9.

1 AIR COMPRESSORS
DEFINITION OF COMPRESSOR
A compressor is a thermal machine used for repeated compression of gases. The air
compressor is used to compress the atmospheric air.
ATMOSPHERIC AIR
Air is composed of mainly 23% Oxygen, and 76% Nitrogen by mass along with small
quantities of other gases such as Carbon dioxide, Argon, helium. Neon etc and water
vapour.
COMPRESSED AIR
As main constituents of air are near perfect gases, a mixture of them will bahave as a near
perfect gas, following boyle’s and Charle’s laws. When air is compressed its temperature
and pressure will increase as its volume is reduced.
Compressed air is widely used in industry. Pneumatic machines, tools and instruments,
pneumatic controls, cleaning lances, starting gears of Diesel Engines, pneumatic whistles or
typhoons, testing of pipe lines etc are very common applications of compressed air in the
industry.
On board merchant ships, the compressed air is now actually the life blood of the ship. It is
used, for starting Marine Diesel Engines (main and Auxiliary) as starting air, for
instruments as instrument air and for various controls especially in UMS as control air.
Hence, nowadays it is not uncommon to find five different size and types of compressors
providing at least three separate air systems throughout the ship. Following figures show
typical compressed air systems of motorships
9.2 THEORY OF COMPRESSION
Equation of state for a perfect gas is:
PV = mRT
Where P = Absolute Pressure (N/m2)
V = Volume (m3)
M = Mass (kg)
R = Gas constant (Nm/kgK)
T = Absolute Temperature (0K)
During compression, volume reduces, pressure and temperature increase; while mass
remains same.
Thus: PV/T = mR = Constant
Process of compression increases the pressure by reducing the volume, but as related by the
given equation, temperature also rises. Depending on the allowed rise of temperature the
compression can be of following types.
1. ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSION:
It is the compression at constant temperature. In practice, it means that the
temperature of gas (air) remains constant throughout the compression. It means that
heat of compression is immediately taken away. This would necessitate infinitely
slow compressor. This type of compression theoretically is most efficient
compression, but difficult to achieve. Very slow moving piston in a well cooled
small bore cylinder can approach Isothermal compression.
2. ADIABATIC (ISENTROPIC) COMPRESSION:
It is the compression under constant enthalpy conditions. i.e. no heat is given to or
taken form the gas through the cylinder walls and all the work done in compressing
the gas is stored within it. During this compression the temperature rises
 progressively causing increase in rate of pressure rise which calls for increased
power input to piston. This gives it poor efficiency. A very fast moving piston in
totally insulated cylinder will give adiabatic compression.
3. POLYTROPIC COMPRESSION:
It is the compression process which lies in between two extremes of isothermal and
adiabatic compression. Here, some parts of heat of compression is usually extracted
by Jacket cooling and multistaging with inter cooling is used to reduce work of
compression.
Following figure shows PV diagram of the various compression procession
processes. The figure shows clearly the extra work done by compressing
adiabatically, hence it would be more sensible to compress isothermally. However
this would required a very slow, long stroke piston running in a small bore perfectly
cooled cylinder which would give very low air delivery.
9.3 MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION
If we has an infinite number of stages of compression with coolers in between each stage
returning the air to ambient temperature, then we would be able to compress over the
desired range under near isothermal conditions. This of course is impracticable so two or
three stage compression with interstage and cylinder cooling is generally used when
relatively high pressures have to be reached.
Figure shows clearly the work saved by using this method of air compression but even
with efficient cylinder cooling the compression curve is nearer the adiabatic than the
isothermal and the faster the delivery rate the more this will be so.
CLEARANCE VOLUME:
To provide for thermal expansion and for machining tolerances, a small clearance called
Bumping clearance, is left between cylinder head and the piston. This clearance must be
as small as possible, as its increase will reduce the volumetric efficiency and hence
capacity of the compressor.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY:
Volumetric efficiency is the ration of the actual volume of air drawn in each suction
stroke to the stroke volume. Referring to the adjacent figure:
Volumetric efficiency = Vs/Vp
To standardize, volume of delivered air is taken at atmospheric pressure (1.013 bar) and
150C temperature.
This is termed as volume of “free air”
Thus Nv = volume of air discharged as free air/swept volume of first stage
The Ratio of the absolute outlet pressure to the inlet pressure is called compression ratio,
and is denoted by:
Y = P2/P1
The temperature rise of the fluid (air) depends on compression ratio; as given by
expression:
T2/T1= Yx(for adiabatic compression)
Where T1 = absolute temperature at inlet
P1 = absolute pressure at inlet
P2 = absolute pressure at outlet
X = a constant = 0.286 for air
POWER REQUIRED FOR COMPRESSION:
For polytropic compression, overall compressor work is given by:
If m and VI denote the mass and volume of fluid (air) inducted per second, then this
expression gives indicated Power required for compression in KW.
Here P1, P2 are in N/m2
R = constant = 287 for air
COMPRESSOR CAPACITY
Compressor capacity is determined as volume of the free air actually discharged by
compressor in one hour. It is termed as FAD (Free air delivery) in m3/hour
9.4 INTERCOOLING:
To avoid excessive temperature rise associated with higher compression ratio, a to
approach isothermal compression, intercooling is adopted after each stage compression in
a multistage compression. Usually, delivery temperature form fire state is limited to
930C(Lloyd’s Rules)
ADVANTAGES OF INTERCOOLING:
1. Compression work is reduced.
2. Volumetric efficiency and hence compressor capacity is increased.
3. It approximates isothermal compression.
4. The volume of air delivered is reduced, requiring reduced sizes of cylinder, piston
and delivery pipes.
5. The temperature of air delivered is reduced, which gives less thermal loading onto
material and better lubrication of piston and cylinder.
6. Due to less temperatures, suction and delivery valves remain cleaner without being
fouled with carbonized oil.
7. Moisture separation is easier through intercooler drains.
8. Use of after cooler allows smaller receivers.

9.5 FACTORS AFFECTING VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY:

1. Clearance volume (Bumping clearance) affects volumetric efficiency High pressure
air remaining in the cylinder after compression and delivery will expand on the
return stroke of the piston. This expanding air must fall to a pressure below that in
the suction manifold before a fresh air charge can be drawn in. hence part of the
return or suction stroke of the piston is non-effective. This non-effective part of the
suction stroke must be kept as small as possible in order to keep capacity to a
maximum.
2. Sluggish opening and closing of valves.
3. Leakage past piston rings.
4. Insufficient cooling water.
5. Cooling water temperature high.
6. Air inlet temperature high.
7. Throttling of air intake. (Due to dirty intake filter, insufficient or excess suction
valve lift, suction valve spring too strong).
8. Bearing wear down increasing bumping clearance.

9.6 COMPRESSION RATIOS IN MULTISTAGING:

To ensure equal rise in temperature in each stage so that the valves and springs are
not damaged, the compression ratios in different stagers are kept in Geometrical
Progression, to keep compression ratios same.
 Thus, for two stage compressors: if stage pressures are P1 to P2 in first stage, and P2
to P3 in second stage then
P3/P2 = P2/P1 or P2 = P3 P1
In 3 stage compressor similarly P2/P1= P3/P2 = P4/P3 or P2 = P1 P3 or P3 P4 P2]
i.e. compression ratio of each stage is cube root of ratio of final and initial absolute
pressures.
9.7 DYNAMIC COMPRESSORS:
These increase the pressure of gas by imparting to it the kinetic energy which is
coverted into pressure energy into a diffuser.
These are multiblade compressors and are further subdivided into:
a) Centrifugal Compressors, in which a high peripheral velocity is imparted
to the gas being compressed by the blades of the impeller which rotates
at a speed of 3000 –27000r.p.m. The centrifugal force developed in this
way partially compresses the gas. Further compression happens in
diffuser by reducing its velocity.
Depending upon the direction of gas flow at outlet form impeller
compressor can be radial or axial compressor.
b) Jet compressors, in which a driving vapour attains a high supersonic
velocity in a Laval nozzle and is mixed with the gas to be compressed in
a mixing chamber and leading it at high velocity to the diffuser where
kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy.
In addition to these, specially designed compressors are used for specific
purposes. Depending upon whether the cylinder is oil lubricated or not,
compressors can be oil free or not-oil free type and according to cylinder
cooling they could be air cooled or water cooled. Most of the commonly
found air compressors on board are Reciprocating Compressors, non –oil
free type and water cooled. These are used to compress atmospheric air
to compressed air (25-40 bar pressure) for starting purpose. However, for
instrument air, instrument air, oil free type air compressors r used as dirt
and moisture free pure air is required for instruments.
9.8 AIR COMPRESSOR REQUIREMENTS:
1. Two starting compressors must be fitted, of sufficient total capacity to meet the
engine requirements. Each compressor must be able to press up Air receiver form
15 bar to 25bar in thirty minutes. Two air receivers must to be provided. Total air
receiver capacity is to be sufficient for Twelve (12) starts of Reversible engines
and six (6) starts for non-reversible engines.
2. Additional one Diesel driven or hand operated (or if possible, both) emergency air
compressor must be fitted to start auxiliary engines of a “Dead Sip”.
3. Safety valves or preferably bursting discs must be fitted on the cooling water
casing to give ample relief of pressure, should an air cooling tube burst.
4. Each compressor must have a safety valve designed so that the accumulated
pressure, with the outlet valve closed, will not exceed 10% of the maximum
working pressure.
5. The air compressor cylinders, covers, intercoolers and aftercoolers, are tested by
hydraulic pressure to twice their working pressure.
 6. The casing of the intercooler and after cooler is hydraulic tested to 1.5x cooling
water pressure. Thus for 4 bar c.w pressure, the casing will be tested at 6 bar
pressure.
7. A water separator or drain should be fitted on the air side of each intercooler. The
drain cock should be used at regular intervals to prevent water form one stage
being carried into the following stage.

9.9 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR COMPRESSORS:

Compressors can be classified according to principle of compression as follows:
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS:
They increase the pressure of gas by decreasing its volume. These can be further
subdivided into:
a) Piston compressors, in which the gas volume changes due to the action of
one or two reciprocating pistons moving axially in cylinder e.g.
Reciprocating air compressors.
b) Rotary compressors, in which the gas volume changes due to rotation in
the cylinder of rotary vanes of an eccentrically placed rotor.
c) Membrane compressors, in which the volume variations are effected by
deflection of an elastic partition.
RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSORS:
For moderately high pressures such as starting air of 25 to 40 bar, Reciprocating
compressors are most commonly used due to more positive sealing. With the
reciprocating machine, temperature rise due to compression limits (to prevent oil
decomposition and valve problems) compression ratio to 7:1 in one stage. Thus 35 bar
gauge pressure of starting air can be readily attained with two stage compressor. Usually
2 or 3 stage compressors with interstage cooling are found on board ship.
TWO STAGE AIR COMPRESSOR
The following figures show a common two stage lair compressor with its diagrammatical
sketch. The pressures and temperatures at the various points would be approximately as
follows:
Delivery Pressure Air Temperature
Before Cooler After Cooler
First Stage 4.6 bar 1300C 350C
Second Stage 26.6 bar 1300C 350C

1. FIRST STAGE VALVES

2. SECOND STAGE VALVES
3. CYLINDER COVER
4. INTERCOOLER HEDER
5. FIRST STATGE POISTON
6. CRANKSHAFT
7. FLYWHEEL
8. STRAINER
9. OIL PUMP
10. WATER PUMP
11. SECOND STAGE PISTON
12. DRAIN
9.10 MATERIALS:
Casing – cast iron casting
Piston – aluminium alloy
Gudgeon pin bushes- phosphor bronze
Connecting rod-forged steel
Crankshaft – S.G. Cast iron
Crankpin bearing – steel backed white metal lined thin shell
Poston scraper rings- cast iron
Cooler tubes-copper (intercooler = single pass)
Bursting disc – brass (aftercooler = double pass)
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION:
The figure above shows a cross section of a two stage air compressor normally found on
board ships. It is made up of a cast iron casing with cylinder bores in which run
aluminium alloy pistons fitted with cast iron piston and scraper rings.
The piston is of two diameters, the larger acting as the first stage or the low pressure (LP)
stage and the smaller the second or high pressure (HP) stage. The pistons are connected to
forged steel connecting rods through fully floating gudgeon pins running in phosphor
bronze bushes. The connecting rods carry steel backed white metal lined thin shell
bearings which connect on to a spheroidal graphite cast in a crankshaft.
THREE STAGE AIR COMPRESSOR
The following figure shows diagrammatically a tandem type three stage compressor the
pressures and temperatures at the various points would be roughly as follows:
Delivery Air temperature
Pressure Before coolers After coolers
0
First Stage 4 bar 110 C 350C
0
Second Stage 16 bar 110 C 350C
Third Stage 40 bar 700C 250C
0
The above figures are for a salt water temperature of about 18 C. Final air temperature
at exit form the aftercooler is generally at or below atmospheric temperature.
The most characteristic feature is the cylindrical crosshead forming a continuation of
the I.P Piston, giving an accurate alignment for the same, so that the clearance for the
L.P, I.P. and crosshead may be equal. The H.P cylinder is placed in continuation with
the L.P., on top of it and adjustable to keep minimum clearance on H.P. Piston. The
separate crosshead prevents the forced lubrication oil from being mixed-up with the
pressure air. L.P. and I.P. and I.P. coolers have ample cooling surface form straight
brass tubes expanded into Muntz metal tube plates. The cooling water passes through
the tubes and air around them, so that coolers can act as separators for water and oil. To
reduce delivery temperature aftercoolers are also fitted. Very often cooler are found to
have air pass through tubes and cooling water around them.
The following figure shows the arrangement of HP Piston. To permit correct working
alignment when under conditions of heat expansion, HP stage piston is fitted
independently and held down loosely by the retaining ring as shown to form a floating
fit. The grooves shown improve lubrication and piston tightness. The piston clearance
allowed rang form 1.7 mm in HP and LP to about 3.5 mm in IP.
1. H.P. PISTON
2. L.P. PISTON
3. I.P. PISTON
 4. RETAINING RING
5. POSTON GROOVES
6. RINGS IN GROOVES

9.11 DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS

Filters
Air contains suspended foreign matter, much of which is abrasive. If this is allowed
to enter to compressor it will combine with the lubricating oil to form an abrasive-
like paste which increases wear on piston rings, liners and valves. It can adhere to the
valves and prevent them from closing properly, which in turn can lead to higher
discharge temperatures and the formation of what appears to be a carbon deposit on
the valves, etc. strictly, the apparent carbon deposit on valves contains very little
carbon from the oil, it is mainly solid matter form the atmosphere.
These carbon like deposits can become extremely hot on valves which are not closing
correctly and could act as ignition points for air oil vapour mixtures, leading to
possible fires and explosions in the compressor.
Hence air filters are extremely important, they must be regularly cleaned and where
necessary renewed and the compressor must never be run with the air intake filter
removed.
Dirty filter causes pressure drop in air intake which causes higher compression ratios
resulting in hither delivery temperature which can cause fire and explosion.
Although there are many types of air filters, it is unusual to find either the cell type or
the oil bath type units in marine service. The dry type of filter, as used on marine
compressors, has a filtering media of either felted cloth or paper, the latter usually
being slightly oil coated. This type of filter is quite satisfactory although its strength
is sometimes suspect on higher speed machines. The most widely used type of filter
is the viscous impingement type filter, usually of cylindrical design (as shown below)
and the filtering media usually being woven cooper wire or nylon standards, which
are, when cleaned, dipped in oil and allowed to drain before fitting. The oil coating
then traps the dirt quite satisfactorily, since the atmosphere for the marine compressor
is usually fairly clean. This type of filter is also quite acceptable for oil free
machines, if the unit is being used for control air.
COMPRESSOR VALVES
All modern marine compressors use automatic valves which operate on low pressure
differential. The following figure shows simple diagrammatical sketches of suction
and discharge valves.
Materials used in the construction are generally:
Valve seat: 0.4% carbon steel hardened and polished working surfaces.
Valve: Nickel steel, chrome vanadium steel or stainless steel, hardened and ground,
then finally polished to a mirror finish.
Spring: hardened steel. (None: all hardened steel would be tempered).

The following figure illustrates a modern type of valve, Hoerbiger type, designed
specially for medium and high speed air compressors.
The suction and delivery valves are usually of the same type, the only differences
being in the spring load and the lift. It is therefore necessary, during cleaning, that
valves be treated as units, the various parts assembled exactly as before they were
dismantled. The spares also should be clearly marked “SUCTION” and
“DELIVERY” and used only for that purpose.
The seat (9) usually made form 0.4 per cent, carbon steel, machined all over form a
solid blank. Owing to the high finish, minimum losses are secured. The tapered ports
with the inlet edges well rounded off and the passages finely finished, so assisting to
reduce losses, are milled form the solid blank. The multiple ports give a large
effective area which allows a low lift being used. The faces on the seat, where the
valve bears, are narrow and have a mirror finish; by these means air tightness over a
long period is assured. A pin can be seen the seat; this prevents the various parts from
rotating, and must never be left out when assembling. The distance piece (8) sets the
lift of the valve and therefore the free escape area. The valve (7) is usually made form
high-grade steel plate, rolled and cross-rolled, to prevent unidirectional grain flow.
The steel used may be nickel steel, chrome vanadium steel, or stainless steel. In order
to keep the weight down to a minimum. Ports are trepanned or milled through the
plate and the burred edges carefully removed. Particular care is taken to leave no
nicks or scratches; these might cause a concentration of stresses and lead to a broken
valve. The plate is now heat-treated to obtain hardness of between 300 and 400
brinell. The valves now ground to a mirror finish on both faces. The sharp edges are
then carefully finished to small, very smooth, radii. The cushion plate (6), spring
plates (5) and (4), also the cover plate (3), are all made form steel. The grade and
quality of the steel used for each part is carefully chosen to suit the duties required
form it. The machining process for each is almost the same; the ports or appertures
are either trepanned or milled through the plates, which are then ground on both
faces, all sharp edges carefully removed, leaving a small smooth radius on all edges.
The plates are now heat-treated if necessary, and in the case of the springs (5) and (4)
the tongue is set to the correct deflection, so giving the exact pressure required. The
cushion plate (6) effectively reduces the impact forces of opening. The spring (4),
similar to (5), bears on the ribs on (7). The valve plate has therefore three points of
applied pressure distributed equidistantly. This method ensures the valve being seated
firmly, promptly, and gently without rebound or leakage. When all parts are
assembled on the stud, in the correct positions, the valve cover plate (3), the washer
(2), and the nut (1) are put on, screwed up tight, and locked by a split pin.
PISTONS
In single acting compressors, plain pistons of Trunk type are commonly used.
However, a compound piston in which a small diameter extension is mounted on top
of the main piston can be used in a two stage compressor each piston size working for
one stage. Air is first compressed in the large diameter portion and passed through a
cooler before being transferred to the smaller diameter piston to be recompressed to
the final pressure.
A variant of this is the guided piston in which only small piston compresses, large
diameter piston acting just as a crosshead. A combination of a plain piston and a
guided piston operating in adjacent cylinder, if frequently used in Two Stage Marine
compressors of medium pressure range and compact design.
A compound annulus piston or differential piston having top enlarged is also used for
two stage units.
A still further variation, obtained by adding a small diameter extension to the top of
the differential piston, is used to construct a 3 stage compressor with only one
moving piston connected to one crank.
Following figures give various pistons arrangement.
MATERIALS OF PISTONS:
Pistons should be made of a material with good friction pro0perties, of high strength,
low coefficient of thermal expansion and capable of producing good castings having
good machining properties.
For L.P. piston usually heat treated silumin with a strength of 25 to 30kg/mm2; or Al-
Cu-Ni alloy with a strength of 22kg/mm2, heat treated and hardened to a brinell
hardness of 110kg/mm2; is used.
The advantages of Aluminium alloy pistons is that they do not damage the cylinder if
seized.
H.P. Piston are made of Cast Iron (of bending strength over 40kg/mm2) or carbon
steel with a steel with a sheel of pearlitic cast iron.
The piston rings are mostly made of perlitic-sorbitic cast Iron. H.P. piston rings are
made thicker.
BEARINGS
Usually the main bearings and Bottom end bearings are all W.M. lined bearings,
while the top end bearings are Bronze Bushed. The top end pins are made of
hardened steel. The bearings in modern compressors are thin shell type. These require
L.O. pressure above 2.1 bar gauge pressure while conventional thick shell can run
even at 1.0 bar gauge.
CRANKSHAFTS
Crankshafts of compressors are usually forged of carbon steel of tensile strength of
50 to 60 kg/mm2. The material should be as pure as possible. Alloy steel, being
susceptible to notches, are not preferred. Cast steel, being fatigue prone also is not
used. For high speed machines, the crank is usually forged integral with the counter
weight, and is seated on the shaft with a shrink fit.
INTERCOOLER AND AFTERCOOLER
In majority of air compressors, the air passes through an intercooler between stages.
Intercoolers return the air to its original temperature and due to an increase in is
density later stages may be of reduced volume. Small intercoolers could be air-
cooled, but medium and large air compressors have water cooled intercoolers and
after coolers.
Usually an intercooler consists of copper tubes through which the air passes. These
are expanded into brass tube plates and header, which allows for expansion. Cast iron
casing permits circulation with cooling water.
Cooing of air precipitates moisture. Hence, intercoolers large fitted with pockets and
drain valves to remove condensed moisture together with excess lubricating oil mist
carried over in the air. After cooler does not improve efficiency but aids removal of
moisture and oil and reduces air temperature before passing it to the air receiver. This
reduces reviver size and limits delivery temperature to loss than 93 0C (Lloyd’s). a
relief valve should be fitted to the air connection and a bursting disc fitted to the
water casing. The bursting disc will relieve excess pressure in the water casing in the
event of failure of an air tube.
Following figure shows intercooler.
 SAFETY DEVICES
Relief valves are fitted in various stages and set to lift at pressure 10% more than
stage pressure.
One relief valve is fitted at delivery pipe. On delivery pipe, a fusible plug also is
fitted which melts at 1210C. This ensure safety of after machine system against
temperature rise rather than machine itself.
Bursting Discs are also fitted to jacket intercooler and aftercooler. A relief valve is
fitted in oil system to relieve pressure more than 25% of normal working pressure
especially to protect oil pump form overloading during cold start up.
DRAIN TRAPS
Condensate pots and moisture separators are installed in the air system on delivery
line to separate out the moisture form air. Automatic drain traps are fitted in
condensate pot and separately also after each stage.
Following figure shows an automatic drain trap. With water under pressure at the
inlet the disc will lift, allowing the water to flow radially across the disc form A to
the outlet B when the water is discharged and air now flows radially outwards form A
across the disc, the air expands increasing in velocity ramming air into C and the
space above the disc, causing the disc to close on the inlet. Because of the built-up of
static pressure in the space above the disc in this way, and the differential area on
which the pressures are acting, the disc is held firmly closed. It will remain so unless
the pressure in the space above the disc falls.
In order that the pressure can fall, and the trap re-open, a small groove is cut across
the face of the disc communicating B and C through which the air slowly leaks to
outlet.
Obviously this gives an operational frequency to the opening and closing of the disc
which is function of various factors, e.g. size of groove, disc thickness, volume of
space above the disc, etc. It is therefore essential that the correct trap be fitted to the
drainage system to ensure efficient and effective operation.
9.12 UNLOADER
There are many methods of unloading compressor cylinders and the following list
gives some of the methods used:
a) Throttling of the suction;
b) Speed variation;
c) Depressors to hold suction valve plate on their seats;
d) By-pass, discharge to suction;
e) Change in volumetric clearance of the cylinders;
f) Step unloading of cylinders in 8 multi-cylinder machine.

As marine compressors are fairly small, methods (c) and (d) are usually used, and
the machines operate in, all on, or all off load condition. The depressing of the
suction valve plate gives slightly less power consumption when running unloaded
than the system of by-passing back to suction and hence to atmosphere via the
suction silencer. However, the latter type can be made in modular form and is more
robust in construction and easier to understand.
The unloaders are required to unload the compressor during start and after the air
receiver is pumped up to full pressure, and the compressor is kept running.
THROTTLING SUCTION
 Following is the diagram of an unloader for this control
As shown, compressor discharge at maximum pressure will move valve to left,
stopping air intake. So no air is delivered.
START/STOP CONTROL
Another way of regulating air compressor is start/stoop control, which is suitable for
small compressors electrically driven types of units. A pressure transducer attached
to the air receiver get for desired max-min pressure would switch the current to the
electric motor either on or off. Drainage would have to be automatic and air receiver
relatively large compared to the compressor unit requirements so that the number of
starts per unit time is not too great. The starting current for an electric motor is about
double the normal running current. Frequent starts and stops (hunting) will fast
damage the compressor and motor.
DELIVERY SIDE UNLOADER
When the pressure in air receiver reaches its prescribed value, the compressor
unloads. At this point, there is compressed air in delivery pipe before non return
valve, in compressor itself and in the coolers. The air from delivery pipe is vented to
ensure minimum back pressure on compressor valves. This is not only economical,
it prevent the air, which has been compressed into the pipeline, form rushing
backwards and bringing with it moisture droplets, which sometimes settle on the
valves and create malfunctions. This inrush of air would occur if the non-return
valve was placed any distance along the air-line. If the compressor is fitted with
automatic unloaders it is essential that automatic cooler drains are also fitted,
otherwise the machine is not truly automatic and periodic manual draining of the
coolers will be necessary.
SUCTION VALVE DEPRESSION
This should be fitted to the suction valve of each stage if the machine is to be
correctly unloaded. To unload, the valve spider pushes against the spring pressure of
the valve and puts the valve plate in mid position so that the compressor inhales and
exhales past the same draught. A pipeline non-return valve is not strictly necessary
with this unloading, since the final delivery valve of the compressor can fulfil this
function, and the normal screwdown valve in the pipeline will enable any
maintenance to be carried out. A pipeline non-return valve is, however,
recommended since it operates under much less onerous conditions and, therefore,
requires much less attention than a compressor delivery valve. This avoids any
accident with the compressed air pushed back on the machine when maintenance is
carried out.
9.13 LUBRICATION OF AIR COMPRESORS
Depending on size, splash, pressure circulation or forced lubrication is used in air
compressors.
SELECTIN OF OIL
Certain factors govern the choice of lubricant for the cylinders on an air compressor.
These are:
Operating temperature, cylinder pressure and air condition.
Operating temperature effect oil viscosity and deposit formation. If the
temperature is high this results in low oil viscosity, very easy oil distribution, low
film strength, poor sealing and increased wear. If the temperature is low, oil
viscosity would be high, this causes poor distribution increased fluid friction and
power loss.
Cylinder pressure if these are high the oil requires to have a high film strength to
ensure the maintenance of an adequate oil film between the piston rings and the
cylinder walls.
Air condition. Air contains moisture that can condense out. Straight mineral oils
would be washed off surfaces by the moisture and this could lead to excessive wear
and possible rusting. To prevent this compounded oil with a rust inhibitor additive
would be used. Compounding agents may be form 5 to 25 of non-mineral oil, which
is added to a mineral oil blend. Fatty oils such as lard oil are commonly added to
lubricating oil that must lubricate in the presence of water, they form an emulsion
which adheres to the surface to be lubricated.
The oil selected should have high flash point (for a compression temperature of
1400C, it should be at least 220 0C); should be oxidation resistant (with a maximum
oxidation number of 0.6; should have specific gravity of 0.94 for less than 20 bar
delivery pressure and 0.98 for higher pressure, should have viscosity 4-8 E for less
than 20 bar pressures and minimum 5E higher pressures; should have pour point less
than –50C; should have acid number less than 0.05mgKOH/g; should have ash
content less than 0.02% and water content less than 0.1% while should contain
neither asphalt nor resinous substances.
CORRECT LUBRICATIN
It means that amount and grade of oil is correct and is applied effectively. If
lubrication is correct, wear will be normal, liner will “feel” oily, tow lower piston
rings will be just wet while upper rings will be almost dry.
Over lubrication will be indicated by wetness of liner and piston and oil floating on
drained off water. Through the liner wear will be normal but compressor and cooler
efficiency will be lowered and valves carbonized.
Under lubrication will be indicated by clean and dry valves with excessive liner and
piston wear.
OIL FREE COMPRESSOR
For some applications such as instrument air, control air and air used in preparation
of food, and for nuclear power station, oil in air can not be tolerated. As complete
removal of oil form air can’t be obtained, oil free compressors are used for these
applications.
In one type of oil free compressors, crossheads are used. Crank case having bearing
oil is separated form cylinder liner (having no lubrication) by a piston rod sealing
gland in the diaphragm. To completely exclude oil entry to cylinder, diaphragm
space is made of length greater than compressor stroke and a baffle is often fitted to
rod. Liner is made of rust-resistant material. Piston liner clearance is more than
normal and guide shoe or protective sleeve of carbon is fitted to piston. Piston
sealing rings are made of carbon (thicker and with internal spring) or P.T.F.E
(Polytetrafluoroethylene) reinforced with filler, piston rod gland packing
(segmental) rings are also of carbon or P.T.F.E. Piston rod is hard chrome plated.
Some compressors are fitted with close fit pistons having labyrinbthine grooves on
its periphery. Liner surface could be smooth or also with grooves. Poston rod gland
also could have grooves on stationary part. Accurate piston liner alignment is
imperative. Some other compressors are designed completely oil free in which all
 parts are self lubricating and no oil is used even in the crankcase. Diaphragm
compressors which compressed air between cylinder head and a diaphragm are
another example.
Oil free compressors usually have high piston speeds (about 2.5m/s). Some
compressors have synthetic lubricant oil, normally polychlorotrifluoro ethylene,
which is non-miscible with air and the delivery is pure, but these oils have
temperature limitation of 2500C they will react with copper, brass or aluminium.
These oils are very costly but can be reused after filtering metal and iron oxides.
9.14 ROTARY COMPRESSOR
In these compressors motion of parts is rotary and not reciprocating. These have two
basic designs
i. Positive displacement type in which power is converted directly into
pressure energy.
ii. Dynamic type in which a fast moving impeller causes the air to move at
a high velocity and the kinetic energy so created is subsequently
converted into a pressure energy by the diffuser.
Centrifugal blowers are typical example of it.
In positive displacement type Rotary Compressors a circular casing is swept by
a drum shaped rotor mounted eccentrically upon the driving shaft, as shown. In
this particular example, the seal between the air inlet and outlet passages is
maintained by a spring loaded sliding blade which bears upon the outside
diameter of the rotating drum. There are several variants of this arrangements
and in some types the eccentric drum performs an oscillating movement instead
of a complete revolution.
Following figure shows an example of the sliding vane compressor, sometimes
referred to as crescent rotary because of the shape of the space between the rotor
and the casing. In this design a slotted rotor carries a number of blades which
maintain contact with the bore of the casing by sliding in and out as the rotor
turns. Inspection of the diagram will make the operation clear.
During the first half of a revolution, the space bounded by a pair of blades is
gradually increasing to a maximum. After this it gradually reduces until it is
almost zero at the point where rotor and casing are in close contact.
During the first half of the revolution, air is aspired form the inlet port and is
trapped when the blade passes the cut-off point.
While the suction opening occupies almost half the periphery of the casing, the
delivery port occupies a much smaller arc. There is a period of time during
which the air cannot escape and is gradually compressed as the space between
the blades is reduced in volume. The delivery arc is so arranged that the air has
already been compressed to a suitable pressure before it is allowed to escape into
the discharge port. It will be appreciated that there is a high rubbing velocity
between the blade tips and the casing. A good deal of friction can occur at this
point if heavy blades are used in conjuction with high speed. Many makers are
now using blades made of synthetic material such as resin bonded asbestos
which has a much lower densite than iron or steel and consequently reduces the
centrifugal force and the pressure of the blades against the casing.
Several ingenious arrangements have been made to minimize the friction
between blades and casing.
 In the rolling drum type, a perforated rotating liner is interposed between the
blade tips and the casing. The drum is carried concentrically within the casing
upon large diameter ball or roller bearings and is free to rotate. The rotational
speed of the drum is usually a little higher than that of the rotor. This result,
which may seem surprising at first, is due to the fact that although the blades are
encircled by a pair of restraining rings which float in recesses in the casing. The
rings revolve with the blades and have the effect of balancing the radial forces
exerted by the blades against one another.
To minimize leakage in the recesses the restraining rings are often fitted with
light section blades or other sealing devices.
9.15 HYBRID COMPRESSOR
Rotary vane compressors though exhibit uniform torque, have high volumetric flow
and have low weight but they have shaft seal and leakage at vane tip problems abo 7
bar pressures, they are generally used for first stage, the second stage is made
reciprocating type and thus Hybrid compressors make use of positive points of both
types.
The following figure shows a weir-Hydro Vane 2-stage Hybrid air compressor,
having a rotary first stage coupled to a reciprocating second stage, both stages both
stages being mounted on a common shaft, and motor-driven.
The combination results in an exceptionally compact unit, and gives improved
accessibility for maintenance, very smooth, quite running, and also secures a saving
of up 25 per cent in space occupied and up to 40 per cent in weight when compared
with a conventional Trunk piston type. These are all very important considerations
in marine engine rooms.
The first stage consists of an oil-sealed, oil-cooled, multibladed rotor which revolves
within an eccentric casing, and is a slide fit on the shaft. The rotor shaft is an
extension of the crankshaft for the second staged.
The first stage rotor case has a large diameter flange which is secured to the second
stage crankcase by studs and locating spigot; this ensures true alignment of the
housings for the three bearings, one each side of the crankshaft and one almost at
the extreme end of the rotor extension. After the bearings-each being really two
thin-walled, white metal-lined bushes with a single longitudinal split along the
length are pressed into place they are machined so that true alignment and
concentricity is assured. The bushes, inner ends, do not abut in the housings, the
small space left acting as the lubricating oil supply channel to both halves. The
lubrication of the complete compressor unit is entirely automatic. No oil pump is
necessary. The first stage air pressure, acting on the oil in the reservoir, ensures an
ample supply of oil for all bearings, rotor, and rotor blade sealing purposes, as soon
as the motor is started. The rotor floats on an oil film and is centred in the axial
direction by the oil film at each end. Each vane (there are eight) is split into four
sections, and centrifugal force keeps each section effectively sealed.
9.16 OVERHAULING A RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSOR
Before overhaul the maker’s handbook should be read and any special instruction
carried out.
Ensure that all air receivers are fully charged and that remaining air compressors are
operational. The compressor for overhaul is now isolated. Electric switches are off
and fuses or circuit breakers are out. Discharge valve and all cooling water
connections are shut.
The precise order for dismantling will depend upon compressor design and only a
general list will be given. All parts should be cleaned upon removal and carefully
inspected for signs of wear, damage or mal-operation.
Crankcase is opened and drained, oil strainer and internal cleaned. Lubricating
pump overhauled and clearances checked. Cooling water spaces are drained,
opened, cleaned and inspected. Corrosion fittings are renewed if necessary. Cooling
water pump, glands and bearing are overhauled, water strainer cleaned.
Air suction filter is cleaned, suction and discharge valves for each stage are
dismantled. Valves, cages, springs and seats are checked and renewed as necessary.
When dismantling or boxing up valves, ensure that set bolts for locating valve
cages, etc. are slackened back while cover nuts are tightened. Inspect valve pockets
for signs of excess oil carry-over.
Remove cylinder coves, dismantle bottom end bearings and draw pistons with
connecting rods. Clean, inspect and gauge piston, compression and oil control rings
and renew rings if necessary. Clean, inspect and gauge cylinder liners. Remove
gudgeon pins after checking clearances. Examine bearing surfaces, bearing should
be renewed if excessively worn.
Overhaul bottom end bearings, check clearances and journal surfaces. These
bearings are usually of the “thin wall” type and should be renewed if unduly warn.
Oil holes and passages must be checked and bearings shells must have a good nip in
the keeps. Clearances are taken by inserting feeler gauges or by jacking the bearings
and measuring lift by a click gauge.
Main bearings are dismantled, inspected and wear down checked. Shaft mat be
turned by hand to check alignment. All lubrication connections must be clear and
pipes secured. If a drive chain is fitted for pumps, this should be inspected. Before
boxing up cylinders and crankcase, the piston end clearences must be checked at top
dead centre positions.
Intercooler and aftercooler must be opened up. Water spaces should be cleaned and
examined for corrosion and relief valve or bursting disc checked. Air side is opened
up, cleaned and inspected and tubes cleaned internally. Drain pockets cleaned.
Drains, relief valves and discharge valve should be overhauled.
If a cylinder mechanical lubricator is fitted, this should also be cleaned and
overhauled together with the lubricator point in the cylinder liner.
Holding down bolts and shaft coupling bolts should be checked for tightness. It s
assumed that the compressor motor will also have been overhauled.
After boxing up all parts, cooling water may be applied. Ensure adequate venting
and that all parts are completely filled. Check for water leaks. Recharge crankcase
with fresh oil up to the required level. The compressor should now be bared over or
turned by hand with drains open. If this is satisfactory, connections can be remade
and the compressor run for ten minutes with drains open. Stop and feel round all
bearings and coolers. If satisfactory restart compressor, check drains for excess oil,
check all temperatures and pressures together with electrical load. Drain thoroughly
before returning to service. Check all pressure gauges when discharge pressure as
built up. Check vents from water spaces. If automatic controls are fitted, these must
 be tested and put into service. Check automatic pressure or temperature cut-outs or
alarms, together with remote reading pressure gauges.
Methods of ascertaining the mechanical clearance (Bumping clearance)
1. Remove suction or discharge valve assembly form the unit and place a small
loose ball of lead wire on the piston edge. Then rotate the flywheel by hand
to take the piston over top dead centre. Remove and measure the thickness of
the lead wire ball.
2. Put crank on top dead centre, slacken or remove bottom half of the bottom
end bearing. Rig a clock gauge with one contact touching some under part of
the piston or piston assembly and the other on the crank web. Take a gauge
reading. Then by using a suitable lever bump the piston, i.e. raise it until it
touches the cylinder cover. Take another gauge reading, the difference
between the two readings gives the mechanical clearance.

9.17 MAINTENANCE OF AIR COMPRESSOR

It goes without saying that preventive maintenance is the correct approach, and to
carry this out properly is essential that the following points are noted:
1. Maintenance Handbook
It is necessary for the maintenance handbook to be studied and thoroughly
understood before attempting maintenance on any unit which has not been
worked on before, even if the subject appears to be simple.
2. Running Conditions
When the machine is in a new condition, after running in, it is essential that
the engineer in charge of the unit records the air pressures and temperatures,
oil pressure and temperature, oil consumption, vibration level, etc. under as
many varying conditions as possible (i.e. cooling water temperature, change
form North Atlantic to tropical). These conditions should be noted so that
any drastic change in the conditions can readily be checked and full
information is available for other engineers who take over the maintenance
in the future. This brings to light the point that the keeping of good records is
essential. Temperatures and pressures should be taken when conditions are
stable.
3. Cleanliness
This does not refer to the necessary cleanliness when the machine is opened
up for inspection or maintenance but to the general cleanliness of the
machine whilst in normal service. Since a clean machine will often allow
observations, at an early stage, to be made on leaking joints, etc.
4. Safety
Before commencing any maintenance it is essential that all power supplies to
the machine are completely isolated and that the air system and cooling
water system is also isolated.
5. Lubricating Oils
it is important that only the manufacturer’s recommended grade of
lubricating oil is used, unless written permission is received form the
manufacturer to use a non-classified grade of oil. Oil level in the crankcase
must be maintained correct.
 6. Drains
Automatic drains should be checked regularly for proper working hand
drains should be operated at frequent intervals.
7. Suction Filter
Modern suction filter, if clean, imposes very little resistance to air flow.
With most types, regular cleaning or renewing filter elements is necessary. A
choked filter causes a vacuum on the compressor inlet which reduces the
output raises air temperature and may cause filter element sucked in cylinder
with inherent dangers.
8. Valves
Valves re “heart” of the air compressor. Depending upon number of factors
such as working temperatures, the type and grade of oil and the efficiency of
air inlet filter, the valves can get carbonized with inherent dangers. The
valves are readily removable as assembled units and always a spare set must
be carried on board for rapid change over.
While the valves are out, the passage ways can be examined for carbon and
other deposits and, if an appreciable thickness is found, arrangements can be
made for the passageways to be cleaned out thoroughly at some convenient
time when the compressor is stopped.
The valves should be removed, dismantled, thoroughly cleaned, inspected,
assembled, checked, and boxed back.
9.18 TESTING OF VALVES
(A) To test H.P. delivery valve remove the H.P. suction valve and allow
a pressure of air to lie on the top of valve: if not tight a “blow” will
be felt below the valve.
(B) To test H.P. suction valve remove H.P. delivery valve and replace
cover, then allow air form the receiver to enter the H.P. cylinder; if
the valve is leaking, air will be felt at M.P. delivery or will show on
pressure gauge. To test M.P. delivery valve remove H.P. suction and
delivery valves, also M.P. suction valve, and allow air on top of
valve and feel for a blow at M.P. suction valve.
(C) To test M.P. suction valve remove H.P. suction and delivery valves,
also M.P. delivery valve, and pass air to M.P. cylinder, then look for
“blow” at L.P. delivery valve.
L.P. suction and delivery can be tested in the same manner.
NOTE:- When admitting air for testing M.P. or L.P. stages, the pressure
should not exceed the usual working pressures carried in the respective
stages.
To find which Valve is Leaking in the Compressor
The H.P. Delivery Valve can be tried by taking out the H.P. suction valve, then
putting on the air back form the receiver to the compressor. If the H.P. delivery
valve is tight, no air will leak out of the suction valve hole.
The H.P. Suction Valve can be tries by first taking out the H.P. delivery valve, then
the pipe between the cooler and the H.P. suction valve. Now open the valve form
the receiver, and if the H.P. suction valve is tight, no air will pass back through the
pipe hole in the compressor head.
The other valves can be tested similarly, after first removing the H.P. suction and
delivery valves to allow the air to pass through.
When under running conditions, if the L.P. compressor gauge shows a tendency to
drop, the L.P. valves may be out of order. On the other hand, if the L.P. gauge rises,
the intermediate valves may be out of order. Leaky H.P. valves cause the pressure to
rise in both of the lower stage.
INTERCOOLERS & AFTERCOOLERS
Little attention is required by these parts. Correct temperature and adequate water
circulation must be maintained and air drains opened when stopping or starting and
at frequent intervals while operating.
The effect of operating with fouled intercoolers will be to raise the air temperature
causing lubrication difficulties, fall of efficiency and risk of explosion.
Weight recording of tube nest of coolers at yearly intervals is a good practice to
check for corrosive wear of tubes.
The water jackets and cylinder walls must also be examined at intervals, especially
if sea water is used for cooling. Scale may form particularly in the H.P. jacket and
cooler. If scale has formed it must be cleaned out chemically. It is almost impossible
to clean out the whole jacket system mechanically. For this reason most modern
installation use a close-circuit fresh water cooling system.
The cooling water to jackets should be between 45 0C to 650C. Too cold cooling
water will cause condensation of vapour in hot air resulting in lubrication problem
and cylinder wear.
RELIEF VALVES
These should be tested occasionally, to make sure that they are free. Before testing,
it is advisable to remove the relief valve completely form the compressor and the
clean out the passage way underneath, removing any particles of foreign matter
which might be likely to damage the seat if blown through the valve at high
velocity. Some relief valves are provided with lever attachment which enables them
to be tested in position. Relief valves should not be allowed to blow too frequently
as it blows off oil and moisture film on seat responsible for sealing of the otherwise
lightly forced joint.
To keep the Air Compressors always in working order, usually a maintenance
schedule is followed.
OPERATING INSTRUCTION
The handbook of the specific machine will cover this adequately but, unfortunately,
it is not always available after the initial years, and the following gives, therefore,
the general procedure to be followed.
First make sure that the unit is isolated.
Initial start- This procedure should be carried out after the initial installation, after
any major strip down and when accepting the responsibility of the units for the first
time.
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
1. Lubrication.
Check that all compressor oil levels are correct and, where possible, that the oil
grades re correct. All lubricator lines should be hand primed and the lubricator
functions checked. Lubricators are met less frequently on the more modern
machines. The prime mover lubrication should also be checked.
 2. Priming Cylinder Walls.
This should be carried out in conjunction with the lubrication as, when the
valves are removed for a visual check, a small quantity of oil can be injected
through the valve port, to wet the cylinder walls on non-oil free machines.
3. Unloading
All cooler drains should be opened together with any unloaders. Check the
unloader lines.
4. Gauge Cocks.
The oil gauge cock should be open but the air gauge cocks must only be partially
cracked to avoid excessive gauge fluctuations which can damage the gauges.
5. Air Intake.
Ascertain that the filter is in a clean condition. Heavy painting is not unknown
on new equipment.
6. Cooling
If water cooled, the necessary cocks should be opened and if air cooled, the fan
drive should be checked.
7. Relief Valves.
If hand testing lever are fitted, manually lift each valve to ensure that valves will
operate “freely”.
8. System.
Check that the air system is open to the correct source.
9. Final Check.
Bar the machine over several revolutions to ensure that machine is free and
operating correctly.
9.19 OPERATING PROBLEMS
Some of the important operating problems with causes are listed below:
1. Compressor Pressure (or capacity) Falls off
a) Air inlet strainer chocked.
b) Compressor valves leaking or sticking
c) Too much L.P. Bumping clearance.
d) Leaky piston rings.
e) Leaky cover.
f) Leaky relief Valves.
g) Leaky relief valves.
h) Leaky pressure gauge fittings.
i) Leaky coolers.
j) Faulty capacity control.
k) Worn crank pin or journal bearings.

2. Valves Leaking
Valves can leak and finally fail. Valves may fail due to wear and fatigue,
wrong selection, insufficient or over lubrication, presence of foreign
particles, oil decomposition and excess valve lift.
Effect of valves leaking
a) First stage suction
 Reduced air delivery, increased running time and reduced pressure in the
suction to the second stage. If the suction valve leaks badly it may completely
unload the compressor.
b) First stage delivery
With high pressure air leaking back into the cylinder less air can be drawn
in. this means reduced delivery and increased discharge temperature.
c) Second stage suction
High pressure and temperature in the second stage suction line, reduced
delivery and increased running time.
d) Second stage delivery
Increased suction pressure in second stage, reduced air suction and delivery
in second stage. Delivery pressure form first stage increased.
Fig. shows the effect of a leaking second stage delivery valve on the
indicator cards of a compressor. It must be remembered that it is not usual to find a
facility for taking indicator cards form air compressors.
3. Leaky Piston Rings
Usually a fall of pressure at any of the different stages indicates leaky rings or
leaky valves. Leaky suction and delivery valves also produce fluctuations of the stage
pressures, and the fault can generally be located by observation or by applying a test.
The drains form the intercooler type nest should be opened at intervals during the
running period to get rid of any water and oil present.
Badly Leaking compressor Piston Rings can be detected by taking out the H.P.
valve, and putting on the air. By listening to the air rush, and watching the gauges, an
idea as to the tightness of the rings can be obtained.
4. Breakdown of Compressor Coolers
a) Oil deposit on tubes (excessive lubrication).
b) Thinning of tubes due to erosion (water friction).
c) Bursting of tubes due to explosion of air and oil vapour at high temperature
(caused by excessive lubrication).
d) Scale deposits on tubes, if sea water used for cooling.
5. Leaky Cooler Tubes
The fault would be indicated by a falling off in the air pressure, and a rise in the
circulated water pressure of the intercoolers. If the tubes actually burst a serious
explosion may occur in the intercooler casing and result in fracture of the latter.
6. Seizure
Seizure of one or more of the working parts may take place in the event of failure
of lubrication. In pressure lubrication system, failure may occur due to shortage of
oil, choked strainer, a broken oil pipe or excessive bearing clearance apart from
actual mechanical failure.
In the simple splash system, shortage of oil and debris in crankcase are likely
causes. The pistons could seize in liners due to increased temperature which could be
due to lubrication failure, high operating pressures, sufficient cooling or broken
valve. Seizure of bearings could happen even if drive is misaligned or there is end
thrust.
In case of expected seizure IMMEDIATELY the compressor must be stopped. If
seizure has happened, parts can be restored by skillfully grinding or re-stoning off the
roughened surfaces or replace parts.
 Before restart, check crankshaft for distortion and fit new connecting rod bolts.

7. Breakage of Connecting Rod Bolts

If the bolts are overtightened or undertightened, Bottom end bearing clearance is
excessive, the connecting rod bolts get stretched and finally break. If there is bottom
end knocking the compressor should be shut down, investigate for knock and if Bottom
end bearing knocks, it is better to renew it as well as the bolts.
8. Fire and Explosion
Though improbable in well designed compressors, a few do occur. Main causes
are insufficient lubrication, unsuitable oil, and accumulation of heavy deposits of carbon
in the delivery passages. Less flash point of oil and bad conductivity of carbon are the
reasons for fire.
If small, it is not very dangerous though undesirably. But if lighter fractions of
oil mix with air to form a flammable concentration, exposition can happen.
Reliable and adequate safety valves must be provided in compressors to dissipate
explosion to atmosphere.
Lack of maintenance, over lubrication, carelessness (e.g. leaving cotton waste in
air receiver) are some of common causes of fires and explosions. Temperature
monitoring and shut down devices and fusible plugs are precautions against fire and
explosion.
9.20 TROUBLE SHOOTING
Since perfection is never achieved, even the best maintenance can not always
guarantee trouble free operation, careful check of the log book along with the
Trouble Shooting charts given in the INSTRUCTION MANUALS will assist in
quick solution of the problem. Check on measuring instruments, operating
conditions and maintenance schedule sheet very often is quite beneficial to trouble
shoot the faults.
9.21 AIR BOTTLES OR AIR RECEIVERS
Air compressed by the compressors is stored in bottles or receivers as shown below.
These bottles are pretty big, the size depending on the engine requirements that is a
single bottle should be able to hold a capacity sufficient of giving twelve
consecutive starts to a main engine of the reversible type or six consecutive starts to
a non reversible engine.
On board ships there are tow main air bottles and one auxiliary air bottle for the
emergency air compressor. The air bottles are cylindrical vessels made of good
quality mild steel, (low carbon steel e.g. steel having 0.2% carbon (max); 0.35%
silicon (max); 0.1% magnesium (max); 0.05% Sulphur (max); 0.05% Phosphorus
(max) and with U.T.S. of 460 MN/m2 having one longitudinal welded seam. To the
ends of the cylinder are welded dished hemispherical ends, with one end having an
opening formed with a lip to take an elliptical manhole door.
The longitudinal seam is machine welded with full penetration welds and the
circumferential welds are either machine or hand welded. The welding details are
governed by the pressure of air that is to be stored in conjunction with the regulations
of the classification societies. All welded air receivers have to be stress relieved or
annealed at a temperature of about 600 0C and the welding is to be radiographed for
safety purposes.
9.22 MOUNTINGS ON AN AIR BOTTLE
As shown in the figure, the mountings that are fitted to an air bottle are as follows:-
1. Main air inlet stop valve. (Air from compressor to bottle.)
2. Main engine air outlet stop valve (Discharge/Starting air to M/E)
3. Aux. engine air outlet stop valve. (Discharge/Starting air to A/E.)
4. Air whistle valve (Air to ships whistle.)
5. Service air valve (Service air to workshop, various points etc.)
6. Control air valve. (Air for control and instrumentation purposes.)
7. Drain valves – 2 Nos.
8. Valve for air pressure gauge.
9. Relief valve
10. Fusible plug
11. Atmospheric air release valve (To relieve pressure incase of E/R fire
requiring CO2 flooding.)
NOTE:
All valves should be opened slowly that is cracked first and then opened so as to
avoid rapid pressure increases which could result in an explosion.
Drain valves are usually two in number, one at each end and a the bottom. They are
provided to ensure that no accumulation of condensed moisture takes place. It is
required to drain the air bottle at regular intervals when they are being filled and
also t other times, especially before opening any of the outlet valves.
SAFETY FEATURES ON AN AIR BOTTLES
The safety features that are fitted on an air bottle are:
1 Relief Valve.
2 Fusible Plug and/or
3 Atmospheric air release valve.
RELIEF VALVES
This is usually of the ordinary spring loaded type capable of relieving the
compressor discharge to the bottle after the pre set pressure has been reached, e.g. if
the air bottle is pressed to 30 bars maximum pressure then this relief valve is usually
set at about 32 bars.
FUSIBLE PLUGS
The composition of this metal plug is such that it would melt at about 150 0C. To the
discharge of this plug is fitted a pipe which is led to a space outside the engine
room. The reason for fitting such a plug is that in case of an engine room fire,
requiring total flooding with CO2, the ambient temperature of the space would rise,
thus increasing the temperature and pressure of the air stored in the bottle. This
could cause an explosion and the air released would then aid the fire. But with a
fusible plug fitted the plug would melt first and the air released to outside the engine
room.
REFERENCES
1. Reed’s Motor Engineering Knowledge for Marine Engineers
2. Diesel Engines – Questions And Answers By Don Ewart
3. Marine Diesel Oil Engines By J W M Sothern
4. Marine Engineering Practice – Selection, Installation and Maintenance of
Marine Compressors By L Sterling
5. Industrial Air Compressors By F G White
6. Reciprocating and Rotary Compressors By V Chlumsky
7. Institute of Marine Engineers Journal
8. Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologist By T D Eastop and
A Mc Conkey