ff
f
f
duf
ff
f ff
f
f
dpf
ff
f
ρu =@
dx dx

where ρ is the density of the gas, p is the pressure, x is the direction of the
flow, and u is the velocity in the x direction. Re-arranging:

ff
f
f
duf
ff
f dp
f
f
ff
ff
f
f
ρu + = 0
dx dx

For a constant density (incompressible flow) we can take the "ρ·u" term
inside the differential:
fd e g
1f
f
ff
f
ρ u2
f
f
ff
ff
f
2f
f
ff
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
f dp
ff
f
ff
ff
f
d + = 0
dx dx

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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID DYNAMICS
DYNAMIC PRESSURE
Integrating this differential equation in x:

1ff
f
f 2
ρ u + p s = constant = p t
2
This equation looks exactly like the incompressible form of Bernoulli's equation.

Each term in this equation has the dimensions of a pressure (energy/volume); ps

is the “static pressure”, the constant pt is called the “total pressure”, and q is
called “dynamic pressure”

1f
f
ff 2
Dynam ic Pressure = q = ρ u
2

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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID DYNAMICS
PRESSURE COEFFICIENT - Cp

A convenient scalar to represent the local pressure in a flow field is the pressure
coefficient, defined as;
p∞ : pressure upstream, far from
f g2
pf
f
ff
f
@f
f
ff
ff
f
pf
f
ff
ff
f
ff
f f
f
f
uf
ff
f
ff any perturbation
cp = 1
= 1@
q1 u1 u ∞ : Free airstream speed, speed
of flow far from the the object

A Cp = 0 means the same static pressure as the free-stream (unperturbed, normally

atmospheric) value
Cp = 1 means an “stagnation point”, a point where the fluid stops

Streamlines, nominal trajectories

Stagnation point, theoretical place
of particles
where the fluid particles stop

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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID DYNAMICS
PRESSURE COEFFICIENT - Cp

A Cp <0 means “suction” (in fact just means that the static pressure is lower than the
freestream value)
Remember: the static pressure is the pressure exerted by the fluid on a surface
parallel to the local velocity of motion.

The two manometers measure static

pressure as the flow velocity is parallel to the
conduct walls.
The manometers are perpendicular (normal)
to the walls and pressure is force per unit
area normal to the surface

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 ^/&>h/D,E/^ʹ&>h/zED/^
WZ^^hZK&&//EdͲƉ

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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID DYNAMICS
PRESSURE COEFFICIENT - Cp
Cp > 0, higher
pressure than
freestream static
value, low
velocity

Cp < 0, low static

pressure, high
velocity

Cp ≅ 0, almost
freestream static
pressure, free-
stream velocity

Lines of iso-
pressure/ iso-
velocity
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 BASIC FLUID MECHANICS – FLUID DYNAMICS
Stagnation point and Cp scales Stagnation point

Different Computational Fluid Dynamics

(CFD) programs use different color scales
for Cp.
The trick is to identify the stagnation point.
The corresponding colour corresponds to
Cp=1
Stagnation point
High speed zone

High speed zone

Stagnation point

High speed zone

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 MEASUREMENT OF FLIGHT SPEED
1f
f
ff 2
PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM pt = ps + ρv
From the Bernouilli equation:
2
v
w
uw
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w
bw
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w w
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
ww
w
w
ww
ww
w
w
w
cw
w
u2 · p @ p
u f
t ff
f
ff
ff
f
fff
f
ff
ftf
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
sf
f
ff
ff
f
The air speed is: v=
ρ air

Static port

Static source

∆P= ρ Hg
g h = pt @ ps
Pitot port

Pitot source

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 AIR DATA SYSTEM
PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM

Most manometers use the deformation of an elastic

metallic chamber to measure pressure
Variations of external pressure deform the chamber and
the displacement is picked and amplified to an indication
pointer.
On aircraft, the pitor-static system is marked with signs
warning not to obstruct the “ports” (the holes). Dirt, paint
or insects can block the ports and create speed
indication errors which can be very dangerous.

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 AIR DATA SYSTEM
AIRSPEED INDICATOR (ASI)
At low flight speeds (in incompressible flow, below Mach number of around 0.5),
using the Bernouilli equation the airspeed (v) is obtained from the difference
between total and static pressure divided by the air density, which depends on the
altitude
This is the True Air Speed (TAS)
v
w
uw
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
ww
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w w
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
ww
w
w
ww
ww
w
w
ww
w
u2 · p @ p
b c
u f
t ff
f
ff
ff
f
fff
f
ff
ftf
f
ff
ff
f
ff
ff
f
ff
sf
f
ff
ff
f
TAS = v=
ρ

When considering aerodynamic forces on the aircraft structure it is important to take

into account the effect of the density of the air.
For this purpose, an Equivalent Air Speed (EAS) is defined as:
w
ww
w
w
ww
w
ww
w
w
w
ρf
f
ff
ff
EAS = TAS · s
Where ρ is the density at the flight altitude and ρ0
is the standard density at sea level ISA+0
ρ0 conditions: ρ0= 1.225 Kg/m3

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 MEASUREMENT OF FLIGHT SPEED
AIRSPEED INDICATOR (ASI)
In aeronautics, flight speed is generally measured
in Knots (1 Knot = 0.51444m/s) and is based on
the airspeed detected by the pitot-static system
There are various types of airspeed depending
on the level of correction of instrument,
installation and compressibility errors.

Indicated airspeed (IAS) is the airspeed read directly from

the airspeed indicator on an aircraft, driven by the pitot-static
system. An aircraft's indicated airspeed in knots is typically
abbreviated KIAS for "Knots-Indicated Air Speed" (vs. KCAS
for calibrated airspeed and KTAS for true airspeed).

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 Additional Resources
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/252/kinetic_theory.html
http://home.earthlink.net/~mmc1919/venturi_discuss_math.html
http://www.chem.hope.edu/~polik/Chem345-1997/gasviscosity/GasViscosity.html
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/152.mf1i.spring02/MolecularCollisions.htm
http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/152.mf1i.spring02/Viscosity.htm
http://teacher.pas.rochester.edu/phy121/lecturenotes/Chapter18/Chapter18.html
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/menfre.html#c3
http://www-mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk/web/library/enginfo/aerothermal_dvd_only/aero/contents.html
http://www.recreationalflying.net/tutorials/groundschool/umodule4.html
http://www.stanford.edu/group/ctr/gallery.html
http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Theories_of_Flight/Skin_Friction/TH11G3.htm
http://www.jcelectronica.com/articles/aerodynamics_1.htm
http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/aero/virtual/demo/aeronautics/tutorial/wings2.html
http://www.fluids.eng.vt.edu/msc/gallery/gall.htm
http://airplanegroundschools.com/Transition-to-Jet-Powered-Airplanes/
http://www.efluids.com/efluids/pages/gallery.htm
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/fluids/airfoil.html
http://www.caranddriver.com/features/the-physics-of-diffusers-how-to-make-a-
http://www.vizimag.com/viziflow.htm car-really-suck-feature
http://web.mit.edu/13.021/13021_2003/Lifting%20surfaces/lectureC.htm
http://www.mh-aerotools.de/airfoils/ribs.htm
http://www-mdp.eng.cam.ac.uk/web/library/enginfo/aerothermal_dvd_only/aero/contents.html
http://www.aoe.vt.edu/~jschetz/fluidnature/
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