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A Project Report

On

Title of Project
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirement for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

DEGREE
Session 2023-24
in

Name of discipline
By
STUDENT NAME (s)
Roll Number (s)

Under the guidance of (font size 16)


NAME OF SUPERVISOR (font size 14)

SCHOOL OF COMPUTING SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF


COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

GALGOTIAS UNIVERSITY, GREATER NOIDA

INDIA

Nov, 2023
SCHOOL OF COMPUTING SCIENCE AND
ENGINEERING
GALGOTIAS UNIVERSITY, GREATER
NOIDA

CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I/We hereby certify that the work which is being presented in the project, entitled

“………………………………………………………………………………” in partial

fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the B. Tech. (Computer Science and

Engineering) submitted in the School of Computing Science and Engineering of Galgotias

University, Greater Noida, is an original work carried out during the period of Feburary,

2023 to May and 2023, under the supervision of Prof. Santosh Kumar, Department of

Computer Science and Engineering, of School of Computing Science and Engineering ,

Galgotias University, Greater Noida.

The matter presented in the thesis/project/dissertation has not been submitted by me/us

for the award of any other degree of this or any other places.

Student Names (Admission No.)

This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidates is correct to the best

of my knowledge.

Guide Names
Designation
CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Project Report entitled

“……………………...........................................................................................” which is

submitted by ………………………….... in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

award of degree B. Tech. in Department of ...................................................... of School

of Computing Science and Engineering Department of Computer Science and

Engineering

Galgotias University, Greater Noida, India is a record of the candidate own work carried

out by him/them under my supervision. The matter embodied in this thesis is original and

has not been submitted for the award of any other degree

Signature of Examiner(s) Signature of Supervisor(s)

Signature of Program Chair Signature of Dean

Date: Nov, 2023

Place: Greater Noida


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives us a great sense of pleasure to present the report of the B. Tech Project
undertaken during B. Tech. Final Year. We owe special debt of gratitude to Professor
…….., Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Galgotias University, Greater
Noida, India for his constant support and guidance throughout the course of our work.
His/Her sincerity, thoroughness and perseverance have been a constant source of
inspiration for us. It is only his cognizant efforts that our endeavors have seen light of the
day.

We also take the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of Professor (Dr.) ……….,
Head, Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Galgotias University, Greater
Noida, India for his full support and assistance during the development of the project.

We also do not like to miss the opportunity to acknowledge the contribution of all faculty
members of the department for their kind assistance and cooperation during the
development of our project. Last but not the least, we acknowledge our friends for their
contribution in the completion of the project.

Signature:

Name :

Roll No.:

Date :

Signature:

Name :

Roll No.:

Date :
ABSTRACT
The abstract is to be in fully-justified italicized text of size 12 points.
An Abstract is required for every project; it should succinctly summarize the
reason for the work, the main findings, and the conclusions of the study.
The abstract should be no longer than 250 words. Do not include artwork,
tables, elaborate equations or references to other parts of the paper or to the
reference listing at the end. The reason is that the Abstract should be
understandable in itself to be suitable for storage in textual information
retrieval systems.

Guidelines for writing abstract

An abstract is an abbreviated version of the project report. It should be limited to a


maximum of 250 words. An abstract should have the following in paragraph form
(without headings) - Introduction, Problem Statement, Procedure, Results and
Conclusion. In Introduction, one describes the purpose for doing such a project. It
should address the need for such type of work. It should explain something that
should cause people to change the way they go about their daily business. If the
project leads to an invention or development of a new procedure, it should mention
its advantages. In the next stage, one should write down the Problem Statement.
It is needed to identify the problem that has been considered in the project. In
Procedures, the approach used to investigate the problem should be mentioned
in the abstract. In the fourth stage, abstract must clearly state the Results/
achievements obtained through the execution of the project. Finally Conclusions
are given an the last stage. One should state clearly whether the objectives have
been met or not. If not, the reasons behind it should be stated in few words.
(Example)

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

DECLARATION ................................................................................................... ii
CERTIFICATE……....................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................. iv
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................... v
LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................. vii
LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................ viii
LIST OF SYMBOLS .............................................................................................. ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................... x
CHAPTER 1 1
1.1. ................................................................................................................. 5
1.2. ................................................................................................................. 8
CHAPTER 2 ……………………………. ......................................................... 13
2.1. ............................................................................................................... 15
2.2. ............................................................................................................... 17
2.2.1. ....................................................................................................... 19
2.2.2. ....................................................................................................... 20
2.2.2.1. ..............................................................................................21
2.2.2.2. ..........................................................................................
22
2.3. ...............................................................................................................23
CHAPTER 3 …………………………….......................................................... 30
3.1. ................................................................................................................36
3.2. ................................................................................................................39
CHAPTER 4 (CONCLUSIONS) ......................................................................40
APPENDIX A .........................................................................................................45
APPENDIX B .........................................................................................................47

REFERENCES... .................................................................................................... 49

8
LIST OF TABLES

9
LIST OF FIGURES

10
(Example)

LIST OF SYMBOLS

[x] Integer value of x.

≠ Not Equal

 Belongs to

€ Euro- A Currency

_ Optical distance

_o Optical thickness or optical half thickness

11
(Example)

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAM Active Appearance Model

ICA Independent Component Analysis

ISC Increment Sign Correlation

PCA Principal Component Analysis

ROC Receiver Operating Characteristics

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

It is the first chapter of the Report. The purpose of an introduction in the B. Tech
Project Report is to justify the reasons for writing about the report. The goal in this
section is to introduce the topic to the reader, provide an overview of previous
research on the topic, and identify the own hypothesis. The goals just mentioned
could, if abused, lead to write an introduction that is pages and pages long. It can be
noted here that the introduction should not contain every bit of detail in the report, and
it should not include support for the report. An introduction might, however, include
the reasons for supporting the report.

In order for readers to trust the writer, the introduction must be well written with few
errors. In order to keep readers reading, the writer needs to catch the attention of the
reader and write in an interesting way. The unique language enhancement feature
may suggest words to strengthen the writing. Strong writing may hold readers'
attention.

In addition to well-written English with strong vocabulary, there are a few other
strategies to hold readers' attention. It should be noted that to excite the readers'
interest, one may also want to sound as though the readers know the topic that are
considered in the report. Some of the following strategies in the bullet-list above may
help.

• To pose a specific question that can invite the readers to keep reading for
the answer-- A provocative question works well to engage readers, so long
as it doesn't put them off

• To choose statistics to surprise readers or to go against the common belief


about a topic

• To mention a short, interesting anecdote (or story) related to the topic

• To provide an interesting (and relevant) quote

• To develop an unusual or unexpected comparison

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It has been observed that the difficulty level to write the Introduction is average and it
takes the variable amount of time. Following sub headings are to be included in this
chapter depending on the project-

1.1. Problem Introduction

1.1.1. Motivation

1.1.2. Project Objective

1.1.3. Scope of the Project

1.2. Related Previous Work

It briefly includes previous work carried out in this field, researching the
problem studied, summarization of the results obtained etc

1.3. Organization of the Report.

It provides the short description of the work reported in each chapter.

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CHAPTER 2

(For non-web based projects)

LITERATURE SURVEY
(LITERATURE SURVEY FORMAT FOR NON-WEB BASED PROJECTS)

 A brief description of what is studied in the survey should be given in a paragraph of


6-10 lines (approx.) this paragraph should not contain any title.
 Then you can elaborate on each technique/algorithm/ technology depending on your
project section wise. For example if literature survey is for face recognition then all
existing approaches should be mentioned in a separate section.
 Each section should contain a heading and should be numbered. It can also contain
images, formulae, flow chart and tabular data that are needed for explanation. Each
section size should not exceed 1 to 1.5 pages.
 Use citations from the References section where ever required-
Example- A pun, or paronomasia, is a form of word play that deliberately exploits

[1]
ambiguity between similar-sounding words for humorous or rhetorical effect. (If the
contents are taken from reference 1 of References section).

All citations must be referred.

 Any included image, formula, flow chart or tabular data should be numbered and
should be referred in the respective section. Tables numbering should appear on the
top of table and figure numbering should be below the figure.
 At the end of the literature survey chapter, include a summary section with the
heading SUMMARY. In this section sum up the above studied techniques/algorithms/
technologies paragraph wise.

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CHAPTER 2
(Web Based Projects)
SOFTWARE REQUIREMENT SPECIFICATION

Describe the general factors that affect the product and its requirements. This section does
not state specific requirements. Instead, it provides a background for those requirements,
which are defined in section 3, and makes them easier to understand. In a sense, this section
tells the requirements in plain English for the consumption of the customer. Section3 will
contain a specification written for the developers.

2.1 Product Perspective

Put the product into perspective with other related products. If the product is independent
and totally self-contained, it should be so stated here. If the SRS defines a product that is a
component of a larger system, as frequently occurs, then this subsection relates the
requirements of the larger system to functionality of the software and identifies interfaces
between that system and the software. If you are building a real system, compare its
similarity and differences to other systems in the marketplace. If you are doing a research-
oriented project, what related research compares to the system you are planning to build.

A block diagram showing the major components of the larger system, interconnections, and
external interfaces can be helpful. This is not a design or architecture picture. It is more to
provide context, especially if your system will interact with external actors. The system you
are building should be shown as a black box. Let the design document present the internals.

The following subsections describe how the software operates inside various constraints.

2.1.1 System Interfaces

List each system interface and identify the functionality of the software to accomplish the
system requirement and the interface description to match the system. These are external
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systems that you have to interact with. For instance, if you are building a business
application that interfaces with the existing employee payroll system, what is the API to that
system that designer’s will need to use?

2.1.2 Interfaces

Specify:

(1) The logical characteristics of each interface between the software product and
its users.
(2) All the aspects of optimizing the interface with the person who must use the
system

This is a description of how the system will interact with its users. Is there a GUI, a command
line or some other type of interface? Are there special interface requirements? If you are
designing for the general student population for instance, what is the impact of ADA
(American with Disabilities Act) on your interface?

2.1.3 Hardware Interfaces

Specify the logical characteristics of each interface between the software product and the
hardware components of the system. This includes configuration characteristics. It also
covers such matters as what devices are to be supported, how they are to be supported and
protocols. This is not a description of hardware requirements in the sense that “This program
must run on a Mac with 64M of RAM”. This section is for detailing the actual hardware
devices your application will interact with and control. For instance, if you are controlling X10
type home devices, what is the interface to those devices? Designers should be able to look
at this and know what hardware they need to worry about in the design. Many business type
applications will have no hardware interfaces. If none, just state “The system has no
hardware interface requirements” If you just delete sections that are not applicable, then
readers do not know if: a. this does not apply or b. you forgot to include the section in the
first place.

2.1.4 Software Interfaces

Specify the use of other required software products and interfaces with other application
systems. For each required software product, include:

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(1) Name
(2) Mnemonic
(3) Specification number
(4) Version number
(5) Source

For each interface, provide:

(1) Discussion of the purpose of the interfacing software as related to this software
product
(2) Definition of the interface in terms of message content and format

Here we document the APIs, versions of software that we do not have to write, but that our
system has to use. For instance if your customer uses SQL Server 7 and you are required
to use that, then you need to specify i.e.

2.1.4.1 Microsoft SQL Server 7. The system must use SQL Server as its database
component. Communication with the DB is through ODBC connections. The system must
provide SQL data table definintions to be provided to the company DBA for setup.

A key point to remember is that you do NOT want to specify software here that you think
would be good to use. This is only for customer-specified systems that you have to
interact with. Choosing SQL Server 7 as a DB without a customer requirement is a Design
choice, not a requirement. This is a subtle but important point to writing good requirements
and not over-constraining the design.

2.1.5 Communications Interfaces


Specify the various interfaces to communications such as local network protocols, etc. These
are protocols you will need to directly interact with. If you happen to use web services
transparently to your application then do not list it here. If you are using a custom protocol to
communicate between systems, then document that protocol here so designers know what to
design. If it is a standard protocol, you can reference an existing document or RFC.

2.1.6 Memory Constraints


Specify any applicable characteristics and limits on primary and secondary memory. Don’t
just make up something here. If all the customer’s machines have only 128K of RAM, then
your target design has got to come in under 128K so there is an actual requirement. You
could also cite market research here for shrink-wrap type applications “Focus groups have
determined that our target market has between 256-512M of RAM, therefore the design
footprint should not exceed 256M.” If there are no memory constraints, so state.

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2.1.7 Operations
Specify the normal and special operations required by the user such as:

(1) The various modes of operations in the user organization


(2) Periods of interactive operations and periods of unattended operations
(3) Data processing support functions
(4) Backup and recovery operations

(Note: This is sometimes specified as part of the User Interfaces section.) If you separate
this from the UI stuff earlier, then cover business process type stuff that would impact the
design. For instance, if the company brings all their systems down at midnight for data
backup that might impact the design. These are all the work tasks that impact the design of
an application, but which might not be located in software.

2.1.8 Site Adaptation Requirements

In this section:

(1) Define the requirements for any data or initialization sequences that are
specific to a given site, mission, or operational mode
(2) Specify the site or mission-related features that should be modified to adapt
the software to a particular installation

If any modifications to the customer’s work area would be required by your system, then
document that here. For instance, “A 100Kw backup generator and 10000 BTU air
conditioning system must be installed at the user site prior to software installation”.

This could also be software-specific like, “New data tables created for this system must be
installed on the company’s existing DB server and populated prior to system activation.” Any
equipment the customer would need to buy or any software setup that needs to be done so
that your system will install and operate correctly should be documented here.

2.2 Product Functions

Provide a summary of the major functions that the software will perform. Sometimes the
function summary that is necessary for this part can be taken directly from the section of the
higher-level specification (if one exists) that allocates particular functions to the software
product.

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For clarity:

(1) The functions should be organized in a way that makes the list of functions
understandable to the customer or to anyone else reading the document for the
first time.
(2) Textual or graphic methods can be used to show the different functions and their
relationships. Such a diagram is not intended to show a design of a product but
simply shows the logical relationships among variables.

AH, Finally the real meat of section 2. This describes the functionality of the system in the
language of the customer. What specifically does the system that will be designed have to
do? Drawings are good, but remember this is a description of what the system needs to do,
not how you are going to build it. (That comes in the design document).

2.3 User Characteristics

Describe those general characteristics of the intended users of the product including
educational level, experience, and technical expertise. Do not state specific requirements but
rather provide the reasons why certain specific requirements are later specified in section 3.

What is it about your potential user base that will impact the design? Their experience and
comfort with technology will drive UI design. Other characteristics might actually influence
internal design of the system.

2.4 Constraints

Provide a general description of any other items that will limit the developer's options. These
can include:

(1) Regulatory policies


(2) Hardware limitations (for example, signal timing requirements)
(3) Interface to other applications
(4) Parallel operation
(5) Audit functions

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(6) Control functions
(7) Higher-order language requirements
(8) Signal handshake protocols (for example, XON-XOFF, ACK-NACK)
(9) Reliability requirements
(10) Criticality of the application
(11) Safety and security considerations

This section captures non-functional requirements in the customers language. A more formal
presentation of these will occur in section 3.

2.5 Assumptions and Dependencies

List each of the factors that affect the requirements stated in the SRS. These factors are not
design constraints on the software but are, rather, any changes to them that can affect the
requirements in the SRS. For example, an assumption might be that a specific operating
system would be available on the hardware designated for the software product. If, in fact,
the operating system were not available, the SRS would then have to change accordingly.

This section is catch-all for everything else that might influence the design of the system and
that did not fit in any of the categories above.

2.6 Apportioning of Requirements.

Identify requirements that may be delayed until future versions of the system. After you look
at the project plan and hours available, you may realize that you just cannot get everything
done. This section divides the requirements into different sections for development and
delivery. Remember to check with the customer – they should prioritize the requirements and
decide what does and does not get done. This can also be useful if you are using an iterative
life cycle model to specify which requirements will map to which interation.

2.7. Use case

2.7.1. Use case Model


 Some Guide Lines for use cases

 Place Your Primary Actor(S) In The Top-Left Corner Of The Diagram


 Draw Actors To The Outside Of A Use Case Diagram
 Name Actors With Singular, Business-Relevant Nouns
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 Associate Each Actor With One Or More Use Cases
 Actors Model Roles, Not Positions
 Use <<system>> to Indicate System Actors
 Actors Don’t Interact With One Another
 Introduce an Actor Called “Time” to Initiate Scheduled Events
 Associations are depicted as lines connecting two modeling elements
with an optional open-headed arrowhead on one end of the line
indicating the direction of the initial invocation of the relationship.
Generalizations are depicted as a close-headed arrow with the arrow
pointing towards the more general modeling element.

2.7.2 Use Case Diagram (you can use either use case diagram or scenario)

2.7.3 Use Case Scenario (Following details can be provided for a use case scenario)

Use Case
Description
Element
Use Case
ID to represent your use case
Number
Application What system or application does this pertain to
Use Case Name The name of your use case, keep it short and sweet
Use Case
Elaborate more on the name, in paragraph form.
Description
Primary Actor Who is the main actor that this use case represents
Precondition What preconditions must be met before this use case can start
Trigger What event triggers this use case
The basic flow should be the events of the use case when everything is perfect; there are no
Basic Flow errors, no exceptions. This is the "happy day scenario". The exceptions will be handled in the
"Alternate Flows" section.
Alternate Flows The most significant alternatives and exceptions

2.8 Sequence diagrams ( Example for Registration Process)

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CHAPTER 3

(For non-web based projects)

SYSTEM DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1. System Design

3.1.1. System Architecture /DiagrammaticalView

3.1.2. DFD, Class Diagram, flow charts, ER Diagrams (which ever applicable
depending on the project)

3.2. Algorithm(s)

(if required, add any other section applicable for the methods and
approaches you have followed)

23
CHAPTER3
(For Web-Based Projects)
SYSTEM DESIGN

System Design should include the following sections (Refer each figure or table in some text).
Figure number should be provided below the figure and the table numbering should be
provided above the table.

3.1. Architecture diagrams

Figure 3.1 3-Tier Architecture Diagram example

3.2. Class diagrams


3.3. Data Flow Diagram

3.4. Activity Diagram (Example for Registration and Login)

3.5. ER Diagrams

3.6. Database schema diagrams

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CHAPTER 4

IMPLEMENTATION AND RESULTS

4.1. Software and Hardware Requirements

In this section provide the details of any software or hardware requires for the
implementation of the project.

4.2. Assumptions and dependencies

4.3. Constraints (If Applicable)

4.4. Implementation Details

4.4.1. Snapshots Of Interfaces

4.4.2. Test Cases

List the test cases used to test your work.

4.4.3. Results

Include the output of your work here. The result can be in tabular and/or
graphical format depending on the project. Comparison with earlier or other
work may also be presented.

25
CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

5.1. Performance Evaluation

5.2. Comparison with existing State-of-the-Art Technologies


5.3. Future Directions
It must indicate whether the work carried out suggests any interesting further
avenues. It should discuss the possibility of improving the work by future workers. A
paragraph should be written on the practical implications of the work.

This chapter should usually be reasonably short---a few pages perhaps. As with the
introduction, it is a good idea to ask someone who is not a specialist to read this
section and to comment

26
Appendix
If there is material that should be in the project report but which would break up the
flow or bore the reader unbearably, include it as an appendix. Some things which are
typically included in appendices are: important and original computer programs, data
files that are too large to be represented simply in the results chapters, pictures or
diagrams of results which are not important enough to keep in the main text. Thus in
the appendix, one may include

1. All data used in the report

2. Reference data/materials not easily available

3. Tables (where more than 1-2 pages)

4. Calculations (where more than 1-2 pages)

5. All key articles

6. List of all additional resource materials

7. List of equipment used for an experiment or details of complicated procedures.


8. In case of more than one appendix , they should be numbered as Appendix A,
Appendix B etc

Listings of the developed computer software should be given in an appendix.


However, if the code is longer than 300 lines the listing should be given in a
separate CD following proper indentation and comments.

27
References
Thumb rules followed to refer some one’s work are given below.

1. Cite all ideas, concepts, text, data that are not own by the project group

2. If author makes a statement, he must back it up with his own data or a


reference

3. All references cited in the text must be listed

4. List all references cited in the text in alphabetical

5. Follow the format or citation style as discussed in chapter 4.

(Example of References using the Numeric System)


Examples of Journal Article referencing:

1. Drucker, D. C., "Photoelastic Separation of Principal Stresses by Oblique


Incidence", Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 65, pp. 156-160, 1943.

2. Maiers, J., and Sherif, Y. S. , "Application of Fuzzy Set Theory," IEEE


Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Vol. SMC-15, No.1, pp.
41-48, 1985.

Example of Book referencing:

3. Doe, N., Control System Principles, New York: John Wiley, 1999.

Example of Referencing of an Article in a Book:

4. Hwang, C. J., "Rule-based Process Control," in E. Kumarmangalam and L. A.


Zadeh (Eds.), Approximate Reasoning in Intelligent Systems, Decision and
Control, pp. 145-158, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1987.

Example of referencing of a B. Tech. Report:

5. Nayak, T., "Application of Neural Networks to Nuclear Reactors," M.Sc. Report,


U.P. TechnicalUniversity, 2005.

Example of referencing of a Ph. D. Dissertation:

6. Muskìn, H. L., "Development of A Knowledge-Based System for a Nuclear Power


Plant," Ph.D. Dissertation, U. P. Technical University, 2003.

28
Example of referencing of a Conference Paper :

7. Lokhande, R., Arya, K. V., and Gupta, P., "Identification of Parameters and
Restoration of Motion Blurred Images", Proceedings of the 2006 ACM
Symposium on Applied Computing (SAC 2006), pp. 89-95, Dijon, France, April 2-
7, 2006.

Example of referencing of a Paper presented at Conference but not Published :

8. Lokhande, R., and Gupta, P., "Identification of Parameters of Motion Images",


presented at 5th International Conference on Cyber Systems, New Delhi, India, April
12- 17, 2004

Example of referencing of a Report [Technical, Internal, or Memoranda]: :

9. Das, A. R., Murthy D., and Badrinath J., A Comparison of Different Biometrics
Traits, RSRE Memorandum No. 4157, RSRE Malvern, 2001.

Example of referencing of a Manual

10. Bell Telephone Laboratories Technical Staff, Transmission System for


Communications, Bell Telephone Laboratories, 1995.

Example of referencing of a Class Note

11. "Signal integrity and interconnects for high-speed applications," class notes for
ECE 497- JS, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of
Illinois at Urbana- Champaign, Winter 1997.

Example of referencing of a Private Communication

12. Banerjee, T., (Private Communication), 1998

Example of referencing of an Article from Internet

13. Biometrics Group, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, "Multimodal Biometrics


System," December 2006, http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/biometrics.html

14. Gupta, P. (pg@iitk.ac.in), "Biometrics System," Usenet post to


sci.electronics.design, July 4, 2007.

Example of referencing of an Article from Catalog

15. Catalog No. MWM-1, Microwave Components, M. W. Microwave Corp., Brooklyn,


NY

29
Example of referencing of an Article from Application Note

16. Hewlett-Packard, Appl. Note 935, pp. 25-29.

Example of referencing of an Article from Application Note

17. Kar, K. and Majumder, D., "Fuzzy Controller Component," U. S. Patent


23,160,040, December 21, 2006.

30
TEXT PROCESSING INFORMATION

It is important to note that type format of all reports should be uniform. So there is a
need to follow some guidelines on typesetting and other aspects. Some of such
guidelines are given below.

1. The original copy shall be typed on 75 or 80 gr./m 2 white paper. All photocopies
shall be run on the same grade of paper. Size of paper shall be 210 x 297 mm, i.e.
A4.

2. Only Near Letter Quality or sharper dot matrix printer or Laser printer and Ink Jet
printer and electrical typewriter outputs are acceptable. In case of dot matrix printers
or a typewriter, black ribbon must be used and replenished as frequently as
necessary to maintain clear and high contrast constant density copy throughout the
report.

3. As a character font, one should use Arial preferably (Times, Times Roman) which
are available in most word processors. The font size must be 12 point in the text
and at least 8 point in the figures. However, if a typewriter is used, then typing
must be done on an electric typewriter and with an Elite, Pica, or Letter Gothic
typeface, and preferably with a carbon film ribbon to avoid a fading effect.

4. Whenever titles and headings are to be centered the centering shall be such that
112 mm. from the left edge of the paper or 98 mm. for the right edge of the paper
is the center point of the title or heading.

5. Margins of pages shall conform to the following specifications.

a. Left margin - 3 1/2 cm. from edge of paper.(1.37795)

b. Right margin - 2 cm. from edge of paper. (.787402’’)

c. Top margin - 3 1/2. from edge of paper.

d. Bottom margin - 2 cm. from edge of paper.

The above margins shall be observed on charts, graphs, tables, and drawings.
Folded papers will not be accepted unless there is absolutely no other way for the
material to be presented.

6. Spacing of the text material shall be 1.5 with the following exceptions:

a. Footnotes - single spacing

31
b. Long biographical quotes - single spacing

c. Extensive quotations - single spacing and indented eight (8) spaces relative
to the text material.

7. Headings used in the report shall conform to the following rules:

a. ChapterHeadings- CHAPTER 1,CHAPTER 2, CHAPTER 3 etc. .

(1) Must begin a new page and be centered using the Font Size 18 with Bold
Fold. Omit period at the end of the heading.

(2) Must be typed in upper case letters.

(3) Chapter headings are to be titled names that reflect content of the text
that follows.

(4) It should be centered and Font Size to be used is 18 with Bold Face.

(5) Must be typed in upper case letters.

(6) Provide 3 blank lines after the chapter name.

b. Second Headings - 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, etc.

(1) Must be towards left margin and be typed in capital and lower case
letters; i.e., the first letter of each word except conjunctions, prepositions,
and articles must be a capital letter. Omit period at the end of heading.

(2) The letter designation of the heading shall be followed by a period and
two blank spaces.

(3) Must be three spaces below preceding text and two spaces ahead of
succeeding text.

(4) Font Size to be used is 14 with Bold Face.

(5) In case it is found that first line of the succeeding text starts from the next
page, then this heading should start from the next page using page break.

c. First sub-headings - 2.2.1, 2.2.2 , etc.

(1) Must be typed on separate lines beginning at the left margin line of the
text, but need not begin a new page.
32
(2) Must be typed in capital and lower case letters except conjunctions,
prepositions, and articles.

(3) The number designation of the heading shall be followed by a period and
two spaces. Omit period at the end of the heading.

(4) Must be separated from the succeeding text by three spaces.

(5) Font Size to be used is 12 with Bold Face.

(6) In case it is found that first line of the succeeding text starts from the next
page, then this sub-heading should start from the next page using page break.

d. Second sub-headings- 2.2.1.1, 2.2.1.2 etc.. (second sub-headings must not be


included). In case required, this must be italic and bold and text should start in the
same line. (As shown below)

Second sub-heading Second sub-headings must not be included…..

8. Figures and Tables: Ideally, every result claimed in the text should be
documented with data, usually data presented in tables or figures. If there are no
data provided to support a given statement of result or observation, one should
consider adding more data, or deleting the unsupported "observation." Examine
figure(s) or table(s) pertaining to the result(s).

Author should assess whether:

1. the data support the textual statement

2. the data contradict the textual statement

3. the data are insufficient to prove

The actual figures and tables should be embedded/inserted in the text,


generally on the page following the page where the figure/table is first cited in the
text. All figures should be numbered and cited consecutively in the text as Figure
2.1, Figure 2.2, to indicate the first and second figures in Chapter 2 respectively.
Similarly it is the case with tables such as Table 3.1, Table 3.2, etc.

A caption for each figure and table is to be given with proper citation about
reference, data sources, etc. and by highlighting the key findings. One should
include an index figure (map) showing and naming all locations discussed in the
report.

33
Author is always encouraged to make his own figures, including cartoons,
schematics or sketches that illustrate the derived processes. He should see all his
figures keeping in mind that:

1. Each figure is self-explanatory.

2. Axes of figures are labeled and the units, if used, are indicated.

3. Uncertainty are shown in data with error bars.

4. If the data are fitted by a curve, its goodness of fit should be


determined.

5. Junk data must be eliminated.

6. Non-data ink must be eliminated.

7. Redundant data ink must be eliminated.

8. An effort has to be made to increase data density by eliminating non-


data bearing space.

9. Whether data is sparse set that could better be expressed as a table.

10. Whether the figure distorts the data in any way.

11. Whether the data are presented in context.

12. Whether its caption guides one’s eye to the "take-home lesson" of the
figure.

Figures should be oriented vertically, in portrait mode, wherever possible. If


they must be oriented horizontally, in landscape mode, so that one can read them
from the right, not from the left, where the binding will be. Examples are given
below.

34
Input Layer Hìdden Layer Output Layer

1 1
2

2 2

. .
. 3
.
. . .
.
n n0 n '

Figure 2.2. A typical neural network.

TABLE 9.12. Comparison Of Various Data Structures.

Operatio Sequential Linked List AVL-Tree


n List

Search O(log n) O(n) O(log n)

Delete O(n) O(1) O(log n)

Insert O(n) O(1) O(log n)

9. Footnotes, Specially Designated Expressions and Paragraphs

a. Footnotes (Footnotes should be used only if absolutely necessary): Footnote


references shall be indicated in the text by an Arabic number placed superior to the
of the text and immediately following the word phrase or sentence which the
footnote concerns.

Footnotes shall be sequential for each page and for the entire report.

Footnotes shall be placed at the bottom of the page on which they are
indicated. They shall be indented from the margin line of the text by eight spaces
and placed under a broken line made of 15 dashes.

Footnotes shall be single spaced typing.

b. Specially Designated Expressions: Specially designated expressions usually


mean equations, formulas, etc.

35
Specially designated expressions shall be centered on the page according to
instruction number 6 and shall be set below the preceding text and before the
succeeding text by three line spaces.

The expressions shall be identified by an Arabic number in parenthesis placed


opposite the expression and in line with the right margin of the text. They
should be numbered in each chapter in the order of their appearance together with
the chapter number, e.g. (6.14). The expression in the body of the report can be
referred to (6.14).

Avoid to start a sentence in the text with the expression number. This can be
avoided by using changing the voice.

10. Pagination and Paragraphs: Each page in the report or dissertation is


expected to bear a number. Only one side of the paper may be used. The following
plan should be used exclusively:

a. The preliminary section, including the title page; copyright page, if any;
foreword, preface, or acknowledgements; table of contents; etc., should be
numbered, using lower case Roman Numerals, e.g., i, ii, iii, etc. The title page
counts as Page i, but the number does not appear. The sequence of the
preliminary section is as follows:

Title Page ........................................................ Page i - number does not


appear

Declaration...................................................... Page ii

Certificate........................................................ Page iii

Acknowledgements......................................... Page iv

Abstract ........................................................... Page v

Table of Contents ........................................... Page vi

List of Tables.................................................. Page vii

List of Figures................................................. Page viii

List of Symbols .............................................. Page ix

For the remainder of the report, Arabic numbers are used. Each page must be
numbered. Page numbers are to be placed 2 centimeters from the top and
right hand margins on the pages. All pages for illustrations, tables, appendices,
36
bibliography, etc are included. Use of suffixes, such as 25a, 25b ... are not
allowed. The numbering in the main body should begin with Page 1 and run
consecutively to the last page. No punctuation, such as dash or a period,
should accompany the page number.

b. Paragraphs: A new paragraph must not begin at the bottom of a page if


there is not sufficient space for at least two lines.

11. Size of Thesis: There is no limit on the number of pages to be used in the
report. But it should be complete in all respect. However it is expected that the
number of pages in the report will not exceed 100 pages of typed matter reckoned
from the First page of Chapter 1 to the last page of the Appendix.

37
CITATION STYLE

In a project report there is a need to make references in the text, and relate them to
notes, or to a list of bibliographical references, at the end of the description of the
work. A number of elements must be present for a document to be identifiable with
certainty. It is better to give extra or redundant information than to omit vital features.

1) Citation of Books

The standard format or citation Style for a book is

 author(s)
 title
 edition (if applicable)
 place of publication
 publisher
 date

Some citation styles omit place of publication, but it is useful, e.g. when filling out
inter-library loan requests, where it can simplify and limit the searching process.
Examples (books) are given below.

one author: Williams, G. State and Society in.Onco State, Nigeria, Afrographika,
1980.

two authors: Phizacklea, A & Miles, R. Labour and Racism.London,


Routledge&Kegan Paul, 1980.

3 + authors: O'Donovan, P., et al. The United States.Amsterdam, Time-Life


International, 1966.
('et al.' is a Latin abbreviation meaning 'and others'.)

no authors: Generals and Tupamaros: The Struggle for Power in Uruguay,


1969-1973.London, Latin America Review of Books, 1974.
one editor: Oyediran, O.,ed. Nigerian Government and Politics under Military
Rule, 1966-1979.London, Macmillan, 1979. (Contemporary African
Issues)
('Contemporary African Issues' is a 'series note'.)

To some extent, the details of punctuation are up to the author as long as he is


consistent. He may, for instance, decide to write authors' names in upper case
(capitals), or to give their forenames in full ,if it is available.

38
The purpose of using italics is not just to give emphasis, but to show which element in
the citation is a separately published unit. It is especially important when one is citing
a section (an article, a paper, or a chapter) in a collection or other composite work,
e.g.

Watson, R. 'Racial and Ethnic Relations', in Anderson, R. and Sharrock,


W.W., eds., Applied Sociological Perspectives.London: Allen &Unwin, 1984.
pp.3-65.

If one makes this kind of reference correctly, the reader will immediately know what is
the book to look for (i.e. Anderson and Sharrock) and not waste time searching for a
non-existent (or a different) work with the title, Racial and Ethnic Relations. Inverted
commas are often used to signal a part or contribution in a larger work - they show
that it is not separately published in its own right, and it is not good practice to use
them to show a book title.

2) Citation of Periodicals

The same principles that apply to a book apply when he is citing articles from
periodicals - journals, magazines, newspapers, reviews, etc.

For an article format is given below.

 author(s)
 title of the article
 title of the periodical, or its accepted abbreviation.
 date , volume, and part number of the issue in which it appears
 page numbers

Examples are given below.

Davis, R.D. 'Sludge disposal - keeping it safe'. Water and waste treatment, 1984, 27
(9) 38-42
or
Zlotnik, M. D. 'Chernenko succeeds'. Problems of Communism 33 (2) March-April
1984, pp.17-31.

The detail of order and punctuation may vary between one writer and another, or with
the same writer on different occasions; the important thing is to decide firmly at the
start how the author is going to proceed, and stick to that style. Publishers of books
and journals have their own 'house-styles', and editorial staff to apply them rigorously;
for these purposes, clarity and consistency are enough -- one should not cite
something unless the author is quite sure, he has enough information for a reader to
identify it. It is not necessary to use Roman numerals for volume numbers, even if the
39
periodical the author is citing uses them itself, or if he has seen them in a citation
elsewhere. Single inverted commas are used again here, to show which is the article,
and which is the periodical title.

It is sometimes needed to cite an issue by date, rather than part number, even if it
has one, e.g.

Wood, Nick. 'Multiracial Study Pioneer in Grenada Coup'. Times Educational


Supplement, 28th October 1983, p.1.

or to cite the whole of an issue, rather than an article:

Curriculum, 1980, vol 1(3).

40

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