1.

Data Representation
1.1: Number System
• Denary to binary
• Binary to denary
• Denary to hexa
• Hexa to denary
• Binary to hexa
• Hexa to binary
• Binary addition
• Logical shifts e.g. left shift and right shift
• 2’s complement
• Convert positive denary numbers into binary using 2’s complement method
• Convert negative denary numbers into binary using 2’s complement method

Uses of Hexa-decimal number:

• Error codes
• MAC addresses
• IPv6
• HTML color codes

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Page 2 of 11
According to this system every key on the keyboard is given unique ASCII number. Whenever any key is
pressed that ASCII number is processed by the computer to understand which key has been pressed. The
standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bits codes that represent letters, numbers, and characters found
on a standard keyboard.

Later on in 1986 Extended ASCII introduced which used 8-bits codes. This gives another 128 codes to allow
characters in non-English alphabets and for some graphical characters.

Problems with ASCII:

• It is not suitable for most languages around the world
• There are different versions of ASCII where DOS and Windows use different characters for some
ASCII codes

Unicode:
ASCII system was dealing with codes of English alphabets only and there are different versions of
ASCII where DOS and Windows use different characters for some ASCII codes. To overcome these
problems of ASCII a new system Unicode was introduced. Unicode represents all languages of
browsers used globally and uses same codes for every character on different plat forms e.g. windows,
android or DOS

Features of Unicode:
• It represents codes for all languages spoken around the world
• It uses uniform encoding on every plat form e.g. DOS or windows using 16-bit or 32-bit code
• It is more efficient coding system than ASCII

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In order to measure the size of sound file we need to know the sampling resolution and sampling
rate:

Sampling Resolution:

The number of bits per sample is known as sampling resolution

Sampling rate:

It means the number of sound samples taken per second.

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Bitmap images are made up of pixels. A pixel is a tiny illuminated dot displayed on the screen. Each pixel can
represented as a binary number, so a bitmap image is stored in computer as a series of binary numbers.

In order to measure the size of bitmap images we need to know the colour depth and image
resolution:

Colour depth: The number of bits used to represent each colour

Image resolution: It means number of pixels that make up an image for example an image can be of 1024 x
800 pixels. High resolution gives the better quality but size of the file is increased.

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Page 6 of 11
Activity questions:
Question 1: Explain each of the following terms:

i. Colour depth:

The number of bits used to represent each colour

ii. ASCII codes and Extended ASCII codes:

According to this system every key on the keyboard is given unique ASCII number. Whenever any
key is pressed that ASCII number is processed by the computer to understand which key has been
pressed. The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bits codes that represent letters, numbers,
and characters found on a standard keyboard.

Later on in 1986 Extended ASCII introduced which used 8-bits codes. This gives another 128 codes to
allow characters in non-English alphabets and for some graphical characters.

iii. Unicode:
ASCII system was dealing with codes of English alphabets only and there are different
versions of ASCII where DOS and Windows use different characters for some ASCII
codes. To overcome these problems of ASCII a new system Unicode was introduced.
Unicode represents all languages of browsers used globally and uses same codes for every
character on different plat forms e.g. windows, android or DOS
iv. Sampling rate:
It means the number of sound samples taken per second.

v. Bitmap images:
Bitmap images are made up of pixels. A pixel is a tiny illuminated dot displayed on the screen.
Each pixel can represented as a binary number. Greater number of pixels produces sharp quality of
image but size of image is increased. When bitmap images are enlarged they take more storage
space.

Question 2: 8-bits used to represent each colour component means 28 = 256 colours

Question 3: effects of increasing image resolution and sampling rate

Effects of increasing image resolution is producing better quality image but the storage size
increases as well. Same is the case with higher sampling rate produces better sound quality but
more processing power and more storage space is required at the same time.

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Memory size:

Data compression:
Large sized files can be compressed to reduce their size. Data compression is done for the following reasons:

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Lossless & Lossy Compression:

Lossy compression is a data encoding method that compresses data by discarding some of it. The
basic aim is to minimize the amount of data that is to be transmitted. This kind of compression is used
in such applications where continuity of transmission is more important than quality e.g. transmission
of multimedia data such as audio, video and still images. MP3, MP4 and JPEG are examples of lossy
compression techniques.

JPEG: Its lossy file compression technique used for bitmapped images. When any image is
converted into JPEG a new file is formed and old one cannot be reconstructed. It reduces the image
size for two concepts:

i. Human eyes don’t detect differences in colour shades as well as they detect differences in
image brightness
ii. By separating pixel colours from brightness

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Lossless compression is data encoding method that perfectly compressed and decompressed data
without and loss of data. This method of compression is used in such application where quality is
very important than continuity. Typical examples are executable programs, text documents and
source code. Some image file format like PNG or GIF use lossless compression while TIFF and
MNG may use either lossless or lossy methods.

Now 16 bytes data has been compressed into 8 bytes using RLE.

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Page 11 of 11
 Exam Style questions:

Answers (a) :

i. The number of bits per sample is known as sampling resolution

ii. Greater sampling resolution provides better sound quality. It will result in less distortion in
sound. If more bits are available for each sample, then more levels of the signal can be
captured, which improves the detail of the recording.

Answers (b):

i. Number of pixels require to make up an image is known as image resolution

ii. 4 bits can be used to encode data for one pixel of his image
iii. Calculation can be done as described earlier in this chapter

iv. JPEG: It’s a lossy file compression technique used for bitmapped images. When any image is
converted into JPEG a new file is formed and old one cannot be reconstructed. It reduces the
image size for two concepts:

a. Human eyes don’t detect differences in colour shades as well as they detect differences in
image brightness
b. By separating pixel colours from brightness

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Answers:

(a) Sampling is the method of converting analogue audio signals into digital signals. Sampling means
measuring the amplitude of the sound wave this is done using ADC (analogue to digital converter).
Sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals. Highest amplitude value helps to know how many
bits are there per sample. This is known as sampling resolution. Sample rate is found and then size of
the sound clip is calculated by formula (Sample rate x Sample resolution x length of sample), this is
how the music sound clips are recorded

(b) Lossy compression technique MP3 can be used to compress audio clips. It can compress the size of
audio clips by 90% percent which is comprehensive difference and can easily be uploaded and
downloaded via email. Bandwidth is a very important and expensive when using online data transfer
hence reduced form of audio using MP3 will be suitable.

(c) i.

iii. 3 0 2 1 4 0 9 1 4 0 2 1 1 0 2 1 2 0 2 1 1 0

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 Answer: part (a), (b), (c) can easily be answered with material studied for this chapter

(d) Number of images can be increased

i. Using JPEG lossy compression technique
ii. Image resolution can be decreased using any utility software
iii. Image brightness can be decreased

Answer: (a)

(b)

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Answer:

i. 3 bytes of storage are used for each pixel (24 bits = 3 bytes). In each pixel one byte (8 bits) is used to
represent the level of red, one byte for the level of blue and one byte for the level of green.

ii. The three RGB colors are each 8-bits (possible values [0.. 255], 2 to the power of 8 = 256) of each of
Red, Green, and Blue. The three 8-bit RGB components can create up to 256×256×256 = 16.7 million
possible RGB color combinations, called 24-bit "color".

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Ch:2 - Data Transmission:
It means sending and receiving data from one computer or data processing device to another.

Modes of data transmission:

a. Simplex:
It permits data to flow in one direction only. You can send data or receive data
but not both. Example can be sending data from computer to printer

b. Half duplex:
Half duplex line can alternately send and receive data. This means that at any
particular time you can either send data but not receive it, or receive data but
not send it. Example of this can be walkie–talkie

c. Full duplex:

A full duplex line can simultaneously send and receive data. Example can be
broadband internet communication

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Serial Data Transmission:
In serial transmission all bits of one character/byte travel one after another. Data is transmitted bit by bit
sequentially. A single wire is used to transmit data. USB, Mouse, keyboard etc. use serial ports. It provides
slower speed of transmission but no skew problem.

Reasons of choosing serial data transmission:

• When there is a long distance communication because it will reduce the cost of cable
• Reliable data transmission as all data goes through single cable no synchronization problem.

Parallel Data Transmission of Data:

In parallel data transmission all bits of one byte are sent simultaneously. A number parallel wires are used to
transmit bits at the same time. Clock Skew can be the problem with parallel transmission as data moves
through different cables that can have different properties so bits can travel with different speed.

Reasons of choosing parallel transmission:

• Data is transmitted with greater speed

• When data is to be transmitted at shorter distance like printer that is often placed near computer

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Packet switching:

Hopping:

Once a hop number reaches zero and the packet has not reached its destination, then packet is deleted and a
request to resend this packet is made

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Page 19 of 11
Structure of Data Packet:

Packet trailer consists of following:

• Some way of identifying the end of packet so that packets can be separated from each other

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 USB system:
USB (universal serial bus) is a form of serial transmission of data. USB is the most common
input/output port found on computers. It allows both half duplex and full duplex transmission. USB
cable consists of four-wired shielded cable, two wires for power and other two wires for data
transmission.

Activity:

IC:

• It uses parallel transmission of data

• It is used for internal transmission of data

USB:

_ USB uses serial transmission of data

_ Used for external transmission of data

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Error Detection during transmission of data:

➢ check digit

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 Parity check fails to identify when the number of 1 bits change the order/position.

If there is a parity error it can be removed by following methods:

Checksum:
Check sum means to compute the bytes in packets using specific algorithm and get a checksum value that
is sent along with data packets, when all data reaches the destination the computations are performed again
and a checksum value is found if this checksum value is same like the one sent with data packets it means
data transmitted without errors.

Echo Check:

In this method of error checking when the data reaches the destination the same copy is sent back to
the sender by the receiver. If sender comes to know that both versions are same then data is ok
otherwise there could be errors in transmitted data.

Echo Check fails to know whether error comes during sending or receiving it back.

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Check Digits:

They can detect the following types of errors:

Numbers: 9 7 8 0 3 4 0 9 8 3 8 2
Position: 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

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Numbers: 9 7 8 0 3 4 0 9 8 3 8 2 9
Position:
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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 i. ARQ (Automatic Repeat request):
Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ), also known as Automatic Repeat Query, is an error-control method
for data transmission that uses acknowledgements. When a receiver successfully receives data it sends a
message back to sender indicating that it has correctly been received. If sender does not receive an
acknowledgment before the timeout, it usually re-transmits the packet until the sender receives an
acknowledgment or exceeds a predefined number of re-transmissions.

Symmetric Encryption

Symmetric encryption is the oldest and best-known technique. A secret key, which can be a number, a word, or
just a string of random letters, is applied to the text of a message to change the content in a particular way. This
might be as simple as shifting each letter by a number of places in the alphabet. As long as both sender and
recipient know the secret key, they can encrypt and decrypt all messages that use this key.
When data is sent from one end to another the encryption key is also transmitted along with data. Now if
encryption is hacked someone can crack the key. So there is always security issue with symmetric encryption.

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Page 27 of 11
Ch:3 - Hardware: Computer Architecture:
CPU (Central Processing Unit):
CPU which is also known as microprocessor or processor is central processing device to all computer
systems including smart phones and tablets. It is responsible for execution or processing of all
instructions in computer applications.

It has following three parts:

i. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

This part is responsible for all mathematical calculations e.g. addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division and logical decisions.

ii. Control Unit (CU)

Its main job is to read instructions from memory. It ensures synchronizations of data flow
and programs throughout the computer. System clock is used to produce timing signal to
ensure this vital synchronization.

iii. IAS (Immediate Access Storage)

Some area of the RAM is used to hold all data and programs needed to be accessed by the
CPU which is known as IAS. Programs held in backing store are loaded into this area of
RAM temporarily because it provides faster read and write operations.

Cores, cache and internal clock:

These are the factors to determine the performance of CPU.

i. Internal or System clock:

This internal clock defines the clock cycle that synchronizes all computer operations. If
the speed of internal clock is increased the processing speed of CPU is increased as well.
Speed of internal clock is measured in GHz. More speed may not ensure the increase in
overall performance because for better performance the width of data bus and address
must also be increased.

Clock speed can be changed by accessing BIOS settings. Increasing the clock speed more
than the design limit of processor may result in following problems:

i. It can lead to unsynchronized operations and system can get crashed

ii. It can lead to overheating of the CPU.

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ii. Cache

Cache can also be used to increase the performance of the system. It is located within CPU, which
means it has faster data access times than RAM. Frequently used data and instructions are stored in
cache to be accessed faster and improve overall performance of the CPU.

iii. Cores

Once core is made up of an ALU, a control unit and a register. Processor can have more than one
core. Multiple cores can improve the performance of the CPU. Many computers come with dual core
means with two cores and some come with quad core means with four cores. It is not necessary that
increasing number of cores result in better performance since CPU has to deal with all cores which
can take time and decrease performance.

In dual core CPU communicates with both cores with one channel

In quad core CPU communicates with four cores using six channels.

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Embedded Systems:
Embedded system is a combination of hardware and software which is designed to carry out a
specific set of functions. Embedded systems are installed in different devices to carry out specific
functions automatically with more accuracy. Embedded systems can have user interface to input
instructions manually or sometimes sensors are used to get input.

Some examples include:

- Automobiles:
Modern cars consist of many embedded systems to perform different vital tasks within the
vehicle. Some of these tasks can be utility functions and others can be entertainment. Some
embedded systems in vehicles include tasks such as cruise control, suspension control,
navigation and air bags.

- Set-top box
In set-top box embedded systems can be used to record and playback of television programs.
This can be operated by the user remotely when not at home.

- Security systems:
Embedded systems can be used in many systems which can use sensors and work without any
human intervention. Its output can be signals to flashlights, sound alarm, or send a message on
user’s mobile. User can make settings remotely.

Embedded systems can be based on:

Microcontrollers: this has a CPU in addition to some RAM,ROM and other peripherals
embedded onto one single chip

Microprocessor: only CPU in embedded on a chip

System on chips (SOC): This contain a microcontroller as one of its components along with
secondary storage on a single chip

Embedded systems can be programmable which can be upgraded by connecting the device to
computer system and allow download new updates or by using automatic updates via Wi-Fi,
satellite etc.

Embedded systems can non-programmable which cannot be upgraded and need to be replaced.

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 Benefits Drawbacks
Small in size and easy to fit in devices Can be difficult to upgrade
Low cost to make Troubleshooting is a specialist task
Can be controlled remotely Device that can be accessed via internet can be
hacked

Instruction set:
Instructions are set of operations that are decided in sequence. Each operation instructs the ALU and CU of
the processor. Each operation is made up of opcodes and operand. Number of opcodes that computer needs to
understand the operations to be carried out are known as instruction set

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Computer Architecture and fetch execute cycle:

All programs and data are stored in main memory of the computer.
This topic is all about how a processor fetches instructions from memory, decodes and executes.

System Buses:

These are parallel transmission components computer. These buses provide communication medium
between CPU, Memory and Input/output device in fetch decode execute cycle.

There are three types of system buses:

i. Address Bus:
This bus carries addresses of memory throughout the computer system. This bus is uni-
directional. The width of bus is very important the wider the bus, the more memory
addresses that can be carried. Bus of width 16 bit can carry 216 ( 65536) memory locations
and so on
ii. Data Bus:
This bus carry data from CPU to memory and to and from input/output devices. It is bi-
directional means can move to both direction. The width of this bus is also important. The
wider the bus the larger data can be transported
iii. Control Bus:
This bus is also bi-directional. It carries signals from the CU (Control unit) to all other
computer components. It is usually 8 bits wider. Its width is not so important as it just has
to control the activities of other two buses

Register: There are few registers/temporary memory areas that are used to perform execution of the
programs.

PC (Program Counter): It holds the address of very next instruction that is to be fetched

MAR (Memory Address Register): It holds the memory address passed by the PC register.

MDR (Memory Data Register): Data placed on the memory address found in MAR is transferred
into this register:

CIR (Current Instruction Register): Data or instructions found in MDR is transferred to CIR for
decoding and execution

Accumulator: This register is found in ALU part of CPU and holds data temporarily that is used in
mathematical operations.

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Fetch Decode Execute Cycle:

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How the barcodes are scanned:

• Bar code is read by red laser light

• Light is reflected back, dark area reflect little light which allows bars to be read
• Reflected light is read by the sensor
• A pattern is generated which is converted into digital code

What happens when barcodes are read?

• Unique barcode is looked up in database

• If barcode is found the stock quantity of that item is found
• Price and quantity is sent back to POS
• Now the sold quantity of the item is reduced and purchased quantity is increased accordingly
• New order of the product is generated if it reaches its reorder level

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Advantages of barcodes to the management:

• Much easier to change the price of items

• More up-to date sale information
• Automatic stock update

Advantages to the customers:

• Quick preparation of bills saves customers’ time

• Error free bills
• Cost savings can be passed to the customers.

QR-Codes:
This is another type of barcode made up of matrix of filled –in dark squares on light
background.

QR codes are used:

• For advertising products

• Giving automatic access to website
• Can store boarding passes electronically

Advantages:

• Can hold much more information than barcodes

• Can easily be scanned by smart phone
• It easier to transmit QR code either as text messages or images

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Digital Cameras:

Advantages:

• No film is required
• Images can be transferred to the computer instantly
• Quality of the image is better with more pixels

Key board:
Key board is the most commonly input device used to input information into computer. When a key
is pressed it is converted into character code (commonly using ASCII) which is transmitted to the
processor. The processor, under the control of operating system, ensures the text character is
displayed on the screen.

Advantages:

• Most common and easiest used input device

• Layout is familiar with most of the people
• Anti RSI keyboards give less harm with long use
• Skilled typists can type with greater speed

Disadvantages:

• Slow method of data entry by untrained users

• It can cause typing errors
• Hard keyboards can cause RSI for longer use

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Microphones:
Microphone is used to input sound in computer.

Scanners:
2D Scanners:

2D scanner is used to scan paper documents. It creates a digital photograph of a paper document. It
illuminates the document with light and then this illuminated document is scanned with a single row
of hundreds of light sensors.

Applications of 2D scanners on Airports:

• 2D scanners are used at airports to read passports. They make use of OCR technology to produce
digital image of the passport which can then easily be manipulated. Text part like passport number can
be picked and fit into database field to lookup the record of passenger
• It can be used for face recognition of the passenger with software. Passengers current photograph is
taken and is compared with the image scanned from the passport for identifications

Face recognition software checks the following:

3D scanners:
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3D scanners can produce 3D image of a solid object.

Applications of 3D scanners:

CT scanners are used to create 3D image of solid object. This is based on tomography technology it builds
images through thin slices.

Touch Screens:
There are following three types of touch screen are used with mobile phones:

- Capacitive Touch screen

This is made up of many layers of glass that act like a capacitor, creating electric field. When the top layer is
touched the electric current changes and the points of touch are determined by the onboard processor

Benefits:

- Medium cost technology

- Visibility is good even in strong sunlight
- Permits multi-touch capability

Drawbacks:

- Only bare fingers can be used

- Glass can be broken

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Infra-Red Touch screen:

It uses glass as the screen material. It uses an array of sensors in the form of a grid, point of touch is
determined by which coordinates of grid has been touched.

Benefits:

• It allows multi-touch facility

• It allows both bare and gloved fingers
• Screen is durable

Drawbacks:

• Relatively expensive technology

• Heat sensitive system
• Screen visibility is fare in sunlight

Resistive Touch screen:

This is made up of upper layer of polyester and bottom layer of glass. When the top layer is touched the upper
and lower layer complete a circuit, microprocessor performs calculations on the bases of coordinates of where
the screen was touched.

Benefits:

• Relatively economical technology

• Bare fingers, gloved fingers and stylus all can be used

Drawbacks:

• Screen visibility is poor in strong sunlight

• It doesn’t permit multi=touch facility

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Output Devices:
Light Projectors:

i. Digital light projector (DLP)

ii. Liquid crystal display projector

Digital light projector (DLP):

The use of millions of micro mirrors on a small DMD (digital micro-mirror device).

Liquid crystal display projector:

Older technology than DLP, a high intensity beam of light passes through LCD display and then onto
a screen

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Printers:
Ink Jet Printers:

These printers use liquid ink filled in cartridge. Two different technologies of ink jet are thermal bubble and
piezoelectric. These printers are made up of:

i. Print head which consists of nozzles which spray droplets of ink on to the paper to form characters
ii. Ink cartridge or group of cartridges for color printing holding liquid ink
iii. Stepper motor and belt which moves the print head across the paper
iv. A paper feed which automatically feeds the paper

Application of ink jet printer:

These printers are best where only few pages of good quality, colour printing are needed

Steps of printing process of an ink jet printer:

I. Data is sent to the printer driver

II. Driver makes sure the data is in the format understood by the printer
III. Then driver checks the availability of the printer
IV. The data is then sent to the printer buffer
V. A sheet of paper is then fed into the printer
VI. Print head moves from side to side across the paper printing the text
VII. At the end of each full pass the paper is advanced slightly to allow next line to be printed
VIII. If more data in the buffer the steps are repeated
IX. When the buffer is empty the printer sent an interrupt to ask for more data

Laser printers:

These printers use dry powder ink rather than liquid ink. They make use of static electricity to produce the text
and images. Laser printers prints the whole page in one go. Their advantage is the speed.

Advantages:

- Print with greater speed

- Quality of printing is really good
- Quieter printer can be recommended in sensitive areas like library etc.

Application: these are recommended when high volume of data and good quality is to be printed.

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3D printers:
3D printers are basically used in CAD applications. Solid object is built up layer by layer using martials such
paper or ceramic powder etc.

Applications:

- Can be used in items to allow reconstructive surgery e.g. facial reconstruction

- In fashion and art
- Making parts for items no longer exist

Steps while printing process:

- A design is made using CAD application

- Finalized design is imported into software that prepares it in format understood by 3D printer
- 3D printer is set up to allow the solid object to be made
- Solid object is built up layer by layer this can take considerable time
- When object is ready it is removed from the printer is cleaned to get ready for other printing work

Actuators:
These are the devices which are used in different computer controlled systems and start their working by
getting signals from computer e.g. stepper motor, heater, AC , fan etc.

Monitors:
LCD (liquid crystal display):

Front layer of these type of monitors is made up of liquid crystal diodes, these diodes are grouped together in
three colors. Red, green and blue and known as pixels. LCDs use CCFL (Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp) as
the backlighting method.

Advantages:

• Very thin and lightweight

• Does not affect by magnetic field
• LCD consumes less power
• Produces bright image
• Produces less glare so not harmful for eyes

Disadvantages:

• Loss of contrast in high temperature

• Image is not cleared from some angles
• LCDs have slow response time
• can get trouble with fluctuation of light

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LED (Light Emitting Diodes):
LEDs are advance technology than LCDs. These monitors use light emitting diodes as backlight method and
pixels.

Advantages:

• LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately

• Its display is more sharp and image quality is more vivid
• Its brighter light improves the colour definition
• LEDs consumes less power than LCDs
• Display remains constant from different angles

OLEDs:

An OLED (organic light-emitting diode) TV is very different from older LED TVs because it doesn't use a
backlight. Instead, OLED TVs have millions of self-lighting pixels that can change color or turn off
individually.

OLEDs allow the screen to be curved. It is now possible, using OLED technology, to bend screens to
any shape. They can be folded up and placed in pocket.

Advantages of using OLED compared with existing LEDs and LCDs include:

• the plastic, organic layers of an OLED are thinner, lighter and flexible than
LEDs

• the light-emitting layers of an OLED are more lighter;

These are made up of plastic hence more reliable

• OLEDs give a brighter light than LEDs

• since OLEDs require no backlighting, they use much less

this is very important in battery-operated devices such as mobile phones

• OLEDs view can be bigger enough with is suitable for advertising screens.

Loud Speakers: these are used to produce sound. Digital data is passed through DAC (Digital to analogue
converter) and then converted into analogue and finally output comes from loud speaker

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Sensors, Monitoring and Control Systems are to be learnt from Book
(Chapter 3)

How different Control Systems Work

• Sensors read vital information according to scenario sensors can be, temperature, motion, sound, infra-
red to detect motion, pressure etc
• Data from sensor is converted into digital using ADC
• The data is stored in the computer’s memory
• Computer compares the data from sensors with the values stored in its memory
• the results are output on a screen in the form of graphs or digital read-outs
• An alarm is activated in case of emergency

Control System of Chemical Processing:

• Temperature and pH sensors read data from the chemical process.

• The data is converted to digital using an ADC
• The computer compares the incoming data with ideal data stored in memory
o If the temperature is too low, signal is sent to switch on the heaters
o If the temperature is too high, a signal is sent to switch off the heaters
o If the temperature is within an acceptable range, not action is taken place
o Values received from pH sensors let valves open or close to add or stop acid

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Data Storage:

Computer’s memory and storage can be split into three categories:

• Primary memory
• Secondary storage
• Off-line storage

Primary Memory/Storage:
It consists of RAM and ROM.

RAM (random access memory) is a volatile/temporary. Its contents are lost when the computer is
powered off.

Features:

• RAM is used to store data and programs currently running

• RAM is used to store part of operating system
• RAM is used to store files
• RAM can be written to and read from. Its contents can be changed

Types of RAM:

DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory): It consists of number of transistors and capacitors.
Capacitors hold the bits of information and transistors act like a switch which allow to read or change
the capacitor’s value. It constantly needs to be refreshed as capacitor needs to be recharged every 15
microseconds otherwise it can lost its value

Advantages:

• These are much less expensive to manufacture than SRAM

• DRAM consumes less power
• DRAM has higher storage capacity

SRAM (Static Random Access Memory):

SRAM doesn’t need to be refreshed. It makes use of ‘flip flops’ which hold each bit of memory.
SRAM is much faster than DRAM. SRAM is preferred when a constant high speed is required.

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ROM (Read Only Memory): it is a permanent/non-volatile memory.
Features:

• It is a permanent/non-volatile
• It stores the startup instructions when the computer is first switched on
• It holds the information about basic input/output system (BIOS).
• It can store factory settings such as remote control frequencies.
• It can be read from and cannot be changed

Secondary and off-line storage:

These are not directly addressable by the CPU. They are used to store data permanently.

There are three main categories of secondary storages:

i. Magnetic (HDD)
ii. Solid state (SSD , Memory stick or flash drive)
iii. Optical (CD, DVD and Blu-ray discs)

Hard disks:

These are permanently storing devices. Hard disks have a number of platters which can spin at about
7000 times a second. A number of read-write heads can access all of the surfaces in the disk drive.
Data is stored in sectors and tracks. The time taken by the block of data to rotate around read-write
head is known as latency. This can cause delay in retrieval of data.

Features:

• Provide faster access to data

• Can be used to store operating system and other application software
• Can be used in real-time applications

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Solid State Drive (SSD):
SSDs have no moving parts and all data is retrieved at the same rate. SSDs store data by controlling
the movements of electrons within NAND chip. SSDs are fixed on the mother boards like a card.
They are becoming more common in cloud storage devices

Features of SSDs:
• These are more reliable as no moving parts to go wrong.
• These are considerably lighter in weight
• SSDs use less power
• Data is access speed is faster than HDDs

Flash memories or Memory sticks:

These use SSD technology. These are connected to the computer usually through USB ports.

Features:

• These are small and lightweight can easily be carried in pockets

• Can be used to carry data
• Can also be used as small backup devices for music or files

Optical Storages (CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray disks):

These are known as optical storage devices. A laser light is used to read and write data on the surface of the
disk. CDs and DVDs use a single, spiral track which runs from the center of the disk to the edge.

CDs and DVDs can be designed as R which can be written once only or RW which can be written to and read
from many times.

Features of CDs and DVDs:

• Applications that require prevention of deleting of data
• Can be used for software distribution
• Can be used to carry data

Difference of DVDs over CDs:

• When large amount of data is to be stored
• Used where high quality of output is required e.g. movies
• Where quicker access to data is required
• Dual layer can be used to record data

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Blu-ray Disks:
Features makes is different from DVD:

• A blue laser is used in place of red laser to read and write data
• It can store up-to five times more data than normal DVD
• Blue-ray disks automatically come with a secure encryption system which helps to prevent
piracy and copyright
• Data access speed is also greater than other optical media
• Data transfer rate is also very fast

Virtual Memory:
If the amount of available RAM is exceeded due to multiple programs running, this can cause
system crash. To overcome this problem virtual memory is used. The concept behind virtual
memory is to use surface of HDD or SSD as part of RAM. Even though RAM is full, data can be
moved in and out of HDD/SSD. Virtual memory is RAM + swap space on the HDD/SSD. When
any new program wants to hold space on RAM and RAM is full then the oldest data is written or
moved to the HDD/SSD surface to give space to new program.

In computer operating system paging is used by memory management to store and retrieve data
from HDD/SSD and copy it into RAM.

Benefits:
i. Larger programs than RAM can still be executed
ii. No need to waste memory with data not being used (Oldest data)
iii. It reduces the need to buy and install expensive RAM.

Drawbacks:
i. When more and more data is swapped in and out of memory it can lead to high rate of
hard disk head movements which can cause disk thrashing.

ii. If more time is spent on moving data in and out of memory, the processing speed is
reduced and it can reach to the point where execution of process becomes halt, this in
known and thrash point.

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Cloud Storage:

Cloud storage is a method in which data is stored on a remote servers. The same data is stored on multiple
servers to save from any issue in case of repair or maintenance and clients are able to access data in any case
any time this is also known as data redundancy. The physical environment is owned by the company provider.

Three common types of clouds:

i. Public cloud: in this environment client and cloud provider company are different to each other
ii. Private cloud: This environment works behind the firewall. Both clients and company act as same
entity. They are integrated
iii. Hybrid cloud: It works as both public and private. Private/sensitive data is stored privately where
as less sensitive data can be accessed as public cloud

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MAC Address:

MAC address is a unique id of network card given by the manufacturer and is stored in its hardware,
such as the card's read-only memory. MAC is address is of 48 bits. First three portions represent the
manufacture id and remaining three portions is the serial number e.g. 2C.1B.2A.5E.6F.9A

MAC is used to identify specific device in network. There are two types of MAC e.g. UAA (University
Administered MAC Address) it is set by manufacturer at the factory. It is rare for a user to want to
change this MAC address. There are some occasions when a user wants to change LAA MAC address:
• Certain software used on mainframe systems needs all the MAC addresses of device to fall into
a strict format.
• It may be necessary to bypass a MAC address filter on a router or a firewall.

Hexadecimal numbers are used in MAC addresses (hardware addresses) in computers. This gives an unlimited
number of possible combinations to computer manufacturers. That is way each PC in the world has a unique
identifier.

IP Addresses:
IP address is an ID or address of each computer on internet. IP is used to identify the location of the computer
on internet. Every web site has unique IP. IP addresses are 32 bit (4 byte) binary numbers. IP addresses are
written in four sets each set is separated with full-stop e.g. 192.168.100.30.

There are two versions of IP e.g. IPV4 is based on 32 bits and written in four different parts

IPV6 is 128 bits and written in eight different parts using hexa-decimal digits. (:) colons are used in each part
in place of dot (.). for example

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Static and Dynamic IP:

Router:
Routers enable data packets to be routed between different networks e.g. to join LAN with WAN. Router
works behind the firewall. The firewall protects the computers on a network. Routers have their own
operating system for certain configuration. When data packet comes to router it inspects the packet carefully
and sends the packet to appropriate switch and data is then delivered to particular device using MAC
address.

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Page 52 of 11
Answers:

i. Advantages of putting games on ROM chip

• It does not need refreshing
• Data stored on ROM can always be verified
• Cannot be accidentally changed or altered

ii. Any memory location can be accessed independently; data from the secondary storage is placed
into RAM because access time to data in RAM is much faster. Data can be changed easily.

iii.

Question: Describe how customers obtain the information from the Quick Response codes.

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Chapter 4: Software
Types of software:
i. System Software:
These are the software which interacts with hardware. The basic function of system
software is to make hardware usable e.g. operating system, device drivers, translators and
utility software

ii. Application software:

These are software which don’t interact with hardware. These are developed to perform
certain tasks in daily routine life e.g. accounting, record keeping, designing, sound or
video editing , graphics etc.

Features:

System software:

i. Set of programs used to control and manage operations of hardware

ii. Provide plate form on which other programs can run
iii. Allow hardware and software run without problems

Application software:

i. Used to perform various applications on computer

ii. Allow users to perform specific tasks using computer
iii. User can execute or run the software when required

Examples of System Software:

• Operating system
• Compilers
• Device drivers
• Utilities

Examples of application software:

• Word processor
• Spread sheets
• Database
• Presentation
• Graphic
• Video and sound editing

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Describe the working of following utility system software:
i. Virus checkers (Anti-virus software)

Any computer can have virus attack. In order to save computer from viruses an updated anti-virus
is used. It should always run in the background to save computer from virus.

Features:

✓ These software check files or software before they are loaded in computer
✓ It compares the virus with its database which stores the information of virsues
✓ It checks the behavior of the software , if found software working slow
✓ It needs to be kept up to date
✓
ii. Defragmentation software

Data blocks can get scattered all over the disk surface which makes the running of applications
slow. This is known as fragmentation of data. This fragmentation causes the disk head to move
across different data block to collect pieces of data which could be time taking. This utility
software performs defragmentation and keep the data in continuous locations which make the
reading of data smooth hence speed of running of software is better

iii. Backup software

This type of utility software is used to store backup of data so that it could be used when original
data gets any trouble. Backup of data can be scheduled once a day, once a week or after every
transactions

iv. Screen saver:

These are the utility software that supply moving of still images on the monitor screen after a
period of inactivity by the computer.

v. Device drivers:
These are the utility software that communicate with operating system and translate data into
format understood by hardware device. These drivers are necessary to install to make different
devices attached with computer working.

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 Operating System:
This is the most important software that controls the hardware of the computer directly. It allows
the users to communicate with computer systems. Operating system provides the plate form for
other applications to run successfully.
Jobs or features of operating system:
i. It manages user accounts which are built by the network administrator to provide separate
work space to every user
ii. It manages the memory of the computer
iii. It can manages the different types of files and let them open in the relevant application
iv. It performs the interrupt handling
v. It manages input and output devices attached with computer

Detail of some of the tasks done by the operating system:

Memory Management:
✓ Manages the primary memory and allows data to be moved between RAM and HDD
✓ Keep track of memory locations
✓ It ensures how much memory is given to one program and how much to another
✓ It ensures that two programs cannot access the same memory location at the same time
Security Management:
✓ It ensures the confidentiality of data
✓ It carries out operating system updates
✓ It maintains the access rights for all users
✓ It offers recovery of data
✓ It helps to prevent illegal intrusion into the computer
File Management:
✓ It manages file naming conventions
✓ It performs tasks like deleting, reading, opening, closing , renaming etc
✓ It maintains directory structure

Hardware Management:
✓ Communicates with all input and output devices using device drivers
✓ Uses device driver to take data from file and translate into format understood by input
and output devices
✓ Ensures each hardware resource has a priority so that can be used and released
accordingly
✓ Manages input and output devices by controlling queues and buffers

Multitasking:
✓ Resources are allocated to a process for a specific time limit
✓ The process can be interrupted while it is running
✓ The process is given a priority so that it can have resource accordingly

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 Operating system works with following interfaces:
Command Line Interface (CLI)
Advantages Disadvantages
The user is in direct communication with User needs to learn the complex command by heart
the computer
User can have full control on computer It can be time consuming to type in commands
Uses small amount of memory Any little mistake can result in bad command
Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Advantages Disadvantages
User doesn’t need to learn complex commands It takes more memory space
It is user friendly, icons can be used to start programs It doesn’t provide full control on computer
No chances of any mistake as most commands are performed User is not in direct communication with computer
using pointing devices

Interrupts:

An interrupt is a signal sent from a device or from software to the processor and it
causes the processor to stop temporarily and service the interrupt.

Interrupts can be caused by:

iii. a timing signal

iv. a hardware fault
v. input/ output process for example printer is out of paper
vi. software errors that cause problem
vii. user presses <Ctrl><Alt><Del> keys simultaneously

Interrupt Handler:
Whenever an interrupt is serviced, the status of the current task being run is saved. This is done using
an INTRRUPT HANDLER and once the interrupt is serviced the interrupted task is reinstated and
continues from the point prior to interrupt.
viii.

Buffer: It’s a temporary storage area that is used to store data temporarily to meet with speed
difference of devices. When we give printing command of many pages all data is stored in the buffer
of printer and then printing continues.

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4.2: Types of programming languages, translators and integrated development
environments (IDE)

Types of languages:
Computer languages may be classified as low level (such as assembly) or high level (such as Pascal,
COBOL, and BASIC etc.)

Low Level Languages:

These programming languages are based on machine code of the computer being used. These are
very complex to learn and program.

Advantages/reasons of using Low Level Languages:

• To make use of special hardware

• To write code that take less space in memory
• Low level languages are very near to machine language so programs written in low level
languages are more efficient
• Programs written in low level languages run faster
• When a program written in low level language is translated into machine code it take less
store
• Low level languages make full use of the computer’s capabilities.

Disadvantages of Low level languages:

• Low level languages are difficult to learn and program

• Debugging of the programs written in low level languages is difficult
• Each statement is translated into machine code instruction. Hence, programming is lengthy
and time-consuming.
• Program being written on one computer cannot be continued on other make of computer

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Suitable applications written in low level languages:

• Systems programs such as operating system because these have to make full use of computer
resources.
• Programs which are to be stored on ROM
• Interactive graphics programs such as computer games as these require high speed

Sample Code written in Assembly languages:

LDA A (load value of A variable into accumulator)
SUB B (subtract value of B from the accumulator)

High Level Languages:

These are easy to learn and program. These are very near to English language so learning and programming is
easy.

Advantages of high level languages:

• It is easy to write programs in high level languages

• Debugging of programs written in high level languages is easy
• High level languages are not machine dependent so programs being developed on one computer can
easily be continued on any other make of computer
Disadvantages:

• Programs written in high level language comparatively run slower than programs written in low level
• Programs written in high level language take more storage when translated into machine code.
• High level programs do not make full use of computer’s capabilities

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Translators:
Assembler: It translates a program written in assembly language into machine code.
Main functions of Assembler:

• Translates a program written in assembly language into machine code.

• Detect errors in the source program and say what they are
• Work out where to store the object program and its data
• Link the program to any other programs or routines it uses

Compiler:
It translates a program written in any high level language into machine code. It translates the whole program in
one go.

Interpreter:
It translates a program written in any high level language into machine code. It translates a program line by
line

Comparison of Compiler and Interpreter:

• compiler produces object code / interpreter doesn’t produce object code

• compiler translates whole program in one go / interpreter translates and executes line at
a time
• compiler produces list of all errors / interpreter produces error message each time an
error encountered
• compiler produces “stand alone code” / interpreter doesn’t produce “stand alone code”
• compilation process is slow but resultant code runs very quickly / interpreted code runs
slowly

IDE (Integrated development environment): IDE is an environment provided by each language

that is used by programmers for writing and development of programs.

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Features: * code editor * translator b * auto completion * auto correction * prettyprinting

Page 61 of 11
 Chapter 5: The Internet and Its Uses
Difference between internet and World Wide Web:

Internet World wide web (WWW)

It is worldwide collection of interconnected uses the internet to access information from web
networks and devices servers
Users can send and receive emails It is a collection of multimedia webpages and other
information
Allows online chatting Uniform resource locators (URLs) are used to
access websites

Http and Https:

Http (Hyper text transport protocol) is a set of rules that must be followed when transferring files across
the internet. When some security is used then this changes to https.

Web browsers:

These are the software that allow a user to access and display web pages on their device screens.
Browsers translate the HTML from websites and show the result.

Features:

= they have a home page

= they can store a user’s favourite websites

= keep history of websites

= make use of cookies etc

DNS (Domain Name System):

DNS is a system for finding IP addresses for a domain name given in a URL. URLs and domain name
servers eliminate the need for a user to memories IP addresses. It works like a mobile phone book. Every
website is linked with IP address on a web server at the time of hosting. When user types in URL to
access any website actually it is translated into IP and request is forwarded to that webserver and the site
is displayed.

DNS contains a database of URLs with the matching IP addresses.

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Cookies:

Cookies are small files or code stored on a user’s computer. They are sent by web server to a browser on
user’s computer. Each cookie allows user tracking and maintains user’s preferences. These can be used to
customize the web page for each individual user.

There are two types of cookie:

Session cookie
Persistent cookie

Session Cookie:

These are used when user establishes online connection to any web server e.g. for online shopping. This
type of cookie is stored in temporary memory on the computer and doesn’t collect any information from
the user’s computer. These are establish for one session and over when session is finish.

Persistent Cookie:

These cookies are stored on the HDD of the user’s computer until expiry date is reached or user deletes.
These cookies remember a user’s log in details. These cookies remain in operation on the user’s computer
even after the browser is closed or website session is terminated.

Uses of cookies:

Allows the website to remember users’ passwords, email addresses and invoice details.
Serve as a memory, enabling website to recognize user
Save users’ items in a virtual shopping cart
Track internet habits and users’ websites history

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Digital Currency:

Digital currency exists in a digital format. It has no physical form unlike conventional currency. It can be
accepted form of payment to pay for goods or services. Digital currency can be transferred between
various accounts. Digital currency relies on central banking system and governments.

Cryptocurrency:

Cryptocurrency is not based on central banking and is free from government policies. It is not regulated
by the central banks and governments. All the rules are set by the crypto currency community itself.

Difference from digital currency:

Not based on central banking and government

Uses cryptography to track transactions.
Cryptocurrency transactions are publically available therefore all transactions can be tracked
andthe amount of money in the system is monitored.
It works within block chain network which means it is much more secure.

Blockchaining:

Blockchain is a decentralized database. All the transactions of networked members are stored on this
database. It consists of a number of interconnected computers but they are not connected to a central
server. All transaction data is stored on all computers in the blockchain network. Whenever a new
transaction takes place, all the networked computers get a copy of the transactions so it cannot be changed
without consent of all the network members. This effectively removes the risk of hacking.

Cyber security threats:

Brute force attacks:

In this technique hackers systematically try all the different combinations of letters, numbers and other
symbols until find password. To reduce the number of attempts to crack a password:

First they check if the password is one of the most common ones used
If its not the common password list, then next thing to do is to start with a strong word list

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Data interception:

It is a form of stealing data by tapping into a wired or wireless communication links. Interception in a
wired network can be carried out using a packet sniffer, which examines data packets being sent over a
network, intercepted data is sent back to hackers.

Wireless data interception can be carried out using war-driving. Using this method data can be intercepted
using a laptop or smartphone, antenna and a GPS device.

DOS (Denial of service attack) or DDOS (Distributed Denial of Service attack):

In this technique hackers send too many requests to the web server that it becomes unable to respond to
its actual users. This is usually temporary but very damaging.

Symptoms:

Slow network performance

Inability to access certain websites
Large amount of spam emails

Preventions:

Using an up-to-date malware checker

Setting up a firewall to restrict traffic to and from the web server
Applying email filters

Hacking:

Hacking is generally the act of gaining illegal access to a computer system without the user’s permission.
This can lead to identity theft or gaining access to personal information.

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Malware:

Malware is one the biggest risks to the integrity and security of data. There are many forms of malware.
Some of them are as follows:

i. Viruses: these are programs or program code that replicate with intention of deleting or
corrupting files, or causing a computer to malfunction. Viruses need an active host
programon the target computer that has already been infected, before they can run and
cause harm.

ii. Worms: these are type of standalone malware that can self-replicate and spread to other
computers in a network. They don’t need any active host program to be opened in order to
doany damage. They remain inside applications which allow them to move throughout
networks.

iii. Trojan horse: It’s a program which is often disguised as legitimate software but with malicious
instructions embedded within it. They need to be executed by the user and therefore usually
arrive as an email attachments or are downloaded from an infected websites.

iv. Spyware: these are the malware that gather information when user presses keys from the
keyboard. This information like passwords or PINs are sent back to the hackers. Different
companies allow drop down menus to enter pins or passwords to protect user from
spyware.

v. Adware: It will attempt to flood user’s computer with unwanted advertising. It may
redirectuser’s browser to a website that contains promotional advertising.

vi. Ransomware: these are programs that encrypt data on user’s computer then wait until
theransom money is paid. It has caused considerable damage to some companies and
individuals.

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Phishing:

In this techniques cybercriminal sends out legitimate looking emails to users. The emails may contain
links or attachments that take user to a fake website to get their personal information.

Preventions:

Users need to be aware of new phishing scams and should get security awareness
It is important not to click on any emails links unless totally certain
It is important to run anti-phishing toolbars on browsers
Always look out for https or the green padlock symbol in the address bar
Popups should be blocked on web browsers

Pharming:
In this technique malicious code is installed on user’s computer. This code redirects the user’s browser to
fake website to get user’s personal information such as bank details.

Preventions:

Use of anti-virus software

Many modern browsers can alert users to pharming and phishing attacks.
It is important to check spelling of websites

Social engineering:

Social engineering is the act of exploiting human weaknesses to gain access to personal information
and protected systems. Social engineering relies on manipulating individuals rather than hacking
computer systems to penetrate a target's account.

Examples of social engineering range from phishing attacks where victims are tricked into providing
confidential information

It can be done by following:

Fear: the user is panicked into believing their computer is in immediate danger and is not
giventime to logically decide if the danger is genuine or not

Curiosity: the user can be tricked into believing they have won a car and user can send credit
carddetail to pay for delivery etc.

Empathy and trust: a real belief that all genuine-sounding companies can be trusted.
Cybercriminals can exploit it.

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Keeping data safe from security threats:

Access levels:
User accounts can have different levels of access for different people. For example in hospital it wont be
appropriate for a cleaner to have access to medical data about patient. There are usually four access
levels:

Public access , this involves the data anyone can access

Friends: certain access can given to the friends
Custom: someone can read data only and someone can both read and write
data owner: it means only owner of the data can get access to it

Anti-malware:

Anti-malware and anti-spyware can be used.

Authentication Techniques:
Username / User-Id:

Username or User-Id is created by network administrator to authenticate any user. It’s a unique
name that is allotted to users so that they can access the resources available on the
network within any domain. Access rights are defined for different users that provide a
limited/restricted access to the network.

Password: Every user has to enter his password after giving user-id for successful login. It’s a
unique string with combination of letters, numbers punctuations etc. It appears in such a form
which can’t be understood by anyone who is looking. It provides more security to the user.

Rules:

• Password should be complex so that any other person can’t guess it.

• Commonly used names or words e.g. country name, personal name should
notbe used because these can easily be guessed.

• Frequently change your password It provides more security

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Biometric Testing Techniques:

In this technique unique physical human body marks are entered in computer and
authenticated. These can be finger prints, retina eye scanners etc.

Biometric features are recorded into a database first. All the biometric features are
compared with already stored images in database; if they match then the user is correctly
recognized.

Some benefits and drawbacks can be learned from book.

Two-step verification:

Two-step verification is a process that involves two authentication methods performed one after the
other to verify that someone or something requesting access is who or what they are declared to be.
For example transferring amount from one’s account to another after certain verification one time
password/ OTP is sent to user’s email or mobile for further verifications.

User enters website user name and password

One-time authentication code is sent to user
User takes note of OTP code
User enters the one-time code/pin
User is authenticated and allowed to access website to order items.

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Firewalls:

A firewall can be either software or hardware. It sits between the user’s computer and an
externalnetwork. It stops unknown network traffic.

Features:
Examine network terrific between the user’s computer and public network
Check whether incoming and outgoing data meet certain standard of security
Undesirable IPs can be listed to stop unknown network terrific
Produces warning if some software is trying to get access to external sources

Firewalls can’t do the followings:

Firewalls can’t prevent individuals, on internal network, using their own

modems tobypass firewall
Employees’ misconduct or carelessness can’t be controlled by firewalls
Users can disable firewalls

A proxy server
It can work with firewalls and allow networked computers to connect with internet. It
providesrestricted access to internet.

Proxy Servers

Allow internet terrific to be filtered; these can block certain websites

By using cache memory they can speed up access to information from websites
These can keep IP addresses secret
Can act as a firewalls

SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) is a standard security technology for establishing an encrypted links
between a server and a client—typically a web server (website) and a browser; or a mail server and a
mailclient (e.g., Outlook).

SSL allows sensitive information such as credit card numbers, social security
numbers,and login credentials to be transmitted securely.

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Page 71 of 81
Chapter 6
6.1: Automated systems

An automated system is a combination of software and hardware that is designed and

programmed to work automatically without the need of any human intervention but under human
monitoring.

6.1.1: Sensors, microprocessors and actuators are used in automated systems

Sensors: input devices that take readings from their surroundings and send this data to a
microprocessor or computer. If data is analogue then it is converted into digital format first using
ADC (analogue to digital convertor).

Microprocessor: It processes the data and takes the necessary action based on programming

Actuators: These are devices which start and stop their working by getting signals from
computer. These can be motor, fan, wheels, heater and lights etc.

6.1.2: Examples of automated systems:

• Industrial applications

Automated systems are used in a number of industrial applications. Many of the automated systems
involve robotics. The focus on increased automation has led to improved quality and flexibility. For
example, in the manufacture of car engines, when done manually, the installation of pistons into the
engine had greater error rate.

Examples:

A nuclear power station:

Advantages:

i. Much faster than human operator to take any necessary action

ii. Much safer, it keeps humans away from dangerous environment
iii. It is less expensive as it overcomes the need to hire human work force

Disadvantages:

i. Expensive to set up in the first place and needs considerable testing

ii. Computerized system is subject to cyber attacks
iii. Automated systems always need enhance maintenance expenses

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 • Transport

Many of the automated systems in transport refer to robotic systems for example, autonomous
buses/cars, autonomous trains and unpiloted aircraft.

Automated systems are also used in manual transport which include cars, busses, trains and aircraft.

Modern trains use automatic signal control system. If the driver of the train goes through a red light, then
the computer will automatically stop the train. This will make use of sensors at the side of the track
sending signals to the on-board computer, actuators will be used to apply brakes.

Advantages:

i. Allows the same number of cars to use fewer parking spaces

ii. Avoids traffic disruption in cities.
iii. Cars can fit into smaller spaces
iv. Fewer dents and scratches to cars

Disadvantages:

i. Over reliance on automated systems by the driver can result in loss of skills
ii. Faulty sensors or cameras can send false data which could lead to malfunction
iii. Expensive option and require additional maintenance expenses

• Agriculture

Automated systems are used in agriculture for watering of crops that involve wireless transmission. Data
from an automatic weather station is received by the controller every ten minutes. If very wet or very dry
conditions are predicted water level sensors are used in the crop fields that measure the amount of water
in the irrigation channels. Data from sensors is used with data from weather stations to decide whether it
is necessary to stop or start a series of water pumps.

Advantages:

i. Reduced labour costs

ii. Better and more efficient control of the irrigation process
iii. Better control of precious resources such as water
iv. Faster response than human beings

Disadvantages:

i. Expensive to set initially

ii. Very high maintenance costs are associated with automated systems
iii. A blocked or collapsed water channel wouldn’t be picked up by automated systems

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 • Weather stations:

Automated weather stations are designed to save labour and to gather information from remote regions.
Following sensors are used in weather stations:

➢ Thermometer to measure temperature

➢ Anemometer to measure wind speed
➢ Hygrometer to measure humidity
➢ Barometer to measure air pressure
➢ Level sensor to measure rain fall
➢ Light sensor to measure hours of day light

Data from sensors is sent to microprocessor where necessary calculations are done. The final data is then
stored in central database.

• Gaming:

Gaming device involve sensors to give a degree of realism to games:

➢ Accelerometers measure acceleration and deceleration therefore measure and respond to tilting
the gaming device forward/backward
➢ Proximity sensors that can detect hand/finger position thus increasing user awareness.

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6.2: Robotics
6.2.1: What is robotics?

The word robot comes from the Czech word robota which means forced labour. Robots are being used in
different industries to perform various task with greater accuracy.

Isaac Asimov composed three laws of robotics:

➢ A robot may not injure a human through action or inaction

➢ A robot must obey orders given by humans, unless it comes into conflict with law 1
➢ A robot must protect itself, unless this conflicts with law 1.

Robots are used in:

➢ Factories:
o Welding parts together
o Spray-painting panels on a car
o Fitting windscreens to cars
o Cutting out metal parts to a high precision
o Bottling and labeling plants
➢ Drones
o Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are used for variety of purposes including remote
sensing, firefighting, search and rescue operations etc.
o Can be used for aerial photographs
o Can be used to make parcel deliveries for example amazon.

6.2.2: Characteristics of a robot

i. Ability to sense their surroundings

This done via sensors which allow a robot to recognize its immediate environment and gives it
the ability to determine things like size, shape or weight of an object, detect if something is hot or
cold and so on
ii. Have a degree of movement
Robots can make use of wheels, cogs, pistons and gears to carry out functions such as turning,
twisting, moving backward/forward, gripping or lifting. They make use of end effectors which
are fixed at the end of robot arm to carry out specific tasks such as welding, spraying, cutting or
lifting.
iii. Programmable
They have a brain known as a controller that determines the actions to be taken to perform a
certain task. Controllers are programmable to allow the robots to do certain tasks.

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Robots can be classified as independent or dependent:

Independent robots:

These robots have no direct human control and said to be autonomous. They can replace human activity
totally no human interaction is required for the robot to function.

Dependent robots:

These have a human who interfacing directly with robot. These robots can supplement, rather than totally
replace the human activity for example in car assembly plant where both humans and robots work
together to produce a car.

6.2.3: The role of robots and their advantages and disadvantages

Industry
Robots are used in many areas of industry, from heavy lifting work to delicate procedures. Control of
robots is either through embedded microprocessors or directly linked to a computer system. Programming
of the robot to do a series of tasks in generally done in two ways:

1. The robot is programmed with a sequence of instructions which allow it to carry out the series of
tasks for example, spraying a car body with paint.

2. A human operator manually carries out the series of tasks. The robot arm is guided by a worker
when spraying the object; each movement of the arm is stored as an instruction on the computer.
The workers first perform each movement of robot arm and all that sequence is stored in
computer and later on robot arm can carry out the same tasks many times without human
intervention

Advantages:

i. Robots are capable of working in conditions that may be dangerous for humans
ii. Robots work 24/7 without any rest
iii. Robots are less expensive in the long run
iv. Robots can produce more accuracy as they don’t get tired

Disadvantages:

i. Robots can find it difficult to do non-standard tasks for example fixing windscreen
ii. Robots can lead to higher unemployment
iii. Robots can cause deskilling
iv. Robots are expensive to buy and set up

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Transport
Robots are being used in vehicles and increasing driverless vehicles every year. Autonomous cars use
sensors, cameras, actuators and microprocessors to carry out their actions safely. Microprocessors process
the data received from cameras and sensors and send signals to actuators to perform physical actions,
such as:

➢ Change gear
➢ Apply the brakes
➢ Turn the steering wheels

Advantages:

i. Safer since human error is removed leading to fewer accidents

ii. Better for the environment since vehicles operate more efficiently
iii. Reduced traffic congestion
iv. Reduced travel times

Disadvantages:

i. Very expensive system to set up in the first place

ii. Fear of hacking in the vehicle control system
iii. Security and safety issues as software updates are required to avoid potential disasters
iv. Drivers and passengers reluctant to use new technology

Autonomous airplanes:

Airplanes have used auto-pilots for many years to control flights. Human pilots only take over during
take-off and landing. Main features of control system on a pilotless airplane would include:

➢ Sensors to detect turbulence to ensure smooth flights

➢ Increase in self-testing of all circuits and systems
➢ Use of GPS for navigation and speed calculations
➢ Use of actuators to control for example, throttle, flaps on the wings and the rudder

Advantages:

i. Improvement in passenger comfort

ii. Reduced running costs fewer staff is required
iii. Improved safety less pilot errors

Disadvantages:

i. Security aspects if no pilots on board e.g. terrorist attacks

ii. Emergency situations during the flight may be difficult to deal
iii. Hacking into the system is possible

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 Agriculture
With increasing population of the world the use of robotics in agriculture has become inevitable.
Robots could replace slow, repetitive and dull tasks allowing farmers to concentrate on improving
production yields. Robots are used in following areas:

➢ Harvesting of vegetables and fruit

➢ Weed control
➢ Phenotyping (plant growth and health) sensors are used to create 3D image of plant to
observe its health and other issues. Machine learning is used to recognize any issues with
leaves.
➢ Seed-planting and fertilizer distribution
➢ Autonomous labour-saving devices

Medicine:
➢ Robots are used in surgical procedures, which makes the operations safer and quicker
➢ Disinfecting of rooms and operating theaters
➢ Robot can take blood samples from patients
➢ Prosthetic limbs are now mini robots in their own right

6.3: Artificial Intelligence

AI is a branch of computer science that deals with the simulation of human intelligent behavior
by a computer. It can be referred to as the cognitive functions of the human brain.

Artificial Intelligence can be split into three categories:

i. Narrow AI: when machine has a superior performance to a human in doing one
specific task.
ii. Strong AI: when machine has superior performance to human in doing many tasks
iii. General AI: when machine is similar in performance to human

Examples of AI:

• News generation based on live news feed

• Smart home devices like Amazon Alexa, Google Now, Apple Sirri and Microsoft
Cortona
• Chabot that interact through instant messaging
• Autonomous cars
• Facial expression recognition

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AI systems:
There are two types of AI systems:

• Expert system: a computer system that mimics the decision making ability of human.
Expert system uses AI to simulate the judgment and behavior of human
• Machine learning: this is the science of training computers with sample data so that they
can go on to make predictions about new unseen data

Expert systems:
Expert systems are form of AI that has been developed to mimic human knowledge and
experience. They use knowledge and inference solves problems or to answer questions.

There are many applications that use expert systems:

• Oil and mineral prospecting

• Diagnosis of patients’ illness
• Fault diagnostics in mechanical and electronic equipment
• Tax and financial calculations
• Games like chess
• Identification of plants, animals and chemical compounds

Advantages of Expert systems:

• They offer high level of expertise

• They offer high accuracy
• The results are consistent
• They can store vast amounts of ideas and facts
• Unbiased reporting and analysis of the facts

Disadvantages of Expert systems:

• Users require considerable training in its use to ensure accuracy

• The set up and maintenance cost can be high
• Users sometime can make dangerous assumptions

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Structure/Components of an Expert System:

User Interface:

It can be the method to interact with expert system. Interactions can be through dialog boxes,
command prompt or other input methods like touch screen etc. The questions being asked
usually require Yes/No answers on the base of previous questions.

Knowledge base:

• It can be database of facts

• It stores all the knowledge about an area of expertise obtained from number of expert
resources.

Rule base:

• It works parallel to knowledge base. These are set of rules that help inference engine to
come up to any conclusion. They work as IF…Then…ELSE in programming
• Example

Inference Engine:

This is the main processing of expert system. It acts like a search engine and goes through the
knowledge base for information that matches the queries. It is responsible of gathering
information from the users by asking series of questions, each questions asked is based on the
previous questions. It makes use of rule base to get the conclusion based on the objects and
attributes stored in knowledge base.

How an expert system is set up?

• Information is collected through different sources e.g. from human experts in different
fields or from written sources e.g. text books etc.
• This information is stored as database that makes up knowledge base
• Rule base is created that helps inference engine to come up to any conclusion based on
the facts stored in knowledge base
• Inference engine is set up that will process all the information based on questions asked
from the user
• User interface is created that will help user to interact with expert system

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Machine learning:

It is a subset of AI, in which algorithms are trained and learn from their past experience and
examples. It is possible for the system to make predictions or even take decisions on the base of
previous scenarios. One example that makes use of machine learning are the most sophisticated
search engines.

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