EE401: SWITCHGEAR AND

PROTECTION
 Unit-1 Protective Relaying
• Principles and need for protective schemes
• Nature and causes of faults
• Types of faults
• Fault current calculation using symmetrical
components
• Methods of Neutral grounding
• Zones of protection and essential qualities of
protection – Protection schemes
 Principles and Need for Protective Schemes

• If a fault occurs in an element of a power system, an

automatic protective device is needed to isolate the faulty
element as quickly as possible to keep the healthy section of
the system in normal operation.

• The fault must be cleared within a fraction of a second.

• If a short circuit persists on a system for a longer, it may

cause damage to some important sections of the system.
• A heavy short circuit current may cause a fire. It may
spread in the system and damage a part of it.

• The system voltage may reduce to a low level and individual

generators in a power station or groups of generators in
different power stations may lose synchronism.

• Thus, an uncleared heavy short circuit may cause the total

failure of the system
 Objective of power system protection

• Is to isolate a faulty section of electrical power

system from rest of the live system so that the rest

portion can function satisfactorily without any severe

damage due to fault current

• Protection is needed not only against short circuits but also against any

other abnormal conditions which may arise on a power system.

• A few examples of other abnormal conditions are over speed of

generators and motors, overvoltage, under frequency, loss of

excitation, overheating of stator and rotor of an alternator etc.

• Protective relays are also provided to detect such abnormal conditions

and issue alarm signals to alert operators or trip circuit breaker.

 COMPONENTS OF A PROTECTION SYSTEM

A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initiates the operation of
the circuit breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system.
The relay circuit connections can be divided into three parts viz.

• First part is the primary winding of a current transformer

(C.T.) which is connected in series with the line to be protected.

• Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T. and C.B.

and the relay operating coil.

• Third part is the tripping circuit which may be either a.c. or

d.c. It consists of a source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit
breaker and the relay stationary contacts
 Terminologies used in Protective Relaying
• Protective Relay : It is an electrical relay, which closes its
contacts when an actuating quantity reaches a certain preset
value. Due to closing of contacts, relay initiates a trip circuit of
circuit breaker or an alarm circuit.

• Relay Time : It is the time between the instant of fault

occurrence and the instant of closure of relay contacts

• Breaker Time : It is the time between the instant at circuit

breaker operates and opens the contacts, to the instant of
extinguishing the arc completely.
• Fault Clearing Time : The total time required between the
instant of fault and the instant of final arc interruption in the
circuit breaker is fault clearing time. It is sum of the relay time
and circuit breaker time.

• Pickup : A relay is said to be picked up when it moves from the

'OFF' position to 'ON' position.

• Dropout or Reset : A relay is said to be dropout or reset when it

comes back to original position i.e. when relay contacts open
from its closed position

• Time Delay : The time taken by relay to operate after it has

sensed the fault is called time delay of relay.
• Current Setting : The pick up value of current can be
adjusted to the required level in the relays which is called
current setting of that relay.
• It is achieved by use of tappings on the relay coil, which are
brought out to a plug bridge as shown in the Fig.. The tap values
are expressed in terms of percentage full load rating of current
transformer (C.T.) with which relay is associated.

Pickup current = % current setting

x rated secondary current of C.T.

So if C.T. is 500 / 10 A i.e. rated secondary current is 10A and the

current setting is 125 then pickup current is 1.25 x 10 = 12.5 A i.e.
125% of 10. So when relay coil current is greater than or equal to
pickup values, relay operates.
• Plug Setting Multiplier (P.S.M.) : The ratio of actual fault
current in the relay coil to the pickup current is called plug
setting multiplier (P.S.M.)

• Mathematically it can be expressed as,

• Time/P.S.M. Curve : For a relay, a curve showing relation
between time and plug-setting multiplier is provided which
is called time/P.S.M. curve.
• Time-setting Multiplier : Similar to current setting, a relay is
provided with a feature with which its time of operation can be
controlled. This feature is known as time-setting multiplier. Its dial is
calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 as shown in the Fig.

For example if time-setting multiplier is selected as 0.2 while time

corresponding to P.S.M. of 10 is 4 seconds then,

Actual time of operation = time in seconds x time-setting multiplier

= 4 x 0.2 = 0.8 seconds
EE401: SWITCHGEAR AND
PROTECTION
 Unit-1 Protective Relaying
• Principles and need for protective schemes
• Nature and causes of faults
• Types of faults
• Fault current calculation using symmetrical
components
• Methods of Neutral grounding
• Zones of protection and essential qualities of
protection – Protection schemes
 Nature and Causes of Faults

• A power system fault may be defined as any condition

or abnormality of the system which involves the
electrical failure of primary equipment such as
generators, transformers, bus bars, over headlines and
cables and all other items of plant which operate at power
system voltage.
• Electrical failure generally implies one or the other (or
both) two type of failure, namely

• Insulation failure resulting in a short-circuit condition or

• Conducting path failure resulting in an open-circuit

condition the former being by far the more common type
of failure.
 Conducting Path Failure

• Over voltage due to switching

• Over voltage due to the direct and indirect lightning

strokes

• Bridging of conductors by birds

• Breakdown of insulation due to less dielectric strength

• Mechanical damage to the Equipments

Percentage Distribution of Faults in Various Elements of a
Power System
Frequency of Occurrence of Different Types of Faults on
Overhead Lines
 ABNORMALITIES
• During certain situations, a power system behaves abnormally.

• Some of these abnormalities in a generator are unbalanced

loading, field failure, overloading, overvoltage, prime-mover
failure, pole-slipping, etc.

• A transformer may behave abnormally due to over-heating or

over-fluxing.

• An induction motor can run abnormally due to undervoltage,

overloading, unbalanced loading, stalling, etc.
Classification of faults
 Open Circuit Fault
• Open Circuit Fault occurs due to failure in one or more than one
phase conductors.

• It is a series of faults that occur due to damaged or broken conductors.

Open circuit faults can be classified into types.

• One Open Conductor Fault

• Two Open Conductors Fault

• Three Open Conductors Fault

 Open Circuit Fault
• The phase conductor may break due to loose joints, trees
falling over the power lines in extreme weather
conditions, fuse breaking in one or more than one
phase, circuit breaker breaking in one phase, etc

• Open circuit faults are less severe compared to short

circuit faults since a system can tolerate them for a
longer period without facing any failure
 Short Circuit Fault
• A short circuit fault occurs when two or more than two
phase conductor comes into contact with each other or
with the ground conductor.

• The impedance between these conductors falls to zero and

a huge amount of current called short circuit current or
fault current flows through the lines.

• Short circuit faults can be classified into asymmetrical and

symmetrical faults.
 Asymmetrical Fault

• An asymmetrical fault is such a type of fault that causes an

imbalance in the power system.

• Such fault creates asymmetrical currents in the circuit that has a

different magnitude and different phases.

• Such fault occurs in a three-phase power system

There are three types of asymmetrical faults
• L-G Fault
• L-L Fault
• L-L-G Fault
 Symmetrical Fault
• Symmetrical fault or balanced fault occurs when all three
phases of a power system are involved in the fault.

• In other words, the electrical system remains balanced

during such faults i.e. the fault current has a similar
magnitude and has 120° phase difference.

• The fault affects each phase equally. The fault current is

very large but the chance of occurrence is very low.
There are two types of symmetrical faults
• Line – line – line(L-L-L) Fault
• Line – line – line – ground (L-L-L-G) Fault
 Effect of Open Circuit Fault
• The Open Circuit faults are less severe and it causes in
reduction of load at the alternator. In turn, it results in
the acceleration of the alternator causing over frequency.

• It also causes an imbalance in the load. The intact phases

take the load current of the broken phases. This affects the
life span of the connected load.
 Effects of Short Circuit Fault
• Over-current: short circuit fault creates very low impedance causing a
huge fault current (over-current) that can damage the insulation and
equipment connected to the circuit.

• Under voltage: In a short circuit fault, the large current flow also causes
the reduction in the supply voltage.

• Danger to personnel: Electrical fault can pose danger to personnel

working at the site of fault. It can even become fatal depending on the
level and duration of the fault.

• Electrical fire: short circuit fault can lead to electrical fire caused by the
arcing and sparks at the fault location that can spread to any adjacent
objects and eventually the whole building.
Protective Zones
• A protective zone is the separate zone which is
established around each system element.

• The significance of such a protective zone is that any

fault occurring within cause the tripping of relays
which causes opening of all the circuit breakers within
that zone.
 Primary and Backup Protection

• Primary Protection- first line of defense to protect

all systems elements from all types of faults

• Backup Protection comes in to play only when the

primary protection fails
 Reason for providing Back protection

• Failure in Circuit beaker

• Failure in protective relay
• Failure in tripping circuit
• Failure in d.c. tripping voltage
• Loss of voltage/current supply to the relay
C,D,G,H –Primary Relays
A,B,I,J- backup relays
 Methods of Backup Protection

• Relay Backup Protection

• Breaker Backup protection
• Remote backup protection
• Centrally coordinator backup protection
 Lets Find it?
• Why protective zones are overlapped?
• What is meant by dead spot?
• What is meant by blind spot?
 Grounding (or) System Grounding

Methods of Neutral Grounding

 Solid Grounding
 Resistance Grounding
 Reactance Grounding
 Resonant Groundings/Peterson coil Groundings
“The process of connecting the metallic frame
of electrical equipment
(or)
some electrical part of the system (e.g. neutral
point in a star-connected system) to earth
(i.e. soil) is called grounding or earthing.”
General Grounding
 Earth Neutral
It is the least resistant path and is used for In an AC circuit which carries current in
safety purposes against residual normal conditions, it is the return path
currents that balances the load
In normal conditions, it doesn’t carry any A neutral wire is always charged
current, but in case of insulation failure,
it might carry minor current
It cannot be turned into neutral It can be turned into earth
It can come from a neutral line or can be It comes from a neutral line
separately executed
Earth is the surging point of appliances Neutral is the return path of the
electrical current supply. It is also called
a reference point
 Neutral Grounding

• The process of connecting neutral point of 3-phase system to

earth (i.e. soil) either directly or through some circuit element
is called neutral grounding.

• Neutral grounding provides protection to personal and

equipment. It is because during earth fault, the current path is
completed through the earthed neutral and the protective
devices (e.g. a fuse etc.) operate to isolate the faulty
conductor from the rest of the system.
 Earthing Grounding

This method protects human beings This method protects the entire power
from electric shocks. system from malfunctioning.

The wire used for grounding is black in

The earth wire used is green in color.
color

Grounding is primarily used for

Earthing is primarily used to avoid
unbalancing when the electric system
electric shocks.
overloads.

Earthing is located under the earth pit,

It is located between the neutral of the
between the equipment body and the
equipment being used and the ground.
underground pit.
One important feature of grounded neutral is that the potential
difference between the live conductor and ground will not exceed the
phase voltage of the system i.e. it will remain nearly constant.
The methods commonly used for grounding the neutral point of a 3-
phase system are :

 Solid or Effective grounding

 Resistance grounding
 Reactance grounding
 Peterson-coil grounding

The choice of the method of grounding depends upon many factors

including the size of the system, system voltage and the scheme
of protection to be used.
 “When the neutral point of a 3-phase system (e.g. 3-phase
generator,3-phase transformer etc.) is directly connected to earth
(i.e. soil) through a wire of negligible resistance and reactance,
it is called solid grounding or effective grounding.”

Fig. shows the solid grounding of the

neutral point.

Since the neutral point is directly

connected to earth through a wire,
the neutral point is held at earth
potential under all conditions.
 .
 When earth fault occurs on any phase, the resultant capacitive
current IC is in phase opposition to the fault current IF.

 The two currents completely cancel each other. Therefore, no arcing

ground or over-voltage conditions can occur.

 When there is an earth fault on any phase of the system, the phase to
earth voltage of the faulty phase becomes zero.

 However, the phase to earth voltages of the remaining two healthy

phases remain at normal phase voltage because the potential of the
neutral is fixed at earth potential. This permits to insulate the
equipment for phase voltage. Therefore, there is a saving in the cost
of equipment.
 When there is an earth fault on any phase of the system, the
phase to earth voltage of the faulty phase becomes zero.
However, the phase to earth voltages of the remaining two
healthy phases remain at normal phase voltage because the
potential of the neutral is fixed at earth potential.

 This permits to insulate the equipment for phase voltage.

Therefore, there is a saving in the cost of equipment.
The following are the disadvantages of solid grounding :
 Since most of the faults on an overhead system are phase to
earth faults, the system has to bear a large number of severe
shocks. This causes the system to become unstable.

 The solid grounding results in heavy earth fault currents. Since

the fault has to be cleared by the circuit breakers, the heavy earth
fault currents may cause the burning of circuit breaker contacts.

 The increased earth fault current results in greater interference in

the neighboring communication lines.
 Applications-Solid Grounding

• Solid grounding is usually employed where the

circuit impedance is sufficiently high so as to keep
the earth fault current within safe limits.

• This system of grounding is used for voltages up to

33 kV with total power capacity not exceeding
5000 kVA.
In order to limit the magnitude of earth fault current, it is a common
practice to connect the neutral point of a 3-phase system to earth
through a resistor. This is called resistance grounding.

When the neutral point of a 3-phase system (e.g. 3-phase generator, 3-

phase transformer etc.) is connected to earth (i.e. soil) through a resistor,
it is called resistance grounding.
 The value of R should neither be very low nor very high.
 If the value of earthing resistance R is very low, the earth fault current
will be large and the system becomes similar to the solid grounding
system.
 On the other hand, if the earthing resistance R is very high, the
system conditions become similar to ungrounded System
 .

 The value of R is so chosen such that the earth fault

current is limited to safe value but still sufficient to permit
the operation of earth fault protection system.

 In practice, that value of R is selected that limits the earth

fault current to 2 times the normal full load current of
the earthed generator or transformer.
• Suppose earth fault occurs in phase B as shown in Fig. The
capacitive currents IR and IY flow in the healthy phases R and Y
respectively.

• The fault current IF lags behind the phase voltage of the faulted
phase by a certain angle depending upon the earthing
resistance R.
 The fault current IF can be resolved into two components viz.
 IF1 in phase with the faulty phase voltage.
.

 IF2 lagging behind the faulty phase voltage by 90°.

 The lagging component IF2 is in phase opposition to the total

capacitive current IC.

If the value of earthing resistance R is so adjusted that

 IF2 = IC, the arcing ground is completely eliminated and the
operation of the system becomes that of solidly grounded system.
However, if R is so adjusted

 that IF2 < IC, the operation of the system becomes that of
ungrounded neutral system.
The following are the advantages of resistance earthing:

 By adjusting the value of R, the arcing grounds can be

minimized.

 The earth fault current is small due to the presence of earthing

resistance. Therefore, interference with communication
circuits is reduced.

 It improves the stability of the system.

The following are the disadvantages of resistance grounding:

 Since the system neutral is displaced during earth faults, the

equipment has to be insulated for higher voltages.

 This system is costlier than the solidly grounded system.

 A large amount of energy is produced in the earthing resistance

during earth faults. Some-times it becomes difficult to dissipate
this energy to atmosphere.
• In this system, a reactance is inserted between the neutral and
ground as shown in Fig.
• The purpose of reactance is to limit the earth fault current. By
changing the earthing reactance, the earth fault current can to
changed to obtain the conditions similar to that of solid grounding.
This method is not used these days because of the following
disadvantages :

 In this system, the fault current required to operate the protective

device is higher than that of resistance grounding for the same
fault conditions.

 High transient voltages appear under fault conditions.

• We have seen that capacitive currents are responsible for producing arcing
grounds. These capacitive currents flow because capacitance exists between
each line and earth.

• If inductance L of appropriate value is connected in parallel with the

capacitance of the system, the fault current IF flowing through L will be in
phase opposition to the capacitive current IC of the system.

• If L is so adjusted that IL = IC, then resultant current in the fault will be zero.

• “When the value of L of arc suppression coil is such that the fault current IF
exactly balances the capacitive current IC, it is called resonant grounding.”
 Circuit Details

 An arc suppression coil (also called Peterson coil) is an iron-

cored coil connected between the neutral and earth as shown in Fig.

 The reactor is provided with tappings to change the inductance of

the coil. By adjusting the tappings on the coil, resonant grounding
can be achieved
• Value of L for resonant grounding . For resonant grounding, the system
behaves as an ungrounded neutral system. Therefore, full line voltage
appears across capacitors CR and CY
VL  IR  3VPh  IX For Fault Current
3Vph X L is the inductive reactance of
I R  IY 
XC the arc suppression coil
3Vph 3Vph Vph
IC  3 I R  3   IL 
XC XC XL
Here XC is the line to ground capactive reactance

For resonant grounding I L  IC

Vph 3Vph

XL XC
1 3

X L XC
XC
XL 
3
1
L 
3C
1
L (i) Exp. (i) gives the value of inductance L of the
3 2C arc suppression coil for resonant grounding.
The Peterson coil grounding has the following advantages:

 The Peterson coil is completely effective in preventing any damage

by an arcing ground.

 The Peterson coil has the advantages of ungrounded neutral system

The Peterson coil grounding has the following disadvantages :

 Due to varying operational conditions, the capacitance of the network

changes from time to time. Therefore, inductance L of Peterson coil
requires readjustment.

 The lines should be transposed.