ESC Field Guide For Road Construction

August, 2017
Erosion & Sediment Control Field Guide for Road Construction – Part 2
Version 1, August 2017
Prepared by: Grant Witheridge, Catchments and Creeks Pty Ltd

Published by: Catchments and Creeks Pty Ltd
Diagrams by: Grant Witheridge, Catchments and Creeks Pty Ltd
Photos by: Aqua Barrier, Brisbane City Council, Catchments and Creeks Pty Ltd, Dirtbag,
Google, Project Rental, The Integrated Group, and Warren Faircloth.
Except as permitted under copyright laws, no part of this publication may be reproduced within
another publication without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Permission, however, is granted for users to:
• store the complete document on a database, but not isolated parts of the document
• print all or part of the document, and distribute such printed material to a third party
• distribute the complete document in electronic form to a third party, but not isolated parts of
the document.
All diagrams are supplied courtesy of Catchments and Creeks Pty. Ltd. and remain the
ownership of Catchments & Creeks Pty. Ltd. No diagram or photograph maybe reproduced
within another publication without the prior written permission of the Director of Catchments and
Creeks Pty. Ltd.
This document should be referenced as:

Witheridge 2017, Erosion & Sediment Control Field Guide for Road Construction – Part 2.
Catchments and Creeks Pty Ltd., Brisbane, Queensland
Key words: erosion control, sediment control, drainage control, road construction, erosion and
sediment control plans, bridge construction, culvert construction, revegetating problem soils,
instream sediment control, de-watering sediment control
Copies of this document may be downloaded from: www.catchmentsandcreeks.com.au
© Catchments & Creeks Pty Ltd, 2017
Disclaimer
Significant effort has been taken to ensure that this document is representative of current (2017)
best practice erosion and sediment control practice; however, the author cannot and does not
claim that the document is without error, or that the recommendations presented within this
document will not be subject to future amendment as techniques and knowledge improve.
To be effective, erosion and sediment control measures must be investigated, planned, and
designed in a manner appropriate for the given work activity and site conditions.
No warranty or guarantee, express, implied, or statutory is made as to the accuracy, reliability,
suitability, or results of the methods or recommendations.
The author shall have no liability or responsibility to the user or any other person or entity with
respect to any liability, loss, or damage caused, or alleged to be caused, directly or indirectly, by
the adoption and use of any part of the document, including, but not limited to, any interruption
of service, loss of business or anticipatory profits, or consequential damages resulting from the
use of the document.
Specifically, adoption of the recommendations and procedures presented within this field guide
will not guarantee:
• compliance with any statutory obligations
• compliance with specific water quality objectives
• avoidance of environmental harm or nuisance.
© Catchments & Creeks Pty Ltd August 2017 Page 2

Principal reference documents:
Best Practice Erosion & Sediment Control.
International Erosion Control Association,
(IECA) Australasia Chapter, 2008
1. Introduction
2. Principles of erosion and sediment control
3. Site planning
4. Design standards and technique selection
5. Preparation of plans
6. Site management
7. Site inspection
8. Bibliography
IECA (2008) – Book 1
Book 2: Appendices
A. Construction site hydrology and hydraulics
B. Sediment basin design and operation
C. Soils and revegetation
D. Example plans
E. Soil loss estimation
F. Erosion hazard assessment
G. Model code of practice
Books 1 to 3 may be purchased through:

www.austieca.com.au
Book 3: Appendices
H. Building sites
I. Instream works
J. Road and rail construction
K. Access tracks and trails
L. Installation of services
M. Erosion processes
N. Glossary of terms
P. Land-based pipeline construction
X. Index (Books 1 to 3)
Erosion & Sediment Control Field Guide
for Road Construction – Part 1, May 2017
Witheridge 2017, Catchments and Creeks Pty
Ltd., Brisbane, Queensland.
Download from:
www.catchmentsandcreeks.com.au
Field Guide for Road Construction, Part-1

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Contents Page
Purpose of field guide 6
About the author 6
Introduction 6
Erosion and Sediment Control Plans 7
ESCP production team 8
Development of Erosion and Sediment Control Plans 9
Typical ESC Management in Road Construction
Construction of a local road 18
Construction of a neighbourhood road 19
Construction of a dual carriageway 20
Typical ESC Management for Road Construction Across Drainage Lines
Road construction across a drainage line 22
Case Study 1 – Road construction over a piped drainage line 25
Introduction to Road Construction Over Waterways
Defining waterways and watercourses 30
Types of waterways 31
Assessing the potential impacts of sediment released into waterways 32
Site issues that can influence the construction procedure 33
Use of cofferdams 35
Typical Sediment Control Practices for Road Construction Over Waterways
Sediment controls for road construction over waterways 37
Case Study 2 – Bridge construction 39
Conversion of basins to permanent stormwater treatment ponds 42
Culvert Construction while Maintaining Stream Flow and Fish Passage
Introduction 44
Fish passage considerations 45
Case Study 3 & 4 – Culvert construction using isolation barriers 46
Types of isolation barriers 47
Case Study 5 – Culvert construction with public bypass road 48
Case Study 6 – Sediment basins located within the road corridor 49
Temporary Vehicle Crossings of Waterways and Gullies
Temporary watercourse crossings 52
Temporary vehicular crossings of waterways 53
Design of approach roads 54
Vehicular crossings of dispersive soil gullies 55
Instream Construction Practices
Introduction 57
Critical management issues 58
Instream sediment control techniques 59
Sediment Control During Site De-watering
De-watering sediment controls 61
Rehabilitation of Waterways
Introduction 64
Fish passage considerations 65
Fish-friendly scour protection measures 66
Potentially unfavourable scour protection measures 67
Temporary erosion control measures 68
Use of rock in bank stabilisation 69
Rock placement on waterway banks 71
Vegetated rock stabilisation 73
Common problems associated with rock stabilisation of waterways 74
Glossary of terms 75

Purpose of field guide
Part 2 of this field guide has been prepared specifically to provide:
• the road construction industry with general information on the preparation of erosion and
sediment control plans, and the management of bridge and culvert construction
• construction personnel working within the road construction field with an additional training
tool on Erosion and Sediment Control.
This field guide has been prepared specifically for use on greenfield road construction and large
rural road projects. Only parts of the document will be relevant to urban road construction.
This guideline has not been prepared for the purpose of being a site’s primary guide to erosion
and sediment control. Consequently, the recommendations provided within this field guide
should not be used to overrule advice obtained from suitably trained experts, or the
recommendations and/or requirements of locally endorsed ESC guidelines/manuals.
It is noted that approximately 64% of the photos presented within this field guide have originated
from road construction projects.
About the author

Grant Witheridge is a civil engineer with both Bachelor and Masters degrees from the University
of NSW. He has over 35 years experience in the fields of hydraulics, stormwater management,
creek engineering and erosion & sediment control. Since 1995, Grant has conducted over 380
training courses in erosion and sediment control attended by some 6500 people.
Grant is the principal author of the IECA (Australasia) Best Practice Erosion and Sediment
Control (2008) documents. In 2010 Grant was presented with the IECA (International) Sustained
Contributor Award.
Introduction
Roadway crossings of waterways are complex construction activities that can pose a significant
risk to waterway environments. Each waterway crossing can present a unique set of site
conditions that requires a specific construction practice.
This field guide attempts to provide general advice and guidance on the construction of
waterway crossings with respect to erosion and sediment control (ESC) issues. However, it
should be noted that ESC issues represent only one of the many issues that need to be
considered on any construction project.
To a limited extend, guidance is also provided on related topics such as fish passage
considerations during the construction phase, and the rehabilitation of waterways disturbed by
construction activities.
The application of this field guide to a particular waterway crossing will depend on the type of
roadway and the type of waterway crossing (i.e. bridge, culvert, causeway, ford). The
appropriate application of this field guide requires the reader to have experience in civil
construction. The recommendations presented within this document must be tailored to the
conditions known to exist at a particular site, and must represent an appropriate balance
between theory, past experience, and common sense.
In general, the Erosion and Sediment Control industry relies on the combined experience of
several professions, including construction personnel, geotechnical engineering, hydraulic
engineering and revegetation specialists. The design and construction of waterway crossings
introduces into the design team additional experts from a number of other professions, including
river morphology, riverine biology, and experts in aquatic and terrestrial passage.
This field guide contains many examples of waterway culverts constructed in stages to allow
uninterrupted flow bypass and fish passage. Such construction practices are currently not the
‘normal’ construction method, and in most cases would require the re-design of the culvert’s
structural components and steel reinforcing. It should be noted that ‘best practice’ does not
mean ‘the best of the best’, it is a term that would have been better described as ‘the most
appropriate construction practice for a given set of circumstances relative to current national
and international practices’.

Erosion and Sediment Control Plans
Primary ESCP
• Major road projects can adopt a two-stage
process to the development of Erosion
and Sediment Control Plans (ESCPs).
• The first ESCP is the ‘Primary ESCP’,
which is an overarching ESCP that
provides generic drainage, erosion and
sediment control procedures for the whole
of the construction project.
• These plans set out key issues, such as
the location of major sediment traps, so
that they can be incorporated into the road
design.
Primary ESCP
Progressive ESCP
• The second stage consist of the
development of ‘Progressive ESCP’.
• Progressive ESCPs are developed for
each stage of the road works, and are also
produced in response to changing site
conditions.
• These plans provide details on the
location and installation of ESC measures
within each drainage sub-catchment,
either hilltop to valley floor, or hilltop to
hilltop.
Progressive ESCP
Management of ‘clean’ run-on water
• Critical to the design of any ESCP is the
management of both ‘clean’ and ‘dirty’
stormwater runoff.
• One option is to carry all run-on water
along the up-slope edge of the road to the
nearest drainage line or waterway.
• The alternative is to carry this clean run-on
water across the road at regular intervals;
however, this process may not be practical
while ‘boxing out’ the road foundations
because the road works effectively acts
like a wide drainage channel.
Clean water cross-drainage system
Base plan
• A critical aspect of road construction
ESCPs is the selection of the ‘base plan’.
• The base plan is the underlining road
layout onto which the ESC measures are
identified within the ESCP.
• In road construction, a separate ESCP
should be prepared for each stage of
earthworks and/or temporary road layout.
• If an existing road is being upgraded or
replaced, then the existing road
embankment can interfere with the flow of
Duplication of an existing roadway dirty water to specific sediment traps.

ESCP production team
Construction personnel
• The preparation of Erosion and Sediment
Control Plans (ESCPs) for road
construction projects is not a one-person
task.
• To avoid expensive, unpractical or
ineffective outcomes, the design team
must include a range of experts.
• Key to the production of practical
outcomes is the inclusion of advice from
experience construction personnel.
• Even the best ideas are wasted if they
contradict specific contract conditions.
Construction personnel
Engineering advice
• Individual engineers specialise in different
fields of engineering, and not all engineers
have appropriate construction experience.
• Engineering advice is typically required
on:
− catchment hydrology and hydraulics
− geotechnical engineering and soil
compaction requirements
− structural engineering issues relating to
the proposed staged construction of a
waterway crossing.
Engineering professionals
Science advice
• Specialist advice may be required on the
following issues:
− soil science
− fish passage and fish biology
− environmental protection
− waterway ecology
• The knowledge base found within the soil
science profession is different from that
found within geotechnical engineering;
however, specialist consultancies typically
employ both professionals.
Scientific officers
Revegetation advice
• Revegetation contractors are different
from landscape architects and botanists.
• Some revegetation contractors specialise
solely in the operation of planting/seeding
equipment, while others may also have
specialist knowledge in plant selection and
soil conditioning.
• The knowledge base and experience of
the revegetation contractor will have a
significant influence on both the rate of
plant establishment, and the long-term
revegetation outcomes.
Revegetation contractors

Development of Erosion and Sediment Control Plans
Step 1: Identify environmental issues
• Identify local issues and concerns.
• Identify critical habitats and environmental
protection issues along the road corridor.
• Local environmental values may be
identified within an existing Stormwater
Management Plan, or Catchment
Management Plan.
• Identify potential risks to these
environmental values.
• Review soil maps to identify high risk
erosion hazards.
Protection of a wetland habitat
Step 2: Identify drainage catchments
• Identify drainage lines that cross the
roadway, including:
− minor drainage lines
− creeks
− rivers
• Divide the road corridor into individual
drainage catchments, either ‘hilltop to
hilltop’, or ‘hilltop to valley floor.
• These drainage catchments will be used in
the determination of the sediment control
standard in Step 4.
Defining a drainage sub-catchment
Step 3: Identify construction stages
• Determine if the earthworks and/or road
construction will be performed in stages.
• A staged construction program is likely to
be utilised within large road construction
projects, staged subdivision projects, or
construction programs that require the re-
routing of existing public roads.
• The staging of a project can influence the
location and timing of the construction of
proposed sediment basins.
Looking at the end of a staged urban road

Step 4: Sediment control standard
• Determine the sediment control standard
(Type 1, 2 or 3) for each drainage
catchment identified in Step 2.
• This analysis may required USLE/RUSLE
calculations for each drainage catchment.
• The sediment control standard may also
be determined by the existence of critical
environmental habitats identified in Step 1.
• Specific soil testing is usually required
prior to commencing this step.
Type 2 drop inlet sediment trap

Sediment control standard (Step 4)
USLE & RUSLE
• Soil loss rates are most commonly
estimated using the Universal Soil Loss
Equation, also known as USLE.
• Over its many years of use the parameters
used within the USLE have been modified
resulting in the formation of a revised
equation.
• The Revised Universal Loss Equation
(RUSLE) is now the more commonly used
equation; however, both equations take
the following form:
A = R . K . LS . C . P
Road construction works
Equation terms
The terms used in the USLE equation are:
• A = soil loss rate (tonnes/ha/yr)
• R = rainfall erosivity factor
• K = soil erodibility factor
• LS = combined length-slope factor
• C = cover and land management factor
• P = erosion control practice factor
To determine the tonnage (t) of soil loss:
− multiply by the area (ha) and time (yr)
3
To determine the volume (m ) of soil loss:
− divided by the soil density (t/m )
3
Sediment retained in a sediment trap
Application of RUSLE to construction sites
• The USLE/RUSLE formula was originally
developed and calibrated for the
assessment of erosion rates on low-
gradient rural properties.
• The equation assesses only ‘sheet’ and
mild ‘rill’ erosion.
• The equation does not take into account
soil dispersion, gully erosion or erosion
within creeks and drainage channels.
Road construction works
The erosion hazard is linked to the tonnage of soil loss, not the rate (t/ha/yr); thus, the sediment
standard is related to both the soil loss rate and area of disturbance (ha), as set out below:
Table 1 – Example sediment control standard for general construction works

Locating major sediment traps (Step 5)
Step 5: Locate major sediment traps
• Major sediment traps are most commonly
located:
− within the isolated ‘islands’ formed by
motorway on/off access ramps
− each side of the roadway, and each
side of a watercourse crossing.
• Sediment basins are usually located away
from active construction areas, which may
require temporary drains to be constructed
to carry sediment-laden water to these
basins.
Culvert construction
Bridge construction Bridge construction
Culvert construction Culvert construction
Rural road construction Residential road construction

Step 6: Locate site entry/exit points
• Locate separate entry/exit points away
from areas of significant cut or fill.
• On large projects it may be desirable to
provide separate light and heavy vehicle
entry/exit points if earth is being imported
or removed from the site.
• Avoid locating entry/exit points at low
points where they could interfere with the
positioning of major sediment traps.
• Establish appropriate sediment controls
and associated drainage controls around
these entry/exit points.
Site entry/exit
Step 7: Locate site office, stockpiles and
borrow pits
• Identify the location of the:
− site office
− material storage areas
− earth stockpile areas
− borrow pits
• Establish appropriate drainage and
sediment controls around such areas.
Stockpile area
Step 8: Identify temporary access roads
• It is recommended that a separate ESCP
is prepared for each construction phase of
complex intersections, especially if a
public road system already exists.
• Identify temporary access roads required
to enter the site and access borrow pits.
• Identifying all temporary roads, in addition
to the new roadway layout, is essential
prior to preparing Construction Drainage
Plans to ensure that sediment-laden water
can actually flow to the specified sediment
traps.
Temporary access road
Step 9: Identify potential non disturbance
areas
• At this stage of preparing an ESCP it is
usually not possible to define the final
limits of disturbance because not all of the
ESC measures have been identified.
• However, it is important to ‘clearly’ mark
on the plans those areas where land
disturbance should not occur in order to
avoid placing sediment traps or temporary
drainage channels through these areas.
Sediment fence located in bushland

Step 10: Prepare Construction Drainage
Plans
• Prepare Construction Drainage Plans for
each phase of construction.
• The intent of these plans is to show:
− flow entry and exit points (i.e run-on
and runoff water)
− areas of sheet flow
− clean water flow diversions
− dirty water collection and re-direction.
• These drainage plans are prepared in
association with Steps 11 to 16.
Construction Drainage Plan
Step 11: Identify ‘clean’ water flow
diversions
• Ensure ‘clean’ run-on water is conveyed
through the site in a non-erosive manner
without allowing it to mix with sediment-
laden water generated within the site.
• Wherever practical, clean water should be
diverted around sediment traps in order to:
− reduce the size and cost of these traps
− improve the treatment efficiency of
these sediment traps.
Clean water diversion around a basin

Step 12: Identify mid-batter drainage
controls
• Identify the need for:
− temporary, mid-bank drainage controls
− inner-batter turf filter strips, or
− stage batter revegetation.
• Mid-batter turf filter strips can be used to
help maintain non-erosive, ‘sheet flow’
conditions down high road batters.
• Mid-batter catch drains can reduce the risk
of rill erosion, but may not be practical if
not apart of the permanent design.
Turf filter strips placed along the contour
Step 13: Identify location of temporary
batter drains
• Newly formed road batters are vulnerable
to sheet erosion and rilling during the
revegetation phase.
• Temporary ‘batter chutes’ and ‘slope
drains’ can be used to carry stormwater
runoff down newly formed road batters.
• The spacing of these temporary batter
drains depends on the maximum
catchment area that can be connected to
each drainage system.
Temporary batter chute

Step 14: Identify velocity control measures
• Ensure non-erosive flow conditions within
clean water diversion drains and roadside
table drains.
• Treatment options include:
− reduce the flow velocity within the drain
through the use of Check Dams, or
− increase the scour resistance of the
drain through the use of Erosion
Control Mats.
• Avoid duplicating the use of both Check
Dams and Mats within the same drain.
Velocity control check dam
Step 15: Identify location of sediment traps
• Identify opportunities for the placement of
sediment traps within the development
site.
• Locate sediment traps:
− up-slope of on-grade kerb inlets
− around sag-type kerb inlets
− around drop inlets located with medians
− up-slope of stormwater pipe inlets
− along the toe of fill batters
− along the edge of the road reserve if
runoff cannot be directed to a basin.
Drop inlet sediment trap
Step 16: Identify ‘dirty’ water drainage
• Identify all necessary ‘dirty’ water drainage
systems required to direct sediment-laden
water to major sediment traps, such as
Sediment Basins.
Drains directing water to sediment basins

Step 17: Identify if temporary batter
stabilisation is required
• If road batters are not scheduled to be
immediately vegetated, then details must
be supplied on the application of
temporary erosion control measures.
• These measures can include:
− mulching (straw mulching)
− brushwood mulching
− erosion control blankets
− soil binders (e.g. Polyacrylamide)
− gravelling (arid & semi-arid regions).
Batter stabilisation

Step 18: Identify non-disturbance areas
• After all drainage and sediment control
measures have been identified, it is
important to ensure that none of these
devices have been located within land
identified as a non-disturbance area.
• Where appropriate, non disturbance areas
can be identified on the site with marker
tape to avoid unnecessary land clearing.
• Do not rely on survey pegs to identify non
disturbance areas.
Identification of non disturbance area

Step 19: Define site revegetation methods
• Site revegetation procedures may not
necessarily appear within the ESCP, but
may appear within a separate document
prepared by the revegetation contractor.
• Landscaping plans typically do not detail
the methods that will be used to achieve
vegetation cover, but instead detail only
the finished condition.
• The ESCP can include details on
revegetation methods appropriate for
various site locations and seasonal
conditions.
Site revegetation
Step 20: Prepare the installation sequence
• It is critical that the various drainage,
erosion and sediment control techniques
are installed in an appropriate sequence
relative to other construction activities.
• The installation sequence should provide:
− an identification number for each item
− when the control measure is to be
installed relative to other construction
activities
− when the control measure is to be
decommissioned.
ESC installation sequence
Step 21: Detail site establishment
requirements
• Technical Notes can be used to specify:
− ESC materials that need to be stored
on site ready for an approaching storm.
− ESC measures that need to be installed
during the initial stages of construction
project
− method of identifying on the site any
non-disturbance or exclusion areas.
Stockpile essential ESC materials

Step 22: Detail site management
procedures
• Technical Notes can be used to specify:
− the person responsible for ESC issues
− monitoring and inspection procedures
− information transfer procedures
− procedures for reporting and acting on
areas on non-compliance
− procedures for amending an ESCP
− procedures for responding to Witness
and Hold Points.
Water quality monitoring
Step 23: Detail emergency ESC procedures
• Specify ESC measures required in the
event of rain or strong winds.
• These temporary measures are applied to
a site to control soil erosion and the
passage of water in the event an imminent
storm.
• Typically these ESC measures are not
detailed on the ESCP, but appear as
technical notes within the supporting
documentation (refer to Book 1, Section
5.8 of IECA, 2008).
Approaching storm
Step 24: Prepare the Site Monitoring and
Maintenance Program
• Prepare a list of the expected ESC
materials and equipment required to be
stored on-site to facilitate regular
maintenance and repair activities.
• Prepare a Monitoring and Maintenance
Program for the site and each drainage,
erosion and sediment control technique.
• Maintenance requirements for the various
ESC techniques are provided in the Book
4 fact sheets of IECA (2008).
Examples of suspended solids content
Step 25: Prepare Inspection and Test Plans
• Inspection and Test Plans detail the
inspection, testing and performance
criteria for site revegetation.
• Witness points represent construction
activities that are to be observed by a
nominated ‘witness’.
• Hold points represent stages in the
construction program beyond which work
must not proceed unless a specific activity
has been completed, or the works have
been authorised by an appropriate officer.
Inspection and Test Plan

Typical ESC Management in Road
Construction

Construction of a local road
Erosion and sediment control practices
• It is often impractical to incorporate large
sediment basins into the construction of
local roads, unless these roads are apart
of a larger subdivision project.
• Sediment controls are typically limited to
Type 3 and supplementary sediment
traps, with Type 2 sediment traps used at
field inlets (i.e. not kerb inlets), and at
waterway crossings.
• However, erosion control practices are
normally enhanced from those adopted
on rural construction projects.
Single crossfall local road
Possible layout of erosion and sediment control measures on a single crossfall road
Check dam sediment trap U-shaped sediment trap
U-shaped sediment trap on mild slope U-shaped sediment trap on steep slope

Construction of a neighbourhood road
ESC practices on arterial roads
• Sediment basins often appear within these
larger construction projects at waterway
crossings, especially if wide parklands
exist adjacent to the waterway.
• Type 2 sediment traps can be used at
drainage line crossings (sag points).
• Sediment controls often rely heavily on
controlling inflows into kerb inlets.
• Ideally, berms and drains are used to
direct dirty water to sediment traps rather
than relying on sediment fences.
Neighbourhood road
Possible layout of erosion and sediment control measures on a crowned roadway
Check dams adjacent a sediment fence Mulch berm sediment barrier
‘On-grade’ kerb inlet sediment trap ‘Sag’ kerb inlet sediment trap

Construction of a dual carriageway
ESC practices on motorways & highways
• Sediment control practices rely heavily on
the use of sediment basins.
• The use of sediment fences is avoided in
favour of drainage controls directing dirty
water to major sediment traps.
• Significant use is usually made of bank
stabilisation measures prior to, or
incorporated into, bank revegetation.
• Extensive use of mulch berms to control
the movement of both ‘clean’ and ‘dirty’
water.
Dual carriageway major road
Possible layout of erosion and sediment control measures on a dual carriageway
Block & aggregate drop inlet trap Mesh & aggregate drop inlet sediment trap
Rock & aggregate drop inlet sediment trap Rock & aggregate drop inlet sediment trap

Typical ESC Management for
Road Construction Across
Drainage Lines

Road construction across a drainage line
Road crossings of drainage lines
• Road profiles typically consist of a series
of crest and sags, with sag points typically
being located at points where the road
crosses:
− swales and drainage pipes
− non-waterway drainage lines
− streams, brooks and creeks
− rivers
Natural drainage line

Drainage lines
• A ‘drainage line’ is a natural or constructed
stormwater drainage path that:
− carries ‘concentrated’ rather than
‘sheet’ flow
− is likely to flow only during periods of
rainfall, and for short periods (hours)
after rain has stopped
− is a drainage path that has not been
classified as a ‘watercourse’ based on a
locally or state-adopted classification
system.
Urban stormwater pipe drainage line
Minor drainage culverts
• The existence of a drainage line is likely to
result in the need for a small drainage
culvert passing under the roadway.
Minor culvert crossing

Major culverts
• On motorways, fauna passage culverts
are often located at drainage line
crossings.
• The size of these culverts does not
necessarily indicate the size of the
drainage catchment, but may be related to
the minimum needs of terrestrial fauna
passageways.
• The importance of the culvert type, and
the size of the drainage catchment, is that
it influences the type of sediment control
practices adopted at these locations.
Fauna passage culverts

Treatment option 1
• Placement of a Type 3 sediment trap
across the entrance of a small drainage
pipe (culvert) is appropriate when:
− total up-slope catchment (clean & dirty)
is less than 0.25 ha, and
− soil loss rate < 75 t/ha/yr.
• Typical Type 3 sediment traps include:
− Sediment fence with wire mesh backing
− U-shaped sediment trap.
Sediment fence (Type 3 sediment trap)
Example ESC measures for road works over a drainage line with minimal catchment area
Treatment option 2
− Block & aggregate sediment traps
− Filter tube dams
− Mesh & aggregate sediment traps
Filter tube dam (Type 2 sediment trap) − Sediment weirs.
ESC measures for road works over a drainage line with modest up-slope catchment area

Treatment option 3
• Placement of Type 2 sediment traps each
side of the entrance of a small drainage
− the contributing catchment area is less
than 0.25 ha and the soil loss rate is
greater than 75 t/ha/yr, OR
− the contributing catchment area is
greater than 0.25 ha and the soil loss
rate is less than 150 t/ha/yr.
• Use of Type 3 sediment traps is
appropriate when the area < 0.25 ha and
the soil loss rate < 75 t/ha/yr.
Rock filter dam (Type 2 sediment trap)
ESC measures for road works over a drainage line with significant up-slope catchment
Treatment option 4
side of the entrance of a small drainage
greater than 0.25 ha, or
− soil loss rate > 150 t/ha/yr.
• Not all of the clean and dirty water drains
shown below will be operational during
each phase of the road construction.
• The contributing catchment area includes
both the road and batter runoff areas as
Sediment basins (Type 1 sediment trap) appropriate.
ESC measures for road works over a drainage line with significant road runoff area

Case Study 1 – Road construction over a piped drainage line
Project description
• This 1996 road construction project
involved the construction of one stage of a
multi-stage urban road corridor.
• The construction project involved
significant cut and fill, and the crossing of
a drainage line that involved the extension
of an existing piped drainage system.
• The existence of the adjacent urban
development meant that all sediment
controls were located along the bushland
side of the roadway.
Road reserve prior to road works
Topsoil cleared from road reserve Sediment fence with rock check dams
Sediment fence with rock check dams
Spill-through weir outlet structure Spill-through weir & aggregate filter

Case Study 1 – ESC Plans
Figure 1 – Stage 1 Erosion and Sediment Control Plan
Figure 2 – Details of construction works ESCP at the road intersection
Figure 3 – Details of construction works ESCP at the pipe extension

Case Study 1 – Road intersection
Pre-construction condition
• Prior to the commencement of this stage
of the road construction, the roadway
corridor was partially cleared of
vegetation, and the proposed mini
roundabout consisted only of a T-junction.
Pre-construction T-intersection
Site entry/exit point
• The site’s main entry/exit point for heavy
vehicles was located at the location of the
proposed roundabout.
• A rock pad Construction Exit was installed.
• A raised flow diversion berm was formed
within the rock pad consistent with the
Erosion and Sediment Control Plan.
• The purpose of such berms is to divert
sediment-laden runoff from the rock pad to
a separate sediment trap (so that the rock
pad does not become a source of
Heavy vehicle site entry point sediment flow onto the public road).
• However, within the ESCP the location of
the rock pad and adjacent sediment
fences were marked in relation to the
proposed roundabout (Figure 2), not the
T-junction that currently existed.
• The consequences were:
− the sediment fences were located in the
positions marked within the ESCP
− the rock pad was (correctly) re-
positioned to abut with the existing T-
junction
− the flow diversion berm was positioned
(incorrectly) such that it did failed to
Rock pad with flow diversion berm divert excess stormwater runoff towards
the sediment fences, but simply
diverted the flow around the berm and
onto the public road.
• The ‘correct’ approach here would have
been for the sediment fences and rock
pad to be positioned as observed within
the adjacent photos; however, for the
raised flow diversion berm to have been
located at the up-slope end of the rock
pad such that sediment-laden run-on
water would have been diverted towards
one of the sediment fences.
• We do no know the ‘purpose’ of the straw
Straw bale of questionable value! bale!

Case Study 1 – Drainage line crossing
Drainage line crossing
• At the drainage line crossing, the following
ESC measures were employed:
− the piped drainage system was
extended across the road corridor early
in the construction phase
− an earth bridge was built over the new
pipeline to allow the movement of
construction vehicles
− sediment basins were formed each side
of the extended pipeline.
• Restrictions prevented the basins from
Pipe outlet pre-construction being built within the bushland area.
Excavating a sediment basin Location of sediment basins
Shallow Type-2 sediment basin Rock filter dam outlet structure
Road construction corridor viewed from the eastern end of the project

Introduction to Road Construction
Over Waterways

Defining waterways and watercourses
Introduction
• The official classification of waterways,
watercourses and drainage lines is usually
a matter for the state.
• Some states use maps to identify
waterways, or at least critical parts of
waterways.
• Waterways are typically identified by the
existence of a well-defined channel.
• This means the main waterway channel
needs to have clearly defined bed and
banks.
Gravel-based creek
Ephemeral waterways
• In many locations within Australia, dry
ephemeral waterways can look
remarkably similar to ‘drainage lines’.
• Even experts can disagree on what is a
‘dry creek’, and what is a ‘drainage line’.
• The term ‘ephemeral’ simply means the
waterway occasionally stops flowing, but
could still contain permanent pools.
• It is noted that an ephemeral waterway
may contain sub-surface groundwater
flows even though the bed appears dry.
Dry, ephemeral waterway
Waterways and watercourses
• Historically, the term ‘waterway’ referred
only to a navigable watercourse.
• In farming communities, a ‘waterway’ is a
shallow constructed drainage line that
crosses either pasture or cropping land.
• In the road construction industry it is
common for the terms ‘waterway’ and
‘watercourse’ to be interchangeable.
• Within this publication, the terms waterway
and watercourse are considered to have
the same meaning.
Navigable waterway
Riparian vegetation
• The riparian zone is that part of the
landscape adjacent to a waterway that
influences, and is influenced by, the
processes that occur within the waterway.
• This usually includes instream habitats,
and the bed, banks and floodplains of a
waterway (or parts of the floodplains).
• Ideally, the riparian zone (measured from
the water’s edge) should be wider than the
top-of-bank width of the waterway
channel, or three times the bank height,
whichever is the greater.
Minimum desirable riparian width

Types of waterways
Clay-based waterways
• There are many types of waterways, and
descriptions are often given based on the
channel shape.
• Clay-based waterways contain clayey
soils across the bed and banks.
• These are ‘fixed bed’ waterways, that
should not have significant quantities of
‘natural’ sediment flow.
• Mature woody vegetation can often grow
close to, or even on the channel bed.
Clay-based waterway
Sand-based waterways
• Sand-based waterways contain deep,
loose sand across the channel bed.
• The depth of the sand typically exceeds
the depth of the root systems of some bed
and lower bank vegetation.
• These are ‘alluvial’ waterways that
experience significant sand flow during
both minor and major stream flows.
• There is normally a clearly defined change
in plant species from those growing on the
bed (if any) to those growing on the banks.
Sand-based waterway
Gravel-based waterways
• In gravel-based waterways, the bed
material is made-up of well-rounded
gravels and boulders.
• These are also alluvial waterways that
usually contain pools and riffles, which can
completely reform from flood to flood.
• The channel bed of both sand and gravel-
based waterways is usually ‘flat’, as
compared to the U-shaped bed of clay-
based waterways.
• Woody vegetation can struggle to form on
the channel bed.
Gravel-based waterway
Rock-based waterways
• The bed material of rock-based waterways
is made-up of exposed rock outcrops often
separated by sections of clay, sand or
gravel-based channels.
• These are fixed-bed ‘spilling’ waterways
usually containing waterfalls or riffles
followed by deep pools to help dissipate
water energy.
Rock-based waterway

Assessing the potential impacts of sediment released into waterways
Coarse sediment v fine sediment
• The potential impact of sediment on
aquatic environments depends on the type
of water body and the type of sediment.
• Coarse sediments (e.g. sands and coarse
silts) many cause adverse impacts to
wetlands and small waterways, such as
creeks.
• Fine sediment, such as fine silts, clays
and ‘turbidity’, can cause adverse impacts
to almost all waterways, including bays
and estuaries.
Sand deposited into a wetland
Background levels
• In some cases, the allowable discharge
conditions from construction sites will be
linked to either the:
− long-term average background levels
− or immediate upstream water quality
conditions at the time of discharge.
• However, most construction projects have
discharge conditions set independent of
the background turbidity (NTU) and
suspended solids (TSS) levels within the
receiving waters.
Examples of suspended solids content
Catchment wide approach
• In some drainage catchments, natural
turbidity levels can vary significantly from
location to location down the waterway.
• In such cases it may not be appropriate to
set water quality objectives (WQOs) based
on the immediate receiving water; instead,
WQOs are based on a catchment-wide
objective.
• An example of this would be waterways
that flow into a bay, where WQOs may be
based on the needs of the bay, rather than
the needs of the immediate waterway.
Smaller turbid waterway entering a river
Inland waterways
• In Australia, many waterways that pass
through arid or semi-arid regions are
naturally highly turbid.
• Typically the countryside is arid or semi-
arid, and the soils often have dispersive
properties.
• When working in such regions, authorities
must set appropriate WQOs, usually a
maximum of 10% above natural
background levels.
• Conversely, most coastal streams have
traditionally had very clean base flows.
Wawirra Creek in central NSW

Site issues that can influence the construction procedure
Construction procedure
• There is more than one way to build a
culvert, causeway or bridge.
• The method of construction can be
influenced by many factors, including:
− available funds
− the type of structure
− flow conditions within the waterway
− fish passage requirements
− land use adjacent to the structure
− the existing road structure and the need
to maintain traffic flow.
Culvert construction
Stream flow conditions
• The construction procedure is critically
dependent on the expected stream flows.
• The construction of a base slab is
obviously much easier and cost effective if
the works are scheduled for periods when
ephemeral streams are either:
− wet but not flowing (trench de-watering
will be required), or
− dry (preferred condition).
Culvert construction in a dry channel

The risk of elevated stream flows
• Elevated stream flows can result from
local or distant rainfall.
• Many parts of Australia experience only
seasonal rainfall and stream flows, so
different construction procedures will need
to be employed during the dry and wet
seasons.
• The methods for flow bypassing vary
depending on the expected stream flow.
Elevated stream flow conditions

The need for bed disturbance
• Bridge and arch construction has the
advantage of requiring minimal
disturbance to the bed of the waterway.
• Pipe culverts also have the advantage of
reduced bed disturbance (relative to box
culverts); however, the waterway bed still
needs to be isolated from stream flows.
• The construction of box culverts requires
the construction of a base slab, which
requires the bed to be isolated from
stream flows.
Construction of a culvert base slab

Site issues that can influence the construction procedure
Maintaining stream flows
• If it is necessary to maintain stream flows
during the construction period, then it may
be necessary to construct the culvert in
stages isolated from stream flows through
the use of impervious ‘isolation barriers’.
• Constructing culverts in stages while
maintaining stream flows is a complex and
expensive procedure that should only be
considered in exceptional circumstances.
• The use of a bridge, instead of a culvert, is
preferred in these circumstances.
Staged construction of a culvert
Maintaining fish passage
• Potential impacts on fish passage can
vary significantly across the country.
• The best option is to approach the local
Fisheries Office for guidance on fish
passage sensitivity and the critical periods
of fish migration.
• Some states may have specific legislation
or construction codes.
• Issues include: time of year, duration of
works, the extent of the fish barrier, and
proposed bank rehabilitation measures.
Freshwater fish migration
Maintaining public access across the
waterway
• Bridge and culvert construction is often
preceded by the construction of a
temporary bypass road to allow ongoing
traffic movement.
• The fish passage requirements for these
temporary structures can vary significantly
from location to location.
Temporary bypass road

Construction of temporary bypass roads
• A temporary stream crossing may also be
needed to allow the movement of
construction vehicles across the
waterway.
• Temporary stream crossings may consist
of:
− piped culvert
− culvert ‘bridging slab’
− ford crossing (alluvial streams)
• The use of temporary stream crossings is
discussed later in this field guide.
Temporary stream crossing

Use of cofferdams
Use of cofferdams
• Cofferdams are commonly used to isolate
a section of a waterway.
• Cofferdams can be formed from a variety
of materials, including:
− sandbags
− earth
− water-filled rubber dams
− sheet pilling
• Cofferdams can also operate as
temporary bypass traffic lanes.
Bypass roads used as cofferdams
Cofferdams with pumped bypass
• Flow bypassing is most commonly
achieved using a pump.
• These pumps need ongoing maintenance
(fuel supply, removal of blockages) during
their operation (including non-work days).
• Bypass pump hoses can interfere with the
construction process.
• Pumps can be blocked or damaged by
natural sediment flows during flood
events.
Cofferdams with pumped bypass

Cofferdams with gravity flow bypass
• If the waterway contains significant base
flows, then a large-pipe gravity system
may be preferable (see image below in
which bypass flows are contained within a
large, relocatable steel pipe).
• These in-channel bypass pipes can
interfere with the construction process.
• Both pumped and gravity systems will
result in significant short-term impacts on
fish passage during the construction
period.
Cofferdams with gravity flow bypass
Other design issues
• A de-watering system will usually be
needed to manage both groundwater and
local stormwater inflows.
• Floodgates can be incorporated into the
cofferdam to allow the work area to drain
in the event of heavy local rainfall or
elevated stream flows.
• Working in tidal waterways can introduce
additional complexities with different state
legislation being applied to works within
tidal waters.
Instream works with piped-flow bypass

Typical Sediment Control
Practices for Road Construction
Over Waterways

Sediment controls for road construction over waterways
Type 3 sediment control
− Sediment fence
− U-shaped sediment trap.
Sediment fence (Type 3 sediment trap)
ESC measures for road works over a waterway with minimal road runoff catchment
side of a small drainage pipe (culvert) is
appropriate when:
− the contributing catchment area is less
than 0.25 ha and the soil loss rate is
greater than 75 t/ha/yr, OR
greater than 0.25 ha and the soil loss
rate is less than 150 t/ha/yr.
• Differences in the sub-catchment areas
could mean different sediment traps are
required in each quadrant.
Rock filter dams (Type 2 sediment trap)
ESC measures for road works over a waterway with variable catchment areas

Sediment controls for road construction over waterways
side of a small drainage pipe (culvert) is
appropriate when:
greater than 0.25 ha, or
− soil loss rate > 150 t/ha/yr.
• Not all of the clean and dirty water drains
shown below will be operational during
each phase of the road construction.
• The contributing catchment area can
include both the road and batter runoff.
Sediment basins (Type 1 sediment trap)
ESC measures for road works over a waterway with significant dirty water runoff
Alternative drainage layouts
• The number of sediment traps can be
reduced if sediment-laden runoff from both
sides of the roadway can be diverted to a
single sediment trap located each side of
the waterway.
• The above examples apply equally to the
construction of bridges and culverts;
however, this alternative drainage layout
(below) can only be employed on bridge
construction.
Sediment basin (Type 1 sediment trap)
Alternative layout with dirty water directed under the bridge towards the basins

Case Study 2 – Bridge construction
Bridge construction
ESC practices for bridge construction
• Erosion and sediment control practices
typically include:
− marking out non-disturbance areas
− sediment fence (SF) located along
down-slope edge of land clearing
(riparian vegetation should not be
cleared unnecessarily)
− construction of sediment basins (SB)
− isolation barriers (IB) around piers
− sediment fence isolation barrier or silt
curtain installed along the water’s edge.
Stage 1
Stage 2 Stage 3

Bridge construction
typically include:
− temporary catch drains (CD) to direct
dirty water to sediment basins
− earth windows formed along the edge
of embankment works in the event of
imminent rainfall
− temporary filter cloth (or other) batter
chutes (CH) to direct embankment
runoff down recently formed fill batters.
Stage 4
Stage 5 Stage 6

Bridge construction
typically include:
− batter stabilisation measures applied to
fill embankments after the embankment
exceeds a height of 3 m, and then after
each further 3 m rise
− batter revegetation applied as soon as
practical
− major sediment traps converted into
permanent stormwater treatment ponds
(see over page)
Stage 7 − disturbed areas revegetated.
Stage 8 Final road and bridge layout

Conversion of basins to permanent stormwater treatment ponds
Permanent stormwater treatment ponds
• After the construction phase, sediment
basins can be converted into:
− permanent road runoff treatment ponds
or wetlands
− pollution containment traps (for the
collection of pollution spills resulting
from traffic accidents)
− farm dams.
• ‘Stop board’ outlet structures can be
installed in order to allow emergency
services to trap and hold pollution spills.
Roadside bio-retention system
Stormwater treatment pond (2009) Same pond (left) in 2017
Type 2 sediment trap (1994) Same sediment trap (left) in 1997
Roadside pollution containment pond Removable stop boards

Culvert Construction while
Maintaining Stream Flow and Fish
Passage

Introduction
Maintaining stream flows
• If base flows within the waterway are
significant, then it is common for the
waterway crossing to consist of a bridge
rather than a culvert.
• If a culvert is to be constructed across
such a waterway, then traditional
construction practice would normally have
involved the construction of a temporary
bypass channel.
• However, such bypass channels may not
provide suitable fish passage conditions.
Temporary bypass channel
Maintaining fish passage
• Fisheries authorities often give approval
for the short-term interruption of general
fish passage conditions within a waterway
to allow construction activities.
• However, ‘fish migration’ and ‘fish
passage’ are often viewed as two
separate issues.
• Fish migration is a specific type of fish
movement that is critical to the life cycle of
certain fish species, and if construction
activities are to occur during such periods,
then strict rules can apply.
Fish migration
Construction difficulties
• The following construction procedures
should not be considered as normal
construction practice—these procedures
are complex, difficult, expensive, and in
some cases, impractical.
• Creditable advice must be obtained from
experienced construction personnel prior
to adopting any of the following
construction procedures.
• The ‘staged’ construction of a culvert will
require a re-design of the culvert, including
the concrete reinforcing.
Construction of a culvert base slab
Sediment control practices
• Sediment basins have not be shown in the
following two case studies in order to
avoid the figures looking too complex.
• In each case, sediment basins would
normally be located on each side of the
roadway each side of the waterway (as
shown left).
Sediment control practices

Fish passage considerations
Fish passage
• Fish passage considerations and
management strategies need to be
discussed with the local Fisheries office.
• Some states may have specific legislation
or self-assessable codes that address
issues such as:
− the maximum allowable duration of
instream works and the existence of
temporary fish barriers
− the time of year when works can occur
− required bank rehabilitation measures.
Freshwater fish migration
Notification and signage of works
• Requirements for on-site signage of
approved works vary across the country.
• In some states, all instream works will
require both pre-works and post-works
notification with the local Fisheries office.
• In Queensland such requirements also
apply to works conducted under their self-
assessable codes.
• It is important to note how rules can
change during periods of ‘fish migration’
as compared to general ‘fish passage’.
Signage at in-stream works
Vegetation clearing on bed and banks
• If it is necessary to remove vegetation
(marine, aquatic or riparian) from the bed
and banks; then wherever practical, this
vegetation should be cut no lower than
ground level, with the roots left in the
ground to aid soil stabilisation.
• Ideally, roots should only be removed
within the region of hard engineering
works.
• In reality, the application of environmental
requirements such as this will vary from
site to site.
Retention of tree root system
Bank rehabilitation
• In some cases it may be a requirement to
re-establish natural vegetation cover over
the channel’s bed and banks.
• However, this may not be appropriate with
respect to establishing vegetation under a
bridge deck, or integrating vegetation with
the required abutment and bank
stabilisation measures.
• It is important to understand how certain
plants can assist in providing beneficial
fish passage conditions under a bridge.
Natural bank vegetation

Case Study 3 & 4 – Culvert construction using isolation barriers
Case Study 3 – Stage 1 of construction Stage 2 of new culvert construction
Case Study 4 – Culvert expansion

• The degree of complexity and construction
difficulties increase significantly if it is
necessary to maintain stream flows, fish
passage, and/or public access.
• Construction difficulties include:
− providing a watertight seal on the
isolation barriers
− attaching the isolation barriers to the
culvert
− constructing the culvert aprons.
Case Study 4 – Existing culvert
Stage 1 Stage 2
Stage 3 Finished waterway culvert

Types of isolation barriers
Sheet piling
• Steel sheet piling is a traditional type of
instream isolation barrier.
• This technique can be used in relatively
deep water.
Sheet piling isolation barrier

Transportable water-filled dams
• Transportable water-filled dams can be
used to isolate large, shallow-water areas
at low cost.
• Generally limited to relatively wide and
shallow waterways.
Water-filled dams
Earth bunding
• Earth bunding can be a slow and
expensive construction method.
• Significant sediment disturbance can
occur during installation and removal of
the earth bunds.
Earth bund
A-frame water barriers
• Various commercial products are
available.
• These techniques are generally limited to
shallow water bodies.
• Possibly best used when working within
concrete lined drainage channels.
A-frame Aqua Barrier

Case Study 5 – Culvert construction with public bypass road
Case Study 5 – Use of temporary bypass
roads
• In certain circumstances, the culvert
placed under the temporary bypass road
will also need to be fish friendly (consult
with the local Fisheries officer).
isolation barriers
− constructing the culvert aprons
− providing suitable fish passage through
the temporary road culvert (if required).
Temporary bypass road
Stage 1 Stage 2
Stage 2 Stage 4
Stage 5 Temporary bypass road

Case Study 6 – Sediment basins located within the road corridor
Case Study 6
• This construction procedure represents
one of the most complex construction
scenarios.
isolation barriers
− directing all sediment-laden water to the
sediment basins
− ensuring the existence of the sediment
basins does not adversely affect the
long-term stability of the pavement
Pre-construction waterway foundations.
Locating sediment basins
• Ideally, the width of the road corridor
should be expanded at waterway
crossings to allow sediment basins to be
constructed to the side of the
embankment.
• Alternatively, negotiations can occur with
the adjacent land owners to allow the
temporary use of their land for the
construction of temporary sediment
basins—possibly resulting in the delivery
of a permanent farm dam.
Stage 1
Locating sediment basins within the road
corridor
• Locating sediment basins within the
envelop of a proposed road embankment
can introduce several construction
difficulties, including:
− possible additional expenditure of
revised geotechnical specifications
− possible rejection of the construction
practice by the geotechnical consultant
− strict supervision of the de-silting of the
basins prior to forming the road
embankment.
Stage 2
Stage 3 Stage 4

Case Study 6 – Sediment basins located within the road corridor (cont.)
Stage 5 Stage 6
Stage 7 Stage 8
Avoid complex construction practices
• Complex construction practices, such as
those described above, can be avoided by:
− constructing bridges or arch structures
over critical fish habitats
− constructing culverts during the dry
season
− constructing culverts during periods
when fish are not migrating along the
waterway
− considering the possible benefits of
using a pipe culvert instead of a box
Finished roadway culvert.
Bridge Arch bridge

Temporary Vehicle Crossings of
Waterways and Gullies

Temporary watercourse crossings
Barge crossings
• A barge can be used as a mobile
transportation system to cross estuaries
and protected waterways.
• Barges can be used as a fixed bridge
structure (left) to cross narrow estuary
inlets.
Barge crossing of tidal inlet

Temporary bridge crossings
• A temporary bridge crossing is used when
it is important to maintain fish passage
during the construction period.
• Pre-case culvert bridging slabs (left) can
be used to form a bridge deck across
narrow streams.
• It is important to control stormwater
drainage on the access tracks leading to
watercourse crossings in a way that will
minimise the risk of sediment-laden water
from these tracks being discharged,
untreated, into the watercourse.
Temporary access construction bridge
Temporary culvert crossings
• Temporary culvert crossings are typically
used on wide stream crossings.
• They are best used when fish passage is
not critical; however, suitable fish passage
can be achieved through appropriate
design.
• Recycled steel pipes are commonly used
for this purpose.
Temporary pipe culvert

Temporary ford crossings
• Ford crossings are used on alluvial creek
and river crossings when stream flows are
not expected.
• The regular crossing of ‘wet’ creek beds
by construction vehicles should be
avoided.
• These crossings are typically used in
shallow, intermittent streams that are
expected to have negligible base flow
during the construction period.
• Cellular Confinement Systems can be
Ford crossing of alluvial stream used to stabilise dry sandy-bed crossings.

Temporary vehicular crossings of waterways
Clay-based waterway crossings
• The design of temporary vehicle crossing
is strongly influences by the of bed
material found within the watercourse.
• Clay-based waterways are almost
impossible to cross at bed level if the bed
is damp because the bed will quickly turn
to mud.
• Temporary vehicle crossings of clay-
based waterways normally require a
temporary culvert, or possibly a rock-lined
ford or causeway if the bed is dry.
Mud generated by vehicular traffic
Sand-based waterway crossings
• Sand-based waterways can experience
significant sediment (sand) flows during
both minor and major floods.
• These waterways can often be crossed by
vehicles at bed level (ford crossing) with
minimal sediment release or damage to
the waterway, even if the bed is wet.
• These bed-level crossings can also be
temporarily reinforced with a cellular
confinement system, but this synthetic
material must eventually be removed.
Sand-based ford crossing
Gravel-based waterway crossings
• Gravel-based waterways usually contain a
series of pools and riffles along the
channel bed.
• The channel bed is typically flat, and bed-
level crossings (fords) are normally
located at riffles where flows are shallow.
• It is important to avoid sand and fine
sediments entering the riffle, so drainage
and sediment controls are usually required
on the approach roads.
Gravel-based ford crossing

Rock-based waterway crossings
• The waterway bed is normally very stable
on rock-based waterways, and few
restrictions apply to the location of vehicle
crossings other than to avoid disturbance
to important riparian vegetation.
• In between the individual rock outcrops,
these waterways may contain sections of
clay, sand or gravel-based channels, in
which case the above rules apply as
appropriate for the type of substrate.
Rock-based ford crossing

Design of approach roads
Drainage control
• Critical to the management of temporary
vehicle crossings of waterways is the
appropriate management of road runoff
adjacent to the waterway.
• Road runoff must be diverted off the
approach roads such that sediment-laden
water does not discharge, untreated, into
the waterway.
• Typically, cross drainage berms (cross
banks) are used to divert runoff into a
sediment trap or the adjacent bushland to
filter sediments from the runoff.
Diversion of road runoff
Flows diverted off access track Cross bank placed at top of descent
Alignment of approach roads
• Preference is normally given to aligning
approach roads perpendicular to the
waterway.
• Recessing the approach road into the
channel bank can provide both positive
and negative outcomes for the waterway.
• The exposed banks formed by recessing
the approach roads must be appropriately
stabilised against the erosive forces
produced by eddies formed when
floodwaters pass over these channel
features.
Recessed approach road
Stabilisation of the road surface
• The need to stabilise the road surface with
rock or gravel depends on:
− the intended service life of the road
− the weight and number of vehicles
− the likelihood of wet weather.
• Ideally, hard engineering structures should
be avoided within the waterway and
riparian zone, especially if the waterway is
unstable or mobile (i.e. subject to natural
lateral movement).
Rock stabilised vehicle crossing

Vehicular crossings of dispersive soil gullies
Dispersive soil gullies
• Rural road projects often encounter deep
gullies that have cut through highly-
erodible dispersive soils.
• In most cases, these gullies will represent
recent geological features (i.e. less than
50 years old) that have resulted from past
land management practices rather than
natural forces.
• Temporary vehicular crossings of these
gullies can be very unstable if not
appropriately designed and constructed.
Dispersive soil gully
Controlling lateral bank erosion
• Lateral bank erosion is the formation of
new gully lines that cut laterally into the
banks of the main gully.
• Lateral bank erosion is normally caused
by overland flows spilling into the gully.
• Drainage systems associated with a
roadway crossing often initiate such bank
erosion, which in turn can damage the
approach roads for the crossing.
• Ideally, road drainage should enter the
gully well away from the road crossing.
Lateral bank erosion
Stabilising the banks and inflow drains
• The key to managing dispersive soils is to
over-excavate all surfaces by at least
500imm and then to cap the exposed
dispersive soil with a 500 mm thick layer
of non-dispersive soil.
• Exposed dispersive soils typically only
need to be capped with a minimum 200 to
300 mm layer of non-dispersive soil;
however, when working in a gully or
watercourse, an allowance must be made
for additional soil disturbance by animals
and natural stream erosion.
Unstable gully banks (fluting erosion)
Managing tunnel erosion
• Drainage systems associated with
roadway crossings of dispersive soil
gullies can easily be damaged by tunnel
erosion.
• Tunnel erosion cannot be repaired by
simply filling the tunnel with treated soil;
instead, consider the following options:
− excavate the full length of the gully and
fill with compacted, treated soil, or
− excavate a trench ‘across’ the tunnel
and backfill the trench with treated
clayey-soil of low permeability.
Tunnel erosion

Instream Construction Practices

Introduction
Instream work practices
• Temporary drainage, erosion and
sediment control measures can be applied
to certain instream work practices.
• The use of instream sediment systems
can be controversial, and preference
should be given to the use of isolation
barriers wherever practical.
• Instream sediment control measures can
only treat minor dry weather flows.
• These sediment control techniques cannot
treat elevated stream flows.
Bridge construction
Typical uses of instream sediment control
techniques
• Typical uses of instream sediment control
include:
− temporary sediment controls during the
installation, relocation, or removal of
isolation barriers
− temporary sediment control during the
formation or removal of cofferdams
− sediment control during the
maintenance (de-silting) of waterway
culverts.
Cofferdam construction
Inappropriate uses of instream sediment
control measures
• Examples of instream work practices that
should not utilise instream sediment
control measures include:
− construction of works within streams
that have base flows exceeding the
capacity of a small bypass pump
− works within waterways containing
migrating fish.
• Woven fabrics, such as ‘sediment fences’
should NOT be used in waterways.
Inappropriate instream sediment control
Potential Fisheries issues
• Some states require Fisheries approval of
any temporary waterway barrier, such as
an instream sediment control system.
• Some states have produced self-
assessable codes that must be applied if
temporary instream barriers are used,
including the construction of cofferdams.
Fisheries construction code

Critical management issues
Basic principles instream work practices
• Ensure all necessary government
approvals are obtained prior to any
disturbance to a watercourse.
• To the maximum degree practical,
minimise disturbance to riparian
vegetation each side of the watercourse.
• Take all reasonable and practical
measures to avoid the operation of
construction equipment within the main
channel of the waterway.
Long-reach excavator
Isolation of disturbances from stream flow
• Wherever practical, priority should be
given to the use of instream flow diversion
systems that successfully isolate all soil
disturbances from the stream flow.
• Isolation barriers can be formed from
sediment fence fabric (flow depth < 0.8im),
floating silt curtains (depth > 0.8 m), large
water-filled rubber dams, and sheet piling.
• Photo (left) shows a sediment fence
(adjacent to the bank) forming a coarse
sediment trap, with a second fence
(adjacent the stream) forming a quiescent
Isolation barrier settling pond to settle fine sediments.
Instream sediment control measures
• The use of instream sediment control
measures should only be used as a last
resort, and only when it is not practical to
divert dry weather flows around all
disturbances.
• Instream sediment control measures
usually require the incorporation of
‘filtration’ systems, such as Filter Tubes
(left).
• Instream sediment control measures must
not be used during periods of fish
migration—seek expert advice.
Instream sediment control system
In-bank erosion control measures
• All disturbed surfaces, bed, banks and
overbank areas, must be appropriately
rehabilitated as soon as practical.
• Temporary erosion control measures
include the use of rock (along the toe of
the bank), biodegradable erosion control
mesh, and native vegetation.
• Jute or Coir Logs may be incorporated into
the toe of the bank to protect newly
stabilised banks from minor flows as an
alternative to rock stabilisation of the bank
toe.
Bank rehabilitation

Instream sediment control techniques
Rock filter dams
• Rock filter dams are in-effect, large rock
check dams used to slow and filter waters
passing through the dam.
• Instream rock filter dams are normally
wrapped in filter cloth, which is used as
the primary filter.
• Aggregate-based filters are generally not
employed on instream rock filter dams.
• Fine aggregate, however, can be used to
control the rate of flow passing through the
rock filter dam.
Instream rock filter dam
Sediment weirs
• A sediment weir is similar in structure to a
gabion wall.
• Sediment weirs are formed from two or
more parallel wire mesh fences (staked
perpendicular to the flow) in between
which aggregate (preferred) or straw bales
are placed to control the rate of through-
flow.
• Fine aggregate and/or filter cloth is then
placed on the upstream face to act as the
primary filter (which can be removed and
replaced after elevated flows occur).
Instream sediment weir
Filter tube dams
• A filter tube dam is a rock filter dam, into
which ribbed drainage pipes are set, onto
which non-woven, geotextile filter tubes
(below) are attached.
• Instream sediment traps are only suitable
for use within constructed drainage
channels, natural drainage lines and
ephemeral waterways, and are designed
only to treat dry-weather base flows.
• Elevated stream flows should be allowed
to pass over the sediment trap without
causing damage to the trap.
Rock filter dam with filter tubes
Elevated stream flows at work site Filter tube connected to ribbed pipe

Sediment Control During Site
De-watering

De-watering sediment controls
Filter bags
• Commercial filter bags are suitable for the
treatment of low flow rates.
• The bags collect only coarse-grained
sediments (they provide minimal control of
turbidity levels).
• It is important to ensure that there are
suitable means of collecting and removing
the bags once they are full of sediment.
• Placing the filter bags within a mini skip
(drainage plug removed) can reduce the
complications of removing the used bags.
Filter bag
Filter fence
• Suitable for the coarse and fine-grained
soils, but not for turbidity control.
• Non-woven fabrics must be used.
Compost berms
• Can provide good filtration and limited
turbidity control.
• Compost-filled socks (Filter Socks) can
also be used.
• Performance of both systems can be
improved if incorporated with a substantial
Compost-filled filter sock/berm grass filter bed (e.g. a wide floodplain).
Filter ponds
• Used on flat or near-flat ground.
• Most effective for the treatment of water
containing coarse-grained sediment.
• Limited control over turbidity.
• Diameter of the pond and the composition
of the filter wall depends on the soil type
and design flow rate.
• Performance can be improved if located
adjacent a substantial grass filter bed (e.g.
a wide floodplain).
Filter pond
Filter tubes
• Commercial filter tubes are suitable for the
treatment of low to medium flow rates.
• Filter tubes collect only coarse-grained
sediments, with minimal control of
turbidity.
• It is important to ensure that there are
suitable means of collecting and removing
the filter tubes once full of sediment.
• Placing the filter tube up-slope of a
substantial grass filter bed can improve
the collection of fine sediments and
Filter tube turbidity control.

De-watering sediment controls
Grass filter beds
• The most common de-watering sediment
control technique is to pump sediment-
laden water onto a grassed surface to
allow the water to infiltrate and ‘filter’
through the underlying soil.
• It is important to understand that a
grassed area only provides effective
filtration while the underlying soil remain
unsaturated.
• Consequently, the pumped outflow must
be spread over as large an area as is
possible.
Grass filter bed
Portable settling tanks
• Wide variety of different systems can be
employed.
• Lamella settling tanks utilise laminar flow
conditions to optimise the settlement of
non-dispersive soils, but allowable flow
rates are low.
• Some systems have good control over
turbidity, while other systems have little or
no control over turbidity.
• Units can be hired, and operation costs
are low.
Lamella settling tank
Settling ponds
• Settling ponds contain a free draining
outlet system, usually consisting of a Rock
Filter Dam, or a series of Filter Tubes.
• Only suitable for waters containing fast
settling (coarse) sediments.
Stilling ponds
• Stilling ponds do not incorporate a free
draining outlet system.
• These ponds are operated similar to ‘wet’
sediment basins.
Settling pond • Turbidity control can be achieved.
Sump pits
• Sump pits can be used as a pre-treatment
system in association with an outlet-type
treatment system (i.e. any of the above
treatment systems).
• Filtration occurs at the pump inlet rather
than at the outlet of the pipe.
• Commonly used as a pre-treatment
system when de-watering instream works.
Sump pit acting as a pipe intake filter

Rehabilitation of Waterways

Introduction
Waterway rehabilitation
• Both bridge and culvert construction can
cause significant disturbance to the bed
and banks of waterways, which will require
rehabilitation at the end of the construction
process.
• Revegetation needs under a bridge deck
can be complex, and the revegetation
outcomes are often required to satisfy the
sometimes conflicting needs of:
− scour protection, and
− fish passage.
Bridge construction
Scour protection measures under bridges
• The existence of a bridge almost certainly
will increase flow velocities during flood
events due to the reduced flow area.
• Scour protection measures will usually be
required to prevent:
− damage to bridge abutments
− the undermining of abutments
− scour around the base of bridge piers
− scour damage to the channel’s bed and
banks.
Flood damage to bridge pier
Scour protection of waterway bed and
banks adjacent bridges and culverts
• Both bridges and culverts experience
accelerated flow velocities immediately
upstream and downstream of the crossing.
• Scour protection is normally achieved
through the use of rock stabilisation of the
channel banks, and possibly (?) rock
stabilisation of the channel bed.
• Bed stabilisation measures are
questionable if the waterway experiences
the natural movement of bed material (e.g.
sand and gravel-based waterways)
Rock stabilisation of bed and banks
• The adopted scour protection measures
need to be compatible with the needs of
fish passing under the bridge, or through
the culvert as the case may be.
• Understanding how to make scour
protection measures ‘fish friendly’ requires
expert advice, and a common
understanding by the engineers and
scientists of the critical issues.
Fish passage along a creek bed

The benefits of channel roughness for fish
passage
• Flow velocities are never uniform across
the width and depth of flowing water.
• Close to the surface of the bed and banks
of waterways, water velocities decline
rapidly to form a layer of slow-moving
water known as the ‘boundary layer’.
• The thickness of this boundary layer is
directly related to the degree of surface
roughness, and it is within this boundary
layer that fish movement often occurs
during periods of high flow.
Variation in velocity with depth
Different vegetation causes different
boundary layer and turbulence conditions
• Woody vegetation, such as trees and
shrubs, cause extensive flow turbulence,
and a general slowing of the water
column, which can result in increased
flood levels.
• Stiff grasses, such as Lomandra, are ideal
for producing thick, fish-friendly, boundary
layers.
• Ground covers, such as soft grasses, fold
flat in high velocity flows resulting in thin,
non fish-friendly boundary layers.
Effects of channel roughness
The importance of establishing vegetation
under bridge decks
• Fish passage not only occurs within the
main waterway channel, but can also
occur along the upper banks and across
overbank areas during flood events.
• Appropriate vegetation can aid fish
passage in the following locations:
− channel bed (ephemeral streams)
− channel banks (moderated flows)
− overbank areas (minor floods)
− bridge abutments (major floods)
Adverse under-deck planting conditions
Difficulties in establishing vegetation
under bridge decks
• The bank and overbank areas under a
bridge deck can be hostile areas for
vegetation growth.
• The problems experienced include:
− shading from sunlight
− lack of natural rainfall resulting in dry
ground conditions even through the
area can be close to a flowing stream
− high flow velocities during flood events.
Poor light conditions under a bridge

Fish-friendly scour protection measures
Replacement of natural bed material
• Natural bed material (substrate) should be
returned to the channel bed wherever
possible.
• The replacement of the natural substrate
is important for:
− fish passage
− maintaining the natural boundary layer
flow conditions along the bed
− maintaining the natural migration of bed
material down the waterway during
floods (alluvial waterways only).
Gravel-based waterway
Stiff grasses
• Wherever possible, the bank vegetation
should mimic the natural bank vegetation,
which usually requires integrating
vegetation with introduced hard
engineering measures such as rock.
• Critical to fish passage needs is the
reinstatement of edge plants along the
bank and the water’s edge.
• Stiff grasses, such as Lomandra, can be
very important along the lower bank region
of waterways.
Natural bank vegetation
Vegetated rock stabilisation
• Vegetated rock surfaces are always more
stable than non-vegetated rock.
• Wherever practical, rock stabilisation
measures should be actively vegetated to
ensure appropriate plants are established
rather than weed species.
• The voids between the rocks should be
filled with soil and pocket-planted.

Vegetated rock mattresses and gabions
• Non-vegetated gabion and rock mattress
surfaces are ‘hydraulically’ smooth, and
consequently produce boundary layers
that are too thin for most fish.
• To aid fish passage, these surfaces
should be suitably vegetated to ensure
appropriate plants and surface roughness
conditions are established.
• When placed near waterways, all wire
basket products must be vegetated due to
the limited working life of the wire baskets.
Vegetated rock mattresses

Potentially unfavourable scour protection measures
Non-vegetated rock stabilisation
• In some circumstances, plain, non-
vegetated, rock-lined surfaces can also
represent a barrier to fish passage.
• Such surfaces may not be able to produce
desirable boundary layer flow conditions,
or desirable shading of the water’s edge.
• In permanent streams, open voids below
the water line can provide ideal fish
habitat; however, above the water line it is
generally preferable for vegetation to be
established over the rock protection.
Non-vegetated rock stabilisation

Non-vegetated rock mattresses
• When placed in an aquatic (waterway)
environment, the wire baskets used to
form gabions and rock mattresses can be
damaged by the natural movement of bed
sediments (sand) and woody debris.
• The wire only has a limited life span prior
to rusting, even if the wire is galvanised
and plastic-coated.
• Appropriate vegetation cover is essential
for the long-term durability of gabion
structures in aquatic environments.
Non-vegetated rock mattresses
Concrete and grouted stone pitching
• Concrete, shotcrete, and grouted stone
pitching are commonly used as a surface
material on bridge abutments.
• These ‘hydraulically’ smooth surfaces do
not provide the suitable boundary layer
conditions required for fish passage during
flood events.
• Grouted stone pitching is also not very
durable and the inevitable cracking of the
grout will ultimately result in the failure of
the scour protection (see below).
Concrete abutments
Grouted stone pitched abutment Failed stone pitching (same bridge)

Temporary erosion control measures
Temporary bank stabilisation during site
revegetation
• Temporary erosion control measures are
often required during the revegetation
phase.
• These erosion control measures are used
to:
− reduce damage to newly planted
surfaces
− reduce the loss of soil in the event of
increased stream flows within the
waterway.
Flood damage to site revegetation
Erosion control blankets
• The use of ‘fine’ or ‘thick’ jute blankets is
uncommon in waterway rehabilitation
because of the risk of elevated stream
flows lifting and washing away the
blankets along with several of the plants.
• If jute blankets are used, then these
blankets are more likely to be the thicker
blankets to help suppress the re-
establishment of weed species.
Jute erosion control blanket

Jute and coir mesh
• Jute or coir mesh is the most commonly
used and recommended erosion control
mat for waterway environments.
• These meshes are less likely to be
disturbed by elevated stream flows, and
are easier to plant into.
• The mesh is commonly anchored with
traditional metal or plastic pins, plus
additional rock weights.
Jute mesh with additional rock anchors

Caution the use of synthetic reinforced
erosion control mats
• Some temporary erosion control mats
contain an organic mulch reinforced with a
synthetic mesh that will eventually
breakdown under sunlight.
• These synthetic reinforced mats should
not be used in bushland and waterway
environments because ground dwelling
animals, such as lizards, snakes, and
seed-eating birds, can become entangled
in the netting.
Synthetic reinforced erosion control mat

Use of rock in bank stabilisation
Design velocity (Vdesign) adjacent banks
• In grass-lined channels with a uniform
cross-section, adopt a design velocity
equal to the calculated average flow
velocity (Vdesign = Vaverage).
• In irregular, natural, woody/scrubby
waterways, adopt a design velocity of two-
thirds (67%) the average flow velocity.
• In all cases, on the outside of significant
channel bends, adopt a design velocity
adjacent to the outer bank of 133% of the
average flow velocity (1.33 Vaverage).
Placement of rock on channel bends
Rock type and grading
• Crushed rock is generally more stable
than natural rounded stone.
• A 36% increase in rock size is
recommended for rounded rock.
• The rock should be durable and resistant
to weathering.
• Neither the breadth nor the thickness of a
given rock should be less than one-third
its length.
• In waterways the nominal rock size is
usually between 200 mm to 600 mm.
Partial vegetated bank stabilisation
Recessing rock below the toe of bank
• In most cases, rock stabilisation only
needs to extend below the bed level if:
− the rock is placed on a steep bank, and
there is a risk of the rocks slipping
down the bank during floods
− deep movement of bed material is likely
to occur during floods, or
− long-term lowering of the bed level (bed
erosion) is likely to occur.
• Otherwise, the toe protection can rest on
the channel bed.
Typical rock placement at toe of bank
Elevation of rock placement on banks
• Rock placement often does not need to
extent to the top of the bank.
• A simple guide to rock placement is:
− straight reaches: 1/3 to 1/2 bank height
− channel bends: 2/3 lowest bank height
on the outside of bends; and 1/3 the
lowest bank height on the inside of
bends.
• In most cases, the upper bank area only
needs to be stabilised with suitable
vegetation.
Rock stabilisation on channel bend

Use of rock in bank stabilisation
Thickness of rock protection
• The thickness of the armour layer should
be sufficient to allow at least two
overlapping layers of the nominal rock
size.
• The thickness of rock protection must also
be sufficient to accommodate the largest
rock size.
• It is noted that additional thickness (i.e.
placing more then two layers of rock) will
not compensate for the use of undersized
rock.
Larger rocks forming toe protection
Backing material or filter layer
• Non-vegetated armour rock must be
placed over a layer of suitably graded filter
rock, or geotextile filter cloth.
• The geotextile filter cloth must have
sufficient strength, and must be suitably
overlapped, to withstand the placement of
the rock (which normally results in
movement of the fabric).
• Armour rock that is intended to be
vegetated by appropriately filling all voids
with soil and pocket planting, will generally
not require an underlying filter layer.
Rock placement over filter cloth
Maximum bank slope
• Maximum batter slope is typically 1:2
(V:H) for non-vegetated, and 1:2.5 (V:H) if
vegetated—the flatter slope being
desirable (but not essential) to provide
safe conditions for planting operations.
• Steeper banks can be achieved with the
use of slacked boulders, but the rocks
must sit on a stable bed.
• Steep high banks can represent a safety
hazard to revegetation teams—seek
advice from revegetation contractors.
Stacked boulder wall
Establishment of vegetation
• The establishment of vegetation over rock-
lined surfaces is generally encouraged.
• Common revegetation problems that may
need to be addressed during the design
phase include:
− poor aesthetics due to poor plant
selection or weed invasion
− steep banks that can be difficult to
maintain and weed
− reduce hydraulic capacity of waterway
crossing if woody species are establish
within critical hydraulic areas.
Vegetated rock stabilisation of bank

Rock placement on waterway banks
Advantages:
Reduced quantity of rock.
Disadvantages:
Problems can occur with lateral inflows (i.e.
local stormwater runoff) entering into, or
passing under, the rock.
Can result in reduced aquatic habitat values in
the absence of vegetation.
Use:
Ideally, the use of this rock placement method
should be limited.
Used on the inside face of fully shaded, high-
Rock placement with open voids velocity channel bends.
Advantages:
Improved aquatic habitat values.
Retention of riparian values.
Disadvantages:
Care must be taken to ensure all voids are
filled with soil to prevent loss (seepage) of the
upper bank soil into the rock layer.
Use:
Toe protection of channel banks in regions of
high flow velocity, or areas where the channel
bed may experience scour.
Generally the preferred method of rock
placement within waterways.
Rock placement with soil-filled voids
Advantages:
Can provide very high scour protection once
vegetation is established.
Retention of aquatic habitat values.
Retention of riparian values.
Banks can be steeper than vegetated banks
that do not contain rock protection.
Disadvantages:
High installation cost.
Use:
Outside face of high velocity or sharp channel
bends.
Also, used in areas where both the channel
velocity and over-bank flow velocities are likely
to be very high and thus erosive.
Full-height rock placement

Rock placement on waterway banks
Advantages:
Cheaper installation cost compared to
vegetated rock protection.
Disadvantages:
Poor aesthetics.
Poor aquatic habitat and fish passage.
High risk of weed invasion unless fully shaded.
Use:
Heavily shaded, high velocity areas.
Outside face of fully shaded channel bends.
Very high velocity regions where vegetation is
Full-height with open voids not expected to survive.
Advantages:
Long-term protection of highly erodible soils.
Disadvantages:
Poor aesthetics.
Poor aquatic habitat and fish passage.
High risk of weed invasion unless fully shaded.
Use:
Heavily shaded areas containing dispersive
soils.
Outside face of fully shaded channel bends.
Very high velocity regions where vegetation is
Rock placement over dispersive soils not expected to survive.
Advantages:
Retention of aquatic habitat values.
Long-term protection of highly erodible soils.
Reduced maintenance costs.
Disadvantages:
Higher installation cost compared to non-
vegetated rock protection.
Use:
Outside face of high velocity or sharp channel
bends in dispersive soil regions.
Dispersive soil areas where both the channel
velocity and over-bank flow velocities are likely
to be very high and therefore erosive.
Generally the preferred method of rock
placement within dispersive-soil gullies and
waterways.
Vegetated rock placement over poor soils

Introduction
• Wherever practical, rock protected areas
should be lightly covered with soil (to fill all
voids) and pocket planted to encourage
the preferred plant growth across the bank
and along the water’s edge.
• In areas where dense revegetation is not
desirable (e.g. critical hydraulic area
adjacent the bridge or culvert entry and
exit) then the establishment of soft
grasses over the rocks can (in some
cases) reduce the likelihood of woody
species being established.
Planted rock-stabilised creek bank
Infill soil
• Experience has shown that minimal soil is
lost from the rock voids during flood
events.
• The image presented left shows a recently
planted bank that experienced a bankful
flow just weeks after planting—all plants
were lost from the bank, but most of the
soil remained.
• Important: In order to allow proper plant
growth, the infill soil needs to be placed
progressively as the layers of rock are
added to the bank.
Voids filled with soil ready for planting
Planting along the water’s edge
• Wherever practical, vegetation should
extend to the water’s edge to increase the
value and linkage of aquatic and terrestrial
habitats.
• Plants that branch over the water’s edge
can provide essential shading of the water
to provide pockets of cool water for
aquatic life.
• Edge plants also assist aquatic life to
shelter from predators.
Planting along the water’s edge

Use of erosion control mats
• During plant establishment it may be
necessary to mulch around newly placed
plants to control soil moisture loss.
• Covering such areas with a jute or coir
mesh can help to reduce the loss of mulch
by wind and minor flows.
• However, it is noted that the compete loss
of the matting during high flows can cause
damage to, or the total loss of, recently
established plants.
Planted rock covered with jute mesh

Common problems associated with rock stabilisation of waterways
Bank erosion at downstream end of rock-
lined banks
• In the absence of a vegetative cover, rock-
lined surfaces can act as ‘hydraulically’
smooth surfaces that can induce high flow
velocities to exist adjacent the rock-lined
surface.
• These same high velocities can cause
erosion on the unprotected waterway bank
immediately downstream of the rock-lined
surface.
• Erosion along the toe of the rock is also
common.
Bank erosion at d/s end of rock work
Rock placed on dispersive or slaking soils
• Rocks should not be placed directly onto
a dispersive, sodic, or slaking soil.
• Tunnel erosion is a common outcome
when rocks are placed directly on
dispersive soils.
Tunnel erosion under rocks

Placement of rock over dispersive soils
• If the rock is placed on a dispersive (e.g.
sodic) soil, then prior to placing the filter
cloth, the exposed soil must first be
covered with a layer of non-dispersive soil,
typically minimum 200imm thickness, but
preferably 300 mm.
• It is noted that filter cloth, no matter how
thick, cannot seal a dispersive soil, and
thus should not be relied upon as the sole
underlay for rock placed on a dispersive
soil.
Collapsed dispersive soil bank

Rock not integrated into the bank
• Rocks should not be placed on a creek
bank in a manner that detracts from the
natural aesthetics of the waterway.
• Wherever possible, the rocks should be
recessed into the soil, and appropriately
vegetated.
• The exception being when the
establishment of vegetation would
adversely affect local flood levels.
Poorly placed rocks on creek bank

Glossary of terms
Acid sulfate soil A soil type containing significant amounts of iron sulfide (usually
pyrite, FeS2) which generates sulfuric acid when exposed to
oxygen; typically associated with coastal lowlands (< 5 m AHD) and
estuarine floodplains.
Aggregate immersion A simple soil test performed in the field that is similar to the Field
test Emerson Aggregate Test, except undisturbed samples of the soil
are tested rather than a formed 'bolus'.
Alluvial waterway A natural waterway formed primarily from flood-laid deposits of
sand, silt and gravel, or a constructed channel primarily lined with
alluvial material extracted from a waterway or floodplain.
Typically represented by sand-based and gravel-based waterways.
Bankful elevation A water surface elevation estimated by various procedures that
describe the channel flow condition preceding significant overbank
flow. If benches are well established within the channel, then
significant overbank flows might occur prior to the inundation of the
floodplain.
To avoid erroneous and/or highly variable results, bankful elevation
should not be determined by the shape of a single cross-section,
but with observations made along a length of the channel.
Bankful width The width of a watercourse when it completely fills its channel and
the elevation of the water reaches the upper margins of the bank.
Causeway A raised road or path constructed across low, wet ground or across
tidal water.
Clay-based waterway In these waterways, clayey soils dominate the make-up of the
stream bed. Channel stability is most commonly governed by the
strength of the bed and bank vegetation.
Often referred to as ‘fixed-bed’ waterways—the relative stability of
the bed allows for increased longevity of bed vegetation. In their
natural condition, minor clay-based waterways often have little if
any measurable sediment flow.
There is usually a gradual change in plant species from the bed to
the lower bank, to the upper bank, to the over-bank areas.
Clayey soil A soil that contains at least 20% clay. These are fine-grained soils
that readily form a clod when compressed in the hand, feel very
smooth and sticky when wet, and are very difficult to shovel or
break-up when compacted.
Clean water Water that either enters the property from an external source and
has not been further contaminated by sediment within the property;
or water that has originated from the site and is of such quality that
it either does not need to be treated in order to achieve the required
water quality standard, or would not be further improved if it was to
pass through the type of sediment trap specified for the sub-
catchment.
Coarse sediment That part of sediment consisting of sands and the coarser fraction
of silts.
Cross bank A longitudinal earth mound with low vertical curvature placed
diagonally across an unsealed road or track to collect and divert
stormwater runoff across the road or track to a table drain or
suitable discharge point.
Cross drain A drain of various forms (e.g. cross bank or sub-surface pipe) that
collects the flow of water on a road, trail or other access way and
diverts it across the road surface. Typically required where runoff
cannot be controlled by crossfall drainage.

Deposit Means any discharging, spraying, releasing, spilling, leaking,
seeping, pouring, emitting, emptying, throwing, dumping or placing.
Dirty water Water not classified as clean water.
Dispersive soil A structurally unstable soil that readily disperses into its constituent
(dispersible soil) particles (clay, silt and sand) when placed in water. Moderately to
highly dispersive soils are normally highly erodible and are likely to
be susceptible to tunnel erosion.
Most sodic soils are dispersive, but not all dispersive soils may be
classified as sodic. Some dispersive soils are resistant to erosion
until mechanically disturbed.
Drainage line A natural or constructed stormwater drainage path that carries
‘concentrated’ rather than ‘sheet’ flow, and is likely to flow only
during periods of rainfall, and for short periods (hours) after rain
has stopped, and is a drainage path that cannot be classified as a
‘watercourse’ based on a locally or state-adopted classification
system.
Dry gully Gully erosion that does not contain permanent water.
Emerson aggregate A classification of soil aggregates based on their coherence in
class water. Soil aggregates are classified into 8 types according the
conditions in which they slake, swell and disperse, in which Class 1
is the most stable through to Class 8 which is least stable. Classes
2 and 3 may be further subdivided according to the degree of
dispersion.
Ephemeral waterway A watercourse that flows during and for short periods after storms.
Erosion control blanket A blanket of synthetic and/or natural material used to cover and
protect soil against erosion caused by wind, rain, and minor
overland flows.
Erosion control mat A mat of synthetic and/or natural material that is primarily used to
protect soil against erosion caused by concentrated surface flows.
Erosion control mesh An open weave blanket formed from synthetic or natural twine such
as hessian rope (jute) or coconut fibre (coir), primarily used to
protect soil against erosion caused by concentrated surface flows.
ESC Means ‘erosion and sediment control’
ESCP Means ‘Erosion and Sediment Control Plan’
Fine sediment That part of sediment consisting of clay-sized particles and the finer
fraction of silts.
Fish Includes: parts of fish; shellfish, crustaceans, marine animals and
any parts of shellfish, crustaceans or marine animals; and, the
eggs, sperm, spawn, larvae, spat and juvenile stages of fish,
shellfish, crustaceans and marine animals.
Fish barrier Means any weir, dam, non-natural vegetation condition or other
obstruction impeding the free passage of fish.
Fish habitat Spawning grounds and nursery, rearing, food supply and migration
areas on which fish depend directly or indirectly in order to carry
out their life processes.
Fluting A series of vertically elongated grooves (flutes) down gully sides
caused by rill erosion. Most commonly experienced in dispersive
soils. In severe cases the rills may become isolated from the gully
walls to form narrow tapered pinnacles.
Ford A shallow place where a river or other body of water may be
crossed by wading or otherwise passing through the water.

Gravel-based waterway Bed material is made-up of well-rounded gravels and boulders.
These are ‘alluvial’ waterways usually containing pools and riffles
that completely reform during severe flooding.
Bank stability is governed by the strength of the bank vegetation.
The bed material can be highly mobile during severe floods, but
generally stable during minor floods.
Bed vegetation may consist of mature woody and non-woody
species, but significant loss of vegetation can occur during severe
floods. Bank vegetation can be similar to clay-based waterways.
Grubbing A construction activity that involves removing vegetation, tree roots
and stumps and surface soil from the pipeline right-of-way or other
areas that will be under development.
Gully erosion A complex of processes in which soil removal is characterised by
large incised channels, usually deeper than 30 cm. The severity of
gully erosion may be recorded as minor, moderate, severe or very
severe.
Inland waterway A waterway located well away from a coastline, such as waterways
that ultimately discharges to a trapped water body, or most of the
tributaries of the Murray–Darling rivers catchment.
Mitigation Actions taken during the planning, design, construction and
operation of works and undertakings to alleviate potential adverse
effects on the productive capacity of fish habitats.
Raindrop impact The splattering of soil particles caused by the impact of raindrops
erosion on the soil surface. The loosened particles may or may not be
subsequently removed by runoff. Raindrop impact erosion is a
component of sheet erosion.
Riparian zone That part of the landscape adjacent to a watercourse that
influences, and is influenced by, watercourse processes. Usually
includes the instream habitats, beds, banks and floodplains of
watercourses, or their parts.
Riprap Loose, medium to large rock or stone used to protect earth
surfaces against erosion by flowing water or wave action, as in a
revetment.
Rock-based waterway Bed material is made-up of exposed rock outcrops separated by
sections of clay, sand or gravel-based channels. Bank stability is
governed either by bank vegetation or exposed rock walls.
These are fixed-bed ‘spilling’ waterways usually containing riffles
and waterfalls followed by deep pools. The waterway bed is
normally very stable; however, significant sediment flows can still
occur during floods.
Within vegetated sections of the bed, plant species are usually
governed by the type of bed material (clay, sand or gravel).
Sand-based waterway Deep, loose sand dominates the make-up of the stream bed. The
depth of the sand typically exceeds the depth of the root systems of
some bed and lower bank vegetation.
These are ‘alluvial’ waterways that experience significant sediment
(sand) flow during both minor and major stream flows. The bed
material can be highly mobile during floods, thus bed vegetation is
normally dominated by quick-response species.
There is normally a clearly defined change in plant species from the
bed to the channel bank. Upper bank vegetation can be similar to
clay-based waterways.

Sandy soil A soil that contains at least 50% sand. These are coarse-grained
soils that are easy to shovel and break-up when compacted. It is
very difficult to form a clod when sandy soils are compressed in the
hand.
Sediment Any clay, silt, sand, gravel, soil, mud, cement, fine-ceramic waste,
or combination thereof, transported from its area of origin.
Sheet flow Flow that passes evenly over the ground as a thin sheet of water as
opposed to concentrated flow. Normally occurs on plan surfaces
(ground not heavily concaved), and on uniformly grassed areas
when the depth of flow is not significantly greater than the blade
length of the grass.
Slaking The process of natural collapse of a soil aggregate in water where
its mechanical strength is insufficient to withstand the swelling of
clay and the expulsion of air from pore spaces. It does not include
the effects of soil dispersion.
Slaking aggregates readily break down when immersed in water,
but do not disperse. Clouding of the water, if any, is limited to just
around individual aggregates.
Slaking soils are highly erosive and structurally unstable, but
readily settle in water.
Sodic soil A soil containing sufficient exchangeable sodium to adversely affect
soil stability, plant growth and/or land use. Such soils are dispersive
and typically contain a horizon in which the exchangeable sodium
percentage (ESP), expressed as a percentage of cation exchange
capacity, is 6 per cent or more. Strongly sodic soils are considered
to be those with an ESP of 15 per cent or more.
Substrate The material, whether organic and inorganic, found on the bed of
the watercourse.
Tunnel erosion An erosion process involving the removal of sub-surface soil by
water while the surface soil remains relatively intact. Water seeps
through soil causing the dispersion and/or slaking of soil particles.
The dispersed soil is then removed by seepage until the seepage
path takes the form of a tunnel.
Turbidity A measure of the clarity of water. Commonly measured in terms of
Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).
Type 1, 2 & 3 sediment A classification system used to rank sediment control measures
traps based on their ability to trap a specified grain size.
Watercourse A channel with defined bed and banks, including any gullies and
culverts associated with the channel, down which surface water
flows on a permanent or semi-permanent basis or at least, under
natural conditions, for a substantial time following periods of heavy
rainfall within its catchment.
Waterway A term commonly interchangeable with the term ‘watercourse’. The
legal definition may vary from state to state, and region to region.


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ESC Field Guide For Road Construction

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August, 2017

Version 1, August 2017

Prepared by: Grant Witheridge, Catchments and Creeks Pty Ltd

This document should be referenced as:

Copies of this document may be downloaded from: www.catchmentsandcreeks.com.au

© Catchments & Creeks Pty Ltd, 2017

© Catchments & Creeks Pty Ltd August 2017 Page 2

Books 1 to 3 may be purchased through:

Field Guide for Road Construction, Part-1

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© Catchments & Creeks Pty Ltd August 2017 Page 5

About the author

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Looking at the end of a staged urban road

Type 2 drop inlet sediment trap

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Road construction works

Table 1 – Example sediment control standard for general construction works

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Bridge construction Bridge construction

Culvert construction Culvert construction

Rural road construction Residential road construction

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Sediment fence located in bushland

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Clean water diversion around a basin

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Drains directing water to sediment basins

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Identification of non disturbance area

Stockpile essential ESC materials

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Check dam sediment trap U-shaped sediment trap

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Possible layout of erosion and sediment control measures on a crowned roadway

Check dams adjacent a sediment fence Mulch berm sediment barrier

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Possible layout of erosion and sediment control measures on a dual carriageway

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Natural drainage line

Minor culvert crossing

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Sediment fence (Type 3 sediment trap)

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Sediment fence with rock check dams

Spill-through weir outlet structure Spill-through weir & aggregate filter

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Figure 1 – Stage 1 Erosion and Sediment Control Plan

Figure 2 – Details of construction works ESCP at the road intersection

Figure 3 – Details of construction works ESCP at the pipe extension

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