Sanjivani Rural Education Society’s
Sanjivani College of Engineering, Kopargaon-423 603
(An Autonomous Institute, Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune)
NACC ‘A’ Grade Accredited, ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Department of Electrical Engineering
EE305B - Smart Grid
Prof. Dr.M.Sujith
Assistant Professor
Email:[email protected]
Contact No: 9486820743
1
Unit-2 Smart Grid Measurement and Automation
Technologies
Course Objectives : To describe the aspects of measurement equipment
and automation technologies used in smart grid.
Smart metering, Communications infrastructure and protocols for smart
metering, Demand Side Integration, Distribution Automation Equipment -
Current transformers, Voltage Transformers, Intelligent Electronic Devices,
Fault in the distribution system, Distribution Management System – SCADA,
Modelling and Analysis tool, Applications, Transmission System Operation-
IEDs, Phasor Measurement unit , Energy Management.
Course Outcome : Formulate solutions in the areas of smart substations,
distributed generation and wide area measurements
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Smart Metering And Demand Side Integration
● In many countries, the power infrastructure is ageing and is being increasingly
heavily used as demand for electricity rises. This overloading will worsen as
large numbers of electric vehicles, heat pumps and other new loads use low-
carbon energy from the electric power system.
● Obtaining planning permission for the installation of new power system
equipment, particularly overhead lines, is becoming increasingly difficult.
● Therefore, demand-side programmes have been introduced widely to make better
use of the existing power supply infrastructure and to control the growth of
demand
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Smart Metering And Demand Side Integration
● The dual aims of reducing CO2 emissions and improving energy security
(energy policy goals in many countries) coincide in the increasing use of
renewable energy for electricity generation.
● However, connection of a large amount of intermittent renewable
generation alters the pattern of the output of central generation and the
power flows in both transmission and distribution circuits.
● Therefore, flexibility in the demand side is seen as another way to enable the
integration of a large amount of renewable energy.
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Smart Metering And Demand Side Integration
● Load control or load management has been widespread in power system
operation for a long time with a variety of terminology used to describe it.
● The name Demand-Side Management (DSM) has been used since the 1970s
for a systematic way of managing loads.
● Later on, Demand Response (DR), Demand-Side Response (DSR), Demand-
Side Bidding (DSB) and Demand Bidding (DB) were used to describe a range of
different demand side initiatives . To avoid the confusion caused by such
overlapping concepts and terminologies, as recommended by CIGRE, Demand-
Side Integration (DSI)
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Smart Metering And Demand Side Integration
● The smart meter is seen to facilitate DSI through providing real-time or near-
real-time information exchange and advanced control capabilities.
● Electricity meters are used to measure the quantity of electricity supplied to
customers as well as to calculate energy and transportation charges for
electricity retailers and network operators.
● The most common type of meter is an accumulation meter, which records
energy consumption over time. Accumulation meters in consumer premises
are read manually to assess how much energy has been used within a billing
period.
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Figure 1 shows the evolution of electrical metering, from simple electro-mechanical
accumulation metering to advanced smart metering.
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Smart Metering
● Smart meters are even more sophisticated as they have two-way
communications and provide a real-time display of energy use and
pricing information, dynamic tariffs and facilitate the automatic
control of electrical appliances.
● A number of Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) programs were
developed around this time where energy consumption information
was transmitted monthly from the meters to the energy supplier
and/or network operator using low-speed one-way communications
networks
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Smart Metering
● One-way communication of meter energy use data, AMR, has given
way to more advanced two-way communications supporting
applications such as varying tariffs, demand-side bidding and
remote connect/disconnect.
● Smart metering consists of four main components: Smart meters, a
two-way communication network, a Meter Data Management
system (MDM), and HAN.
● In order to integrate smart metering into the operation and
management of the power system, interfaces to a number of existing
systems are required, for example, the interface to the load
forecasting system, the Outage Management System (OMS), and a
Customer Information System (CIS).
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Conventional and smart metering compared
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Smart Metering
● Smart meters have two-way communications to a Gateway and/or a
Home Area Network (HAN) controller.
● The Gateway allows the transfer of smart meter data to energy
suppliers, Distribution Network Operators (DNOs) and other
emerging energy service companies. They may receive meter data
through a data management company or from smart meters directly.
● Short-term benefits, particularly for the energy suppliers and metering
operators, can be obtained from AMR and Automatic Meter
Management (AMM).
● Longer-term benefits arise from the additional functions of smart
metering that lead on to the use of smart meters in the Smart Grid.
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Benefits of advanced metering
Energy suppliers and All benefit Customer benefits
network operator benefits
Lower metering costs and • Better customer Energy savings as a
more frequent and service result of improved
Short-term accurate readings information
• Variable pricing
schemes
Limiting commercial losses Facilitating More frequent and
due to easier detection of integration of DG accurate billing
fraud and theft and flexible loads
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Benefits of advanced metering
Energy suppliers and All benefit Customer benefits
network operator benefits
Reducing peak demand via More reliable energy Simplification of
DSI programs and so supply and reduced payments for DG
reducing cost of customer complaints output
purchasing wholesale
Longer- electricity at peak time
term Using ICT infrastructure Additional
Better planning of to remotely control payments for
generation, network and DG, reward wider system
maintenance consumers and lower benefits
costs for utility
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Benefits of advanced metering
Energy suppliers and All benefit Customer benefits
network operator benefits
Supporting real-time Facilitating Facilitating adoption
system operation down adoption of electric of home area
to distribution levels vehicles and automation
Longer- heat pumps, while for more comfortable
term minimising life while minimising
increase energy cost
in peak demand
Capability to sell other services
(e.g. broadband and video communications)
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Functional block diagram of a smart meter
● Signal Acquisition
● Signal conditioning
● Analogue to digital conversion
● Computation
● Input / Output
● Communication
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Functional block diagram of a smart meter
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Signal acquisition
● A core function of the smart meter is to acquire system parameters
accurately and continuously for subsequent computation and
communication. The fundamental electrical parameters required are
the magnitude and frequency of the voltage and the magnitude and
phase displacement (relative to the voltage) of current.
● Current and voltage sensors measure the current into the premises
(load) and the voltage at the point of supply. (maximum current less
than 100 A)
● The voltage resistive divider gives the voltage between the phase
conductor and neutral
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Analogue to digital conversion
● Current and voltage signals obtained from the sensors are first sampled and
then digitized to be processed by the metering software. Since there are two
signals (current and voltage) in a single phase meter, if a single ADC is used, a
multiplexer is required to send the signals in turn to the ADC.
● The ADC converts analogue signals coming from the sensors into a digital
form. As the number of levels available for analogue to digital conversion is
limited, the ADC conversion always appears in discrete form
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Computation
● The computation requirements are split into arithmetic operations on input
signals, timestamping of data, preparation of data for communication or
output peripherals, handling of routines associated with irregular input
(such as payment, tamper detection), storage of data, system updates and
coordinating different functions
Due to the relatively large number of
arithmetic operations required for the
derivation of the parameters, a Digital
Signal Processor (DSP) is used.
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Input / Output
● A smart meter has a display that presents information in the form of
text and graphs for the human user. Liquid Crystal Displays
(LCD) and the Light Emitting Diodes (LED) are preferred for their
low cost and low power consumption requirements
● Smart meters provide a small key pad or touch screen for human–
machine interaction, for instance, to change the settings of a smart
meter so as to select the smart appliance to be controlled or to
select payment options.
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Communication
● Smart meters employ a wide range of network adapters for
communication purposes.
● The wired options include the Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN), power line carrier, cable modems and Ethernet.
● The wireless options include ZigBee, infrared, and
GSM/GPRS/CDMA Cellular.
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COMMUNICATIONS INFRASTRUCTURE AND PROTOCOLS
FOR SMART METERING
● A typical communications architecture for smart metering is shown in Figure.
It has three communications interfaces: Wide Area Network (WAN),
Neighbourhood Area Network (NAN) and Home Area Network (HAN).
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DEMAND SIDE INTEGRATION
● Demand-Side Integration (DSI) is a set of measures to use loads and local
generation to support network operation/management and improve the
quality of power supply.
● DSI can help defer investment in new infrastructure by reducing system peak
demand.
In practice, the potential of DSI depends on:
● availability and timing of information provided to consumers,
● the duration and timing of their demand response,
● performance of the ICT infrastructure,
● metering,
● automation of end-use equipment and
● Pricing
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● Demand-Side Management (DSM): utility activities that influence
customer use of electricity. This encompasses the planning, implementation
and monitoring of activities designed to encourage consumers to change
their electricity usage patterns.
● Demand Response (DR): mechanisms to manage the demand in response to
supply conditions.
● Demand-Side Participation: a set of strategies used in a competitive
electricity market by end-use customers to contribute to economic, system
security and environmental benefits.
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Services Provided By DSI
● Demand-side resources such as flexible loads, distributed generation and
storage can provide various services to the power system by modifying the
load consumption patterns.
Such services can include
● load shifting,
● valley filling,
● peak clipping,
● dynamic energy management,
● energy efficiency improvement and strategic load growth
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Load Shifting
● Load shifting is the movement of load between times of day (from on-
peak to off-peak) or seasons.
● In Figure, a load such as a wet appliance (washing machine) that consumes
1 kW for 2 hours is shifted to off-peak time
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Valley Filling
● Figure shows the main purpose of valley filling, which is to increase off-
peak demand through storing energy, for example, in a battery of a plug-
in electric vehicle or thermal storage in an electric storage heater.
● The main difference between valley filling and load shifting is that valley
filling introduces new loads to off-peak time periods, but load shifting
only shifts loads so the total energy consumption is unchanged
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Peak Clipping
● Peak clipping reduces the peak load demand, especially when demand approaches the
thermal limits of feeders/transformers, or the supply limits of the whole system.
● Peak clipping (Figure) is primarily done through direct load control of domestic
appliances, for example, reducing thermostat setting of space heaters or control of
electric water heaters or air-conditioning units. As peak clipping reduces the energy
consumed by certain loads (in Figure 1 kWh of energy is reduced), often consumers
have to reduce their comfort.
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Energy Efficiency Improvement
● Energy efficiency programs are intended to reduce the overall use of energy.
● For example, the feedback of consumption and cost data to consumers, can
lead to a reduction in total energy consumption.
● Figure shows the reduction in energy demand when ten 60 W filament lamps
(operating from 18.00 hrs to 22.00 hrs) are replaced by 20-40 W LED bulbs
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Implementations of DSI
The implementations of DSI can be through price-based schemes or
incentive-based schemes.
● Price-based DSI encourages customer load changes in response to
changes in the electricity price.
● Incentive-based DSI gives customers load modification incentives
that are separate from, or in addition to, their retail electricity rates.
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Price-based DSI implementations
● Time of use (ToU): ToU rates use different unit prices for different time
blocks, usually pre-defined for a 24-hour day. ToU rates reflect the cost of
generating and delivering power during different time periods.
● Real-time pricing (RTP): the electricity price provided by RTP rates typically
fluctuates hourly, reflecting changes in the wholesale electricity price.
Customers are normally notified of RTP prices on a day-ahead or hour-ahead
basis.
● Critical peak pricing (CPP): CPP rates are a hybrid design of the ToU and
RTP. The basic rate structure is ToU. However, the normal peak price is
replaced by a much higher CPP event price under predefined trigger conditions
(for example, when system is suffering from some operational problem or
the supply price is very high).
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Illustration of various pricing schemes
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Incentive-based DSI implementations
Implementations Description
Direct load Customers’ electrical appliances (e.g. air conditioner, water
control heater, space heating) are controlled remotely (for example,
shut down or tuned by the controller) by the program operator on
short notice.
Direct load control programmes are primarily offered to
residential or small commercial customers
Interruptible/ Curtailment options integrated into retail tariffs providing a rate
curtailable discount or bill credit for agreeing to reduce load during system
service contingencies
Penalties may be introduced for failing to curtail. Interruptible
programs have traditionally been offered only to the large
industrial (or commercial ) customers
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Demand-side Customers offer bids for curtailment based on wholesale
bidding/ electricity market prices
Buy-back
programs Mainly offered to large customers (for example, one
megawatt and over)
For small customers, third parties (for example,
aggregators) are needed to aggregate loads and bid in the
market on behalf of them
Emergency Provide incentive payments to customers for load reduction
demand during periods when the system is short of reserve
response programs
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Capacity market Customers offer load curtailment as system capacity to
programs replace conventional generation
Customers typically receive intra-day notice of curtailment
events Incentives usually consist of upfront reservation
payments, and penalties for customer failure to curtail
Ancillary services Customers bid load curtailments in ISO /RTO (Independent
market System Operator/Regional Transmission Organisation)
programs markets as operational reserves
If their bids are accepted, they are paid the market price for
committing to be on standby
If their load curtailments are needed, they are called by the
ISO/RTO, and will be paid the spot market energy price
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Distribution Automation
Equipment
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DISTRIBUTION AUTOMATION EQUIPMENT
● Operation of the generation and transmission systems is monitored and
controlled by Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems.
● These link the various elements through communication networks and connect
the transmission substations and generators to a manned control centre that
maintains system security and facilitates integrated operation
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Substation components
Traditionally, the secondary circuits of the circuit breakers, isolators, current and
voltage transformers and power transformers were hard-wired to relays.
Relays were connected with multi-drop serial links to the station computer for
monitoring and to allow remote interrogation.
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Modern Substation Automation System
Generally it comprises three levels:
• The station level includes the substation computer, the substation human
machine interface (which displays the station layout and the status of station
equipment) and the gateway to the control centre.
• The bay level includes all the controllers and intelligent electronic devices
(which provide protection of various network components and a real-time
assessment of the distribution network).
• The process level consists of switchgear control and monitoring, current
transformers (CTs), voltage transformers (VTs) and other sensors.
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● Current Transformer - A Rogowski coil, A Simple Optical CT, Hall Effect
Sensor
● Voltage Transformer -A high voltage CVT
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IED_ Intelligent Electronic Devices
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FAULTS IN THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
● When a fault occurs in the transmission or distribution system, the power
system voltage is depressed over a wide area of the network and only
recovers when the fault is cleared.
● Transmission systems use fast-acting protection and circuit breakers to
clear faults within around 100 ms.
● In contrast, the time-graded over-current protection of distribution circuits
and their slower CBs only clear faults more slowly, typically taking up to
500 ms.
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Introduction
● Fast clearance of faults is important for industrial, commercial and increasingly
for domestic premises.
● Many industrial processes rely on motor drives and other power electronic
equipment which is controlled by microprocessors.
● Commercial and domestic premises use ever more Information Technology
Equipment (ITE).
● This equipment is becoming increasingly sensitive to voltage dips
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Components for Fault Isolation and Restoration
● Whenever there is a fault on a part of the distribution network, the fault
current should be interrupted rapidly, the faulted section isolated from the
healthy network and, then once the fault has been removed, supplies to
customers should be restored. This is achieved through a range of equipment
generally known as switchgear.
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Components for Fault Isolation and Restoration
The term switchgear includes:
● a circuit breaker which is capable of making and breaking fault currents,
● a recloser which is essentially a CB with a limited fault-breaking capacity and
variable pattern of automatic tripping and closing,
● a switch disconnector which has a limited fault-making capability and
● a sectionaliser which is capable of making and breaking normal load current
but not the fault current.
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Components for Fault Isolation and Restoration
● The protection and metering equipment of substation switchgear is housed inside
the substation control room. Out on 11 kV circuits, away from primary
substations, switchgear is usually outdoors, often as a Ring Main Unit (RMU)
● A typical RMU consists of two switch-disconnectors and a switch-fuse or circuit
breaker
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● In the past, switch-disconnectors in an RMU required manual operation but automatic
operation can now be achieved for these designs by retrofitting an actuator
mechanism.
● The most commonly used retrofit actuator mechanism is a motor wound spring.
● Remote switching is initiated from a field RTU as shown in Figure
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• Pole-mounted reclosers are widely used in distribution circuits. They have different
voltage ratings (for example, 11, 15, 33 kV) and interrupting currents of 8 to 16 kA.
• The energy required to operate the reclosing arrangement is provided by a solenoid as
shown in Figure
• In this arrangement, whenever the line current is high (due to a fault), the series trip coil
opens the vacuum CB.
• As the CB is opened, the auxiliary contacts are closed automatically, thus providing
energy for the reclosing operation
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• Pole-mounted reclosers are widely
used in distribution circuits. They
have different voltage ratings (for
example, 11, 15, 33 kV) and
interrupting currents of 8 to 16 kA.
• The energy required to operate the
reclosing arrangement is provided by
a solenoid as shown in Figure
• In this arrangement, whenever the
line current is high (due to a fault),
the series trip coil opens the vacuum
CB.
• As the CB is opened, the auxiliary
contacts are closed automatically,
thus providing energy for the
reclosing operation
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● A distribution feeder which employs a pole-mounted recloser is shown in
Figure.
● The recloser characteristic is selected so as to make sure that its fast
operating time is much faster than the operating time of the downstream
fuses and its slow operating time is slower than the operating time of the
fuses
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● A sectionaliser is an automatic isolator which can only be used to isolate a
section of a distribution circuit once a fault is cleared by an upstream
recloser.
● When the recloser opens, a self-powered control circuit in the sectionaliser
increments its counter.
● The recloser is reclosed after a short delay to see whether the fault is
temporary.
● If the fault is temporary and cleared by the recloser, the sectionaliser resets
its counter and comes back to its normal state.
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● However, if the fault is permanent, when the number of counts in the
sectionaliser reaches a pre-defined number, it opens and isolates the
downstream section of circuit.
● If the fault is downstream of the sectionaliser, the recloser then restores
supply to the upstream section.
● This minimizes the number of consumers affected by a permanent fault,
and a more precise indication of the fault location is provided.
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● An RTU can be incorporated with a pole-mounted recloser for remote
switching and changing its settings remotely
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Fault location, isolation and restoration
● Figure shows a typical 11 kV distribution network. When there is a fault on
the network at the location shown, the over-current protection element in
IED1 detects the fault and opens CB1.
● This will result in an outage at loads L1 to L5. Since there are no
automated components in the network, supply restoration for a part of the
network requires the intervention of a restoration crew and in some areas
may take up to 80 minutes
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● Supply restoration is normally initiated by phone calls from one or more
customers (in the area where outage occurred) reporting a loss of supply to
the electricity supplier.
● Upon receiving these calls a restoration crew is dispatched to the area. It
will take some time for the team to locate the fault and manually isolate it by
opening SD3 and SD4.
● Then CB1 is closed to restore the supply to L1, L2 and L3.
● The normally open point (NOP) is closed to restore the supply to L5. Load
L4 will be without supply until the fault is repaired.
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● A simple method to reduce the restoration time of loads L1, L2, L3 and L4
is using a pole-mounted recloser and sectionaliser as shown in Figure.
● When a fault occurs, the recloser trips. Upon detecting the interruption, the
sectionaliser, S, increments its counter by 1.
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● After a short time delay, the recloser closes and if the fault persists, it will
trip again.
● The counter of S increments again and it is then opened. The recloser then
closes successfully.
● The operation of the sectionaliser facilitates restoration of supply to L1, L2,
L3 and L4 within a couple of minutes.
● However, the restoration of supply to L5 requires the intervention of the
crew.
● As this method does not need any communication infrastructure, it is reliable
and relatively inexpensive.
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https://sa-nitk.vlabs.ac.in/exp/autoreclosure-sectionalizer-
operation/simulation.html
Normally Open Point
● A greater degree of automation may be introduced by using reclosers with RTUs,
with communication infrastructure between them (see Figure).
● In this scheme, an Agent is employed that gathers data from all the intelligent devices
in the system. During normal operation, the Agent polls all the RTUs and IEDs to
establish the system status. When there is a fault at the location shown, IED1
detects the fault current, opens the CB and informs the Agent.
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The Agent sends commands to RTU1 to RTU4 (remote terminal units up to the normally
open point) to open them and requests current and voltage data from them in real time. A
possible automatic restoration method is:
1. Send a command to IED1 to close CB1.
2. Send a command to RTU1 to reclose R1. If the fault current prevails, initiate a trip but
as there is no fault current, R1 remains closed. Similarly send commands to RTU2, 3 and
4 to reclose R2, R3 and R4. When R3 is closed, fault current flows, thus causing R3 to
trip and lock-out.
3. Then send a command to RTU9 to close the normally open point.
4. Finally, send a command to RTU4 to close R4. As the fault current flows, a trip
command is initiated for R4. R3 and R4 thus isolate the fault and supply is restored to
loads L1, L2, L3 and L5.
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Distribution Management
Systems
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Distribution Management Systems
The Smart Grid is a radical reappraisal of the function of distribution
networks to include:
● Integration of Distributed Energy Resources;
● Active control of load demand;
● More effective use of distribution network assets.
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Distribution Management Systems
● A Distribution Management System (DMS) is a collection of
Applications used by the Distribution Network Operators (DNO) to
monitor, control and optimize the performance of the distribution
system and is an attempt to manage its complexity.
● The ultimate goal of a DMS is to enable a smart, self-healing
distribution system and to provide improvements in: supply
reliability and quality, efficiency and effectiveness of system
operation.
● A DMS should lead to better asset management, the provision of new
services and greater customer satisfaction
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Structure and main components of a DMS
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SCADA
SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition) provides real-time system
information to the modelling and analysis tools
● Data acquisition
● Monitoring, event processing and alarms
● Control
● Data storage, event log, analysis and reporting
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Customer information system
Metering Billing
Payment Losses
Quality and
Customer
Reliability of
Handling
Supply
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Modelling and analysis tools
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DMS Applications
● System monitoring
● System Operation
● System Management
● System Outage management system
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System Monitoring
Dead bands used by the system monitoring functions
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System operation
● Supply restoration
● Active power loss minimization – VAR Management
● Relay Protection Scheme
● Load balancing
● Operation of DER
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Integration of Micro Grids to DMS through MGCC
The integration of DER operation to the DMS has a large impact on the performance of a
smart distribution network.
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System Management
● The Automated Mapping (AM), Facilities Management (FM), and
Geographic Information System (GIS) functions act as an integrated
platform which links the automated digital maps of utility infrastructure to
databases.
There are two major components of an AM/FM/GIS system;
● Graphical component.
● Database component
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Outage management system (OMS)
The main functions of each part of OMS are as follows
Fault identification
Fault diagnosis and fault location
Supply restoration
Event analysis and recording
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Integration of smart metering and the DMS
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TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
OPERATION
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A structure of an EMS/SCADA
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Energy management systems
EMS Applications include
• Unit Commitment,
• Automatic Generation Control (AGC), and
• Security assessment and control
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EMS
● The purpose of Unit Commitment within a traditional power system is to
decide how many and which generators should be used and to allocate the
sequence of starting and shutting down generators
AGC carries out load frequency control and economic dispatch.
Load frequency control has to achieve three primary objectives to maintain:
(1) system frequency;
(2) power interchanges with neighbouring control areas; and
(3) power allocation between generators at the economic optimum.
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EMS
Security assessment and control
● The Dy Liacco framework considers the power system as being operated
under two types of constraint: load constraints (load demand must be met),
and operating constraints (maximum and minimum operating limits
together with stability limits should be respected).
● The security assessment and control Application includes; security
monitoring, security analysis, preventive control, emergency control,
fault diagnosis and restorative control
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A typical EMS system configuration
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