Me-302 Solid Mechanics-Ii - .

Practical Workbook
Solid Mechanics - II
(ME–302)
Name: : ____________________________________
Year: : ____________________________________
Batch: : ____________________________________
Roll No: : ____________________________________
Department: : ____________________________________
Department of Mechanical Engineering
NED University of Engineering & Technology,

Karachi – 75270, Pakistan
1
Practical Workbook
Solid Mechanics-II (ME-302)
Prepared by: Dr. Maaz Akhtar

(Associate Professor)
Mr. Kashif Azher

(Lecturer)
Mr. Muhammad Yaseen

(Instructor)
This is certified that this practical book contains 68 pages.
Chairman
Department of Mechanical Engineering
NED University of Engineering & Technology,

Karachi – 75270, Pakistan
2
Certificate
Of Laboratory Work Completion
This is to certify that Mr. ____________________________ s/o __________________________, bearing
roll number ______________, student of Spring / Fall semester ____________has successfully
completed the lab work for the course of __________________ and that the assessment done for the
OBE based practical in this work book comply with the set OBE rules.
Verified by:
Name: ____________________
Signature: _________________
Date: _____________________
Summary of Marks Obtained

Sr. Components Max. Marks
No. Marks Obtained
1. Rubric based practical Nos. (P3): 1-13 20
Total Marks 20
Marks Awarding Scheme:
Sum of the marks obtained from rubric form
Marks for OBE based practicals = _____________________________________ X 20
Max. marks from rubric form
3
LABORATORY HEALTH / SAFETY OVER VIEW & GUIDE LINES
01 Familiarize yourself with the operation of all equipment and all hazards involved,
before commencing an experiment.
02 Always keep your work areas clean.
03 Never leave an ongoing experiment unattended.
04 Make sure you are aware of where your lab's exits and fire alarms are located.
05 If you notice any unsafe conditions in the lab, let your instructor know as soon as
possible.
06 All equipment should be regularly inspected for wear or deterioration.
07 If something goes wrong, do not panic. Think; take your time, and then act. You must
know how to stop a machine in an emergency mode.
08 Only materials you require for your work should be kept in your work area. Everything
else should be stored safely out of the way.
09 Before using any high voltage equipment, make sure you get permission from your lab
supervisor.
10 Ensure Voltage safe level, before operating any device.
11 Always turn off a high voltage power supply when you are attaching it.
12 Make sure all electrical panels are unobstructed and easily accessible.
13 Make sure all the power sockets in the laboratory are fused.
14 Avoid wearing loose clothing when working on rotary equipment.
15 Wear necessary PPE where ever required during experimental session.
16 Educate yourself regarding equipment maximum rating. Never operate any equipment
beyond its operating limits.
17 Do not throw wrappers and/or any other waste material in the laboratory.
18 Avoid playing with the tools present in the laboratory.
19 Long hair (chin-length or longer) must be tied to avoid catching fire.
20 Safety is a mutual responsibility and requires the full co-operation of everyone in the
laboratory.
21 Any equipment that requires air flow or ventilation to prevent overheating should
always be kept clear.
22 Always keep the fire exit way clear.
4
Content
S.No Experiment Page Initial

No
01 To determine the modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, % Elongation 6-12

and Reduction in area of the mild steel and aluminum through tensile
test, and draw graph between load and deflection.
02 To Determine the flexural rigidity of simply supported rectangular 13-17

beam by bending test, and draw graph between WL3 and 48 δmean.
03 To determine the following through leaf spring test:

i) Stiffness 18-21
ii) Strain energy
iii) Graph between load and deflection
iv) Proof load
04 To determine the stiffness of helical coil spring and calculate the strain
energy at 140 kgf and draw graph of load vs deflection. 22-25
05 To determine the Tensile Strength of given Mild Steel Wire with the
help of Universal Testing Machine. 26-29
06 To find the Modulus of rigidity (G) of the Copper and Brass circular
bars by twist method, and draw graph between the Torque and the 30-35
angle of twist (θ).
07 To determine hardness of the material by Brinell hardness method.

36-40
08 To determine hardness of the material by Rockwell Method.
41-45
09 To determine shear strength of mild steel and aluminum in single and
double shear. 46-50
10 To determine shear strength of the wooden samples, along and across

the fiber of the wood. 51-54
11 To Determine modulus of elasticity of the rectangular beam by three

point bending method. 55-59
12 To determine critical load of the columns (based on Euler's equation). 60-63
13 To compare experimental and theoretical young’s modulus of given 64-68

specimen of a cantilever beam, and draw graph between load and
deflection.
5
EXPERIMENT # 01
OBJECTIVE: To determine the Modulus of Elasticity, Tensile Strength, % Elongation

and Reduction in area of Mild Steel and Aluminum through Tensile Test, and draw graph
between load and deflection.
APPARATUS:
Specimen, Universal Testing Machine, Tensile test attachment, Extensometer and
Vernier caliper.
THEORY:
Various machines and structure components are subjected to tensile load in
numerous applications. For the safe design of these components, young’s modulus, ultimate
tensile strength and ductility, need to be determined. Tensile test can be conducted on universal
testing machine. A material when subjected to a tensile load resists the applied load by
developing internal resisting force. These resistances come due to atomic bonding between
atoms of the material. The resisting force per unit normal cross-section area is known as the
stress. The maximum stress, at which a material fails, is called ultimate tensile strength, brittle
material at the maximum stress break, while ductile material shows necking after the maximum
stress, then break, ductile material at which stress break, called breaking stress or fracture stress,
fracture stress is lower then ultimate tensile strength in ductile material, where as in brittle
material ultimate tensile strength and fracture stress are same.
Tensile Test is very simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully standardized, used to
characterize properties related to mechanical behavior of the materials. A lot of about a material
can be learned from tensile testing. As the machine continues to pull the material until it breaks,
a good, complete tensile profile is obtained. A complete tensile profile comes in the form of
stress-strain curve, which describes the material, it is ductile or brittle , ductile material have
plasticity, while brittle includes ceramics, cast iron, glasses and some polymers such as
polystyrene have no plastic region in the stress-strain curve. Stress-Strain curve also gives the
information about the yielding, strain hardening and necking mechanisms, along with other
mechanical properties like proportional limit, elastic limit, modulus of elasticity, strain energy
(resilience), yield stress, ultimate tensile strength, breaking strength, toughness, ductility, all
these are discussed below in a stress-strain curve for mild steel as shown in figure (1).
Figure (1): stress strain curve along with specimen, showing necking and fracture.
6
Stress (σ): The normal (axial) stress is determined by dividing the load or force by the original
cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Strain (ε): The measured deformation (change in length) divided by the original length.
Elastic Region: The region of the stress-strain curve in which the material returns to the un-
deformed state when applied forces are removed is called the elastic region, in this region only
atomic bonds stretch, no visible or measurable deformation takes place.
Proportional limit (σpl): The highest magnitude of stress for which the stress and strain are
proportional to each other. This behaviour is known as Hooke's Law.
Elastic modulus (Young's modulus): It is the ratio of stress to strain below the elastic limit.
The modulus of elasticity describes a material's stiffness = σ / ε (psi).
Elastic Limit (σ):It is a value of stress up to which material can be deformed elastically under
load, after unloading it will return to it's original dimension. In the region between the
proportional limit and the elastic limit, stress has no linear relation with strain.
Resilience: Strain energy absorbed by the material during elastic deformation up to the elastic
limit known as resilience, or area in the stress-strain diagram up to the elastic limit is known as
resilience, it is the important mechanical property for spring which is used in automobiles to
absorb shock.
Plastic Region: The region in which the material deforms permanently is called the plastic
region, this region starts from yield point to fracture point in the stress-strain diagram.
Yield Point (σy): The point at which first plastic deformation takes place in the stress and strain
diagram is called the yield point. The stress at yield point is called the yield stress. For mild steel
there is a noticeable increase in deformation with little increase in load.
Ultimate tensile strength (σu): Tensile strength defined as the maximum stress at which
material can bear maximum load per unit original area (σu = Fmax. / Ao).
Strain hardening: Portion of the stress-strain curve between the elastic limit and the ultimate
stress. The raising of the yield point with increasing strain is called strain hardening.
Necking Phenomenon: The sudden decrease in the cross-sectional area after ultimate tensile
stress is called necking.
Toughness: Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform
without fracturing. Area in the stress-strain diagram up to the break point is known as toughness,
It is also defined as the resistance to fracture of a material when stressed.
% Elongation and Reduction in area: it is the measurement of plastic deformation in the form
of percentage elongation after fracture [100 x {(Lf – Lo) / Lo}] or percentage reduction in area at
fracture in necking region with respect to original cross-section area [100 x {(Ao – Af) / Ao}].
PROCEDURE:
1. Start the universal testing machine by pushing start button.
2. Open the Low range gauge valve and high range gauge valve at least two turn.
3. Open load valve (right wheel) making sure unload valve (left wheel) is closed until the
black needle on dial moves and becomes stationary at some level then close the load
valve (right wheel).
4. Move both dial scales (on display) by turning zero setting knob such that the zero
coincides with the needle. Now the machine is set.
5. Now attach the specimen with the help of jaws and packing.
6. Now apply the load by load valve (right wheel front side) turning it anticlockwise to the
requirement of load, and then take observation.
7. At the end of the required loading, close the load valve (the right wheel) by turning
clockwise (not very tight).
7
8. Now open unloading valve (the left wheel) by turning it anticlockwise for releasing the
Load.
9. Now press the stop button (front lower side) and remove the specimen carefully.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Before starting test, adjust the dial so that the zero mark coincides with the pointer.
2. Specimen should be clamped firmly.
3. Before loading, the both gauge valves (low range and high range gauge valves) must be
opened at least two turns.
4. Unload valve should be closed during loading.
5. During unloading, load valve should be closed for releasing the pressure.
OBSERVATION and CALCULATION:

Least count of deflectometer = ---------------------
Diameter of specimen= D (mild steel) = -----------------
Diameter of specimen =D (aluminum) = -----------------
Original Gauge Length of specimen Lo (mild steel) =-----------------
Original Gauge Length of specimen Lo (aluminum) =------------------
Cross -Sectional Area = Ao (mild steel) = π D²/4 = ----------------

Cross -Sectional Area = Ao (aluminum) = π D²/4 = -------------------
Mild steel
Sr. No Load Deflection Stress Strain Modulus of elasticity
W= lb δ = inch σ = W/ Ao (Psi) ε = δ / Lo E = σ / ε (Psi)

01
02
03
04
05
06
F max. =
Tensile strength = σ uts = F max. / Ao
σ uts =
8
Aluminum
Sr. No Load Deflection Stress Strain Modulus of elasticity
W= lb δ = inch σ = W/ Ao (Psi) ε = δ / Lo E = σ / ε (Psi)

01
02
03
04
05
06
F max. =
Tensile strength = σ uts = F max. / Ao
σ uts =
% Elongation and Reduction in area.
Material Dimensions % EL or % Red. in area
% EL={(Lf – Lo) / Lo} x 100

Mild steel Lo =
=
Lf =
% Red. in area ={( Ao – Af ) / Ao} x 100
Ao =
=
Af = π /4 x {(d1+d2 ) / 2}2
=
% EL={(Lf – Lo) / Lo} x 100

Lo =
Aluminum =
Lf =
% Red. in area ={( Ao – Af ) / Ao} x 100
Ao =
Af = π /4 x {(d1+d2) / 2}2 =
=
9
RESULT:
The tensile strength of Mild steel = -------------------------------------
Modulus of elasticity of Mild steel = -------------------------
Ductility of mild steel = % EL= ----------------------------, % Red. in area= ------------------------
The tensile strength of Aluminum = ------------------------------------
Modulus of elasticity of Aluminum = -------------------------
Ductility of Aluminum = % EL=------------------------, % Red. in area=-----------------------------
CONCLUSION: ____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
10
EXERCISE
Q1. Define the Ultimate Tensile Strength of the material?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q2. Differentiate between Toughness and Resilience.
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q3. Explain Yield Point?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q4. Differentiate between Elastic and Plastic Deformation?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q5. Define Ductility?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
11
Course Code: _____________ Course Title: _____________________________
Practical No. ______________
Assessment Rubric for Lab Performance (P3)

S. Skill Performance Level
No. Excellent (3) Good (2) Fair (1) Poor (0)
1 Ability to Responds by fully Responds well but Responds well but Lacks the response
respond to complying with requires slight occasionally required to carry out
instructions instructions in assistance from requires instructor’s the practical.
for carrying correct sequence and instructor. help to rectify
out a practical. without further incorrectly executed
assistance from step(s).
instructor.
2 Equipment / Displays good Displays good Displays adequate Unable to select
Instrument / awareness of awareness of awareness of the right
Software equipment / equipment / equipment / equipment /
handling. instrument / instrument / instrument / instrument /
software selection software selection. software selection. software and
and follows the Needs some Requires handle it properly.
prescribed supervision while supervision while
handling handling handling
guidelines. equipment. equipment.
3 Realization of Fully operational Effective Basic competence Unable to

Problems command of the command of the is limited to understand
programming programming familiar problems complex
language: language despite & need programs.
appropriate & some inaccuracies, improvements to
accurate with & understand
complete misunderstandings complex
understanding of . Can use & programs.
complex programs understand fairly
complex
programs,
particularly in
familiar situations.
4 Problem Able to cover Covers major Weakly No knowledge
Solving Skills various aspects of portion of understand way to
problem & ability calculations in carry out
to properly effective way. calculations.
carryout
calculation
stepwise.
5 Presentation Presented the Presented the Need a lot of Disregards
of work practical following practical following improvement in presentation
all the instructions. all the instructions presentation of instructions
with minor work.
deficiencies.
Marks: ________ Instructor’s Signature: __________________ Date: __________

12
EXPERIMENT # 02
OBJECTIVE: To determine the flexural rigidity of simply supported rectangular beam

by bending test, and draw graph between WL3 and 48 δmean.
APPARATUS:
Universal testing machine, deflectometer, bending test attachment, rectangular beam.
THEORY:
In general flexural rigidity is defined as the product of modulus of elasticity (E) and
moment of inertia (I), thus flexural rigidity=EI, It indicates how much a beam is rigid towards
bending, it depends on type of the material (E=Young’s modulus of the material) and Second
Moment of Inertia (I) of the beam. Beam is a structural member which carries and transfers load
on the column, beam is commonly used in the constructions of building and bridges. Flexural
rigidity is important property of the structural member (steel beam) which resists bending at a
constant or same load, in order to avoid failure of the structure which is placed on steel beam, it
is necessary to increase flexural rigidity at a same load by increasing moment of inertia or to
select a material having high young’s modulus.
For the determination of flexural rigidity of a simply supported beam, three point
bending test is performed on the Universal Testing Machine (UTM) as shown below. The bend
test attachment is placed on the table of UTM. Then rectangular steel beam is supported on the
edges of the attachment. At a particular load, the deflection at the center of the beam is
determined by using a deflectometer.
As we know that,
EI d2v/dx2 = -M
Where,
E = modulus of elasticity
I = moment of inertia
v = δ= deflection
M = bending moment
x = length of beam
Flexural rigidity = E.I. = WL3 / 48 δ
13
PROCEDURE:
5. Adjust the beam testing attachment between table and lower head.
6. Measure the length 'L' breadth 'b' and thickness ‘d’ of rectangular beam and place with
holding device as simply supported beam.
7. Apply the load 'W' vertically at the centre of beam in lbs. The vertical loading is to be
increased in steps of 100lbs up to 900lbs while taking the corresponding vertical
deflection' δ ' in inches at each loading valve.
8. Reduce the load from 900lbs in steps and read the correspondence deflection ' δ ' at loads
considered during loading.
Load.
PRECAUTIONS:
14
Length of beam = L = 27 inch
Breadth of beam = b = 2 inch
Depth of beam = d = .593 inch
Moment of inertia = I = b.d3/ 12 = 0.3488 inch4
Sr. No Load Deflection (δ= inch) δmean= WL3 48δmean E.I. = WL3 / 48 δmean
(W=lb) Forward Backward inch (E.I. =lb inch²)
01
03
03
04
05
06
07
RESULT:
Flexural regidity of rectangular beam = EI =
CONCLUSION: ____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
15
EXERCISE
Q1. Define flexural rigidity
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q2. How can bending in the beam be avoided?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q3. If the Poisson's Ratio of the material is 0.3, find the modulus of rigidity of the material?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q4. Compare the results if the steel beam is replaced with a wooden bar?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q5. Explain section modulus?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
16
Practical No. ______________

instructor.

complex
programs,
particularly in
carryout
calculation
stepwise.
with minor work.
deficiencies.

17
EXPERIMENT # 03
OBJECTIVE: To determine the following through Leaf Spring test.

i) Stiffness
ii) Graph between load and deflection
iii) Strain energy
iv) Proof load (the load at which the leaf spring becomes straight).
APPARATUS:
Spring testing machine, leaf spring (specimen), and measuring tape.
THEORY:
The leaf springs are widely used in suspension system of railway carriages and
automobiles. But the form in which it is normally seen is laminated leaf spring. Materials for the
design of leaf springs are Plain carbon steel, Chromium vanadium steel, Chromium- nickel-
molybdenum steel, and Silicon- manganese steel.
Leaf springs make it possible for a vehicle to absorb the shock of bumps along rough
roads by storing strain energy. Without this type of support, the body of a vehicle is bound to
rough movement and cause discomfort to drivers and passengers.
They are what allow the up and down movement of the wheels with minimal impact on
the chassis and the rest of the vehicle.
When a force is applied to a leaf spring, then it is subject to elastic deformation. A
characteristic of such an elastic deformation is that the original shape is re-formed when the
force is no longer active. In this experiment, spring constant (k) which resist to elastic
deformation when load is applied and strain energy stored during the elastic deformation of the
spring is to be determined.
.
(a) Stiffness. k = W / δ (kgf /mm)
(b) Strain energy U = E = ½ W δ (kgf mm)
PROCEDURE:
1. Place the leaf spring on marked trolley.
2. Before starting the spring testing machine make sure the load and unload valves are
closed.
3. Start the spring testing machine and select the load scale of 2 kg per division.
4. Set and adjust the load and deflection indicative to zero. The load indicator is set to zero
by rotating the rack rod holding graph plotter (clockwise and anti-clockwise accordingly)
while the deflection power is set to zero reading by rotating the Deflection meter casing
(clockwise and anti clockwise accordingly) and locking the zero reading by setting knob
on casing.
5. Bring the Ram and leaf spring in slight contact manually by hand wheel (raising table)
and if any slight load and deflection is registered as load and deflection meter, re-adjust it
to zero reading as explained in step 4 above.
6. Take minimum of 7 to maximum of 10 readings (to good graph plotting) on load &
deflection meters loading a similarly while unloading a loads considered during loading.
18
PRECAUTIONS:
Sr. No Load Deflection (δ =mm) δ mean Stiffness Strain energy

= mm
(W=Kgf) Forward Backward k=W/δ U= 1/2 W δ
01
02
03
04
05
RESULT:
Mean Stiffness (k) =
Maximum Strain energy (Umax) =
CONCLUSION: ____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
19
EXERCISE
Q1. Why laminated leaf springs are used in automobiles?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q2. Define mechanical energy?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q3. How would you determine the endurance limit of the material?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q4. Which types of the material that are used for the design of a leaf spring?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q5. Define the stiffness of a spring.
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
20
Practical No. ______________

instructor.

complex
programs,
particularly in
carryout
calculation
stepwise.
with minor work.
deficiencies.

21
EXPERIMENT # 04
OBJECTIVE: To determine the Stiffness of Helical Coil Spring and calculate Strain
energy at 140 kgf, and draw graph of load vs deflection.
APPARATUS:
Spring testing machine, Helical coil spring, and Vernier calliper.
THEORY:
The helical springs are made of a wire coiled in the form of helix and are primarily
intended for compressive or tensile loads. The cross-section of wire from which the spring is
made may be circular, square or rectangular.
In vehicle suspension system, helical compression spring is one of the primary elastic
member. They attach vehicle body with wheel elastically and smooth out shocks which are
received from wheel. These shocks generated due to the road irregularities. When spring is
compressed due to the force then energy (Strain Energy) is stored in it, as it returns to its original
position after removal of the force, then stored energy is released.
The performance of a spring is characterized by the relationship between the loads ( P)
applied to it and the deflections ( δ) which result, The P-δ characteristic is approximately linear
provided the spring is open coiled and material is elastic. The slope of the characteristic is known
as the stiffness of the spring (k).
1. Stiffness
k = W / δ (kgf /mm)
2. Strain Energy
U = E = ½ W δ (kgf mm)
PROCEDURE:
1. Place the helical coil spring on table.

2. Before starting the spring testing machine make sure the load and unload valves are
closed.
3. Start the spring testing machine and select the load scale of 2 kg per division.
4. Set and adjust the load and deflection indicators to zero. The load indicator to set to zero
by rotating the casing of deflection meter (clockwise and anticlockwise accordingly) and
locking the zero reading by tightening knob on casing.
5. Bring the Ram and helical coil spring in slight contact manually by hand wheel (raising
table) and if any slight load and deflection is registered on load and deflection meter
readjust it to zero reading as explained in step 4 above.
6. Take minimum of 7 to maximum of 10 readings (for good graph plotting) on load and
deflection meters loading and similarly while unloading on loads considered during
loading.
22
PRECAUTIONS:
No of coils [N] =
Outer dia. [Do] =
Inner dia. [Di] =
Spring wire dia. [d] =
Sr. No Load Deflection (δ =mm) δ mean Stiffness Strain energy
(W=Kgf) Forward Backward k =W/δ U = 1/2 W δ

01
02
03
04
05
RESULT:
Mean Stiffness (k) =
Strain energy at 140 Kgf =
CONCLUSION: ____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
23
EXERCISE
Q1. What is helical spring?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q2. Differentiate between open coiled helical spring and closed coiled helical spring?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q3. Define strain energy?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q4. How would you determine the shear stress of a helical spring?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q5. How would you determine the bending stress of a helical spring?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
24
Practical No. ______________

instructor.

complex
programs,
particularly in
carryout
calculation
stepwise.
with minor work.
deficiencies.

25
EXPERIMENT # 05
OBJECTIVE: To determine Tensile Strength of given Mild Steel Wire by using

Universal Testing Machine.
APPARATUS:
Universal Testing Machine, wire attachment device and given wire specimen
THEORY:
Tensile testing is one of the simplest and most widely used mechanical tests. By
measuring force required to elongate a specimen to breaking point, material properties can be
determined that will allow designers and quality managers to predict how materials and products
will behave in application
Tensile strength defined as the maximum stress at which material can bear maximum
load per unit original area, for the determination of tensile strength of mild steel wire, it is
mounted in wire attachment which is gripped between upper head and lower head of universal
testing machine, then load is applied. As the load increases, mild steel wire first of all shows
elastic deformation up to elastic limit, then after just crossing elastic limit, first plastic
deformation starts at the point which is called yield point in the stress-strain diagram given
below, as the load further increases; it reaches a maximum point or ultimate tensile strength point
of the stress-strain diagram at which mild steel can with stand under the maximum load per unit
original area, after this point, necking starts and load or stress automatically reduces, and then
mild steel wire breaks.
Rupture
Tensile strength = Maximum load borne by a material

Original cross sectional area
26
PROCEDURE:

5. Now attach the specimen with the help of wire attachment.
6. Now apply the load by load valve (right wheel front side) turning it anticlockwise to the
requirement of load, and then take observation.
7. At the end of the required loading, close the load valve (the right wheel) by turning
clockwise (not very tight).
load.
9. Now press the stop button ( front lower side)
10. Remove the specimen carefully.
PRECAUTIONS:
OBSERVATIONS:
Diameter of specimen [D] =
Cross -Sectional Area = π D2/4 =
Load =F=
CALCULATION:
Tensile strength = Load / Cross- sectional Area
RESULT:
The Tensile Strength of given Mild Steel Wire =
CONCLUSION: ____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
27
EXERCISE
Q1. Define modulus of elasticity?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q2. What are the applications of the mild steel wire?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q3. Define Poisson's Ratio?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q4. What is the relation between E (modulus of elasticity), K (bulk modulus) and v (Poisson’s
ratio)?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q5. What is break point?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
28
Practical No. ______________

instructor.

complex
programs,
particularly in
carryout
calculation
stepwise.
with minor work.
deficiencies.

29
EXPERIMENT # 06
OBJECTIVE: To find the Modulus of rigidity (G) of Copper and Brass circular bars by
twist method, and draw graph between Torque and angle of twist (θ).
APPARATUS:
Bend and Twist Apparatus, Deflectometer, Vernier caliper, Measuring tape and LN key.
THEORY:
Torsion occurs when any shaft is subjected to a torque. This is true whether the shaft is
rotating (such as drive shafts on engines, motors and turbines) or stationary (such as with a bolt
or screw). The torque (T) makes the shaft twist and one end rotates relative to the other inducing
shear stress on any cross section as shown below in figure. Failure might occur due to shear
alone or because the shear is accompanied by stretching or bending. The specimen which is more
rigid, or more resistant to twisting, will have a higher modulus of rigidity (G). Again, the
modulus of rigidity is a material property, and under non-extreme environmental conditions, is a
constant value for each material.
The actual values which are recorded during experiment, as the specimens are being
twisted, are the angle of twist (θ°) applied to the specimen and the corresponding value of torque
(T) at a particular angle of twist, and the polar moment of inertia (J).
As we know that,
G = [180 xTxL / (π x Jx θ)]
T= WxR
J = π x d4 / 32
W=Load, d = diameter of the circular bar, L= original length of the bar, R= Length of the torque
arm.
30
PROCEDURE:
1. Mount the test specimen on to test equipment by fixing one end of the sample with the
help of tightening screws and loosing other end, by losing the tightening screws.
2. Measure a fixed length, of 700 mm span length and the diameter of the rod.
3. Measure the distance (the interval) between load application point (the groove of the
lever) and the center of rod.
4. Set the testing device so that the top of the gauge is just in front of the groove of the
lever.
5. The gauge (deflectometer) is lowered so that its smalls scale is at about 10, and main
scale of the gauge is set to zero by twisting its outer ring, as the interval between the
groove of the lever and the center of the test specimen is 100.1mm, 1 revolution of the
gauge corresponds to 1° (degree).
6. Apply the load and read the torsional angle on the gauge (deflectometer).The load device
is used as the first load.
7. Repeat for each specimen.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. One end of the shaft should be securely tightened between the end holding clamps as
much as possible.
2. The gauge (deflectometer) should be set at the groove of the lever at a distance is
100.1mm
3. The weight of load device should be added in reading.
31
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATION:
R =Torque arm =100.1 mm = 0.11m
Diameter of the round bar of copper =d= 8mm=0.008m
Diameter of the round bar of brass =d= 8mm=0.008m
Span length of the round bar of copper =L=700mm= 7m
Span of the round bar of brass =L=700mm= 7m
Copper
Sr. No Load θ° θmean Torque G =(N/m²)
W=N forward backward T=WR G={180xTxL / (π x J x θ)}
01
02
03
04
05
Brass
Sr. No Load θ° θmean Torque G =(N/m²)
W=N Forward Backward T=WR G={180xTxL / (π x J x θ)}
01
02
03
04
05
32
RESULT:
Modulus of rigidity of the Copper =
Modulus of rigidity of the Brass =
CONCLUSION: _______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
33
EXERCISE
Q1. Define modulus of rigidity?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q2. Is there a relationship between the modulus of rigidity and the modulus of elasticity of a
material?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q3. Which apparatus are used in this experiment?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q4. Calculate the modulus of elasticity of the brass and copper by using results of this
experiment?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q5. Give the at least three examples of machine components / parts in which torsional failure
occurs?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
34
Practical No. ______________

instructor.

complex
programs,
particularly in
carryout
calculation
stepwise.
with minor work.
deficiencies.

35
EXPERIMENT # 07
OBJECTIVE: To determine hardness of the material by Brinell hardness method.
APPARATUS:
Hardness tester, Specimen, Indenters, Single eye microscope.
THEORY:
Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to permanent deformation such as
indentation, wear, abrasion, scratch. The hardness test and the tensile test measure the resistance
of a metal to plastic flow, and results of these tests may closely parallel to each other. For
example, there is an empirical relation between tensile strength (UTS) and Brinell hardness
number (BHN) for most steels as follows:
UTS (in MPa) = 0.35 X BHN
This equation is used only to predict tensile strength of steels by means of hardness
measurement, not accurately but only roughly. The importance of material hardness testing also
depends on its applications in industry, for example high hardness is needed to reduce plastic
deformation and wear in the bearing and gears applications, where as the cold rolling industry
desire low hardness material for easily plastic flow under rolling, and manufacturing industry
will prefer less hard materials for easy and faster machining and increased production.
The hardness test is preferred because it is simple, easy, and relatively nondestructive.
The American Society for Testing and Materials has defined Brinell test in the standard
ASTME10 for metallic materials.
In all hardness testes, a defined force is mechanically applied on the test piece for
about 15 to 30 seconds. The indenter, which transmits the load to the test piece, varies in size and
shape for different testes. This method is the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of the
material, particularly those materials with heterogeneous structures.
In Brinell hardness testing, steel balls are used as an indenter. Diameter of the indenter
and the applied force depend upon the thickness of the test specimen, for accurate results, depth
of indentation should be less than 1/8th of the thickness of the test pieces.
The choice of load and ball diameter to be used in a brinell test is determined by two
factors:
i) The value of the ratio F/D² (it is fixed for each type of the material).
ii) The size of indentations (which will provide optimum accuracy).
Materials F/D² (ratio) Ball dia. (mm) Load (Kgf)

Steels and Cast iron 30 2.5 187.5
Copper, copper alloys and 10 5 250
aluminum alloys.
Aluminum 5 5 125
Lead, tin and their alloys. 1 10 100
36
The Brinell hardness number is obtained by dividing the applied force (in kilograms) by the
curved surface of the indentation which is a segment of sphere such that:
2P
BHN = __________ (Kg/mm²)
π D {D- √ (D2-d2)}
Where,
P = Major Load (Kgf)

D = Diameter of indenter (mm)
d = diameter of indentation (mm)
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the specimen surface clean by removing dust, dirt, oil and grease etc.
2. Attach the selected indenter to the indenter holder of the testing machine.
3. Place the specimen on the anvil.
1. Push the major load lever down.
2. Select the load by adjusting the load selector lever.
3. Push the low lift lever full towards the machine body (say position A).
4. Rotate the capstan wheel clockwise until the specimen comes in contact with the
indenter and the smallest needle comes about halfway along the red zone (smallest
scale of plus and minus), This indicates the minor load on the specimen.
5. Release the major load lever.
6. The needle will start to rotate and will come to a stop.
7. Wait for 15 seconds.
8. Now again, Push the major load lever down, in order to the major load may be released.
9. The needle will start to move and will come to a stop.
10. Rotate the capstan wheel anti-clockwise, and Remove the specimen from the hardness
tester.
11. Place the specimen under the microscope and measure the indentation diameter (d).
12. Repeat the entire operation, 2-times.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The surface of the test piece should be clean.
2. The distance of the center of the indentation from the edge of the test piece should be at
least 3 times the diameter of the indentation and the distance between the centers of two
adjacent indentations should be at least 4 times the diameter of the indentation.
3. Test piece should not be thin than the 8 times the depth of the indentation.
4. Hardened steel ball should not be used for metals of hardness exceeding 450 HB. For
such metals a ball of harder material, e.g. tungsten carbide, may be used.
5. The damage indenter should be changed.
37
OBSERVATIONS:
Dia: of Indentation (d=mm)

S.No Material F/D² Indenter Load
(ratio) (D=mm) (W=Kgf) d1 d2 di= (d1+d2)/2
01 Mild steel
02 Aluminium
03 Brass
CALCULATION:
1) Mild steel
2) Aluminium
3) Brass
RESULT:
1) Mild steel
HB =
2) Aluminium
HB =
3) Brass
HB =
CONCLUSION:____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
38
EXERCISE
Q1. Define the hardness?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q2. If you are interested to find the hardness of the steel by using hardened steel ball of
diameter =10mm. what the load will you apply on the indenter?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q3. A ball of 5 mm diameter is used as an indenter in a Brinell's test on 3 different materials all
subjected to the same load. The size of the indentation diameter was found to be.
a. 1.0 mm
b. 1.3 mm
c. 1.1 mm
which material is the hardest?
Answer._______
Q4. Diamond indenter is used in
a. Brinell Hardness test

b. Rockwell Hardness test
c. Both of the above
Q5. Which ASTM Standard for Brinell hardness test is used?
a. ASTM E8
b. ASTM E10
c. ASTM E18
Q6. What will be the tensile strength of the Mild steel, Aluminum and Brass on the basis of
Brinell hardness number? (Consider the material is same which tested in this experiment).
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
39
Practical No. ______________

instructor.

complex
programs,
particularly in
carryout
calculation
stepwise.
with minor work.
deficiencies.

40
EXPERIMENT # 08
OBJECTIVE: To determine hardness of the material by Rockwell Method
APPARATUS: Hardness tester, Specimen, Indenters.
THEORY:
Hardness is related to ductility, tensile strength, and many other material properties,
but does not have a defined relationship with any one of them. The hardness test is used to
compare the hardness values of different materials and not in calculations to determine other
properties. Hardness can be used to roughly predict material properties, but only roughly. In
production, hardness tests may be performed to check for consistency or the effects of a
hardening treatment. Rockwell hardness test method is the most common in the industries.
Rockwell test methods are defined in the standards, ASTM E18 Metals, and ASTM D785
Plastics.
Indenters for Rockwell test are made of hardened steel or diamond. Rockwell hardness
tester presents direct reading of hardness number on a dial gauge provided with the machine.
Principally this testing is similar to Brinell hardness testing; it differs only in diameter and
material of the indenter and the applied force. Although there are many scales having different
combinations of load and size of indenter but commonly ‘C’ scale is used and hardness is
presented as HRC.
Rockwell hardness values are expressed as a combination of a hardness number and
the symbol HR and the scale designation, representing the indenter and the minor and major
loads. For example, 50 HRB indicates that the material has a hardness reading of 50 on the B
scale and steel ball of diameter, 1.588mm as a indenter is used and total load 100 Kgf is applied.
Material on the Rockwell tester always tested according to the recommended scales,
scale indicates the type of indenter and load which can be applied on that material. Some of those
the Rockwell scales for various materials are given below in table.
Scale Indenter type Minor Total Material

load load
(Ball dimension in dia.) (Kgf) (Kgf)
A Conical Diamond 10 60 Cemented carbide and shallow case hardened
steel.
B Ball,1.588 mm,(1/16”) 10 100 Copper alloys, aluminum alloys, soft steel
and malleable iron etc.
C Conical Diamond 10 150 Steel, hard cast irons, deep case hardened
steel, and Pearlitic malleable iron, titanium
and other materials harder than 100 HRB.
D Conical Diamond 10 100 Thin steel and medium case hardened steel
and Pearlitic malleable iron.
E Ball,3.175 mm,(1/8”) 10 100 Cast iron, aluminum and magnesium alloys
and bearing metals.
F Ball,1.588 mm,(1/16”) 10 60 Annealed Copper alloys, thin soft sheet
metals.
G Ball,1.588 mm,(1/16”) 10 150 Malleable iron, Copper-nickel-zinc, and
cupronickel alloys.
H Ball,3.175 mm,(1/8”) 10 60 Aluminum, zinc, lead.
41
This hardness test uses a direct reading instrument, based on the principle of differential
depth measurement.Indenter is pressed against the specimen with a minor load 10-Kgf to
properly seat the indenter, then the remaining load (major load) is applied. The Rockwell
hardness number is related to the penetration depth of the specimen, for example specimens are
‘A’ and ‘B’ are tested under same Rockwell scale, the specimen which shows low penetration
depth indicates high hardness number which can be read directly on the dial gauge of the
hardness tester.
Indenter loaded by minor and major loads
Depth to which indenter is Depth to which indenter is

forced by minor + major forced by minor load.
loads (total load).
Specimen
Increment in depth due to
increment in load.
PROCEDURE:
1. Determine the appropriate scale for the material to be tested. (This scale will
indicate the load and indenter type and its size to be used.)
2. Make the specimen surface clean by removing dust, dirt, oil and grease etc.
3. Attach the selected indenter to the indenter holder of the testing machine.
4. Place the specimen on the anvil.
5. Push the major load lever down.
6. Select the load by adjusting the load selector lever.
7. Push the low lift lever full towards the machine body (say position A).
8. Rotate the capstan wheel clockwise until the specimen comes in contact with the
indenter and the smallest needle comes about halfway along the red zone (smallest
scale of plus and minus), This indicates the minor load on the specimen.
9. Set the pointer with the zero on the dial gauge by rotating the scale manually.
10. Now, Release the major load lever.
11. The needle will start to rotate and will come to a stop.
12. Wait for 08 seconds.
13. Now again, Push the major load lever down, in order to the major load may be released.
14. The needle will start to move and will come to a stop.
15. Read the hardness number on the scale of the dial gauge, (red scale for hardened steel
ball indenter or black scale for diamond indenter).
16. Repeat the entire operation, 3-times.
42
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The surface of the test piece should be smooth, even, and free from oxide scale and
foreign matter like oil, paint etc.
2. Calibrate the machine occasionally using standard test blocks.
3. Specimen thickness should be 10 times higher than the depth of the indentation, and the
spacing between the indentations should be 3 to 5 times of the indentation diameter.
4. No additional material of the same or another kind may be interposed between the
specimen and the support.
5. After applying Major load, wait for sometime to allow the needle to come to rest.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No Material Scale Indenter Load Hardness Reading (R) Hardness

(d=mm) (W=Kg) (mean)
R1 R2 R3
01 Mild steel
02 Aluminum
03 Brass
RESULT:
The Rockwell hardness for the given materials are found to be.
1) Mild steel
___________________.
2) Aluminum
___________________.
3) Brass
___________________ .
CONCLUSION: ____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
43
EXERCISE
Q1. Where is the high hardness needed, give at least three applications in the field of engineering?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q2. What are the applications of the Rockwell Hardness Scales B and C.?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q3. If you are asked to find the hardness of the Cast Iron, how will you make the selection of
Indenter and Major load?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q4. Minor load for Rockwell Hardness test is
a. 15 kg
b. 10 kg
c. none of the above
Q5. Which of the following material is the hardest?
a. 60HRC
b. 80HRC
c. 50HRC
Q6. Which ASTM Standard for Rockwell hardness test is used?
a. ASTM E8
b. ASTM E10
c. ASTM E18
44
Practical No. ______________
instructor.

complex
programs,
particularly in
carryout
calculation
stepwise.
with minor work.
deficiencies.
45
EXPERIMENT # 09
OBJECTIVE: To determine the shear strength of mild steel and aluminum in single and
double shear.
APPARATUS:
Universal testing machine, Bar shearing tool attachment, LN Key, Specimen.
THEORY:
A type of force which causes or tends to cause two continuous parts of the body to
slide relative to each other in a direction parallel to their plane of contact is called the shear force,
we can say simply that the force which acts parallel to the cross sectional area of the material bar
called Shear Force. Shear strength defined as the maximum shear stress required to shear or
fracture a cross sectional plane that is parallel to the applied load.
The study of the shear strength of a material is necessary in the design of a part and for the
selection of the materials for different applications such as beams, riveted joints, connecting rods, pins
and aero plane propellers. When a part is subjected to axial load, a shear failure may also occur in tension.
A ductile material is used in tension, or in compression if brittle material is used. The possibility of a
failure by shear should always be checked in a design work.
To perform the shear test, a shearing tool is used on the universal testing machine. A shear tool
consists of a punch and die with attachment for clamping the specimen, specimen is clamped on the die,
and shear load is transfer on the specimen through punch. The specimen may be flat or round, and the
shearing load may be applied to one or two cross sectional planes of the material bar, producing single or
double shear simultaneously as shown below in the shear of bolt and steel bar. Strength which is found
under single shear is said to be simply shear strength, and if it is determined under double shear, then it is
called double shear strength.
F F
F F F
(Single shear in the bolt) (Double shear in steel bar)
As
Shear stress (τ) = Shear load (W) / Area (A)
τ = W/A (for shear strength)
τ = W/2A (for double shear strength)
46
PROCEDURE:
1. Place the given metallic rod in shear tool attachment but note its diameter before placing.
2. The shear tool attachment comprise of two parts Male (Punch) and Female (die)
3. The given metallic rod is placed and clamped on Female (die) attachment (as shown by
Lab Engineer)
4. The male (punch) attachment is rectangular in shape for provisions of standard metallic
rod of 1/4", 1 /2 ", 3/4 " and 1" at centre of one its 4 side respectively (will be shown by
Lab Engineer).
5. The male (punch) is placed under the loading head of testing machine as well as centered
and placed on the given metallic rod to be sheared (will be demonstrated by Lab
Engineer).
6. Start the universal testing machine by pushing the start button.
7. Open the low range and high range gauge valve at least two turns.
black needle on dial moves and becomes stationery at same level then close the load
9. Rotate both dial scales (a display) accordingly by loosening zero setting knob and adjust
needle to zero and then tighten the setting knob. Now the machine is set.
10. Now apply load at slow speed until the ultimate shear point is reached.
11. Take the load reading of ultimate shear point by help of lazy needle attached to load
indicator needle.
12. Close the load valve (right wheel) by turning clockwise (not very tight).
13. Now open unloading valve (left wheel) by turning anticlockwise for releasing the load.
14. Now press the stop button of Universal Testing Machine.
15. Remove the specimen carefully.
OBSERVATIONS:
Single shear Double shear

S.No Material Diameter
(D=inch) Shear load Double Shear load
(W=lb) (W=lb)
01 Mild steel
02 Aluminum
CALCULATION:
Mild steel
Shear strength
Area = (π /4) x d2 Area =
τ = W/A τ=
47
Double Shear strength
τ = W/2A τ=
Aluminum
Shear strength
τ = W/A τ=
Double Shear strength
τ = W/2A τ=
RESULT:
S.No Material Shear strength Double Shear strength

( τ = Psi ) ( τ = Psi )
01 Mild steel
02 Aluminum
CONCLUSION: ____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
PRECAUTIONS:
48
EXERCISE
Q1. Define the shear strength?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q2. A wheel is to be attached to an assembly using 4 aluminum bolts. Maximum load on the
assembly is 10000kg. What minimum diameter of aluminum bolts should be used to support this
load? (Use data from your experiment).
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q3.What do you understand by the term Double Shear and Single Shear?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q4. Define Modulus of Rigidity?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q5. Which apparatus you have used to perform this experiment?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q6. In shearing, load applied is

a. Parallel to the area resisting.
b. Perpendicular to the area resisting.
c. None of the above.
49
Practical No. ______________

instructor.

complex
programs,
particularly in
carryout
calculation
stepwise.
with minor work.
deficiencies.

50
EXPERIMENT # 10
OBJECTIVE: To determine shear strength of wooden samples, along and across fiber of
the wood.
APPARATUS:
Universal Testing Machine, wood shearing attachment, wooden sample.
THEORY:
Wood has been used as a structural material since prehistoric times. One of its
advantages is that it is easily shaped by sawing. Wood is highly an-isotropic. Because of the
orientation of fibers its strength differs in longitudinal & tangential directions. This experiment is
about determining the shear strength of wood parallel and perpendicular to the fiber of wood.
PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare a wooden parallel to grain specimen as prescribed in ASTM methods.
2. Remove the zero error of the universal testing machine.
3. Place the wood shearing attachment on the table of the universal testing machine.
4. Attach the blade (upper cutting edge) to the lower head of the universal testing
machine.
5. Apply load by opening the load valve.
6. Note down the maximum load at which the wood shears.
PRECAUTIONS:
51
OBSERVATIONS:
Shear load (W=lb) Shear Strength ( τ = Psi )

S.No Material Area
along the across along the across
fiber the fiber fiber the fiber
01
02
CALCULATION:
Shear strength (along the fiber)
τ = W/A
Shear strength (across the fiber)
τ = W/A
RESULT:
Shear strength (along the fiber):_________________________________________________
Shear strength (across the fiber):_________________________________________________
CONCLUSION: ___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
52
EXERCISE
Q.1 Give at least five types of the wood?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Q.2 Define an-isotropy?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q.3 Define composite materials?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q.4 Give applications of the wood in engineering field?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q.5 ASTM stands for what?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
53
Practical No. ______________

instructor.

complex
programs,
particularly in
carryout
calculation
stepwise.
with minor work.
deficiencies.

54
EXPERIMENT # 11
OBJECTIVE: To determine the modulus of elasticity of rectangular beam by three

point bending method.
APPARATUS:
Universal testing machine, deflectometer, bending test attachment, rectangular beam.
THEORY:
Beams are structural members used in buildings as well as equipment. They rest on
supports at theirs ends and withstand concentrated or distributed loads along their span. Common
example of beams are guarder and T-irons in home roofs. Shafts in rotating machinery also
support loads like motor, turbine, compressor perpendicular to their axis, and are supported on
bearings. These also, therefore examples of beam in addition to their torsion.
Theoretically, a simply supported beam is one that has a pin-support at one end and a roller
support at the other end, and load is applied vertically downwards on its span. For a simply
supported beam with a point load at its mid-span, the maximum deflection (at mid-span) may be
expressed as:
Modulus of elasticity = E = WL3 /48Iδ
Where:
E = Modulus of elasticity
δ = The maximum deflection of the beam at its mid-span
W = Load acting on the beam
L = The span length
I = Moment of Inertia of the cross-section of the beam (bd3/12)
55
PROCEDURE:
5. Adjust the beam testing attachment between table and lower head.
6. Measure the length 'L', breadth 'b' and thickness ‘d’ of rectangular beam and place with
holding device as simply supported beam.
7. Apply the load 'W' vertically at the centre of beam in lbs. The vertical loading is to be
increased in steps of 100lbs up to 900lbs while taking the corresponding vertical
deflection 'S' in inches at each loading valve.
8. Reduce the load from 900lbs in steps and read the correspondence deflection ' δ ' at loads
considered during loading.
Load.
PRECAUTIONS:
56
Length of beam = L = 27 inch
Width of beam = b = 2 inch
Depth of beam = d = .593 inch
Moment of inertia = I = b.d3/ 12 = 0.3488 inch4
Sr. No Load Deflection (δ=inch) δmean= WL3 48δmean E = WL3 /48I δmean
inch
(W=lb) Forward Backward (E=lb inch²)
01
03
03
04
05
06
07
RESULT:
Modulus of elasticity of rectangular beam = E =
CONCLUSION: ____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
57
EXERCISE
Q1. Define Hook’s law and stiffness?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q2. Discuss at least three applications of modulus of elasticity?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q3. Which apparatus you have used to perform this experiment?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q4. If the length (L) of the beam is doubled the modulus of elasticity ___________________.
a) Will be the four (4) times the original value.

b) Will be the eight (8) times the original value.
c) Remains same
d) None of the above
Q5. A load W is applied on a beam of length (L). If the thickness of the beam is doubled,
deflection _____________________.
a) Will be 1/4 times the original value.

b) Will be 1/8 times the original value.
c) Will remain same
d) None of the above
58
Practical No. ______________

instructor.

complex
programs,
particularly in
carryout
calculation
stepwise.
with minor work.
deficiencies.

59
EXPERIMENT # 12
OBJECTIVE: To determine the critical load of following columns (based on Euler's

equation).
A. Pin ended column (use O.6mm thickness plate)

B. Fixed -pinned column (use O.6mm thickness plate)
C. Both ends fixed column (use O.3mm thickness plate)
D. Fixed-free column (use O.6mm thickness plate)
APPARATUS:
Euler's strut apparatus, Vernier caliper, a measuring tape, steel strips.
THEORY:
A column in structural engineering is a vertical structural element that transmits,
through compression, the weight of the structure to other structural elements. For the purpose of
wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral forces. Modem
columns are constructed out of steel, poured or precast concrete, or brick.
In 1757, mathematician Leonhard Euler derived a formula that gives the maximum
axial load that a long, slender, ideal column can carry without buckling. An ideal column is one
that is perfectly straight, homogeneous, and free from initial stress. When a column undergoes
visibly large displacements transverse to the load then it is said to buckle. For small loads the
process is elastic since buckling displacements disappear when the load is removed. Local
buckling of plates or shells is indicated by the growth of bulges or waves and is commonly
encountered in the component plates of thin structural members.
Euler critical load is given by the equation,
Le=kL
Fer = Maximum or critical force (vertical load on column).

E = Modulus of elasticity.
I = Least moment of inertia for the column's cross sectional area.
Le= Effective length of column.
L = Unsupported length of column.
k = Column effective length factor, whose value depends on the conditions of end
support of the column,
k=l for pin support, k=O.5 for fixed support, k=O.7 for a pin and a fixed
support, and k=2 for a fixed -free support.
60
PROCEDURE:
1. Place the apparatus on a level table.
2. Measure the width, thickness and length of the columns, Record the measurements.
3. Setup the above mentioned configurations on the apparatus.
4. Apply some loads on the top of the columns until the column deflect.
5. Observe the deflection shape of the columns. Sketch the shape of the deflection.
6. Repeat step 3 and step 4 on the remaining configuration
OBSERVATIONS:
Column A
Length --------------------------------
Width---------------------------------
Thickness------------------------------
Critical load --------------------------
Column B
Length --------------------------------
Width---------------------------------
Thickness -----------------------------
Critical load --------------------------
Column C
Length --------------------------------
Width---------------------------------
Thickness -----------------------------
Critical load --------------------------
Column D
Length --------------------------------
Width---------------------------------
Thickness -----------------------------
Critical load --------------------------
RESULT: Sketch the observed deflection shapes of the columns.
CONCLUSION: ___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
61
EXERCISE
Q1. Explain buckling in the columns?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q2. Define the critical load?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q3. The force which is applied on the column of different configurations is_____________.
a) Shear force
b) Compressive force
c) Tensile force
Q4. The stability of the structure is increased either by__________________ its stiffness or by
_______________its length.
a) decreasing, increasing
b) increasing, decreasing
Q5. If the load on a column is applied through the center of gravity of its cross section, it is
called ________________, A load at any other point in the cross section is known as
_____________________.
a) an axial load, an eccentric load

b) an eccentric load, an axial load
62
Practical No. ______________

instructor.

complex
programs,
particularly in
carryout
calculation
stepwise.
with minor work.
deficiencies.

63
EXPERIMENT # 13
OBJECTIVE: To compare the experimental and theoretical young’s modulus of given

specimen of a cantilever beam, and draw graph between load and deflection.
APPARATUS:
Twist and bend apparatus, Dial gauge with stand, Vernier caliper, Beam specimens,
Weights with loading device.
THEORY:
Beams are structural members used in buildings as well as equipment. They rest on
supports at theirs ends and withstand concentrated or distributed loads along their span. Common
example of beams are guarder and T-irons in home roofs. Shafts in rotating machinery also
support loads like motor, turbine, compressor perpendicular to their axis, and are supported on
bearings. These also, therefore examples of beam in addition to their torsion.
Theoretically, a cantilever beam is one having a fixed support at one end and load along
its span or on the free end. For a cantilever beam having a point load at its free end, the
maximum deflection (at the free end) may be expressed as:
Where:
E= WL³ / 3Iδ
E = Modulus of elasticity
δ = the maximum deflection of the beam at its free end
W = Load acting on the beam
L = The span length
I = Moment of Inertia of the cross-section of the beam (bd3/12)
Applications of Cantilever Beam:
Cantilever beams are found in the construction of buildings, bridges and towers and in many
other applications.
64
PROCEDURE:
1. Place the beam in position (fixed in clamp) with at least 1/4 span extended beyond fixed
support.
2. Place the hanger at the other end so that the loading point is at the free end (slightly away
from end) of the beam.
3. Place a dial gauge directly above loading point. Adjust the dial to read zero and lock the
bezel.
4. Apply a load to the hanger and record the beam deflection on the dial gauge.
5. Increase the load to the hanger and record the new dial reading. Do this at least 4 times.
6. Plot a graph of deflection against load and determine the gradient of the graph.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Note the reading carefully.
2. Apply load slowly and smoothly.
OBSERVATIONS and CALCULATION:

Beam Number/ Material = Steel
Theoretical Young’s modulus = 200 GPa
Width of the beam, b = ___________ mm
Thickness of the beam, d = ___________ mm
Moment of Inertia of cross section, I = ___________ mm4
Modulus of elasticity of the beam, E = ___________ N/mm2
Experimental Theoretical Error %

Forward Backward Average
Load Young’s Young’s
Deflection Deflection Deflection
S.No modulus modulus
W= N δ1 = mm δ2 = mm δmean = mm E= WL³ / 3Iδ E= e=
(GPa) (GPa)
1
65
RESULT:
Experimental Young’s modulus =
( Theoretical Young’s modulus - Experimental Young’s modulus)

Error % (e) = ______________________________________________________ X 100
Theoretical Young’s modulus
Error % (e) =
CONCLUSION: ___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
66
EXERCISE
Q1. What are the applications of cantilever beam, discuss at least three applications?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q2. Differentiate between over hanging beam and cantilever beam?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q3. Define roller pin and fixed supports for beam by sketch?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q4. What is the function of the moment of inertia?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Q5. Defferntiate between moment of inertia and moment of area?
Answer._______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
67
Practical No. ______________

instructor.

complex
programs,
particularly in
carryout
calculation
stepwise.
with minor work.
deficiencies.

68

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Practical Workbook

Department of Mechanical Engineering

NED University of Engineering & Technology,

Prepared by: Dr. Maaz Akhtar

Mr. Kashif Azher

Mr. Muhammad Yaseen

This is certified that this practical book contains 68 pages.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

NED University of Engineering & Technology,

This is to certify that Mr. ____________________________ s/o __________________________, bearing

roll number ______________, student of Spring / Fall semester ____________has successfully

Summary of Marks Obtained

Marks Awarding Scheme:

Sum of the marks obtained from rubric form

Marks for OBE based practicals = _____________________________________ X 20

Max. marks from rubric form

S.No Experiment Page Initial

01 To determine the modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, % Elongation 6-12

02 To Determine the flexural rigidity of simply supported rectangular 13-17

03 To determine the following through leaf spring test:

07 To determine hardness of the material by Brinell hardness method.

10 To determine shear strength of the wooden samples, along and across

11 To Determine modulus of elasticity of the rectangular beam by three

12 To determine critical load of the columns (based on Euler's equation). 60-63

13 To compare experimental and theoretical young’s modulus of given 64-68

OBJECTIVE: To determine the Modulus of Elasticity, Tensile Strength, % Elongation

OBSERVATION and CALCULATION:

Cross -Sectional Area = Ao (mild steel) = π D²/4 = ----------------

Sr. No Load Deflection Stress Strain Modulus of elasticity

W= lb δ = inch σ = W/ Ao (Psi) ε = δ / Lo E = σ / ε (Psi)

Tensile strength = σ uts = F max. / Ao

Sr. No Load Deflection Stress Strain Modulus of elasticity

W= lb δ = inch σ = W/ Ao (Psi) ε = δ / Lo E = σ / ε (Psi)

Tensile strength = σ uts = F max. / Ao

% Elongation and Reduction in area.

Material Dimensions % EL or % Red. in area

% EL={(Lf – Lo) / Lo} x 100

% EL={(Lf – Lo) / Lo} x 100

Modulus of elasticity of Mild steel = -------------------------

Ductility of mild steel = % EL= ----------------------------, % Red. in area= ------------------------

The tensile strength of Aluminum = ------------------------------------

Modulus of elasticity of Aluminum = -------------------------

Ductility of Aluminum = % EL=------------------------, % Red. in area=-----------------------------

Q2. Differentiate between Toughness and Resilience.

Q3. Explain Yield Point?

Q4. Differentiate between Elastic and Plastic Deformation?

Q5. Define Ductility?

Assessment Rubric for Lab Performance (P3)

3 Realization of Fully operational Effective Basic competence Unable to

Marks: ________ Instructor’s Signature: __________________ Date: __________

OBJECTIVE: To determine the flexural rigidity of simply supported rectangular beam

Flexural rigidity = E.I. = WL3 / 48 δ

(W=lb) Forward Backward inch (E.I. =lb inch²)

Flexural regidity of rectangular beam = EI =

Q1. Define flexural rigidity

Q2. How can bending in the beam be avoided?

Q5. Explain section modulus?

Assessment Rubric for Lab Performance (P3)

This is to certify that Mr. __ s/o , bearing

roll number __, student of Spring / Fall semester has successfully

Marks: Instructor’s Signature: Date:

Marks: Instructor’s Signature: Date:

Marks: Instructor’s Signature: Date:

Marks: Instructor’s Signature: Date:

Marks: Instructor’s Signature: Date:

Marks: Instructor’s Signature: Date:

Marks: Instructor’s Signature: Date: