Wood and Lumber for

Carpentry Work
Topics Covered:
• Definition of Terms (Related to Wood and Lumber)
• Classification of Wood
• Parts of Wood
• Preparation of Wood
• Defects in Wood
• Methods of Wood/Lumber Preservation
• Seasoning of Lumber
• Board Feet of a Log
• Manufactured Boards
Wood
-is that fibrous substances which compose the trunk and branches of the three that lies
between the pith and the bark. Wood is the most common of the building materials.
Slab – is a kind of rough lumber Plank – is a wide piece Board – is a piece of lumber less
which is cut tangent to the of lumber from 40mm than 1 1/2” (40mm) thick and at
annual rings (or annual growth (1 1/2”) to 130mm (5”) least 4” or 100mm wide.
rings), running the full length of thick.
the log and containing at least
one flat surface.
Lumber
Lumber – is the term applied to wood after it has been sawed or sliced into boards.
Rough Lumber – is the term applied S2S and S4S – is are dressed lumber
to unplaned or undressed lumber. In, wherein the number connotes the smooth
short those lumber with rough sides. For instance, S2S means lumber
surfaces. having two smooth sides and S4S with
four sides. Surface or Dressed
Lumber or Good
Lumber – is a
planed lumber
having at least one
smooth side.

Timber– is a piece of lumber five

inches or larger in its smallest
dimension.
Classification of Wood
Wood are classified according to :
1. Mode of Growth
a. Exogeneous
- Are those outward growing trees which are suitable as permanent structural
elements.

Acacia Tree Mango Tree Narra Tree

b. Endogenous
- Are those inward growing trees which can be used momentarily to support a
part of a structure (not being permanent).

Bamboo Tree Coconut Tree Palm Tree

Classification of Wood
2. Density
Softwood and Hardwood are distinguished in nature in terms of their reproduction rather than their end
appearance and attributes
a. Hardwood
- comes from deciduous tree’s which lose their leaves annually. The trees from which hardwood is obtained
tend to be slower growing, meaning the wood is usually denser.
- is considered the ultimate versatile material, with applications ranging from exquisite veneers and furniture,
musical instruments, flooring, construction and boatbuilding. It is a material of real beauty, available in countless
combinations of species, specifications and colors.
- because of their condensed and more complex structure, hardwoods generally offer a superior level of strength
and durability. Hardwoods tend to be much more resilient than softwoods and are often reserved for projects that
require maximum durability.
- as these grow at a much slower rate and require longer drying times, these factors drive up the cost of the
wood.
- example are mahogany, molave, lauan, kamagong, narra, acacia, yakal, tanguile trees and more.
b. Softwood
- is renowned for its versatility and strength. Sourced from all over the globe, with a large breadth of applications
and a remarkably aesthetic appeal, softwood can be used across a broad range of internal and external
projects, from furniture and flooring to decking, landscaping, external joinery and structural applications.
Classification of Wood
2. Density
b. Softwood (continuation)
- are more readily available and easily manipulated. They also develop at a quicker pace, leading to lower cost
levels.
- they are flexible, lighter in weight and less dense than most hardwoods.
- are commonly used for interior moldings, the manufacturing of windows, construction framing and generating
sheet goods such as plywood and fiberboard.
- are cheaper and easier to work with. As such they make up most of all wood used in the world, with about 80%
of timber being a softwood.
- example are cedar, redwoods, fir, pine trees and more.
Classification of Wood
3. Leaves 4. Shade or Color
The leaves of a tree is either: a. White
a. Needle Shape b. Yellow
c. Red
d. Brown
e. Black, etc.

Cedar Tree

Pine Tree

b. Broad Shape

Mango Tree
Jackfruit Tree
Classification of Wood
5. Grain
Because of the way wood grows, every board has a definite grain direction, parallel to the length of the
longitudinal cells. The grain appears differently depending on how the board is sawed.

> When you cut a board across the grain (perpendicular to the grain direction and the growth rings), you
reveal end grain
> Cut wood parallel to the grain direction and tangent to the growth rings, and you’ll see plain grain (also
called tangential or flat grain).
> Cut it parallel to the grain direction but through the radius of the growth rings to see quarter grain (also
referred to as radian grain).
> Both flat grain and quarter grain are sometimes called long grain.
Classification of Wood
6. Texture and Pattern
Texture means the relative size as well as the amount of variation in size of the wood cells. It's the cells and
how they're arranged in bands called rays, and the size and distribution of pores, that make the difference
between fine-textured wood and coarse-textured wood.
a. Coarse Texture – wood species with large cells.
b. Fine Texture – wood species with smaller cells.

When wood finishers refer to a hardwood as open-grained or close-grained, they're talking about the relative size
of the pores. This determines whether the surface requires application of a filler to get a smoother finish.
Classification of Wood
6. Texture and Pattern
c. Figured Grain – Wood grain isn’t always straight and even. The longitudinal and ray cells sometimes grow
in unusual patterns, many of which are strikingly beautiful.
> Silver grain – A few wood species, such as white oak, have especially prominent rays. When quartersawn,
these produce silver grain

> Curly grain – occurs when the longitudinal cells grow in waves. This occurs in many species but is
especially striking in maple.
Classification of Wood
6. Texture and Pattern
c. Figured Grain (continuation)
> Bird’s eye – are caused by > Ribbon Figure– The longitudinal > Burl Figure – Sometimes
small dimples in the layers of cells. cells of certain species, such as a tree produces a large growth
These are thought to be caused by a mahogany, sometimes spiral around the on the side of the trunk or a
fungus that affects the growth of the trunk, reversing direction every few branch. The cells seem to swirl
longitudinal cells. growth rings. This creates ribbon figure. around each other inside these
growths. When sliced, these
produce a burl figure such as
this elm burl.
 > Pith– the very center of the tree. In some trees, this is much
Parts of a Wood softer and possibly a different color than the surrounding
heartwood.
> Heartwood – the is made up of dead cells that no longer
serve any purpose except to support the tree.
> Sapwood – which carries water, minerals, and plant sugars
between the roots and the leaves. This is often lighter in color
than the heartwood.
> Cambium – a thin layer of living cells outside the
sapwood, close to the surface. The cambium is covered by a
protective layer of bark.
> The cambium grows rapidly at the beginning of each growing
season, creating light colored springwood. As the climate
warms, it slows down and produces darker summerwood. This
later growth is somewhat denser and harder than the early
springwood. As the weather turns cold, the cambium becomes
dormant until the next spring. This cycle produces distinctive
growth rings.
> As the cambium grows, it generates two types of wood cells.
Most of these are long, narrow longitudinal cells that align
themselves with the axis of the trunk, limb, or root. These are
what give the wood its grain. The cambium also produces a
smaller number of ray cells that line up in rays extending out from
the pith, perpendicular to the axis.
Preparation of Wood
Lumbering is the term applied to the operations performed in preparing wood for commercial purposes. It
involves logging which is the process or operation of felling or cutting of trees including its hauling and
delivery to the sawmill for sawing.
Sawing on the other hand, is the operation of preparing or cutting the logs into its commercial sizes.
The methods and manner of log sawing are:
a. Plain Sawing (or Bastard Sawing) – the most common method of log sawing because it produces the
highest quantity of usable lumber.
- the sawyer begins by sawing several boards from one side of the log, turns it 90 degrees and saws several
more, and continues in this manner “sawing around” the log.
Preparation of Wood
b. Quarter Sawing – is the angle that the annular growth rings intersect the face of the board. However,
there is little agreement what exactly that angle is. Most define it as between 60 – 90 degrees, although
others define it as between 75 – 90 degrees or 45 – 90 degrees.
- the sawyer saw first the log in quarters, then slices each quarter into boards, either by cutting boards from
the two flat sides alternately or by gang-sawing the quarter (making parallel cuts).
-this cut can be:
a. Radial c. Quarter Tangential
a. Tangential d. Combined Radial and Tangential
Preparation of Wood
c. Rift Sawing – is wood that is cut neither parallel nor perpendicular to the growth rings so that the growth
rings make angles of 30° to 60° to the face of the board is known as riftsawn in hardwoods or bastard-sawn
in softwoods

d. Live Sawing – also known as “thru cut” lumber, contains all three cuts (plain sawn, rift and quarter
sawn) and has end grain with growth rings of 0 – 90 degrees to the surface.
- produces much wider boards than other methods, and these boards show mostly mixed grain — flat grain
near the center of the face and quarter grain near the edges.
- this cut creates a distinctive stunning look as it contains cathedral, fleck and linear grain patterns in a single board.
Defects in Wood
- Are irregularities found in wood. The most common defects are:
1. Caused by Natural Forces and Abnormal Growth
a. Heart Shakes – a type of shake which develop in maturity approaching trees whose inner part is under
shrinkage. The shake is spread from pith to sapwood following the direction of medullary rays.

b. Wind or Cup Shakes – are formed due to non-uniform growth of a tree or excessive bending by
cyclones or winds. In this case, the shakes develop between annual rings and separate them partly.
Defects in Wood
1. Caused by Natural Forces and Abnormal Growth (continuation)
c. Ring Shakes – are like cup shakes, but they completely separate the annual rings. This is caused
during the growth of the tree, either by excessive frost or cold action, check in the growth, or by bending
cause by winds or cyclone.

Checks
d. Star Shakes – this type of shake starts propagating from the bark towards the sapwood and sometimes
even towards the heartwood along the lines of medullary rays. Cracks are wider on the outer edge or bark
and narrower on the inside (usually sapwood, sometimes heartwood).
- the main reasons behind star shakes are extreme heat or frosting during the growth of the trees and rapid
or uneven seasoning after cutting off the timber. Extreme heat or frost causes temperature difference,
which causes shrinkage leading to the crack.
Defects in Wood
1. Caused by Natural Forces and Abnormal Growth (continuation)
e. Knots – are the most common defects caused due to natural forces. During the growth of a tree,
branches close to the ground or lower branches die. Bases of those branches remain in the tree as the
trees grow. This dark-colored stains are due to the continuity of wood fibers. These dark-colored rings may
create imperfection known as knots.
- decreases the strength of the wood and thus lower its value for structural uses. Knots cause serious defects
when the load is perpendicular to the grains.
Types of Knots: Knots are of two types.
i. Dead Knots – the remains of damaged branches after drying out they become loose and fall out. Dead
Knots are loosely attached and reduce strength.
ii. Live Knots – are usually not a problem as the remain firmly attached to the timber. They are sound and
firm. If small, are not great of a defect.
Defects in Wood
2. Caused by Deterioration
a. Dry Rot – also known as brown rot, is wood decay caused by fungi, which can ruin any woods or lumbers.
- when dry rot occurs, the fungi break down cellulose and hemicellulose, the components which give the
wood strength and resilience. The wood is left weakened and brittle, often with a blocky appearance.
- will only affect timber that is damp, typically with a moisture content in excess of 20 percent. For this
reason, removing the source of moisture should form the core of any dry rot eradication strategy. Read
below for more tips to prevent dry rot.
Defects in Wood
2. Caused by Deterioration (continuation)
b. Wet Rot – is the natural decay of timber due to high moisture levels. It occurs in timber with a moisture
content of around 30%-50%, in contrast to dry rot that occurs in timbers with a lower moisture content of
around 20%.
- is caused by a fungus (cellar fungus, is the most common) that is attracted to very damp wood and feeds off
the timber, destroying it in the process.
- those fungus requires a source of moisture to grow, as wet rot spores are attracted to wet wood with a high
moisture content. This moisture source could occur as a result of any number of issues including defective
plumbing, leaking gutters, leaking roof, broken pipes, leaking washing machine, or a leaking bath or shower tray.
- is confined to a localized damp area and does not spread, making it less destructive than dry rot. However, wet
rot can be just as destructive as dry rot, and, if left untreated, can seriously weaken structural timbers and lead to
major structural damage.
Defects in Wood
3. Caused by Defective Seasoning
Faulty method of seasoning causes serious defects in woods. During seasoning of timber, exterior or surface
layer of the timber dries before the interior surface. So, stress is developed due to the difference in shrinkage. In a
perfect seasoning process, stress is kept minimum by controlling the shrinkage. Some of the defects resulting
from defective seasoning are as follows:

a. Bow - curvature formed in direction d. Check - is a crack that occurs along

of the length of the timber is called the wood’s growth rings. It does not
bow. extend through the entire thickness of
the board.
b. Cup - curvature formed in the
e. Split - is a crack in a piece of wood
transverse direction of the timber is
that goes all the way through the
called a cup.
board.

c. Honeycombing - stress developed f. Twist - occurs when there are

in the heartwood during the drying multiple different bends in a board.
process or seasoning. For these
stresses, cracks are created in the form
of honeycomb texture.
Defects in Wood
4. Caused by Insects
Insects like beetles, termites or marine boars eat wood, make holes and weaken the strength of the wood.
a. Termites - also known as white b. Beetles - are a type of insects c. Marine Borers - are found near
ants which form a colony inside that destroy the sapwood of the coastal areas. They do not consume
the timber and eat the core part of tree and make a tunnel-like hole wood, but they make large holes of
the timber rapidly. They do not from the bark. Usually, the diameter up to 25mm in the timber to
disturb the outer layer of timber, diameter of the hole is around 2 live inside it. They excavated up to
so one cannot identify their mm. They convert sapwood into 60mm deep in the wood. The wood
presence. The trees in tropical powder form, and larvae of these attacked by marine borers is of less
and sub-tropical regions are beetles use these holes. Almost strength and discolored. They can
mostly affected by these termites. all hardwood trees can be prone attack all types of trees present in
However, some trees like teak, to damage by these beetles. their region.
Sal, etc. cannot be attacked by
termites because of the presence
of termite preventing chemicals in
their cellulose part.
Methods of Wood Preservation
Wood does not decay naturally through age; now will it decay if it is kept constantly dry or continuously
submerged in water.
The most common causes of decay in wood are:
1. Alternate moisture and dryness
2. Fungi and molds
3. Insects and worms
4. Heat and confined air
Different Types of Preservatives:
1. Coal Tar – is heated and obtained liquid hot tar is applied on timber surface using brush. Coal tar contains
unpleasant smell and does not allow paint on it. So, it is used for door frames, window frames etc. It is very
cheap and has good fire resistance.
Methods of Wood Preservation
Different Types of Preservatives (continuation):
2. Chemical Slats – like copper sulphate, mercury chloride and zinc chloride are used as preservative which
can be dissolved in water to get liquid solution. They are odorless and do not generate flames when contact with
fire.

3. Oil Paints – are suitable for well-seasoned wood. They are generally applied in 2 or 3 coats. Oil paints
prevents timber from moisture. If timber is not seasoned, then oil paints may lead to decay of timber by confining
sap.
Methods of Wood Preservation
Different Types of Preservatives (continuation): 5. Creosote Oil – is prepared by the distillation of tar. It is
4. Solignum Paints – are applied in hot black or brown in color. It contains unpleasant smell. It is
condition using brush. They are well applied in a special manner. Firstly, the timber is well
suitable for preserving timber from white seasoned and dried. Then, it is placed in airtight chamber
ants. Solignum paints can be used by and inside air is pumped out. Finally creosote oil is
adding color pigments so, the timber has pumped into the chamber with high pressure about 0.7 to
good appearance. 1 N/mm2 at a temperature of 50oC. After allowing it for 2
hours, the timber absorbs creosote oil sufficiently and
taken out from the chamber. Creosote oil is flammable so,
it is not used for timber works in fireplaces. It is generally
used for wood piles, poles, railway sleepers etc.
Methods of Wood Preservation
1. Brushing – the simplest 2. Spraying – is an effective 3. Injecting Under Pressure – The
method of applying preservatives. technique than brushing. In preservative is injected into the
For well-seasoned timber, oil type this case, preservative timber under high pressure
preservatives are applied with solution is sprayed on to the conditions. Generally, creosote oil or
good quality brushes. For better surface using spray gun. It other preservatives is applied in this
results, the applied preservative is time saving and quite manner which is already discussed
should in hot condition. Multiple effective. above. It is costly treatment process
coats should be applied, and and required special treatment plant.
certain time interval should be
maintained between successive
coats.
Methods of Wood Preservation
4. Dipping and Stepping – is 5. Charring – is nothing but 6. Hot and Cold Open Tank
another type of preserving in burning of timber surface, which is Treatment – In this method, the
which, timber is dipped directly in quite an old method of timber is placed in an open tank
the preservative solution. Hence, preservation of timber. In this which contains preservative
the solution penetrates the timber method, the timber surface is solution. This solution is then heated
better than the case of brushing wetted for 30 minutes and burnt up for few hours at 85 to 95 degree
or spraying. In Some case, the to a depth of 15mm from top Celsius. Then, the solution is
stepping or wetting of timber with surface. The burnt surface protects allowed to cool, and timber gets
preservative solution is allowed the inner timber from white ants, submerged with this gradual cooling.
for few days or weeks which is fungi, etc. This method is not This type of treatment is generally
also quite effective process. suitable for exterior wood works done for sap wood.
so, it is applied for wood fencing
poles, telephone pole bottoms etc.
Seasoning of Lumber
- seasoning is the process of drying timber and lumber to remove the bound moisture contained in walls of the
wood cells to produce seasoned timber and lumber. Seasoning can be achieved in several ways, but the aim is
to remove water at a uniform rate through the piece to prevent damage to the wood during drying (seasoning
degrade).
- seasoned timber and lumber tends to have superior dimensional stability than unseasoned counterpart and is
much less prone to warping and splitting in service. In higher grades of timber and lumber, particularly
hardwoods, the process of seasoning can enhance the basic characteristic properties of timber, increasing
stiffness, bending strength and compression strength.

Method Seasoning of Lumber

1. Natural Seasoning of Lumber
- is the process in which timber is seasoned by subjecting it to the natural elements such as air or water.
Natural seasoning may be:
a. Water Seasoning
b. Air Seasoning or Natural Sunlight (Sun-Dried)
2. Artificial Seasoning of Lumber
- Natural seasoning gives good results but takes more time. So, artificial seasoning of timber is developed
nowadays. By artificial seasoning, timber is seasoned with in days. Artificial Seasoning of Lumbers are the
following: (a) Seasoning by Boiling (b) Chemical Seasoning (c) Kiln Seasoning (d) Electrical Seasoning
1. Natural Seasoning of Lumber
a. Water Seasoning b. Air Seasoning
- is the process in which log is immersed in - In the process of air seasoning timber logs are
water flow which helps to remove the sap arranged in layers in a shed. The
present in the timber. It will take 2 to 4 arrangement is done by maintaining some
weeks of time and after that the timber is gap with the ground. So, platform is built on
allowed to dry. Well-seasoned timber is ground at 300mm height from ground. The
ready to use logs are arranged in such a way that air is
circulated freely between logs. By the
movement of air, the moisture content in
timber slowly reduces and seasoning occurs.
Even though it is a slow process it will
produce well-seasoned timber.
2. Artificial Seasoning of Lumber
- Natural seasoning gives good results but takes more time. So, artificial seasoning of timber is developed
nowadays. By artificial seasoning, timber is seasoned with in days.
a. Seasoning by Boiling b. Chemical Seasoning
- is also achieved by boiling it in water for 3 to 4 - In case of chemical seasoning, timber is
hours. After boiling timber is allowed to drying. For stored in suitable salt solution for some time.
large quantity of timber boiling is difficult so, The salt solution used has the tendency to
sometimes hot steam is passed through timber absorb water from the timber. So, the
logs in enclosed room. It also gives good results. moisture content is removed and then timber
The boiling or steaming process develops the is allowed to drying. It affects the strength of
strength and elasticity of timber but economically it the timber.
is of heavier cost.
2. Artificial Seasoning of Lumber
c. Kiln Seasoning d. Electrical Seasoning
- In this method timber is subjected to hot air in - In the method of electrical seasoning timber is
airtight chamber. The hot air circulates in between subjected to high frequency alternating
the timber logs and reduces the moisture content. currents. The resistance of timber against
The temperature inside the chamber is raised with electricity is measured at every interval of
the help of heating coils. When the required time.
temperature is obtained moisture content and
relative humidity gets reduced and timber gets
seasoned. Even though it is costly process it will
give good results strength wise.
Board Feet of a Log
The formula below is applied in finding for the board feet of a log:

(D − 4)2 (L)
Board Feet =
16
Where: D = smaller diameter of log in inches
L = length of the log in feet
4 and 16 =are slab deduction allowance for which are constant in the formula
Example:
Calculate the board feet of the log with a diameter of 24” and length of 18’
Given:
D = 24”
L = 18’
Solution:
(24 − 4)2 (18)
Board Feet =
16
Board Feet = 450 𝑏𝑑. 𝑓𝑡
Manufactured Boards
Manufactured Boards
Manufactured Boards are made of wood but does not appear in their natural state. This type of building materials
can be classified as a type of lumber as they are the by-product in the manufacture of lumber. The complete
utilization of wood has led to an expanded field of manufactured boards.
There are different types of manufactured boards available such as:
1. Plywood – a type of strong thin wooden board Plywood can also be classified according to manufacturer:
consisting of two or more veneer sheets glued and a. China
pressed together with the direction of the grain
alternating, and usually sold in sheets of 4’ X 8’.
Plywood can be an Ordinary or Marine Plywood
ranging from 1/8”,1/4”, 5/16”, 1/2”, and 3/4” thick.

b. Local
Manufactured Boards
2. Plyboard (or Blockboard) – is a 3. Fiberboard – are made by mixing wood-pulp or fibers with synthetic
wood-based panel, made of a core of adhesives. The boards are heat-treated to about 200 degrees C and
softwood stripes that are glued placed in a press to make a dense material. It can also have other
together and also sold in standard substances added at the mixing stage in order to give them particular
dimension of 4’X8’. qualities, for instance to make them fire and water resistant.
Types of Fiberboard:
3a. Hardboard (or High-Density Fiberboard) – is a tough smooth
panel made with wood fibers compressed under high pressure and
heat. HDF carries different thicknesses in both standard grade and
tempered grade
Manufactured Boards
3a. Hardboard (or High-Density Fiberboard)(continuation)
i. Standard Grade Hardboard - is a medium ii. Tempered Grade Hardboard - is impregnated
brown panel, smooth one side with a rough under heat with linseed oil, making it tougher than
crosshatch pattern on the other. Standard Standard grade and rendering it more moisture
hardboard receives paint well and is used as resistant. Tempered hardboard is dark brown in color
underlayment, wall panels, backer boards, in and smooth both sides. It is also used when a
furniture and cabinetmaking and as sacrificial work tougher surfaces required when both surfaces need
surfaces. Artists often use hardboard as a canvas. to be smooth and in high moisture areas.

Standard Hardboard Standard Hardboard Backer Tempered Hardboard Tempered Pegboard

Manufactured Boards
3b. Medium-Density Fiberboard (or MDF) - is an 4. Particle Board – is manufactured from wood
engineered material made by breaking down chips, curls, fibers, flakes, strands, shaving,
hardwood or softwood residuals into fine particles, slivers, strands etc. bound together and pressed
combining it with wax and a resin binder and into sheets and other molded shapes. Particle
applying high temperature and pressure. The board has equal strength in all directions of a given
material has an outer layer that are very hard with cross sectional area, it is not brittle and can resist
a slightly softer inner core. Thickness ranges from warping. (Standard Dimension: 4’X8’ and 2’X8’)
1/8”, 1/4”, 1/2”, 3/4”, and 1” (Standard Dimension:
4’X8’)
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