FOUNDATION IN SCIENCE

Quest international university perak (qiup)

FSC 1121
CALCULUS

Prepared By :
NUR AQILAH KHADIJAH BINTI ROSILI
MUHAMMAD FADHIRUL ANUAR MOHD AZAMI
Quest International University Perak (QIUP)

CONTENTS

CHAPTER TOPIC PAGE

1 DIFFERENTIATION 3

2 SEQUENCE AND SERIES 20

3 INTEGRATION 34

4 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 44

5 MACLAURIN SERIES 56

6 NUMERICAL METHOD 67

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CHAPTER 1 : DIFFERENTIATION
(a) The limit of a function at a point and limits of sums, products and quotients
A function f(x) is said to have a limit if f(x) approaches a certain value as x approaches a
particular value

(I) Use graphs to determine the limits of the following functions.

(a) limit x + 1 (b) limit x2 – 4x + 3
x→0 x→1
y y
y =f(x)= x+1 y = f(x)= x2 – 4x + 3
1 =(x–1)(x– 3)

–1 0 x 0 1 3 x

limit x + 1 = 1 limit x2 – 4x + 3 = 0
x→0 x→1

(c) If f(x) = x+1 for x > 0 and y

f(x) = 3 for x ≤0 f(x)=3 3 f(x)=x+1
limit f(x) does not exist
x→0
1
x
0

(II) Evaluate the limits of the following functions.

1 1
(a) lim 𝑥+1
= lim 0+1
= 1
𝑥 →0 𝑥 →0
Question 1
𝑥 2 −𝑥−2 (𝑥+1)(𝑥−2)
(b) lim = lim = lim (x + 1) = 3 Find the limits of the following
𝑥−2 (𝑥−2)
𝑥 →2 𝑥 →2 𝑥 →2 functions.
𝑥 2 −1 (𝑥+1)(𝑥−1)
(i) lim 3x + 1 Ans: 7
(c) lim 𝑥+1
= lim
(𝑥+1)
= lim (x – 1) = – 2 x→2
𝑥 → −1 𝑥 → −1 𝑥 → −1
1 1 1
(ii) lim x2 – 5x + 4 Ans: 4
2𝑥+1 1
(d) lim = lim (2 + 𝑥) = 2 x→ 0
𝑥 →∞ 𝑥 𝑥 →∞
𝑥+1
2𝑥−1 2 1
(iii) lim𝑥−1
Ans: 1
(e) lim = lim ( − ) = 0 x→ ∞
𝑥2 𝑥 𝑥2
𝑥 →∞ 𝑥 →∞
𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 1
(g) lim 𝑥+2 = lim 𝑥+2 = lim 2 = 1
𝑥 → −∞ 𝑥 → −∞ 𝑥 → −∞ 1+
𝑥 𝑥

1 1 1 1
(h) lim = ± ∞ meaning lim = ∞ and lim = –∞ ; therefore lim does not exist.
𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝑥−1
x→1 x→1+ x →1- x→1
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Derivative of a function
The rate of change at a point P is defined to be the gradient of the tangent at P.
The gradient of a curve y = f(x) at a given point is defined to be the gradient of the tangent at that point.

Consider the graph below which shows a fixed point P on a curve. We also show a sequence of points Q1,
Q2, . . . getting closer and closer to P. We see that the lines from P to each of the Q’s get nearer and nearer
to becoming a tangent at P as the Q’s get nearer to P.

Differentiation from First Principles

The lines through P and Q approach the tangent at P when Q is very close to P.

So if we calculate the gradient of one of these lines PQ, and let the point Q approach the point P along the
curve, then the gradient of the line PQ should approach the gradient of the tangent at P, and hence the
gradient of the curve.

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The graph of y = x2. P is the point (x, y). Q is a nearby point.

Point Q is chosen to be close to P on the curve. The x coordinate of Q is x + 𝛿x where 𝛿 x is the symbol we
use for a small change, or small increment in x. The corresponding change in y is written as 𝛿y. So the
coordinates of Q are (x + 𝛿 x, y + 𝛿 y).

We often use function notation y = f(x). Then, the point P has coordinates (x, f(x)). Point Q has coordinates
(x + dx, f(x + dx).

Because we are considering the graph of y = x2, we know that y + dy = (x + dx)2.

As we let 𝛿x become zero we are left with just 2x, and this is the formula for the gradient of the tangent at
P. We have a concise way of expressing the fact that we are letting 𝛿x approach zero. We write

‘lim’ stands for ‘limit ’and we say that the limit, as 𝛿 x tends to zero, of 2x + 𝛿 x is 2x. We have a special
symbol for the phrase

We write this as dy/dx and say this as “dee y by dee x”. This is called the differential coefficient also referred
to as the first derivative of y with respect to x.

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This is the definition, for any function y = f(x), of the derivative, dy/dx or f’(x)

NOTE: Given y = f(x), its derivative, or rate of change of y with respect to x is defined as

Example 1

Suppose we want to differentiate the function f(x) = 1/x from first principles.

A sketch of part of this graph shown below. We have marked point P(x, f(x)) and the neighbouring point
Q(x + 𝛿 x, f(x + 𝛿 x)).

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(b) Definition of the derivative of a function. Derivative from first principles.

The derivative of a function f(x) with respect to x from first principles is
𝑑𝑦 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ) −𝑓(𝑥)
f’(x) = 𝑑𝑥
= lim ℎ
→ 00
hh →

The derivative of a function f(x) at any point x = a is

𝑓(𝑎+ℎ) −𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓(𝑥) −𝑓(𝑎)
f’(a) = lim ℎ
or f’(a) = lim 𝑥−𝑎
h→0 h→0

Example 2
Find the derivatives of the following functions from first principles
(a)f(x) = 2x + 7 (b) 3x2 – 1 (c) f(x) = 5

Solution :

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ) −𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥+ℎ) −𝑓(𝑥)

(a) f’(x) = lim ℎ
(b) f’(x) = lim ℎ
h→0 h→0 h→0

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[ 2(𝑥+ℎ) + 7 ] − [ 2𝑥 + 7 ] [3(𝑥+ℎ)2 −1]−[3𝑥 2 −1]

= lim ℎ
= lim ℎ
h→0 h→0

2ℎ ℎ(6𝑥+3ℎ)
= lim ℎ
= lim ℎ
h→0 h→0

= 2 = lim 6x + 3h
h→0

= 6x

𝑓(𝑥+ℎ) −𝑓(𝑥)
(c) f’(x) = lim ℎ
h→0
Question 2
5−5 Find the following derivatives of a
= lim ℎ
h→0 function from first principles.
(i) f(x) = 2x
0 (ii) f(x) = 3x2 – 7
= lim ℎ
h→0 (iii) f(x) = 7
Answers:
= 0 (i) 2
(ii) 6x
(iii) 0

(c) Rules of Differentiation

1 The constant rule: 𝑑

14 𝑑𝑥
( tan x ) = sec2 x
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
(c) = 0 𝑑
( tan u ) = sec2 u
𝑑𝑢
where u is a function of x
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 The power rule: 𝑑
15 𝑑𝑥
( sec x ) = sec x tan x
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
(xn) = n xn –1 [ n=integral/rational ] 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
( sec u ) = sec u tan u 𝑑𝑥 where u is a fn of x
𝑑𝑥
A special version of the power rule:
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
( cx ) = c(1)x1 – 1 = c(1)x0 =c(1)(1) = c

3 The constant multiple rule: 𝑑

16 𝑑𝑥
( cosec x ) = – cosec x cot x
𝑑 𝑑
[ c f(x) ] = c [ f(x) ] = c f’(x) 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
( cosec u ) = – cosec u cot u 𝑑𝑥
4 The sum and difference rule: where u is a fn of x
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑥
[ f(x) ± g(x) ] = 𝑑𝑥 [f(x)] ± 𝑑𝑥
[g(x)]

5 The product rule: 𝑑

17 𝑑𝑥
( cot x ) = –cosec2 x
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑𝑥
[ f(x) g(x) ] = f(x) 𝑑𝑥[g(x)] + g(x) 𝑑𝑥[f(x) 𝑑
( cot u ) = –cosec2 u
𝑑𝑢
where u is a fn of x
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
6 The quotient rule: 𝑑
18 𝑑𝑥
( sinn x ) = n sinn –1x cos x

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𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) [𝑓(𝑥)]−𝑓(𝑥) [𝑔(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
[
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)
] = [𝑔(𝑥)]2

7 The chain rule: 𝑑

19 𝑑𝑥
( cosn x ) = – n cosn – 1 x sin x
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑢 x 𝑑𝑥 where y = f(u) and u = f(x)
A special version of the chain rule:
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
[ g(x) ]n = n [ g(x) ]n – 1 g’(x)

8 Implicit Functions Differentiation: 𝑑

20 𝑑𝑥
( tann x ) = n tann – 1 x sec2 x
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(xm yn) = xm (yn) + yn (xm)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
= xm[ nyn – 1 ] + yn( mxm – 1 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
9 𝑑𝑥
(ex) = ex 21 𝑑𝑥
( secn x ) = n secn x tan x
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
(eu) = eu 𝑑𝑥 where u is a function of x

𝑑 1 𝑑
10 𝑑𝑥
( ln x) = 𝑥 22 𝑑𝑥
( cosecn x ) = – n cosecn x cot x
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
( ln u ) = 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
11 𝑑𝑥
(ax ) = ax ln a where a ∈ ℝ 23 𝑑𝑥
( cotn x ) = –n cotn – 1 x cosec2 x
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
(au ) = au 𝑑𝑥 ln a
𝑑 24 Parametric Differentiations
12 𝑑𝑥
( sin x ) = cos x
𝑑 𝑑𝑢 If y = f(t) and x = g(t), then
( sin u ) = cos u where u is a function of x
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 (i) = x = = h(t)
13 𝑑𝑥
( cos x ) = –sin x 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
( cos u ) = –sin u 𝑑𝑥 where u is a function of x
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 ( )
𝑑 𝑑𝑦

(ii) = ( ) = ( ) ( ) = 𝑑𝑡𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ( )
𝑑𝑡

Differentiation of Composite Functions requiring application of the chain rule.

Consider the function y = g(u) , where u is a function of x or u = f(x),
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
Hence 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑢
x 𝑑𝑥
which is known as the chain rule.

Example 3 Example 4
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Find 𝑑𝑥
if y = (2x + 3)5 Find 𝑑𝑥 if y = (5 – x2)10

Solution : Solution :
Let y = u5 where u = 2x + 3 Let y = u10 where u = 5 – x2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
= 5u4 and 𝑑𝑥
=2 𝑑𝑢
= 10u9 and 𝑑𝑥
= –2x
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑢
x 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑢
x 𝑑𝑥

= 5u5-1 x 2 = 10u9 (–2x)

= 5(2x + 3)5-1(2) = 10(5 – x2)9(–2x)
A simpler way to perform the differentiation = –20x(5 – x2)9

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of a composite function (polynomial form)will be, if

y = [f(x)]n where f(x) = (2x + 3) and n =5
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= n [ f(x) ]n –1 f’(x)
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
= 5(2x + 3)4(2) = 10(2x + 3)4

Example 5 Example 6 Example 7

2
Differentiate ln (x3 + 1) w.r.t. x. Find the derivative of e3x Differentiate w.r.t. x. sin 3x

Solution : Solution : Solution :

2
Let y = ln (x3 + 1) and u = (x3 + 1) Let y = e3x and u = 3x2 Let y = sin 3x and u = 3x
y = ln u y = eu y = sin u
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢
= 𝑢
; 𝑑𝑥
= 3x2 𝑑𝑢
= eu ; 𝑑𝑥
= 6x 𝑑𝑢
= cos u ; 𝑑𝑥
=3
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑢
x 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑢
x 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑢
x 𝑑𝑥
1
= 𝑢
(3x2) = eu (6x) = cos u (3)
3𝑥 2 2
= = e3x (6x) = 3 cos 3x
𝑥 3 +1

Question 3: Differentiate w.r.t. x.

(i) sin4 x (ii) e(2x3 + x) (iii) cos(1 –7x5) (iv) ln (x – 1)2 (v) (x + 1)6 (vi) sin (3x +π/4) (vii) (x+1) –1
(viii) ln(1 + cos x) (ix) ln(tan 2x) (x) ln √(1+x^2 ) (xi) (ex – e-x)-1 (xii) (x2 + 5x + 3)½
Answers :
3 2 𝜋
(i) 4 sin3x cos x (ii) (6x2 + 1) e2x + x (iii) 35x4sin (1 – 7x5) (iv) (v) 6(x+1)5 (vi) 3 cos (3x + )
𝑥−1 4
(vii) –(x + 1) –2
− sin 𝑥 2 sec2 2𝑥 𝑥 1
(viii) (ix) (x) (xi) – (ex + e-x)(ex – e-x) –2 (xii) (x2 + 5x + 3) - ½ (2x + 5)
1+cos 𝑥 tan 2𝑥 1+𝑥 2 2

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Differentiation of Implicit Functions and Parametric Equations

Implicit Functions
Not all functions can be arranged in the form y = f(x) , for example x3 + y3 = xy. When a function is
specified by an equation connecting x and y and it is not easily transposed to the form y = f(x), it is
called an implicit function.
Example 8 Example 9
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
If x3 + y3 = xy , find 𝑑𝑥
Find 𝑑𝑥 in terms of x and y if x2 sin y + 2x = y

Solution : Solution :
Differentiating with respect to x, Differentiating w.r.t x,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
3x2 + 3y2 𝑑𝑥 = x 𝑑𝑥
+ y(1) x2 cos y 𝑑𝑥 + (2x) sin y + 2 = (1) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
( 3y2 – x) = y – 3x2 𝑑𝑥
( 1 – x2 cos y ) = 2( 1 + x sin y )
𝑑𝑦 y – 3x2 𝑑𝑦 2( 1 + x sin y )
𝑑𝑥
= 3y2 – x 𝑑𝑥
= ( 1 – x2 cos y )

Example 10 Example 11
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2
Find the value of 𝑑𝑥
at the point (1, 1) If x2 – y2 = 1, prove that y 𝑑𝑥 2 + ( 𝑑𝑥 ) = 1

on the curve x2 + xy – y2 = 1. Solution :

𝑑𝑦
Solution : 2x – 2y = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
Differentiating with respect to x, 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑦
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑦(1)−𝑥(1)
𝑑𝑥
2x + x 𝑑𝑥 + y(1) – 2y 𝑑𝑥 = 0 𝑑𝑥 2
= 𝑦2
𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑦−𝑥( )
𝑦
( x – 2y ) = – (2x + y) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑦2
𝑑𝑦 – (2x + y) 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑦 2 −𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
= ( x – 2y ) 𝑑𝑥 2
= 𝑦3
𝑦 2 −𝑥 2 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 −𝑥 2 +𝑥 2
At the point (1, 1) on the curve, LHS: y ( 𝑦3 ) + ( 𝑦) = 𝑦2
𝑑𝑦 –[2(1) +(1)] −3
𝑑𝑥
= [ (1)– 2(1) ]
= −1
= 3 = 1 ⋕

Question 4 :
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥−𝑦
(i) If 2x2 – 3y2 = 2xy, find . Ans:
𝑑𝑥 𝑥+3𝑦

𝑑𝑦
(ii) Find the value of 𝑑𝑥
at the point (1, –4) on the curve y2 + 2xy + 3x2
1
Ans: – 3
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥
(iii) If x2 + y2 = y, show that 𝑑𝑥
= 1−2𝑦
.

𝑑𝑦 𝑦(3𝑥+1)
(iv) Find in terms of x and y if ln(xy) + 3x – 2y = 1 Ans:
𝑑𝑥 𝑥(2𝑦−1)

𝑑𝑦 −(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 )
(v) Find 𝑑𝑥
in terms of x and y if ey + y2 + xex = 2 Ans: 𝑒 𝑦 + 2𝑦

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Parametric equations
We usually write the equation of a curve in the form y = f(x). Sometimes it is more useful to state
the equation of a curve using a third variable, known as a parameter. In this case, the variables x and
y are expressed separately in terms of the third variable for example
x = 2t + 1 and y = t2 – 1
To differentiate a function which is defined in terms of a parameter t, we need to use the chain rule:
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
=2 and = 2t
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 We can express the equation of the curve in Cartesian form .
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑥−1
= x From x = 2t + 1 , t = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
1 Substitute into y = t2 – 1 becomes
= (2t) (2)
𝑥−1 2 1
= t y= ( ) – 1 or y = (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3)
2 4

Question : Find the Cartesian coordinates of the point P where the gradient of the curve is 2.
𝑑𝑦
Solution : Since 𝑑𝑥
= t = 2 therefore P( 2t + 1, t2 – 1 ) = P(5, 3) by substituting t = 2.

Example 12 Example 13 Example 14

1 3 t
x= and y = t x=e and y = sin t x = ln t and y = et
𝑡−1

Solution : Solution : Solution :

𝑑𝑥 (𝑡−1)(0)−(1)(1) −1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑡
= (𝑡−1)2
= (𝑡−1)2 𝑑𝑡
= et ; 𝑑𝑡
= cos t 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑡 ; 𝑑𝑡 = et
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
= 3t2 = x = x
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑𝑦
= x = cos t ( 𝑡 ) = et (t)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
2 2
= 3t x [–(t –1) ] = e-t cos t = tet
= –3t2(t –1)2

Question 5 :
(i) A curve is given by the parametric equations x = t – 1/t and y = t + 1/t , t ≠ 0. Find the
coordinates of the point where dy/dx = 0
Answer : (0, 2), (0, –2)

(ii) Find dy/dx in terms of θ for the curve with parametric equations.
x = a cos3 θ , y = a sin3 θ Answer : –tan θ

(iii) Find dy/dx in the following parametric equations.

x = e3t and y = ln t Answer : 1/(3te^3t )

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(d) Applications of differentiation : Tangents and normals

Example 15
Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the curve x2 + xy – y2 = 1 at the point (1, 1)
Solution :
Differentiating w.r.t. x.
𝑑𝑦
=
– (2x + y) Question 6 (STPM 2004 Paper 1 No 10)
𝑑𝑥 ( x – 2y )
At the point (1, 1) A curve is defined by the parametri c
𝑑𝑦 –[2(1) +(1)] −3 2
𝑑𝑥
=
[ (1)– 2(1) ]
=
−1
= 3 equations x = 1 – 2t, y = –2 + 𝑡 .
Equation of tangent to the curve at the point (1, 1) : (i) Find the equation of the tangent
y – y1 = m(x – x1) and normal to the curve at the point
y – 1 = 3 (x – 1) A(3, –4).
y = 3x – 2 (ii) The normal to the curve at the point
Equation of normal to the curve at the point (1, 1)
1
A cuts the curve again at the point B.
y – y1 = m’(x – x1) where m’ = –
𝑚 Find the coordinates of B.
1
y – 1 = – (x – 1)
3
x + 3y –4 = 0 or y = – x +
1 4 Ans : y = x –7; y = –x –1 ; B(–1, 0)
3 3

Example 16
The parametric equations of a curve are x = 2t + 3t 2 and y = 1 – 2t2. Find an equation of the tangent to
the curve which is parallel to the line 2y + x = 0.
Solution :
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= 2 + 6t ; = – 4t
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
= x
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 – 4t 1
= = – ( gradient of the line 2y + x = 0 )
𝑑𝑥 2 + 6t 2
8t = 2 + 6t
t = 1
x = 2(1) + 3(1)2 = 5 and y = 1 – 2(1)2 = –1 Coordinates of point (5, –1)
Equation of tangent to the curve at the point (5, –1)
1
y – –1 = – ( x – 5 )
2
1 3
y=– x + or x + 2y – 3 = 0
2 2

Example 17
𝑑𝑦
The parametric equations of a curve are x = t2 + t and y = t2 – t. Find in terms of t. The
𝑑𝑥
curve crosses the y-axis at A where t < 0. Find the equation of the normal to the curve at A.
Solution :
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
= 2t + 1 ; = 2t – 1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 2𝑡−1
= x =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 2𝑡+1
At y –axis, x = 0 that is t2 + t = 0 or t(t + 1) = 0 ; t = – 1 (t < 0) , so y = (–1)2–(–1) = 2
Point A(0, 2)
Gradient of tangent at A(0, 2)
𝑑𝑦 2𝑡−1 2(−1)−1 −3
= = = =3=m
𝑑𝑥 2𝑡+1 2(−1)+1 −1
1 1
Gradient of normal at A(0, 2), m’ = – = –
𝑚 3
1
Equation of normal at A(0, 2) : y – 2 = – (x – 0)
3
Applications of differentiation : Rate ofy change
1
=– x+2
3

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Example 18
A container is in the shape of an inverted cone and has a depth of 11 cm and radius 5 cm. Water
is poured into the container at the rate of 𝜋 cm3 s-1. Calculate the rate at which the depth of the
water in the container is increasing 5 seconds after pouring has begun.

Solution :

𝑟 ℎ
= 5 cm
5 11

5ℎ
r = 11

11 cm r cm

h cm
Volume of water in the container,
1
V = 𝜋 r2 h
3
1 5ℎ 2
= 𝜋 (11) h
3
25𝜋ℎ3
= 363
𝑑𝑉 25
= 𝜋 h2
𝑑ℎ 121

25𝜋ℎ3
After 5 seconds, 𝜋 x 5 =
363
3 363 ×5 3
h= √ = √72.6
25
𝑑ℎ 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑉 121 121
= x = x 𝜋 = 2 = 0.278 cm s –1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑡 25𝜋ℎ2 3
25( √72.6)

Question 7 :
The surface area, A of a balloon is decreasing at a rate of 2 cm2 s–1. The volume and radius
of the balloon are represented by V and r respectively. Find the rate at which the volume
decreases when its radius is 5 cm. Answer : –5 cm3 s–1
Question 8 :
Sand Is dumped in such a way that the shape of the sandpile is always a cone with its height, h
equal to three times its radius, r.
(a) Derive an equation for the volume, V of the sandpile in terms of r.
(b) Given that the sand is dumped at a constant rate of 10 m3 s–1, calculate the rate at
(e) Maxima and minima 10
which the radius is increasing when its height is 3 m. Answer : V= 𝜋r3, m s–1
3𝜋
Example

Example 19

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A cylindrical container has one end opened and the other end closed. It has a circular base of radius
r cm. Given that the total surface area of the container is 300𝜋 cm3.
𝜋𝑟 3
(a) Show that the volume of the container is V = 150𝜋𝑟 – cm3
2
(b) Find the maximum value of V.

Solution :
(a) Let the height of the container be hi.

∴ A = 𝜋r2 + 2𝜋rh = 300𝜋

300𝜋−𝜋𝑟 2 300−𝑟 2 150 𝑟
h= = = –
2𝜋𝑟 2𝑟 𝑟 2

Volume of the container,

150 𝑟
h
V = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ = 𝜋𝑟 2 ( 𝑟
– 2)
𝜋𝑟 3
V = 150 𝜋𝑟 – 2
r

𝑑𝑉 3𝜋𝑟 2
(b) = 150𝜋 – =0
𝑑𝑟 2

𝑑𝑉 3𝜋𝑟 2
When 𝑑𝑟
= 0 , 150𝜋 = 2

r2 = 100,
r = 10 cm
𝑑2 𝑉
𝑑𝑟 2
= – 3𝜋r

𝑑2 𝑉
When r = 10, = – 3𝜋(10) = –30𝜋 < 0
𝑑𝑟 2

⇒ exists a maximum value

𝜋(10)3
The maximum value of V = 150 𝜋(10) – 2
= 1000 𝜋 cm3 .

Question 9
1 A window is in the shape of a rectangle of width x and height y. It is enclosed by a
semicircle on top of the rectangle. The perimeter of the window is 300 cm and its area is A
cm2.
(a) Express y in terms of x and 𝜋. Hence express A in terms of x and 𝜋.
600
(b) Show that the maximum value of A occurs when x = 4+ 𝜋
(c) Calculate the maximum value of A
2+𝜋 1 𝑥 2 𝜋
Answer : (a) y = 150 – ( 4
)𝑥 ; A = xy + 2 𝜋 (2) = 150 – ½( 1 + 4
)x2 (b) 6301 cm2

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Applications of differentiation : Point of Inflection

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Example 20

Determine the critical point(s) for the curve 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 12𝑥 + 2. State either the
critical point(s) is local minimum or local maximum by using second derivative test.

Solution :

Using the second derivative test

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 12
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 − 6

Let 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0
6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 − 12 = 0
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 0
𝑥 = −1 𝑜𝑟 2

When 𝑥 = −1
𝑓(−1) = 2(−1)3 − 3(−1)2 − 12(−1) + 2 = 9

When 𝑥 = 2
𝑓(2) = 2(2)3 − 3(2)2 − 12(2) + 2 = −18

The critical points are (−1,9) and (2, −18)

When 𝑥 = −1
𝑓 ′′ (−1) = −18
Negative. Therefore, the point (−1,9) is a local maximum point.

When 𝑥 = 2
𝑓 ′′ (2) = 18
Positive. Therefore, the point (2, −18) is a local minimum point.

Question 10
1 Find the maximum, minimum and inflection points of the following equations :
𝑥3 𝑥2
a) 𝑦 = 3
− 2
+ 10
𝑥3 𝑥2
b) 𝑦 = 3
+ 2
− 20𝑥 + 7

59 1 119
Answer : (a) (0,10) maximum, (1, 6 ) minimum, (2 , 12
) point of inflection
131 1
(b) (−5,77.83) maximum, (4, − 3
)minimum, (− 2 , 17.08)) point of inflection

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Tutorial 1
𝑑𝑦
1 Find 𝑑𝑥
for each of the following :
1 1
(a) y = (b) y = 2x + (c) y = √𝑥 3
2 𝑥
2 Differentiate each of the following.
7 3 𝑥 3 +2𝑥
(a) y = – 3 (b) y = 𝑥2
– 2x (c) y = – 5√𝑥 (d) y = 5x5 + 2x3 (e) y = 𝑥

3 Differentiate the following functions with respect to x.

4𝑥 3 +3𝑥 (3𝑥+4)(2𝑥 2 −1) 1
(a) y = 𝑥2
(b) f(x) = 𝑥2
(c) g(x) = (5𝑥 3 + 𝑥) √𝑥

4 Find the derivatives for each of the following functions with respect to x.
(a) f(x) = (3x2 + 4)(x3 + 2x) (b) g(x) = (x2 – 3x + 2)(5 – x2)
(c) h(x) = (√𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 3)

5 Find the derivative for the following functions ( using the quotient rule ).
𝑥+1 3𝑥 2 4𝑥 2 +1
(a) y = 𝑥 2 −2
(b) f(x) = 4𝑥 + 1
(c) f(x) = 𝑥 2 −3

6 Differentiate the following functions ( using the chain rule ).

4 1 5
(a) y = ( x5 – 4)7 (b) y = (5𝑥+3)4
(c) y = (x2 – 3x)7 (d) y = (𝑥 − )
𝑥

𝑑𝑦
7 Given that y = (5x – 2)2(1 – 4x)5 . Find 𝑑𝑥
, leaving your answer in factor form.

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 2
8 Find 𝑑𝑥
and 𝑑𝑥 2
given that y = 𝑒 2𝑥

𝑑𝑦
9 If y = sin3 (2x + 1) find .
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
10 If y = 𝑒 −𝑥 sin x show that 𝑑𝑥 2
+ 2 𝑑𝑥
+ 2y = 0.

11 Differentiate w.r.t. x.
3
(i) sin4 x (ii) e(2x + x) (iii) cos(1 –7x5) (iv) ln (x – 1)2
𝜋
(v) (x + 1)6 (vi) sin (3x + 4 ) (vii) (x+1) –1 (viii) ln (1 + cos x)
(ix) ln (tan 2x) (x) ln √1 + 𝑥 2 (xi) (ex – e-x)-1 (xii) (x2 + 5x + 3)½

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𝑑𝑦
12 (i) If 2x2 – 3y2 = 2xy, find 𝑑𝑥
.
𝑑𝑦
(ii) Find the value of 𝑑𝑥
at the point (1, –4) on the curve y2 + 2xy + 3x2 = 0
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥
(iii) If x2 + y2 = y, show that 𝑑𝑥
= 1−2𝑦
.
𝑑𝑦
(iv) Find 𝑑𝑥
in terms of x and y if ln(xy) + 3x – 2y = 1
𝑑𝑦
(v) Find 𝑑𝑥
in terms of x and y if ey + y2 + xex = 2

13 The surface area, A of a balloon is decreasing at a rate of 2 cm2 s–1. The volume and radius
of the balloon are represented by V and r respectively. Find the rate at which the volume
decreases when its radius is 5 cm.

14 Sand Is dumped in such a way that the shape of the sandpile is always a cone with its height,
h equal to three times its radius, r.
(a) Derive an equation for the volume, V of the sandpile in terms of r.
(b) Given that the sand is dumped at a constant rate of 10 m3 s–1, calculate the rate at
which the radius is increasing when its height is 3 m.

15 A window is in the shape of a rectangle of width x and height y. It is enclosed by a semicircle

on top of the rectangle. The perimeter of the window is 300 cm and its area is A cm2.
(a) Express y in terms of x and 𝜋. Hence express A in terms of x and 𝜋.
600
(b) Show that the maximum value of A occurs when x = .
4+ 𝜋
Calculate the maximum value of A.

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CHAPTER 2 : SEQUENCE AND SERIES

2.1 Sequence

A sequence or progression is a successive of terms 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , …, formed according to a

certain fixed rule. Thus, sequence is a list of numbers arranged in a specific order. Sequence
also be called as progression.

Example 1

(a) 2, 4, 6, 8, 10

(b) 3, 9, 27, 81, …, 3n, …

(c) -1, ½, -1, ½, …

A sequence with a fixed number of terms is called a finite A sequence with a fixed number of
terms is called a finite sequence, whereas the one with an infinite number of terms is called
infinite sequence. By referring to example 1.1.1,

(a) is finite sequences whereas

(b) is infinite sequence.

(c) is an infinite periodic sequence and the terms alternate between two numbers.

If the nth term of a sequence is given, un = f(n), then we can find the successive terms of the
sequence. This sequence is defined by explicit formula.

Another type of sequence where the value of each term is related to its preceding terms, with
the initial terms being given. If the first two terms of a sequence are u 1 = 2 and u2 = 6, and
un+2 = un+1 + un, then we can find the successive terms of the sequence. The sequence can be
defined by the recursive formula.

Consider the sequence

3 8 15 24 𝑛2 − 1
0, , , , , … , 2 ,…
5 10 17 26 𝑛 +1
This sequence is a convergent sequence since the terms approach a single value as 𝑛
increase. In this case, this sequence converges to 1.

We say that the limit of the sequence is 1 as 𝑛 tends to infinity and write,

lim 𝑢𝑛 = 1
𝑛→∞

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However not all sequences are convergent. Consider the sequence

√1, √2, √3, √4, … , √𝑛, …

This sequence is a divergent sequence since the terms get larger and large as 𝑛 increases. In
this case it does not converge to a single value.

Example 2
2𝑛+1
(a) A sequence us defined by 𝑢𝑛 = 3𝑛−2 , 𝑛 ≥ 1. Determine whether the sequence
converges.

Solution:

2𝑛 + 1
lim 𝑢𝑛 = lim ( )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 3𝑛 − 2

1
2+𝑛
= lim ( )
𝑛→∞ 2
3−𝑛

1
lim (2 + 𝑛)
𝑛→∞
=
2
lim (3 − 𝑛)
𝑛→∞

2+0
=
3−0
2
=
3
2
Hence, the sequence converges to 3.

2.2 Series

A series is the indicated sum, 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑢3 , …, of the terms of a sequence. Thus, example of

series shown in example 1.2.1.

Example 3

(a) 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10

(b) 1+3+5+7+9+⋯

(c) 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + ⋯

There are many type of the sequences, but this chapter will only discuss on arithmetic and
geometric sequence/ progression.
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2.3 Arithmetic Progression

An arithmetic progression (AP) is a sequence of number in which any term differs from the
previous term by a certain number called the common difference. The common difference
can be positive or negative obtained by subtracting any term from the term which
immediately follows it. The common difference of AP denoted by 𝑑. Thus, 𝑑 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 =
𝑢3 − 𝑢2 = ⋯ = 𝑢𝑛 − 𝑢𝑛−1.

Example 4

Find the common difference for the following arithmetic sequences.

(a) 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, …

(b) 7, 5, 3, 1, …

(c) 25, 20, 15, 10, …

Solution:

(a) 𝑑 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 𝑢3 − 𝑢2 = 𝑢4 − 𝑢3 = 6 − 4 = 8 − 6 = 10 − 8

𝑑=2

(b) 𝑑 = −2

(c) 𝑑 = −5

𝒏th Term of Arithmetic Progression

Generally, if the first term of an arithmetic progression is 𝑎 and the common difference is 𝑑,
then the arithmetic sequence can be written as

𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑, 𝑎 + 3𝑑, … , 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

and the 𝑛th term is given by,

𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

Example 5

Find the 10th term for the given the arithmetic progression below.

(a) 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, …

(b) 7, 5, 3, 1, …

(c) 25, 20, 15, 10, …

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Solution:

(a) 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, …

𝑎 = 4, 𝑑 = 2, 𝑛 = 10

𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

𝑢10 = 4 + (10 − 1)2

𝑢10 = 22

Example 6

In an arithmetic progression, the 6th term is 67 and the 14th term is 163. Find the common
difference, the first term and the 𝑛th term.

Solution:

𝑢6 = 67

𝑎 + (6 − 1)𝑑 = 67

𝑎 + 5𝑑 = 67 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (1)

𝑢14 = 163

𝑎 + (14 − 1)𝑑 = 163

𝑎 + 13𝑑 = 163 ⋯ ⋯ ⋯ (2)

(2) − (1) 8𝑑 = 96

𝑑 = 12

When 𝑑 = 12, 𝑎 = 7

∴ 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

= 7 + (𝑛 − 1)(12)

= 12𝑛 − 5

Sum of the First 𝒏 Terms of Arithmetic Progression

Sum of the first 𝑛 terms of arithmetic progression is given by,

𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑] or 𝑆𝑛 = [𝑎 + 𝑙]
2 2

Where 𝑙 is the last term.

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Example 7

Find the sum of the first 10 terms for the given the arithmetic progression below.

(a) 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, …

(b) 7, 5, 3, 1, …

(c) 25, 20, 15, 10, …

Solution:

(a) 𝑎 = 4, 𝑑 = 2, 𝑛 = 10

10
𝑆10 = [2(4) + (10 − 1)(2)]
2
= 130

Example 8

The first term of an AP is 3. The sum of the first eight terms is 136 and the sum of the series
is 820. Determine the common difference, the number of the terms and the last term.

Solution:

𝑎 = 3, 𝑆8 = 136, and 𝑆𝑛 = 820

8
𝑆8 = [2(3) + (8 − 1)𝑑] = 136
2
𝑑=4

Since the sum of the first 𝑛 terms is 820,

𝑛
[2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑] = 820
2
𝑛
[2(3) + (𝑛 − 1)(4)] = 820
2
3𝑛 + 2𝑛(𝑛 − 1) = 820

2𝑛2 + 𝑛 − 820 = 0

(2𝑛 + 41)(𝑛 − 20) = 0

𝑛 = 20 [𝑛 cannot be negative]

Therefore, the last term,

𝑢20 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 = 3 + (20 − 1)(4) = 79

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2.4 Geometric Progression

A geometric progression (GP) is a sequence of numbers in which any term can be obtained
from the previous term by multiplying by a certain number called the common ratio. The
common ratio may have any real value. The common ratio of a GP is denoted by 𝑟. Thus,
𝑢 𝑢 𝑢𝑛
𝑟 = 𝑢2 = 𝑢3 = ⋯ = 𝑢 .
1 2 𝑛−1

Example 9

Find the common ratio for the following geometric sequences.

(a) 1, 2, 4, 8, …

(b) 3, 9, 27, 81, …

(c) 20, 10, 5, …

Solution:
𝑢 𝑢 𝑢𝑛
(a) 𝑟 = 𝑢2 = 𝑢3 = ⋯ = 𝑢
1 2 𝑛−1

2 8
= = =2
1 4
(b) 𝑟=3

(c) 𝑟 = 1/2

𝒏th Term of Geometric Progression

Generally, if the first term of an geometric progression is 𝑎 and the common ratio is 𝑟, then
the geometric sequence can be written as

𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , … , 𝑎𝑟 𝑛

and the 𝑛th term is given by,

𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

Example 10

Find the 10th term for the given the geometric progression below.

(a) 1, 2, 4, 8, …

(b) 3, 9, 27, 81, …

(c) 20, 10, 5, …

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Solution:

(a) 𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 = 2, 𝑛 = 10

𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

𝑢10 = 1(2)9

𝑢10 = 512

Example 11

The fifth term and the seventh term in a GP are 48 and 192 respectively. Find the eleventh
term, if all the terms are positive.

Solution:

𝑢5 = 𝑎𝑟 4 = 48 … … … … … . (1)

𝑢7 = 𝑎𝑟 6 = 192 . … … … … . (2)

𝑎𝑟 6 192
(2) ÷ (1) 4
=
𝑎𝑟 48
𝑟2 = 4

𝑟 = ±2

Since all the terms are positive ∴ 𝑟 = 2

Substitute 𝑟 = 2 into (1), 𝑎(2)4 = 48

𝑎 =3

∴ 𝑢𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

𝑢11 = 3(2)10

= 3072

Sum of the First 𝒏 Terms of Geometric Progression

Sum of the first 𝑛 terms of geometric progression is given by,

𝑟𝑛 − 1 1 − 𝑟𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 ( ) , 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 > 1 or 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 ( ) , 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 < 1
𝑟−1 1−𝑟

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Example 12

Find the sum of the first 10 terms for the given the geometric progression below.

(a) 1, 2, 4, 8, …

(b) 3, 9, 27, 81, …

(c) 20, 10, 5, …

Solution:

(a) 𝑎 = 1, 𝑟 = 2 > 1, 𝑛 = 10

210 − 1
𝑆10 = 1 ( )
2−1

= 1023

Example 13

The sum of the second and third terms of a GP is 60. The sum of the third and fourth GP is
180. Find the first term and the common ratio. Hence, determine the least number of terms
which must be taken for its sum to exceed 2000.

Solution:

𝑢2 + 𝑢3 = 60

𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 = 60

𝑎𝑟(1 + 𝑟) = 60 … (1)

𝑢3 + 𝑢4 = 180

𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 = 180

𝑎𝑟 2 (1 + 𝑟) = 180 … (2)

(2) 𝑎𝑟 2 (1 + 𝑟) 180
, =
(1) 𝑎𝑟(1 + 𝑟) 60

𝑟= 3

Substitute 𝑟 = 3 into (1),

𝑎(3)(1 + (3)) = 60

12𝑎 = 60

𝑎 =5 ∴ 𝑎 = 5 and 𝑟 = 3 > 1

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𝑆𝑛 > 2000

𝑟𝑛 − 1
𝑎( ) > 2000
𝑟−1
3𝑛 − 1
5( ) > 2000
3−1
3𝑛 > 801

𝑛 log 3 > log 801

log 801
𝑛>
log 3

𝑛 > 6.086

In order for 𝑆𝑛 to exceed 2000, 𝑛 > 6.086, that is 𝑛 = 7.

Geometric Mean

If p, m and q are in GP, the common ratio is

𝑚 𝑞
𝑟= =
𝑝 𝑚

𝑚2 = 𝑝𝑞

𝑚 = ±√𝑝𝑞

Infinite Geometric Progression

Consider the first term of an infinite geometric progression is 𝑎 and the common ratio is 𝑟,
then it can be written as

𝑎, 𝑎𝑟, 𝑎𝑟 2 , 𝑎𝑟 3 , …

As n grows larger and larger, the sum of the first n terms, 𝑆𝑛 becomes larger and larger
without bounds.

However, in the case of partial sum, as 𝑆𝑛 becomes larger and larger, it getting closer and
closer to a particular value.

Consider the infinite GP,

3 3 3 3
3+ + + + +⋯
2 4 8 16
The first term, 𝑎 = 3 and the common ratio, 𝑟 = 1/2. For this GP,

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1 𝑛
1 − (2)
𝑆𝑛 = 3 [ ]
1
1−2

For 𝑛 = 2, 10 and 30, then sum, 𝑆𝑛 = 4.5, 5.994140625, 5.999994278 and 5.999999994
respectively.

The values of 𝑆𝑛 tend towards value of 6 as n gets larger and larger.

𝑆𝑛 approaches a limiting values of 6 as 𝑛 approaches infinity and this is written as,

𝑆𝑛 → 6 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞ 𝑜𝑟 lim 𝑆𝑛 = 6
𝑛→∞

This is called as limit series.

The sum of infinite GP exists if and only if |𝑟| < 1. Then, the sum to infinity of a GP is given
by,
∞
𝑎
𝑆∞ = ∑ 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 =
1−𝑟
𝑛=1

Where |𝑟| < 1, that is −1 < 𝑟 < 1.

Example 14

Determine the sum of infinity of the series.

3 3 3 3
3− + − + −⋯
2 4 8 16
Solution:

This is a GP. with 𝑎 = 3 and 𝑟 = −1/2.

Since |𝑟| < 1,

𝑎 3
𝑆∞ = = =2
1 − 𝑟 1 − (− 1)
2

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2.5 Binomial Expansion

A binomial is an expression which has two terms, such as 𝑎 + 𝑏. An expansion of the form
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 is called a binomial expansion. consider the following expansions:

𝑛 = 0, (𝑎 + 𝑏)0 = 1

𝑛 = 1, (𝑎 + 𝑏)1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏

𝑛 = 2, (𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏 2

𝑛 = 3, (𝑎 + 𝑏)3 = 𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑏 + 3𝑎𝑏 2 + 𝑏 3

𝑛 = 4, (𝑎 + 𝑏)4 = 𝑎4 + 4𝑎3 𝑏 + 6𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 4𝑎𝑏 3 + 𝑏 4

Pascal Triangle

For each of the expansion sown above, if the coefficient of 𝑎 and 𝑏 are extracted, a triangular
array of numbers is obtained.

𝑛 = 0, 1

𝑛 = 1, 1 1

𝑛 = 2, 1 2 1

𝑛 = 3, 1 3 3 1

𝑛 = 4, 1 4 6 4 1

The coefficients are called binomial coefficients and the triangular array of numbers is
known as Pascal’s triangle.

Example 15

Expand (2𝑥 − 3)4 using Pascal’s triangle.

Solution:

Note that 𝑎 = 2𝑥, 𝑏 = −3 and 𝑛 = 4.

The 4th row of Pascal’s triangle is used:

(2𝑥 − 3)4 = (2𝑥)4 + 4(2𝑥)3 (−3) + 6(2𝑥)2 (−3)2 + 4(2𝑥)(−3)3 + (−3)4

= 16𝑥 4 − 24𝑥 3 + 108𝑥 2 − 216𝑥 + 81

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Binomial Theorem

For a binomial 𝑎 + 𝑏 and any natural number 𝑛,

𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−2 2

(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎 𝑏+ 𝑎 𝑏 +⋯
1! 2!
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1) 𝑛−𝑟 𝑟
+ 𝑎 𝑏
𝑟!
+𝑛𝑎𝑏 𝑛−1 + 𝑏 𝑛

or
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏1 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑏 𝑟
1 2 𝑟
Note that the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 is a finite series with 𝑛 + 1 terms. The binomial theorem
can be written in the sigma notation.
𝑛
𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏) = ∑ ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
𝑛
𝑟
𝑟=0

Example 16

Expand the following using the binomial theorem.

1 7
(a) (2𝑥 + )
𝑥
6
(b) (𝑥 − √2)

Solution:

(a) Note that 𝑎 = 2𝑥, 𝑏 = 𝑥 −1 and 𝑛 = 7. Then, using the binomial theorem,
7
−1 )7 7
(2𝑥 + 𝑥 = ∑ ( ) (2𝑥)7−𝑟 (𝑥 −1 )𝑟
𝑟
𝑟=1

7 7 7
= ( ) (2𝑥)6 (𝑥 −1 )1 + ( ) (2𝑥)5 (𝑥 −1 )2 + ⋯ + ( ) (2𝑥)0 (𝑥 −1 )7
1 2 7

= (128)𝑥 7 + 7(64)𝑥 5 +. . +𝑥 −7

= 128𝑥 7 + 448𝑥 5 + 672𝑥 3 + 560𝑥 + 280𝑥 −1 + 84𝑥 −3 + 14𝑥 −5 + 𝑥 −7

Note that for the special case where 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏 = 𝑥,

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𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑥+ 𝑥 +⋯
1! 2!
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1) 𝑟
+ 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑥 𝑛
𝑟!
or
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + ( ) 𝑥 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 + ⋯ + 𝑏 𝑟
2 2 𝑟
The expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 can be related to that of (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 as follows:

𝑛
𝑏 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏) = [𝑎 (1 + )]
𝑎

𝑏 𝑛
= 𝑎𝑛 (1 + )
𝑎
= 𝑎𝑛 (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 where 𝑥 = 𝑏/𝑎.

Example 17

Write down the first four terms in ascending powers of 𝑥, the binomial expansion of (1 +
𝑥)10 . Hence, evaluate the following expression correct to 4 significant figures.

(a) (1.004)10

(b) (0.998)10

Solution:

10 10(9) 2 10(9)(8) 3
(1 + 𝑥)10 = 1 + 𝑥+ 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
1! 2! 3!
= 1 + 10𝑥 + 45𝑥 2 + 120𝑥 3 + ⋯

(a) Substituting 𝑥 = 0.004,

10 10(9) 10(9)(8)
(1 + 0.004)10 = 1 + (0.004) + (0.004)2 + (0.004)3 + ⋯
1! 2! 3!
= 1 + 0.04 + 7.2 × 10−4 + 7.68 × 10−6

= 1.041

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Quest International University Perak (QIUP)

Tutorial 2

1. The 13th term of an AP is 3 and the sum of its first 13 terms is 234. Find the common
difference of the progression and sum of the first 25 terms.

2. For the following GP, find the expression for the sum of the first n terms and the least
number of terms for which its sum exceeds 20.

5 5 2
1+ +( ) +⋯
4 4
5𝑛+1
3. A sequence us defined by 𝑢𝑛 = 2𝑛−2 , 𝑛 ≥ 1. Determine whether the sequence
converges.

4. Given that the fifth term of an arithmetic progression is 21 and its tenth term is 41, find
the common difference, first term and the nth term of this arithmetic progression.

5. The sum of the first eight terms in an AP is 24, and the sum of the first 18 terms is 90.
Find the value of the seventh term.

6. There are 20 terms in an AP given that the eighth term is 26 and the sum of the last eight
terms is 412, calculate the sum of the first eight terms.

7. Given that the fourth term of a GP is 18 and its seventh term is 486, find the common
ratio, first term and the nth term of this GP.

8. Given that the first term of GP is 8 and the sum of the first two terms is 104, find the
possible values of the common ratio. In each case, write down the corresponding first
terms of the series.

9. Find the sum of infinity for the following GP.

1 1
(a) 1 + + …
3 9
3 1 1
(b) − + …
4 2 3
(c) 8 + 4 + 2 + ⋯

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CHAPTER 3 : INTEGRATION

Differentiation Integration
𝑑 𝑥 𝑛+1
1 xn = nx n-1 1 ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + c , n ≠ –1
𝑑𝑥 𝑛+1

𝑑
(ax + b) n = n a (ax + b) n-1 (ax + b)n dx = (ax + b)n+1 + c , n = ≠ –1
𝑑𝑥
a(n+1)
𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛+1 = (n+1) [ f(x) ]n f’(x) [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛+1
𝑑𝑥 ∫[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 𝑓′(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑛+1)
+ c
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥
ln x = 𝑥
2 ∫ 𝒙
= ln |x| + c
𝑑 𝑎
ln (ax + b) = 𝑑𝑥 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 ∫ 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 = 𝑎
ln |ax + b| + c
𝑑 𝑓′(𝑥)
ln f(x) = 𝑓′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)
dx = ln |f(x)| + c

3
𝑑
ex =ex 3 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ex + c
𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑
e mx = m e mx ∫ 𝑒 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚
e mx + c
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 ∫ 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓′(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = e f(x) + c
𝑑𝑥
e f(x) = f’(x) e f(x)
𝑑
4 sin x = cos x 4 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin x + c
𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑
sin mx = m cos mx ∫ cos 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚
sin mx + c
𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑
sin (ax + b) = a cos ( ax + b) ∫ cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
sin (ax + b) + c
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
5 cos x = – sin x 5 ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = –cos x + c
𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑
cos mx = – m sin mx ∫ sin 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = – 𝑚 cos mx + c
𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑
cos (ax + b) = – a sin ( ax + b) ∫ sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = – 𝑎 cos (ax + b) + c
𝑑𝑥

6
𝑑
tan x = sec2 x 6 ∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan x + c
𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑
tan mx = m sec2 mx ∫ sec 2 𝑚𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑚
tan mx + c
𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑
tan (ax + b) = a sec2 (ax + b) ∫ sec 2 ( 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎
tan (ax + b) + c
𝑑𝑥

7
𝑑
cot x = – cosec2 x 7 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = –cot x + c
𝑑𝑥
1
𝑑
cot mx = – m cosec2 mx ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑚
cot mx + c
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
8 sec x = sec x tan x 8 ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec x + c
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
9 cosec x = – cosec x cot x 9 ∫ −cosec 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = cosec x + c
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = k ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) dx = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) dx + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) dx

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Techniques of Integration
1 Integration by applying the basic rules of integration as given by the table above.
Evaluate the following integrals.
𝑥5
(i) ∫(𝑥 2 − 3)2 𝑑𝑥 = 5
– 2x3 + 9x + c
1
(ii) ∫ 𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥 = – 2 𝑥2
+ c
4
3
(iii) ∫ 2𝑥 ⅓ 𝑑𝑥 = 2
𝑥3 + c
1 1 1
(iv) ∫ (2𝑥−3)3 𝑑𝑥 = – 4 (2 – 3x)–2 + c or 4(2−3𝑥)2
+ c [ or by substitution u = (2x –3) ]
𝑑𝑥 2 2
(v) ∫ √3𝑥+1 = ∫(3𝑥 + 1)−½ 𝑑𝑥 = (3x + 1)½ + c or √3𝑥 + 1 + c [subst u = √3𝑥 + 1 ]
3 3
6
(vi) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 6 ln |x| + c
𝑥
1 1 1 1
(vii) ∫ −2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = – 2
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = – 2
ln |x| + c

2 5 5 2 5
(viii) ∫1 𝑑𝑥 = [ 2 ln |2𝑥 − 1|] = ln 3
2𝑥−1 1 2

2𝑥+3
(ix) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2x + 3 ln |x| + c
𝑥
𝑥 1
(x) ∫ 𝑥 2 −1 dx = 2
ln |x2 – 1| + c

3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 1
(xi) ∫ dx = ln | 2x3 + x2|
2𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 2

sin 𝑥
(xii) ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑑𝑥 = – ln cos x + c
cos 𝑥
(xiii) ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln sin x + c
1
(xiv) ∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2
sin 2x + c
1
(xv) ∫ sin(3𝑥 + 4) 𝑑𝑥 = – 3 cos (3x + 4) + c

(xvi) 4 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 tan 2x

2
(xvii) ∫ sin2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = – 2 cot x + c
1 1
(xviii) ∫ 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 −3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + c
−3𝑒 3𝑥
1 1
(xix) ∫(𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒 2𝑥 )2 𝑑𝑥 = – 2
𝑒 −2𝑥 + 2𝑒 𝑥 + 4
𝑒 4𝑥 + c
2 3 2
(xx) ∫ 3𝑥𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2
𝑒𝑥 + c
2 + 𝑥−1 2 +𝑥−1
(xxi) ∫(2𝑥 + 1) 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + c
4𝑒 𝑥 −1 1
(xxii) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(4𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑒 −2𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = –4𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 + c
𝑒 2𝑥 2

𝑥+2 𝑥−3+5 5
(xxiii) ∫ 𝑥−3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 1 − 𝑥−3 𝑑𝑥 = x – 5 ln |x-3| + c
𝑥−3

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Quest International University Perak (QIUP)

𝑑𝑥
2 Integration by substitution. Find the following integrals. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑔(𝑢) (𝑑𝑢) 𝑑𝑢

5
2 (𝑥 3 4 (𝑥 3 −1)
(i) ∫ 3𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 = + c [ Let u = x3 – 1 ; du = 3x2 dx ]
5

𝑑𝑥 1
(ii) ∫ (2𝑥−1)5 = – 8(2𝑥−1)4
+ c [ Let 2x – 1 = u ; 2dx = du ]

−4𝑥 1
(iii) ∫ (3−2𝑥 2 )2 𝑑𝑥 = – (3−2𝑥 2 )
+ c [ Let u = 3 – 2x2 ; du = – 4x dx ]

3
𝑥 2
(iv) ∫ √𝑥+2 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 + 2)2 – 4 (√𝑥 + 2 ) + c [ Let u = x + 2 ; du = dx ]
3

𝑥
(v) ∫ √𝑥 2 −1 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 1 + c [ Let x2 – 1 = u ; 2xdx = du ]

𝑑𝑥 2 2
(vi) ∫ √3𝑥+1 = 3
√3𝑥 + 1 + c [ Let u = √3𝑥 + 1 ; dx = 3
𝑢 𝑑𝑢 ]

log 𝑥 1 1
(vii) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = (log 𝑥)2 + c [ Let log x = u ; du = dx ]
𝑥 2 𝑥

(ln 𝑥)3 1 1
(viii) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = (ln x)4 + c [ Let u = ln x ; du = dx ]
𝑥 4 𝑥

𝑙𝑛√𝑥 2
(ix) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑙𝑛√𝑥) + c [ Let u = ln √𝑥 ; dx = 2 e2u du ]
𝑥

𝑑𝑥
(x) ∫ 2+√𝑥 = 2√𝑥 – 4 log |2 + √𝑥| + c [ Let u = √𝑥 ; 2u du = dx ]

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

1
(xi) ∫ sin5 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 6
sin6 x + c [ Let sin x = u ; cos x dx = du ]

𝜋⁄ 𝜋⁄ 𝜋⁄ 5
(xii) 3 sin3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 3 sin2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 3 (1 − cos2 𝑥) sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
∫0 24

[ Let cos x = u ; sin x dx = – du ]

𝑑𝑥
#(xiii) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 +1 = x – log(1 + ex) [ Let u = ex + 1 ; using partial fractions as well ]

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
𝑒 2𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 2𝑥 −𝑒 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 (1+𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥
(xiv) ∫ 1+𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ – 1+𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 1+𝑒 𝑥 dx
1+𝑒 𝑥 (1+𝑒 𝑥 )
= ex – ln(1+ex) +c

𝑑𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑢 1 𝑒 𝑥 −1
(xv) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢2 −1 = ln |𝑒 𝑥 +1| + c [ Let u = ex ; du = ex dx ]
2

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Further common types of substitution

∫ √𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 Let u2 = ax + b or u = √𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏

∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 Let x = a sin θ

∫ √𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 Let x = a tan θ

(xvi) Example : ∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 Let x = sin θ ; dx = cos θ dθ

= ∫ √1 − sin2 𝜃 cos θ dθ
= ∫ cos2 θ dθ
cos 2𝜃+1
= ∫ dθ
2
1
= [sin 2𝜃 + 𝜃]
2
1
= [2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + 𝜃] cos θ = √1 − sin2 𝜃 = √1 − 𝑥 2
2
1
= [2𝑥√1 − 𝑥 2 + sin−1 𝑥] where sin-1 x = θ
2

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

𝑓(𝑥)𝑛+1
3 Integration of the Form : ∫[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = + c . Find the following
𝑛+1
integrals.

sin𝑛+1 𝑥
(I) ∫ sin𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ c

−cos𝑛+1 𝑥
(II) ∫ cos 𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ c

(𝑒 𝑥 +1)𝑛+1
(III) ∫(𝑒 𝑥 + 1)𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ c

1 (ln 𝑥)𝑛+1
(IV) ∫(ln 𝑥)𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ c

sin5 𝑥
(i) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 sin4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 5
+ c

6
2 (𝑥 3 5 (𝑥 3 −2)
(ii) ∫ 3𝑥 − 2) 𝑑𝑥 = 6
+ c

½
4𝑥 2 −½ 2(𝑥 2 −1)
(ii) ∫ √𝑥 2 −1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 4𝑥(𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 = + c = 4√𝑥 2 − 1 + c
½

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4 Integration by partial fractions. Evaluate the following integrals.

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝐵 1 𝐴 𝐵
(i) ∫ 𝑥 2 +3𝑥−4 = ∫ (𝑥−1)(𝑥+4) = ∫ (𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥+4) 𝑑𝑥 [ (𝑥−1)(𝑥+4)
= 𝑥−1 + 𝑥+4

1 = A(x+4) + B(x–1)
1
When x = 1, A = 5
1
When x = 1, B = – 5
1 1 1
= – ]
(𝑥−1)(𝑥+4) 5(𝑥−1) 5(𝑥+4)
𝑑𝑥 1 1
∫ 𝑥 2 +3𝑥−4 = ∫ 5(𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥 – ∫ 5(𝑥+4) 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= ln |x – 1| – ln |x + 4| + c
5 5

𝑑𝑥 1 1 1 1 1
(ii) ∫ 𝑥(𝑥 2 −1) = ∫ − 𝑥 + 2(𝑥−1)
+ 2(𝑥+1)
dx = −ln|x| + 2 ln |x−1| + 2
ln|x+ 1| + c
(can be simplified further)
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
(iii) ∫ (𝑥+1)(𝑥−1)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2(𝑥+1) − 2(𝑥−1)
+ (𝑥−1)2
dx = 2 ln|x+1| – 2
ln|x –1| –
𝑥−1
+c

𝑑𝑥 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶 𝑥 1 𝑥2
(iv) ∫ 𝑥(𝑥 2 +1) = ∫ 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 +1 𝑑𝑥 = ln |√𝑥 2 +1| + c or 2
ln |𝑥2 +1| + c

3𝑥−4
(v) ∫ (𝑥−1)(𝑥−2) 𝑑𝑥 = ln |(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)2 | + c

𝑥 2 +7𝑥−6 1 (𝑥−1)2 (2𝑥−1)3

(vi) ∫ (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)(2𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥 = 2
ln | (𝑥+1)4
| + c

𝑥 2
(vii) ∫ (𝑥−2)2 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥 − 2| − 𝑥−2
+ c

4−3𝑥−𝑥 2 𝐶(𝑥+1)2
(viii) ∫ (𝑥+1)(𝑥 2 +2) 𝑑𝑥 = ln 3
(𝑥 2 +2) ⁄2

𝑥+2 𝑥−1 2
(ix) ∫ 𝑥 2 (𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ln | 𝑥
| + 𝑥
+ c

𝑥2 1
(x) ∫ (𝑥−1)2 𝑑𝑥 = x + 2 ln |x – 1| – 𝑥−1
+ c

Only proper functions (degree of numerator less than degree of denominator) can be converted into
partial fractions. An improper fraction (degree of numerator more than degree of denominator) has
to be converted to a proper fraction first. For example,
𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 2𝑥
= x +
𝑥 2 +𝑥−2 𝑥 2 + 𝑥−2

𝑥 3 +𝑥 2 2𝑥 2 2 𝑥2 2 𝑥−1
∫ 𝑥 2 +𝑥−2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ x + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥−2
dx = ∫ 𝑥 + 3(𝑥−1)
− 3(𝑥+2)
𝑑𝑥 = 2
+ 3
ln |𝑥+2| + c

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* Rules on expressing an algebraic fraction in partial fractions :

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐴 𝐵
1 ∫ 𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥−𝑎)(𝑥+𝑎) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥−𝑎) + (𝑥+𝑎)
𝑑𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
2 ∫ (𝑥+𝑎)2 (𝑥+𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥+𝑎)2 + (𝑥+𝑎)
+ (𝑥+𝑏)
𝑑𝑥

repeated factor

𝑓(𝑥) 𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝐶
3 ∫ (𝑥 2 +𝑎)(𝑥+𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑥 2 +𝑎) + (𝑥+𝑏)

quadratic factor

In general,
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥−𝑎
∫ 𝑥 2 −𝑎2 = ln |𝑥+𝑎| + c for |x| > a and
2𝑎
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑎+𝑥
∫ 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 = ln |𝑎−𝑥| + c for |x| > a
2𝑎

1 1 𝑥−5
∫ 𝑥 2 −25 𝑑𝑥 = 10
ln | 𝑥+5| + c
1 1 1+3𝑥
∫ 1−9𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 6
ln |1−3𝑥| + c

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5 Integration as the reverse of differentiation.
𝑑 4𝑥 3 +1 4𝑥 2 (𝑥 4 +𝑥+9) 𝑎
Show that [ln ( 3−𝑥 4 )] = . [ Use ln (𝑏) = ln a – ln b ]
𝑑𝑥 (4𝑥 3 +1)(3−𝑥 4 )
𝑥 2 (𝑥 4 +𝑥+9)
Hence find ∫ (4𝑥 3 +1)(3−𝑥 4 ) 𝑑𝑥.
1 4𝑥 3 +1
Answer : [ln ( 3−𝑥 4 )]
4
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Definite Integrals
𝑏 𝑑𝐹(𝑥)
∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝐹(𝑥)]𝑏𝑎 where 𝑑𝑥
= f(x)

Example :
36 3
Evaluate ∫1 𝑑𝑥 = [ 6 ln|𝑥| ]32 = 6 [ln |𝑥|]13 = 6 [ ln 3 – ln 1 ] = 6 ln 1 = 6 ln 3
𝑥

Some rules on definite integrals

𝑏 𝑏
(i) ∫𝒂 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = k ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 where k is a constant .
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
(ii) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
(iii) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) dx = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) dx + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) dx where a < c < b

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Applications of Integration

Definite Integrals, Area of region and Volume of revolution

1 Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = √𝑥 − 3, the x-axis, x= 3 and x = 4.
4 2
Area = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ∫3 √𝑥 − 3 𝑑𝑥 = unit2. y
3
y = √𝑥 − 3,

0 3 4 x

2 Find the area of the region bonded by the curve y = x2, the y-axis, y= 1 and y =2.
2 2
Area = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ∫1 √𝑦 dy = (2√2 − 1)unit2. y
3
y = x2

0 x

3 Find the area of the region bounded by the curve y = x2 + x and the line y = x+ 1.
1 4
Area = ∫−1 ∫(𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 2 + 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = unit2
3
y y = x2 + x
y = x+ 1

0 x

4 Find the area of the region bounded by the curve x = (y – 2)2 + 4 and the line x = y +2.
3 1
Area = ∫2 (𝑦 + 2) − (𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 8)𝑑𝑦 = unit2
6

x = y+2 x=(y –2)2+4

y

0 x

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Quest International University Perak (QIUP)

5 The region R is bounded by the curve y = x2 + 4, x = 1 and y = 1. Find the volume of

the solid formed by revolving R through 360o about (a) the x-axis (b) the line y = 1.
y

y = x2 + 4

-2 0 1 x
(a) V = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
1
V = 𝜋 ∫−2 (𝑥 2 + 4)2 − 12 𝑑𝑥
378
V= 𝜋 unit3
5

(b) V = 𝜋 ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
1
= 𝜋 ∫−2(𝑥 2 + 4 − 1)2 𝑑𝑥
3
= 51 5 𝜋 unit3

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Quest International University Perak (QIUP)

Tutorial 3

1 Integration by applying the basic rules of integration as given by the table above.
Evaluate the following integrals.
(i) ∫(𝑥 2 − 3)2 𝑑𝑥
(ii) ∫ 𝑥 −3 𝑑𝑥
(iii) ∫ 2𝑥 ⅓ 𝑑𝑥
1
(iv) ∫ (2𝑥−3)3 𝑑𝑥 [ or by substitution u = (2x –3) ]
𝑑𝑥
(v) ∫ √3𝑥+1 [ or by substitution u = √3𝑥 + 1 ]

𝑑𝑥
2 Integration by substitution. Find the following integrals. ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑔(𝑢) (𝑑𝑢) 𝑑𝑢

(i) ∫ 3𝑥 2 (𝑥 3 − 1)4 𝑑𝑥 [ Let u = x3 – 1 ; du = 3x2 dx ]

𝑑𝑥
(ii) ∫ (2𝑥−1)5 [ Let 2x – 1 = u ; 2dx = du ]

−4𝑥
(iii) ∫ (3−2𝑥 2 )2 𝑑𝑥 [ Let u = 3 – 2x2 ; du = – 4x dx ]

𝑥
(iv) ∫ √𝑥+2 𝑑𝑥 [ Let u = x + 2 ; du = dx ]

𝑥
(v) ∫ √𝑥 2 −1 𝑑𝑥 [ Let x2 – 1 = u ; 2xdx = du ]

𝑓(𝑥)𝑛+1
3 Integration of the Form : ∫[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = + c.
𝑛+1

Examples :

sin𝑛+1 𝑥
(I) ∫ sin𝑛 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ c

−cos𝑛+1 𝑥
(II) ∫ cos𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ c

(𝑒 𝑥 +1)𝑛+1
(III) ∫(𝑒 𝑥 + 1)𝑛 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ c

1 (ln 𝑥)𝑛+1
(IV) ∫(ln 𝑥)𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
+ c

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Find the following integrals.

sin5 𝑥
(i) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 sin4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 5
+ c

6
(𝑥 3 −2)
(ii) ∫ 3𝑥 2 (𝑥 3 − 2)5 𝑑𝑥 = 6
+ c

½
4𝑥 2(𝑥 2 −1)
(ii) ∫ √𝑥 2 −1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 4𝑥(𝑥 2 − 1)−½ 𝑑𝑥 = ½
+ c = 4√𝑥 2 − 1 + c

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Quest International University Perak (QIUP)

CHAPTER 4 : DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

4.1 First Order Differential Equations

A first order differential equation is an equation which relates an independent variable, x, a

dependent variable, y, and the derivative if dy/dx.

Consider the first order differential equation,

𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Integrating both side with respect to x, we have,

𝑑𝑦
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑥2 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑦
Thus 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑐 is the general solution of 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥.

From the general solution, we have to use some information called as boundary condition,
so that particular solution can be obtained.

Let’s take 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 3 to be a boundary condition. Then,

3=1+𝑐

𝑐=2

Thus, the particular solution is, 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2.

4.2 First Order Differential Equations Using Separable Variable

Consider f(x) and g(y) be a function of x and y respectively. A first order differential
equation with separable variables x and y can be written in the form,

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑦)
𝑑𝑥
The differential equation can be solved by using the method of separable of variables. If
𝑔(𝑦) ≠ 0, the differential equation can be written as,

1
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑔(𝑦)

The general solution can be obtained by integrating on each side of the equation.

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Example 1

Find the general solution of the differential equation,

𝑑𝑦
9(𝑦 − 2) = 4(2 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝑑𝑦
9(𝑦 − 2) = 4(2 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
∫ 9(𝑦 − 2) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 4(2 − 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
9 4
(𝑦 − 2)2 = (2 − 𝑥)2 + 𝑐
2 −2
9
(𝑦 − 2)2 = −2(2 − 𝑥)2 + 𝑐
2
9(𝑦 − 2)2 = −4(2 − 𝑥)2 + 2𝑐
9(𝑦 − 2)2 + 4(2 − 𝑥)2 = 𝐴
4(2 − 𝑥)2 + 9(𝑦 − 2)2 = 𝐴

Example 2

Find the general solution for the following differential equation, expressing y in terms of x.

𝑑𝑦 𝑦
(a) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 2
𝑑𝑦
(b) = 4𝑥𝑒 −𝑦
𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
(a) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 2
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 𝑥+2

ln|𝑦| = ln|𝑥 + 2| + 𝑐

ln|𝑦| − ln|𝑥 + 2| = 𝑐
𝑦
ln | |=𝑐
𝑥+2
𝑦
= 𝑒𝑐
𝑥+2
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑐 (𝑥 + 2)

𝑦 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 2)

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Quest International University Perak (QIUP)

Example 3
By using the value of 𝑥 and 𝑦, find the particular solution for the following differential
equation. Express y in the terms of x.
𝑑𝑦
(a) (𝑥 + 2) = (2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1)(𝑦 − 3) ; (0, 1)
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑦 𝑥
(b) ( 2 ) = ; (1, 0)
𝑦 + 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑦
𝑑𝑦
(c) (1 − 𝑥 2 ) = 𝑦(1 + 𝑥 2 ) ; (0, 1)
𝑑𝑥
Solution:
𝑑𝑦
(a) (𝑥 + 2) = (2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1)(𝑦 − 3) ; (0, 1)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
∫ =∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑦 − 3) 𝑥+2
𝑑𝑦 1
∫ = ∫ (2𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥
(𝑦 − 3) 𝑥+2
ln|𝑦 − 3| = 𝑥 2 + ln|𝑥 + 2| + 𝑐
ln|𝑦 − 3| − ln|𝑥 + 2| = 𝑥 2 + 𝑐
𝑦−3
ln | | = 𝑥2 + 𝑐
𝑥+2
𝑦−3 2
= 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑐
𝑥+2
𝑦−3 2
= 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑒𝑐
𝑥+2
𝑦−3 2
= 𝐴𝑒 𝑥
𝑥+2
2
𝑦 − 3 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 + 2)
2
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 + 2) + 3
At (0, 1),
2
1 = 𝐴𝑒 0 (0 + 2) + 3
1 = 2𝐴 + 3
𝐴 = −1
2
Hence, the particular solution is 𝑦 = −𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 + 2) + 3.

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4.3 First Order Linear Differential Equations

Consider the first order linear differential equation in the form

𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄 … … (1)
𝑑𝑥
Where P and Q are functions of x.

Multiplying equation (1) by F (which is a function of x), we have,

𝑑𝑦
𝐹 + 𝐹𝑃𝑦 = 𝐹𝑄 … … (2)
𝑑𝑥
Using the product rule on 𝐹𝑦, that is,

𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝐹
(𝐹𝑦) = 𝐹 +𝑦 … … (3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
And comparing equation (3) with the left hand side of equation (2), we have

𝑑𝐹
= 𝐹𝑃
𝑑𝑥
Separating the variables and integrating, we have,

𝑑𝐹
∫ = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑥
𝐹

ln 𝐹 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑥

𝐹 = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥

Thus, 𝐹 = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 is the integrating factor of the expression

𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃𝑦
𝑑𝑥

Substituting 𝐹 = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 into equation (2), we have

𝑑𝑦
𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 + 𝑃𝑦𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 = 𝑄𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(𝑦𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 ) = 𝑄𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑦𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑄𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Both P and Q are functions of x only and thus, ∫ 𝑄𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 can be found and hence, y can
be determined.

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Example 4

Solve the following differential equations.

𝑑𝑦
(a) 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 6
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(b) − 2𝑦 = 𝑒 4𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Solution:

𝑑𝑦
(a) 𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 6
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 6
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 3 6
+ 𝑦 = 4 + … … (1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
Comparing to the linear equation

3 6
𝑃= ; 𝑄 = 4+
𝑥 𝑥

Integrating factor, 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥

3
𝑒 ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ∫𝑥𝑑𝑥

𝑒 3 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥 3

Multiplying integrating factor with (1), then,

𝑑𝑦
𝑥3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 = 4𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(𝑦𝑥 3 ) = 4𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑦𝑥 3 = ∫(4𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥

𝑦𝑥 3 = 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑐
𝑐
𝑦 =𝑥+2+
𝑥3

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Example 5

Find the particular solution of each of the following differential equations based on the given
boundary condition.

𝑑𝑦
(a) + 𝑦 = −𝑥 ; (0, 0)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 3
(b) 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 𝑥 4 ln 𝑥 ; (1, )
𝑑𝑥 4

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4.4 Transformation of Differential Equations.

3.4.1 First Order Homogenous Differential Equations
First order homogenous differential equations are equations that can be expressed in the form
of,
𝑑𝑦 𝑦
= 𝑓 ( ) … … (1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
To examine whether or not a differential equation is homogenous, we use the substitution
𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥. By substituting 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥, the differential equation can be reduce to an expression that
contains only v and x, and free from y.
Example 6
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 3 − 𝑦𝑥 2
(a) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 2 𝑥
Solution:
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 3 − 𝑦𝑥 2
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 2 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥
𝑑𝑦 (𝑣𝑥)3 − (𝑣𝑥)𝑥 2 𝑣(𝑣 2 − 1)
= =
𝑑𝑥 (𝑣𝑥)3 + (𝑣𝑥)2 𝑥 1+𝑣
Therefore, it is a homogenous differential equation.
Since the resultant variables v and x are separable, the homogenous DE can be solved, as
shown below.
𝑑𝑦 𝑣(𝑣 2 − 1)
=
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑣
𝑑(𝑣𝑥) 𝑣(𝑣 2 − 1)
=
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑣
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 3 − 𝑣
𝑣+𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑣 2
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 3 − 𝑣
𝑥 = −𝑣
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑣 2
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 3 − 𝑣 − 𝑣(1 + 𝑣 2 )
𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑣2
𝑑𝑣 −2𝑣
𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑣 2
1 + 𝑣2 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 = −
2𝑣 𝑥

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Example 7

By using substitution y=vx, find the general solution of the following differential equation by
expressing y in terms of x.

𝑑𝑦
𝑥 = 𝑦 + 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥
Solution:

𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑣(1) + 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
=𝑣+𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑥 = 𝑦 + 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑥 2
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
Substitution 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑥 2
𝑣+𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑣
𝑣+𝑥 =𝑣+𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
𝑥 =𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣
=1
𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥

𝑣 = 𝑥 + 𝑐 where c is a constant
𝑦
Substituting back 𝑣 = 𝑥 , then,

𝑦
=𝑥+𝑐
𝑥
Hence the general solution is

𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 𝑐)

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Example 8

By using the substitution 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥, find the particular solution of the following differential
equations with the given boundary condition.

𝑑𝑦
(𝑎) 𝑥 = 3𝑥 + 𝑦 [2,0]
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(𝑏) 𝑥(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 [0,1]
𝑑𝑥

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4.5 Application of Differential Equations

Application of differential equations can be found in field of chemistry, biology, physic and
social sciences which can be modelled and solved by differential equations.

Example 9

The rate at which a body loses its temperature at any instant is proportional to the amount by
which the temperature of its surrounding. A container of hot solution is placed in a room of
temperature 180C and in 6 minutes, the solution cools from 820C to 500C. determine the
length of time taken for the solution to cool from 260C to 200C.

Solution:

Let 𝜃 represents the temperature of the body in 0C, after time t, in minutes.

𝑑𝜃
= −𝑘(𝜃 − 18)
𝑑𝑡

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Example 10

The rate of decay of a radioactive substance is k times the amount left unchanged, where k is
a constant. At time t=0, the original amount of the substance is x o. the amount of substance
which has decayed at time t is x.

Write down a differential equation for x and find the particular solution of the differential
equation, expressing x in terms of xo, k and t.

Find the half -life of the element,

Solution:

Example 11

After 3 years, the population of a country is x. the rate of increase of x due to births is 0.05x
while the rate of decrease of x due to deaths is 0.03x.

Write down a differential equation for x. hence, find the number of years needed for the
population of the country to become twice of the original population.

Solution :

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Tutorial 4

1. Find the general solution of each of the following differential equations, expressing
𝑦 in terms of 𝑥.
𝑑𝑦 (2𝑥 − 5)3
𝑎) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑦

𝑑𝑦
𝑏) = 3𝑥 2 (𝑦 − 1)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑦 + 2
𝑐) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 1

2. By using the substitution 𝑢 = 4𝑥 + 𝑦, find the particular solution of the following

differential equations with the given boundary condition.

𝑑𝑦
= 4𝑥 + 𝑦 [0,1]
𝑑𝑥
3. By using the substitution 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥, find the particular solution of the following
differential equations with the given boundary condition.

𝑑𝑦
𝑎) 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2𝑦 [2,0]
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 3𝑥 + 2𝑦
𝑏) = [0,1]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑐) 2𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 [2,4]
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑) 𝑥 = 5𝑥 − 𝑦 [1,1]
𝑑𝑥
4. The rate at which a particle loses its speed, 𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1, at any instant as it travels
𝑑𝑣
through a resistive medium is given by = −𝑘𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −2 , where 𝑘 is a constant. If the
𝑑𝑡
initial speed of the particle is 𝑢 𝑚𝑠 −1 , find in terms of 𝑘, the time taken by the
1
particle to decrease its speed to 2 𝑢 𝑚𝑠 −1 .

5. The cooling rate of a liquid is directly proportional to the difference between the
temperature of the liquid with the temperature of its surrounding. The liquid is placed
in a room with the temperature of 20℃ and the liquid cools from 80℃ to 60℃ in 8
minutes. Find the time taken for the liquid to cool further to 30℃.

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CHAPTER 5 : MACLAURIN SERIES

5.1 Representation of Functions as Maclaurin Series

If f has a power series expansion at a, then it must be of the following form.

We called as Taylor series of the function f at a (or about a or centered at a). For the special
case a=0 the taylor series becomes,

Called as Maclaurin series.

Exponential Series

Trigonometric Series

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Integration of power series.

EXAMPLE 4

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Series expansion

EXAMPLE 5

EXAMPLE 6

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EXAMPLE 7

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EXAMPLE 8

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EXAMPLE 9

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EXAMPLE 10

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EXAMPLE 11

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EXAMPLE 12

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Tutorial 5

1. Find the first 3 terms in the Maclaurin series for

a) sin2 𝑥
𝑥
b) √1−𝑥 2
c) 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥
𝑥
d) 1+𝑥 2

1+𝑥
2. Find the Maclaurin series for ln(1 + 𝑥) and hence for ln (1−𝑥)

3. By using a suitable Maclaurin series given in the text find the sum to infinity of the
following infinite series
𝜋3 𝜋5 𝜋7
a) 𝜋 − + − +⋯
3! 5! 7!
𝑒2 𝑒4 𝑒6
b) 1 − + − +⋯
2! 4! 6!

1 1
4. Using 1+𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 + ⋯ find the Maclaurin series for the function 2+𝑥

5. By using the first four terms of the expansion of the integrand, estimate the values of
the following definite integrals. Give your answer up to four decimal places.
0.1
a) ∫ ln(1 + x) dx
0

0.02
b) ∫ xex dx
0

0.2 1
c) ∫ (1 − x 2 )3 dx
0.1

0.1
1
d) ∫ dx
0 √1 + x 2

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CHAPTER 6 : NUMERICAL METHOD

Example 1

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Solution:

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Exercise:

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Example 2

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Example 3

Example 4

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Exercises:

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Tutorial 6

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