Helicopter Module 4 Midterm Reviewer stable, but resolved by bending the trailing

edge to create the same feature as

Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics symmetrical, called “reflexing”. With this
type of rotor tip, it can work at higher
3 basic function of helicopters forward speeds.

1. Generation of vertical lifting force ● Blade twist - changing chord line

(thrust) in oppose to aircraft weight from blade root to tip. Causes to
2. Generation of horizontal propulsive produce a more even amount of lift
force for forward flight; and along its span. Necessary because
3. Means of generating forces and rotational velocity increases toward
moments to control the altitude and blade tip.
position of the helicopter. ● Leading edge - first part to meet air
● Trailing edge - aft portion where the
All three are supported by rotor alone airflow over the upper surface joins
the airflow under the lower surface.
● Airfoil - any surface (rotor blade or ● Chord line - imaginary straight line
wing) that provides aerodynamic drawing from leading edge to trailing
force when it interacts with moving edge
air. ● Camber - curvature of upper and
- Symmetrical blades : stable. lower surface
Keeps blades twisting and ● Span - distance from rotor hub to
flight control to a minimum. blade tip
Same camber/curvature. ● Angle of attack - angle between
blade chord line and direction of
Note: First helicopters designed thick relative wind
airfoils. Long and slender rotor blades ● Relative wind - wind moving past the
needed greater structural rigidity. Avoids airfoil. Direction is relative to
excessive blade drop while idle and reduced attitude/position of the airfoil and is
blade twisting during flight always parallel, equal, and opposite
in direction to flight path.
● Blade droop: During rest, the blades - Influenced by factors such as
will droop due to lack of centrifugal rotation of blades, helicopter
stiffening. To prevent hitting the horizontal motion, blade
fuselage when starting up or shutting flapping, wind speed and
down, we need droop stops. direction
● Droop stops - Limit blade travel both ● Blade pitch angle - angle between
up and down. Upward stops are chord line and reference plane that
utilized to restrict excessive blade contains hub of the rotor
sailing when starting helicopter up in ● Collective pitch - gives each rotor
a wind. blade an equivalent amount of pitch
no matter where it is in the plane of
Note: Today thinner airfoils are used with rotation (rotor disc).
composite materials. Asymmetric. Not as
 - Used to adjust the thrust of 3. Thrust
the rotor. - Force that propels helicopter through
- Control of cyclic pitch shifts air
the pitch of each blade as a - Generated by rotation of rotor.
function of where it is in the Resultant of lift and thrust
plane of rotation. determines direction
- If thrust is greater than weight, it
Note: Do not confuse the axis of rotation increases altitude.
with the rotor mast. They only coincide - Also generated from the thrust tail
when the tip-path plane is perpendicular to rotor. Amount varies by the
the rotor mast. anti-torque pedal that controls the
yaw of the helicopter.
● Axis of rotation - Imaginary line
about which the rotor rotates. ● Torque - consequence of thrust
Represented by line through center, production. Equal and opposite
perpendicular to tip-path plane reaction. The fuselage turns
● Tip-Path Plane - Imaginary circular clockwise as rotor turns CCW.
plane outlined by rotor blade tips as Amount depends on engine power.
they make cycle of rotation - Antitorque tail rotor - counter
this torque induced turning
Forces Acting on Helicopter in Forward tendency.
Flight - Adjust the amount of thrust
the tail rotor generates
1. Lift relative to the amount of
- Upward force by effect of airflow torque the engine produces.
around airfoil The tail rotor must produce
- Produced on airfoil by circulating more thrust, while the engine
airstream (Magnus Effect) and by absorbs more power
differential pressure (Bernoulli’s
Principle) (high to low movement) 4. Drag
- To lift a helicopter off ground. Rotor - Retarding force created by lift
system must generate lift that development and movement through
overcomes weight. Done by air
increasing pitch angle of main rotor - Often caused by induced drag
blades experienced when blades generate
2. Weight lift
- Opposes lift. Caused by downwards - Some profile drag as it moves
pull of gravity through air
- Influenced by aerodynamic loads.
Banking a helicopter at constant ● Steady State Flight - straight and
altitude increases load factor or “G” level unaccelerated flight. Balanced
load. force. Load factor is 1. Main rotor
supports total weight.
 - Raising the bank angle to 60 towards the direction of
at steady altitude increases thrust of the anti-torque rotor.
load factor to 2. Rotor system
must sustain the weight twice To counteract this
● Load factor - ratio of load supported
by rotor to weight 1. Mount main transmission is mounted
● Disc loading - weight ratio to total in a way that the mast is rigged. Tip
main rotor disc area. Measured by path plane will have incorporated tilt
dividing weight to disc area, which is opposite the tail thrust, producing a
area swept by rotor blades. During small sideward thrust
helicopter maneuver, disc loading 2. Flight control rigging - Rotor disc is
changes. As it increases, greater slightly tilted opposite tail rotor thrust
power needed to control rotor speed. when cyclic is entered
● Solidity Ratio - ratio of total rotor 3. Cyclic pitch control system is
blade area to total rotor disk area, designed so that rotor disc tilts
which is total area of all rotor blades. slightly opposite tail rotor thrust
Provides a way to calculate the when in a hover
rotor's ability to produce thrust.
Note: For helicopters with the main rotor
Helicopter Flight Conditions system in CCW direction, counteracting the
translating tendency causes the left skid to
1. Powered Flight - hovering, vertical, hang lower while hovering. Opposite is true.
forward, sideward, or rearward. The
rotor’s total lifting and thrust forces 4. Pendular Action - Since the fuselage
are perpendicular to tip path plane or is suspended from a single point, it
plane of rotor rotation is free to oscillate laterally or
2. Hovering Flight - Assumes stationary longitudinally like a pendulum.
hover in no wind state. Lift and thrust - Exaggerated by over
act straight up, equal to weight and controlling
drag that act down. 5. Coning - upward steeping angle of
- Adjust thrust when swinging the rotor blades as result of lift and
to maintain altitude. Achieved centrifugal force. Rotor rotation
by adjusting the AOA of main induces centrifugal force (inertia),
rotor blades and varying which pulls the blades outwards.
power. The faster, the greater the
- Thrust in this case act in centrifugal force.
same vertical direction as lift - This force gives rigidity and
3. Translating Tendency or Drift - strength to support weight.
Movement to the right due to Determines maximum
combination of main rotor torque and operating rpm
tail rotor anti-torque
- Translating tendency - For a Note: Two main forces at vertical takeoff.
single main rotor, it drifts Centrifugal force that acts outward and
perpendicular to rotor tip, and raising acting
upward and parallel to pole. The effect - Due to downward and
results to a conical path outward airflow, a greater
- Rotor blade coning occurs as blades portion of blades generate
begin to lift the weight. In a semi lift. Limits generation of blade
rigid and rigid rotor system, coning tip vortices.
results in blade bending. For - When helicopters gain
articulated, blades assume an altitude w/o forward velocity,
upward angle due to flapping hinges. induced airflow is no longer
limited, and the vortices of
● Coriolis Effect (Law of Conservation tips increase as outward flow
of Angular Momentum) - Rotor decreases. Drag then
blades speed up or slow down as increases, which means
CG moves closer or farther from axis higher pitch angle and power
of rotation needed to move air down the
- Flapping upward means the rotor.
blade's center of mass shifts - In a no wind conditions over
closer to the rotation axis. a solid smooth surface,
Blade acceleration occurs to ground effect is at max.
conserve angular momentum Rugged terrain results in
- Opposite is true (downward- vortices.
farther - deceleration)
- Dampers or blade structure ● Gyroscopic Precession - When force
absorb the is applied to a spinning object, the
acceleration/deceleration maximum reaction occurs
action. approximately 90 degrees later in
direction of rotation from point of
Note: Two bladed rotor systems are usually force application
subjected to Coriolis effect to a lower - Defined as resulting
degree than articulated rotor. Due to blades movement or deflection of a
being “underslung” with respect to the hub. rotating object when a force
Shift in the center of mass is minimal. on this object is applied
Hunting action is absorbed by blades
through bending. For a two bladed rotor system, gyroscopic
precession affects the movement of the
● Ground Effect - Happens when tip-path plane. Moving the cyclic pitch
hovering above ground. Effect control raises one of the blades’ angle of
occurs less than one diameter of the attack (greater lift), while the other
rotor above the surface. As surface decreases. The blade with increased aoa
friction decreases the induced flaps up, the other flaps down.
airflow through the rotor disc, the lift Retreating blade angle of attack is
vector increases. Allows for same lift increased and the advancing blade aoa is
at lower blade angle, reducing reduced, resulting in tip-path plane tipping
induced drag forward, as maximum deflection occurs 90 °
later when the blades are at the rear and - Additional lift available at this
front, respectively. speed is called “effective
For rotor systems with three or more blades, translational lift (ETL)
the movement of the cyclic pitch control - For single rotor flying through
adjusts an acceptable amount of aoa of translational lift, air flow
each blade, leading to the same result. through rotors becomes less
turbulent/more aerodynamic.
● Vertical Flight - Hovering is a vertical - As tail rotor efficiency
flight element. Increasing the improves, more thrust.
pitch/angle of attack with constant Causes yawing left in the
velocity increases lift and thrust, CCW system. Thus, use the
ascending the helicopter. Pitch drop right torque pedal.
descends naman. In a no-wind - With no corrections, the nose
situation, a helicopter descends rises or pitches up and rolls
when lift and thrust is less than to the right. Due to
weight and drag. Opposite is true dissymmetry of lift and
● Forward Flight - Tip path plane is transverse flow effect.
tilted forward. Two results, lift acts Corrected with cyclic control.
upward and thrust horizontally. Also Also present in hover (16-24
weight and drag (inertia and wind knots)
resistance). ● Induced Flow - In rotation, it
- As it moves forward, it loses generates rotational relative wind.
altitude due to lift loss as - Rotational relative wind:
thrust is diverted forward. Airflow that is parallel,
- Upon acceleration, the rotor opposite the axis of rotation,
system becomes more and perpendicular to the
efficient due to more airflow. leading edge of blade. Used
Result is excess power than to produce lift
required to hover. - Downwash: Air on the airfoil
● Translational lift - Improves is pushed/accelerated
efficiency of rotor system with each downward. Changes
knot of wind gained by horizontal efficiency of rotor system.
movement - Rotational relative wind
- Increased flow most combines with induced flow
apparent at 16 to 24 knots. to form resultant relative
- Rotor moves out of its wind.
vortices as it accelerates at - As the resultant relative wind
this level become less horizontal,
- More horizontal flow means angle of attack decreases
less induced flow and drag. ● Transverse Flow Effect - Upon
Corresponding increase in accelerating in forward flight,
aoa and lift. induced flow decreases at forward
disk area (which increases aoa,
flaps up) to near zero and rises at aft
 disc area (decreased aoa, flap flapping as a unit. When one
down) flaps up, the other flaps down
- Due to gyro effect and 90
degree maximum Note: As the rotor blade reaches the
displacement, there is advancing side of the rotor disc (A), it
tendency to roll slightly to the reaches its maximum upflap velocity. When
right at acceleration to 20 the blade flaps upward, the angle between
knots or if headwind is 20 the chord line and the resultant relative wind
knots. decreases (Decreasing AOA and lift). At
- Increased vibrations at position (C) the rotor blade is now at its
airspeeds below ETL on maximum downflapping velocity (opposite
takeoff and after passing happens)
through ETL on landing.
Counteract with cyclic input.

● Dissymmetry of lift - Difference in lift

between advancing half of rotor disk
and retreating half. Caused by the
fact that in directional flight, the
aircraft relative wind is added to the
rotational relative wind on advancing
blade and subtracted to retreating
blade
- Different airflow on
advancing and retreating Note: The combination of blade flapping
side and slow relative wind acting on the
- Advancing side experiences retreating blade limits the max forward
boosted airflow due to speed.
forward speed, while it is - Retreating blade stall: At high
decreased on retreating side. forward speed, the retreating blade
- If allowed to exist, helicopters stalls due to high AOA and slow
with CCW rotation would roll relative wind speed. Causes nose
to the left. pitch up, vibration, and rolling
- In reality, the main rotor tendency (usually to the left in CCW)
blades flap and feather
automatically to equalize lift Note: By not exceeding Vne, it prevents
across the disc. retreating blade stall. Vne is labeled with a
- Articulated rotor with 3 or red line on the airspeed indicator.
more blades use flapping
hinge to allow blade Note: . During flapping to compensate for
movement and flapping dissymmetry of lift, maximum upflapping
during rotation displacement on nose, downflapping on tail.
- Semirigid rotors use a Causes the tip path plane to tilt to the rear,
teetering hinge, allowing called as blowback.
 ● Autorotation - rotor turned by wind
Note: Rotor disc was originally oriented rather than power. Means of safely
with the front down following the initial cyclic landing in event of engine failure.
input, but as airspeed is gained and flapping - Use altitude as potential
eliminates dissymmetry of lift, the front of energy, transform to kinetic
the disc comes up, and the back of the disc energy during descent and
goes down. This reorientation of the rotor landing
disc changes the direction in which total - All helicopters need this to be
rotor thrust acts so that the helicopter’s accredited
forward speed slows but can be corrected - Mechanically permitted by
with cyclic in, freewheeling units, it allows
turning with no engine.
To counter blowback, shift the cyclic - Air is drawn from above in
forward. Blowback with higher speeds is normal flight and exhausted
more pronounced. downward.

● Blowback - phenomenon affecting ● Autorotative force in forward flight -

the rotor of a helicopter as it Produced the same as vertical.
overcomes dissymmetry of lift Forward speed changes inflow of air
through flapping up the rotor disc, thus all three
● Sideward flight - Tip path plane tilted regions move outboard along the
sidewards. Lift and weight is still up blade span on the retreating side of
and down. But thrust and drag are the disc where angle of attack is
now side by side and opposite. larger.
● Rearward flight - Tip path plane tilted - With lower angles of attack
rearward to the lift thrust axis. Drag on the advancing side blade,
now acts straight up and down with more of that blade falls in the
lift component driven region. On the
● Turning flight - Rotor disc tilted retreating side, more of the
forward and sideward for bank. Lift is blade is in the stall region. A
divided into two parts. Vertical lift small section near the root
called lift acting upward and the experiences a reversed flow,
opposing weight therefore the size on the
- As angle of bank increases, retreating side is reduced
lift is tilted more towards
horizontal, increasing rate of
turn.
- Effect of vertical lift is
decreased. To compensate,
aoa of rotor blades must be
increased to maintain
altitude. Steeper the bank,
greater the aoa, higher the
lift, faster the rate of turn.
 effectively zero, accelerated to Vi at
disk. Propelled to a final slipstream
velocity Vs below.

-
- Advancing side: Driven
region
- Retreating side: Stall region

MOMENTUM THEORY IN FORWARD

FLIGHT

● Momentum Theory/Disk Actuator

Theory - Mathematical model of an
ideal actuator disk such as propeller
or helicopter rotor
- by W.J.M. Rankine (1865),
Alfred George Greenhill
(1888) and Robert Edmund
Froude [Wikidata] (1889).
● Rotor is modeled like an infinitely
thin disk, inducing a constant
velocity along the axis of rotation
● Basic state of the helicopter is
hovering. Disc creates flow around
the rotor
● Mathematical connection between
power, radius of the rotor, torque,
and induced velocity. Friction is not
included.
● Helicopter rotor can be idealized as
“momentum disk”. Imparts a uniform As the thrust is required to be equal
velocity (Vi) to the airflow creating a to the weight of the vehicle, it is
change in momentum which will possible to use this equation to
result in an upward thrust (T). predict the induced flow required to

● Hover - air is sucked in from all

directions. Farfield inlet velocity is
 be produced by the rotor

● Climb - Rotor captures flow from a

fixed area above and accelerates it
to slipstream velocity.
- Momentum balance will be
slightly different as the
incoming air has an initial
momentum due to the
helicopter climb speed and ● Less induced velocity is required for
the rotor is just augmenting climb as the momentum change
this applied to a higher initial velocity is
more effective.

● Descent: Negative value of Vc.

Capture area is below, problems
arise due to capturing its own wake
and recirculating for momentum
change.
● Ring state - At higher rate of descent
the system will become closed and
the rotor will simply recycle its own
wake. No momentum change, no
thrust.

● The variation of pressure will drop

below atmospheric above the disk,
increase due to the energy input of
the disk and then drop bad to
atmospheric in the slipstream.
 ● Pr vs Climb:

ROTOR WAKE ANALYSIS

● Need to examine wake it creates

with forward velocity
C. ● Where no vorticity is shed along
blade span, it will only be shed at
Note: C avoids ring state, achieves fast blade tips and roots
descent. Puts the rotor in a windmill state. ● Immediately aft of the helicopter, the
Capture area still below. Rotor absorbs tip vortices form helical lines on the
momentum from the stream and a surface of the stream tube defined
divergent slip stream appears above. This by the rotor
negative change in momentum will again ● The root vortices will coalesce,
produce a thrust (a vertical drag). This flow forming a single vortex along the
state can be used for autorotation of the axis of the stream tube.
blades.
● After vortices leave the rotor, they
● Power required: 2 components of roll up in a 2 stage process
power requirement. 1. Individual tip vortices
1. Power required to produce combine into concentrated
lines as they are shed from
tips
momentum change
2. Several rotor radii
2. Power required to climb
downstream of the rotor, the
overlapping spiral vortices
combine to form two trailing
Neglecting power losses in transmission, vortices very similar to those
fuselage drag components, blade profile found trailing fixed wing
drag power, etc. The power required for the aircraft.
operation of the rotor will be
 This increased tail rotor thrust
absorbs power from the engine –
less power for lift production
● Operating the helicopter beyond a
critical wind azimuth or maximum
safe relative wind chart limits could
cause loss of tail rotor effectiveness.
● Takeoff and climb performance is
- Tighter vortices on the advancing
greatly affected by wind
side is due to variation of downwash
● When taking off into a headwind,
distribution between advancing and
ETL is achieved earlier, resulting in
retreating side.
more lift and a steeper climb angle
- advancing blades experience a
- When taking off with a
higher velocity and thus a greater
tailwind, more distance is
downwash at the tip
required to accelerate
through translational lift.
HELICOPTER PERFORMANCE

Performance Chart
Major Factors Affecting Performance

1. Height / Velocity Diagram:

1. Moisture (Humidity) - Charts w/ 80%
combinations of airspeed and height
relative humidity columns has 3-4%
above the ground, which will allow
reduction in performance compared
an average pilot to successfully
to dry air at same altitude and temp.
complete a landing after an engine
Decrease in hovering and takeoff
failure.
performance in high humidity
conditions.
Avoid the combinations of altitude
2. Weight - Higher gross weight,
and airspeed that may not allow
increased power required to hover,
sufficient time or altitude to enter a
more torque, more antitorque thrust
stabilized autorotative descent.
required.
3. Winds - Translational lift occurs any
Avoid shaded areas
time there is relative airflow over the
rotor disk. Either helicopter
● Grey portion - Left side of diagram.
movement or wind.
Flight profile that does not allow
- Assuming headwind: As wind
complete autorotation successfully
speed increases, so does
due to insufficient airspeed
translational lift, less power
● Shaded area - Lower right.
to hover
Dangerous due to airspeed and
proximity to ground. Reduced
● Headwinds - contribute to greatest
reaction time. Not portrayed in H/V
increase in performance
diagrams for multiengine helicopters
● Strong crosswinds and tailwinds -
capable of safely hovering and flying
require the use of more tail rotor
with a single engine failure.
thrust to maintain directional control.
2. Gross Weight vs Altitude Chart: The of the added lift benefit produced by
time required or altitude to attain ground effect.
steady state autorotative descent ● Always plan an OGE hover when
depends on weight of the helicopter landing in an area that is uncertain
and the density altitude. or unverified
● H/V diagram is valid only when the ● As density altitude increases, more
helicopter is operated in accordance power is required to hover.
with the gross weight versus density ● At some point, the power required is
altitude chart. equal to the power available,
● No intended restriction to gross establishing the hovering ceiling
weight. Only advisory of the ● Any adjustment to the gross weight
autorotative capability of the by varying fuel, payload, or both,
helicopter during takeoff and climb affects the hovering ceiling
● W/ existing density alt, maximum ● The heavier the gross weight, the
gross weight under which the lower the hovering ceiling. As gross
height/velocity diagram is applicable weight is decreased, the hover
is 2,500 pounds. ceiling increases.
3. Autorotational Performance Chart:
autorotational descent performance
is a function of indicated airspeed
(IAS)
● Unaffected by density altitude and
gross weight.
● During autorotation, gravity provides
the source of energy powering the
●
rotor by causing up flow up through
5. Climb Performance Chart: At best
the rotor during descent
rate of climb (Vy), greatest gain in
● Same as saying that potential
altitude over time is obtained. This
energy is being traded for kinetic
speed is used during climb and
energy to turn the rotor as the
maintained until cruise
aircraft descends.
● Not to be confused with angle of
climb
● Angle of climb = function of altitude
gained distance
● ● VY results in the highest climb rate,
4. Hovering Performance Chart: but not the steepest climb angle, and
Provided for in ground effect (IGE) may not be sufficient to clear
hover and out of ground effect obstructions.
(OGE) hover under various ● Best angle of climb speed (VX)
conditions of gross weight, altitude, depends upon the power available.
temperature, and power ● If there is a surplus of power
● IGE hover ceiling is usually higher available, the helicopter can climb
than the OGE hover ceiling because vertically, so VX is zero.
Note: Wind direction and speed have an (tip of main rotor to tip of tail
effect on climb performance, though rotor).
misunderstood 3. Front View
- Includes the height of the
● Airspeed - speed at which the helicopter from main rotor to
helicopter is moving through the ground.
atmosphere and is unaffected by - Also include the distance
wind between landing skids and
● Atmospheric wind - affects only the fuselage height.
ground speed, or speed at which the
helicopter is moving over the Earth’s NOTES
surface
● Thus, the only climb performance More forward speed, less induced flow,
affected by atmospheric wind is the more aoa, more lift.
angle of climb and not the rate of
climb.

Three View Drawing of Helicopter

● Aircraft drawings - method of

conveying ideas concerning the
construction or assembly of objects.
● In orthographic projection - 6
possible views — front, top, bottom,
rear, right side, and left side

1. Top View - Less induced flow, higher AOA

- Includes the diameter of the - Downwash reduces AOA of
main rotor and maximum blades. Same as induced flow
blade width of rotor blades. - With no induced flow, AOA and
- Also include the fuselage angle of incidence is the same
width, and total width of the - Profile drag- Form + skin friction
helicopter (if it's more than
the distance of landing
skids).
2. Side View
- Includes the width of tail
rotor, diameter of tail rotor,
and the length of the landing
skids.
- Also include the length from
fuselage to tail rotor, and the
total length of the helicopter