The finest devotional constructions in the world

Dr Uday Dokras PhD Stockholm

BOROBUDUR

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INTRODUCTION
Borobudur - architectural Buddhism
The rulers of Central Java's Sailendra dynasty manifested the concept of the god-
king, devaraja, on a grand scale. During their rule, they constructed many religious
monuments designed to instruct their people, as well as following generations, to enter the
path to enlightenment. The most famous of these monuments is Borobudur, a Buddhist
masterpiece of superior grandeur and beauty. Consisting of 1.3 million stone blocks, it was
carved and constructed by 50,000 Javanese over 50 years. At 115 feet tall and sitting atop a
403-foot square, it is still the largest Buddhist stupa in the world. To augment the grandeur,
the monument is set upon a small plateau that rises 40 feet above the Kedu Plain.

The first written records concerning Java are from 732 CE. In that year, a Hindu noble,
Sanjaya, established a kingdom called Mataram (or Medang) on the Kedu Plain. In 775 CE
his kingdom began construction on a monument to commemorate the introduction of
Hinduism to Java. A plateau created by the confluence of the Progo River and its tributaries
provided the temple’s site. Ten years later this Hindu kingdom was replaced by the Buddhist
Sailendra dynasty, vassals to the Srivijaya Empire. Accordingly, they shifted the religious
focus of the temple from Hinduism to Buddhism. It took 50 more years to complete this
architectural monument – called Borobudur.

Borobudur is built in the style of the Indian tjandis with a pyramidal structure. However, the
Javanese introduced their own innovations. The Indian tjandis were meant to house the gods -
provide them a home - a resting spot - a sophisticated spirit house. However Borobudur was
not just meant as a memorial or shrine of the gods, a place of worship. Instead it was meant to
be an architectural representation of Buddhist philosophy. It was designed to represent
complex metaphysical theories. At this level, it was completely original. In this manner,
Borobudur provided the pattern for Angkor. The temple mountain at Borobudur, like the
Indian tjandi, was constructed from a solid mass of stone, 2 million cubic feet around small
hill, with little or no interior space - certainly no internal shrines. (In contrast the Khmer
temples of Angkor are noted for their vast amount of empty space created by structural
pillars.) Based upon the supreme mystical power of the mandala, Borobudur has 10 stories
corresponding with the 10 stages that lead to Buddhist Enlightenment. The first level is the
entry level. The next five are associated with the 5 Buddhas. They represent the entire
external Universe - the vajra-dhatu - the realm of total reality. This group of 5 Buddhas is
familiar in the diverse areas of Tibet, Japan, and northeast India. The bottom levels are all
squarish, having a zigzag external design on their corners.

The next three levels are all circular terraces with stupas on top. They represent the 3
Buddhas of the esoteric tradition associated with Tantric Buddhism - the garbha-dhatu - the
womb of innermost secrets. The 10th level is empty, representing the final goal of
Enlightenment, the abandonment of attachment to Form. This is the Void of the Vairocana
Buddha.On the walls of each level there are sculptured relief panels, 1500 over all, which
represent the trials and traps on the journey to enlightenment. The zigzag corridors and
prescribed direction concealed the Buddhist statuary so that the adherent wouldn’t be
distracted by what lay ahead and could focus upon the lesson at hand. Thus on one level the
entire monument is a Buddhist teaching device.
Dr Uday Dokras

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Borobudur Paths

The finest devotional constructions in the world

Dr Uday Dokras PhD Stockholm

krishn & Balaram his brother in Bantei Serai,Cambodia

What is the exact meaning of divinity?

The word is a noun, plural di·vin·i·ties means the quality of being divine; divine nature. ... a
being having divine attributes, ranking below God but above humans: minor divinities. the
study or science of divine things; theology. Godlike character; supreme excellence.
Divinity is defined as a divine being, or the quality of being divine, or a course of religious
study. The behaviors, attitudes and actions of Hindu Gods are an example of divinity.

A Divine Person is the supreme pattern of man's unselfish generosity. See Also: trinity, holy,
articles on; person (in theology); nature; incommunicability; paternity, divine. India is a land
of religions.India’s religioms travelled to Cambodia 1000 years ago or more and took a
dominant shape and hold on all from Royalty to commoners. Some scholars believed that the
Dravidian religion was a belief system unique to the Neolithic people of South Asia before

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the origin of Indo-Aryan languages. Dr. Pope believes that in the pre-historic period the
Dravidian religion was a precursor to Shaivism and ShaktismTheravada Buddhism has been
the Cambodian state religion since the 13th century AD (excepting the Khmer Rouge period),
and is currently estimated to be the religion of 97.9% of the total population. The earliest
forms of Buddhism, along with Hindu influences, entered the Funan kingdom with Hindu
merchants. Cambodia's Hinduism can be traced back to the Funan Kingdom which ruled
between 100BC and 500AD. During this period, kings worshiped Vishnu and Shiva. When
the Khmer Empire came to power, Hinduism remained the dominating religion until
Jayavarman VII (reigned 1181-1218). A country that is today covered with different
religions, Hinduism was one of the most popular among them. Modern Cambodia too is
made up of about 95 percent Theravada Buddhists, with Cham Muslims, Christians and tribal
animists making up most of the remainder. However, it hasn’t always been this way, with
Cambodia’s roots steeped deep in Hinduism.

The Hindu temples in India have always been special for the belief they have in the
followers of this religion. South India is known for its temples all around the world. The
temple cities of India, as they are fondly called, are known for its marvelous architecture and
high religious beliefs.

On the plans and model of these South Indian Hindu temples and built by buikders and
artisans brough from India itself, these Cambodian temple cities have a mythological
significance reflecting the roles that holy hindu scriptures played especially in Mahabharata
and Ramayana. 1000,s of sculptures and carvings adoen the more than 1000 km of walls
( consolidated) that are all the Khemer and pre- khemer temples with 1,000 is of Shivalingas
and Murtis of idols of Gods such as Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna, Ram, Hanumana, Garuda and so
on an endless list that will cirv=cumnavigate the entire Hinduism.

After an extraordinary confluence of religion and art, these famous temples in South East
Asia have become a shining example of the cultural heritage and diversity of India. Of all
the existing ones, take a look at some of the finest architectural creations made over a period
of thousands of years by historic dynasties for the creators and preservers of this beautiful
planet.
In Cambodia, believe it or not, for hundreds of years, the only form of tourism that existed was
purely religious and devotional.Buddhists and earlier Hindus visited these Hindu and later Buddhist
temples coming from far and wide. Why even to this day, millions of devotees flock to these incredible
famous temples every year in a quest for moksha and inner peace. Many of the famous temples built
by the Khmer have often been considered by historians and architects as the finest devotional
constructions ever to be made. What made these temples not lose their charm with the passage of
time; on the contrary and inspite of their conversion from Hinduism to Buddhism, was the strong and
dedicated devotional purpose for which they were builtThe Angkor Wat Temple is one of the most
interesting famous temples in terms of architectural design. It was built with an intriguing fusion of
South Indian style and Khemer style of architecture. It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II
in the first half of the 12th century, around the year 1110-1150, making Angkor Wat almost 900 years
old. The temple complex, built in the capital of the Khmer Empire, took approximately 30 years

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to build.

However, the temple of Angkor Wat itself was never abandoned. And the landscape surrounding the
temple appears to be reoccupied by the late 14th or early 15th centuries, during the period Angkor
was supposedly sacked and abandoned by Ayutthaya, and used until the 17th or 18th centuries.
Angkor, the great medieval city located near the Tonlé Sap (the “Great Lake”) in northwestern
Cambodia, was abandoned by Khmer rulers in the fifteenth century in an effort to find a capital that
could be more easily defended against the expansionistic Thailand invasions. But that is just one of
the theories. My theory propounded in my paper…. Ks that after conversion from Hinduisn to
Buddhism almost in a day as if one changes 1 shirt with another, the people who were Hindus were
reluctant to change to Buddhism. Being farm labourers, they migrated to other interior locations
where their Hindu relatives lived in order to continue as Hindus.

It was originally built in the first half of the 12th century as a Hindu temple. Spread across
more than 400 acres, Angkor Wat is said to be the largest religious monument in the
world.. Dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple by the
end of the 12th century. Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe in stone
and represents an earthly model of the cosmic world. The central tower rises from the center
of the monument symbolizing the mythical mountain, Meru, situated at the center of the
universe. Its five towers correspond to the peaks of Meru. Angkor Wat is an architectural
masterpiece and the largest religious monument in the world – covering an area four times
the size of Vatican City. It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the first half of
the 12th century, around the year 1110-1150, making Angkor Wat almost 900 years old.

Double Divinity: Angkor Wat was shared by two religions.

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In Cambodia today, divinity and modernity co-exixt as denoted by the beer mug, yet
the symbol of the Hindu legacy binds them together.

It was originally built as a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Vishnu, breaking the previous
kings' tradition of worshiping Shaiva. It gradually turned into a Buddhist temple towards the
end of the 12th century and is still used for worship today. Piles of shoes outside front doors
is a common sight across Cambodia because it is considered polite to remove your shoes
when entering someone's house. This rule also applies to temples, where hats and other items
that cover the head are expected to be taken off even today in all Hindu temples no matter
which country.
The Flip Flop of Hinduism and Buddhism as
Design components of Borobudur SHORT VERSION
As far back as in 1893 in their book Tjandi Parambanan op Midden-Java na de ontgraving,
Authors, Groneman and Cephas ( Leiden Brill Publisher) concluded that the design of the
Stupa was based on the Hindu Tjandi hence the title of their book.Candi or Tjandi arises
from Sanskrit चण्डिकागृह (caṇḍikāgṛha, “temple of Durgā”) as in चण्डिका (caṇḍikā,
“common flax, linseed”) + गृह (gṛha, “house, home”).

Now see this News Item from 2022

Indonesia restores Hindu and Buddhist worship rights at Prambanan, Borobudur

temples; declares them as global worship sites

A Memorandum of Understanding was signed at Yogyakarta between the Indonesian

government and religious leaders, declaring Prambanan and Borobudur temple centers of
active worship for Hindus and Buddhists around the world.
18 February, 2022

Sult
an Hamengku Buwono X signing the MoU (Image source- baytarrahmah.org)

The Indonesian government on February 11 allowed functioning of Hindu and Buddhist

religious rituals at the Prambanan temple and Borobudur temple as it restored Asia’s most
renowned sacred sites for the religious interests of Hindus and Buddhists in Indonesia and the
World. It also officially launched Pawon Temple and Mendut Temple in Central Java as
global worship sites for Hindus and Buddhists.
According to the reports, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed at Yogyakarta
between the Indonesian government and religious leaders to agree upon functioning of
religious rituals based on the main reason for their construction. Borobudur

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Temple embraces Mahayana Buddhism and was built in the 9th centuries CE during the reign
of the Sailendra dynasty. While Prambanan Temple, constructed in the 10th century by the
syncretic Hindu-Buddhist Mataram Kingdom, is the largest temple compound dedicated to
Shiva in Indonesia.

Adung Abdul Rochman, Religious Affairs Ministry special staff coordinator said during the
signing of a MoU in that the four temples have been mostly used for research, culture and
tourism. This is after the Indonesian government took into consideration the rise in
destruction of religious and cultural sites by the Muslim extremists. The Muslim extremists
have destroyed world’s diverse cultural and religious heritages in Middle East, Africa,
Europe and also North America.

Reports mention that the temples of Borobudur and Prambanan rest in the cultural heartland
of Java. Java reportedly has majority of the Muslim population who tend to embrace
humanitarian Islam as a source of universal love and compassion and have protected the pre-
Islamic religious sites from the invaders.

Yogyakarta Governor Sultan Hamengku Buwono X meanwhile said that the MoU on temples
being regarded as international sites for worship is the actualization of religious moderation,
social cohesion, and harmony between religious communities in Indonesia. “The intention
arises from the spirit of Oneness Amid Diversity which is Indonesia’s national motto. It is the
key to developing a nation whose people value diversity amid the harmonious mosaic of a
unified Indonesia”, he was quoted.

The MoU was signed on last week between the religious leaders and the Indonesian
government supported by Ministry of Religious Affairs, Ministry of Education, Culture,
Research and Technology, State-owned Enterprises (SOEs) Ministry, Tourism and Creative
Economy Ministry as well as the Yogyakarta and Central Java provincial governments.

The Flip Flop of Hinduism and Buddhism as Design components of Borobudur

The vast archipelago of over 13,000 islands became the nation of Indonesia only in 1949 and
only a few of its major islands were ever settled or much influenced by Hinduism, Buddhism
or Islam).

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Sometime before the 5th century AD, the influence of Hinduism and Buddhism spread
southward from the mainland of southeast Asia to the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali and a
few others in the archipelago currently called Indonesia. (It is misleading to think of all of
Indonesia as either an ancient empire or the province of any particular religion. The vast
archipelago of over 13,000 islands became the nation of Indonesia only in 1949 and only a
few of its major islands were ever settled or much influenced by Hinduism, Buddhism or
Islam).

There are no archaeological remains of temples in the Indianized states of Java prior to the
end of the 7th century as the early Hindu structures were built of wood and have long since
decayed in the moist tropic climate. The first stone temples, Shiva shrines constructed during
the 8th century, are found high on the Dieng plateau, the name Dieng meaning 'the place of
the gods'. The greatest concentration of Javanese sacred architecture, however, lies on the
plain of Kedu, some 42 kilometers north-west of the present city of Yogyakarta. Here stands
the beautiful Hindu temple complex of Prambanam and the world famous Hindu/Buddhist
temple of Borobudur.

Borobudur’ initial construction was planned and conducted by Hindu builders

sometime around 775 AD
Borobudur, a name deriving from an expression meaning 'Mountain of accumulation of
merits of the ten states of Bodhisattva' is commonly thought of as a Buddhist structure, yet its
initial construction was planned and conducted by Hindu builders sometime around 775 AD.
The enormous first and second terraces were completed by a declining Hindu dynasty,
construction was then halted for some years, and later, from 790 to 835 AD, the Buddhist
Sailendra dynasty continued and finally completed the great stupa. The huge stone mass
might have then been permanently abandoned, for it was difficult to adapt to the needs of
Buddhism. However, leaving in evidence such an obvious manifestation of Hinduism was
probably not deemed politically correct and thus the unfinished Shiva temple was
transformed into the world's largest Buddhist stupa.

After 832 AD the Hindu dynasty of Sanjaya began to reunify central Java and soon
reappropriated the Buddhist monuments built by the Sailendra. Although the Sanjaya were

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themselves Hindu, they ruled over a Buddhist majority and thus, while some Hindu
modifications and ornamentations were done on Borobudur, the stupa remained a place of
Buddhist use.

During the 10th and 11th centuries there was a transfer of power from central Java to the
east, and the great stupa fell into decline. For centuries the site lay forgotten, buried under
layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. In 1815 Europeans cleared the site, in the early
1900's the Dutch began its restoration, and a US$21 million project begun in 1973 completed
the work.

Hindu Design Characteristics

The Borobudur stupa is a massive, symetrical monument, 200 square meters in size, sitting
upon a low sculptured hill. The monument represents a Buddhist cosmological model of the
universe organized around the axis of mythical Mt. Meru. Starting at the eastern gateway,
pilgrims circumambulate the stupa, always in a clockwise direction. Walking through nearly
five kilometers of open air corridors while ascending through six square terraces and three
circular ones, the pilgrim symbolically spirals upward from the everyday world to the
nirvanic state of absolute nothingness. The first six terraces are filled with richly decorated
relief panels in which the sculptors have carved a textbook of Buddhist doctrines and a
fascinating panorama of 9th century Javanese life. Upon the upper three terraces are 72 small
stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha (these statues are usually headless; relic
hunters stole many of the heads, others are in museums). Crowning the entire structure is a
great central stupa. Representing Nirvana, it is empty.

Historical Perspective of Southeast Asia, history of Southeast Asia from prehistoric times
to the contemporary period.

Early society and accomplishments

Origins
Knowledge of the early prehistory of Southeast Asia has undergone exceptionally rapid
change as a result of archaeological discoveries made since the 1960s, although the
interpretation of these findings has remained the subject of extensive debate. Nevertheless, it
seems clear that the region has been inhabited from the earliest times. Hominid fossil remains
date from approximately 1,500,000 years ago and those of Homo sapiens from approximately
40,000 years ago. Furthermore, until about 7000 BCE the seas were some 150 feet (50
metres) lower than they are now, and the area west of Makassar Strait consisted of a web of
watered plains that sometimes is called Sundaland. These land connections perhaps account
for the coherence of early human development observed in the Hoabinhian culture, which
lasted from about 13,000 to 5000 or 4000 BCE. The stone tools used by hunting and
gathering societies across Southeast Asia during this period show a remarkable degree of
similarity in design and development. When the sea level rose to approximately its present
level about 6000 BCE, conditions were created for a more variegated environment and,
therefore, for more extensive differentiation in human development. While migration from
outside the region may have taken place, it did not do so in a massive or clearly punctuated
fashion; local evolutionary processes and the circulation of peoples were far more powerful
forces in shaping the region’s cultural landscape.
Technological developments and population expansion
Perhaps because of a particular combination of geophysical and climatic factors, early
Southeast Asia did not develop uniformly in the direction of increasingly complex societies.

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Not only have significant hunting and gathering populations continued to exist into the 21st
century, but the familiar cultural sequences triggered by such events as the discovery of
agriculture or metallurgy do not seem to apply.

Influence of China and India

Between approximately 150 BCE and 150 CE, most of Southeast Asia was first influenced by
the more mature cultures of its neighbours to the north and west. Thus began a process that
lasted for the better part of a millennium and fundamentally changed Southeast Asia. In some
ways the circumstances were very different. China, concerned about increasingly powerful
chiefdoms in Vietnam disturbing its trade, encroached into the region and by the end of the
1st century BCE had incorporated it as a remote province of the Han empire. For generations,
the Vietnamese opposed Chinese rule, but they were unable to gain their independence until
939 CE. From India, however, there is no evidence of conquests, colonization, or even
extensive migration. Indians came to Southeast Asia, but they did not come to rule, and no
Indian power appears to have pursued an interest in controlling a Southeast Asian power from
afar, a factor that may help to explain why only the Vietnamese accepted the Chinese model.

China
China under the Han emperor Wudi (c. 100 BCE) and (inset) at the end of the Chunqiu
(Spring and Autumn) Period (c. 500 BCE).

Yet, in other ways the processes of Indianization and Sinicization were remarkably similar.
Southeast Asia already was socially and culturally diverse, making accommodation easy.
Furthermore, indigenous peoples shaped the adaption and adoption of outside influences and,
indeed, seem to have sought out concepts and practices that enhanced rather than redirected
changes already underway in their own societies. They also rejected some components: for
example, some of the vocabulary and general theories related to the Indian notions of
social hierarchy were borrowed but much of the specific practices were not, and neither
Indian nor Chinese views of women as socially and legally inferior were accepted. In the later
stages of the assimilation process—particularly in the Indianized areas—local syncretism

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often produced exuberant variations, which, despite familiar appearances, were expressions
of local genius rather than just inspired borrowings.

Still, Chinese and Indian influences were anything but superficial. They provided writing
systems and literature, systems of statecraft, and concepts of social hierarchy and religious
belief, all of which were both of intrinsic interest and pragmatic significance to Southeast
Asians of the day. For elites seeking to gain and retain control over larger and more complex
populations, the applications of these ideas were obvious, but it would also seem that the
sheer beauty and symbolic power of Hindu and Buddhist arts tapped a responsive vein in the
Southeast Asian soul. The result was an imposing array of architectural and other cultural
wonders, at first very much in the Indian image and hewing close to current styles and later in
more original, indigenous interpretations. The seriousness and profundity with which all this
activity was undertaken is unmistakable. By the 7th century CE, Palembang in southern
Sumatra was being visited by Chinese and other Buddhist devotees from throughout Asia,
who came to study doctrine and to copy manuscripts in institutions that rivaled in importance
those in India itself. Later, beginning in the 8th century, temple and court complexes of
surpassing grandeur and beauty were constructed in central Java, Myanmar, and Cambodia;
the Borobudur of the Śailendra dynasty in Java, the myriad temples of the Burman dynastic
capital of Pagan, and the monuments constructed at Angkor during the Khmer empire
in Cambodia rank without question among the glories of the ancient world.

Kyaiktiyo (Golden Rock) pagoda, a historic Buddhist pilgrimage destination in eastern

Myanmar (Burma)./Ruins of ancient Buddhist shrines and pagodas, Pagan, Myanmar.

Rise of indigenous states

In the realm of politics, Indian influence accompanied the rise of new political entities,
which, since they do not readily fall under the Western rubric of “states,” have been
called mandalas. The mandala was not so much a territorial unit as a fluid field of power that
emanated, in concentric circles, from a central court and depended for its continued authority
largely on the court’s ability to balance alliances and to influence the flow of trade and
human resources. Such a conception of political organization already had surfaced among
Southeast Asians, but Indian civilization provided powerful metaphors for the change
underway and for ways of extending it. The mandala was the predominant form of the
Southeast Asian state until it was displaced in the 19th century.

Between approximately the 2nd century BCE and the 6th century CE, mandala polities
appeared throughout Southeast Asia in the major river valleys and at strategic landfalls for

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sea traffic—generally, locations where routes for local and international trade crossed. These
communities took different forms, depending on their physical setting. For example, walled
and moated settlements predominated in much of the mainland but do not seem to have been
constructed in insular Southeast Asia. Yet they served similar purposes to and frequently
shared characteristics with mandalas in the same immediate region. Mandala sites have been
located in the Mekong, Chao Phraya, and Irrawaddy river valleys; along the coasts of central
Vietnam, western and northern Java, and eastern Borneo; and on the Isthmus of Kra. One of
the most intriguing sites, called Oc Eo, is in the Mekong delta region of southern Vietnam.
This port settlement, which flourished between the 1st and 6th centuries CE amid a complex
of other settlements connected by canals (some up to 60 miles long), was not only an
extraordinarily rich emporium dealing in articles from as far as Rome and inner Asia, but it
was also a local manufacturing centre producing its own jewelry, pottery, and other trade
goods. Almost certainly it also fed itself from wet-rice agriculture practiced in the
surrounding delta. Little is known, however, about the nature of state structure in Oc Eo,
although it seems to have been one of—and perhaps was prime among—an assemblage of
local mandala-type principalities.

After the 6th century there emerged a number of larger and more powerful mandala states,
principally in Cambodia, Myanmar, Sumatra, and Java. Often designated kingdoms or
empires, these states nevertheless functioned and were structured upon the same principles
that had governed their predecessors. They were, in some respects, unstable and prone to
fluctuation because of shifting relations with outside powers and constant internal struggles
for the position of overlordship, but they also were remarkably durable. No two states were
exactly alike, each occupying a particular ecological niche and exploiting a particular
combination of opportunities to survive by trade, agriculture, and war. The cultural impact of
their courts long outlasted their political grasp and continued to inform their societies until
modern times.

Perhaps the outstanding example of this durability is Srivijaya, the great Sumatran trading
empire that dominated much of Southeast Asian commerce from about the 7th to the 13th
century. Srivijaya does not appear to have been heavily urbanized or to have had a
continuously occupied capital during its roughly 700 years of existence, nor does it seem to
have possessed boundaries and clearly delineated territories. Its armies, while they could be
mustered and quickly dispatched overseas, were weapons of limited use. Instead, Srivijaya
maintained its authority in a shifting and extremely varied trading world largely by means of
a shrewd brand of cultural and economic politics that involved, among other things, offering
a protective and mutually beneficial trading environment to all comers and maintaining a
courtly culture from which the idiom of overlordship issued grandly and convincingly.
Srivijaya was ruled by a formula supple enough to attract trade from all quarters and to
exploit it at the same time.

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LEFT Angkor Wat///Ruined temples at the Angkor Thom complex, Angkor, Cambodia.

Angkor Wat, Angkor, Cambodia

Whatever the achievements of Srivijaya, the Khmer (Cambodian) state that flourished in
the Tonle Sap region roughly between the 9th and mid-13th centuries is widely regarded as
the most impressive of the concentrically arranged ancient Southeast Asian states. This
admiration largely stems from the state’s extensive architectural remains, including the
renowned Angkor Thom and Angkor Wat temple complexes. In many respects, however, the
Angkorian imperial achievement was singular. Though informed by the mandala paradigm,
the Khmer carried it further and shaped it more distinctively than other Southeast Asians
before or since.

At its zenith, Angkor may have supported a population of one million in a relatively small
area, with an elite apparatus and a population of bondsmen far greater than any of
Cambodia’s neighbours. In achieving this, however, the Khmer state surrendered the
flexibility and balance critical to the mandala pattern and eventually fell victim to its own
brittleness. Other concentric states in early Southeast Asia rose and fell; the Khmer proved
unable to revive theirs once it had fallen.

Khmer empire c. 1200.

The classical period

Components of a new age
By about 1300 much of Southeast Asia had entered a period of transition from ancient times.
No single factor can account for the disruption, which lasted longer in some places than in

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others. The Mongol attacks of the second half of the 13th century and the disintegration of
Khmer and Srivijayan power undoubtedly were of significance, but less dramatic changes,
such as slowly changing trade patterns and political competition, may also have played an
important role. Whatever the case, the shifts were not of a type or severity to bring about
major disruptions; they instead paved the way for the coalescing of what can best be termed a
classical age. In this period the major civilizations of Southeast Asia achieved a broader
influence and greater coherence than before. They integrated rival political and cultural forms
into their own, and the patterns they established were widely imitated by smaller powers that
were drawn into their orbit. Regional and international trade reached a high level of
development, bringing greater well-being to larger numbers of Southeast Asians than ever
before. It also was an age of great change and challenges—especially in the form of new and
often foreign religious, political, and economic influences—and one of constant warfare. But
it was a measure of the confidence and balance of the era that these influences were absorbed
and digested with little difficulty, leaving more than a millennium of creative synthesis
essentially undisturbed until as late as the end of the 18th century. Many Southeast Asian
civilizations can be said to have reached their definitive premodern shape during this
“golden” age, which also is modern scholarship’s best source of information on the
classical cultures of the region before the ravages of 19th- and 20th-century colonialism.

State and society

There were five major powers in Southeast Asia between the 14th and 18th
centuries: Myanmar under the rulers of Ava (1364–1752), especially the Toungoo
dynasty during most of that period; an independent Vietnam under the Later Le
dynasty (1428–1788); the Tai state of Ayutthaya, or Ayudhia (1351–1767); Majapahit,
centred on Java (1292–c. 1527); and Malacca (Melaka) centred on the Malay
Peninsula (c. 1400–1511). Particularly with the waning of Indian influence (the last known
Sanskrit inscription dates from the late 13th century), each power had developed in
distinctive ways: more than ever, what constituted being “Javanese” or “Burman,” for
example, was taking focus, and the Vietnamese, too, sought to clarify what was their own as
opposed to what was Chinese. Remarkably enough, the process by which this was
accomplished was characterized not by elimination or purification but by absorption. The
syncretic powers developed in earlier periods had by no means weakened. The Tai,
comparative newcomers, absorbed much of Khmer civilization during this period and,
beginning with their written language, shaped it to their requirements. The Burmans absorbed
Mon civilization in a similar fashion, and the Javanese of Majapahit could not help but make
adjustments with the Malay and other cultures of the archipelago that they came to dominate.
Even the Vietnamese, who had decided after several generations of struggle to adopt the
outlines of a Confucian state that they had inherited from China, in the late 14th and early
15th centuries not only modified that model but also absorbed important influences from
the culture of the Cham, an Indianized people whose kingdom, Champa, they had decisively
(though not finally) defeated in 1471. This integrative approach may not have represented a
conclusive departure from the behaviour of the ancient mandala states, but it does seem to
have sustained larger and more far-reaching states, as well as richer and more complex elite
cultures.

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Ayutthaya (Ayudhya) kingdom, mid-15th century.

Malacca empire in 1500

At the same time, however, a galaxy of smaller states appeared, some of them very powerful
for their size and all of them ambitious. These states were especially numerous in insular
Southeast Asia, where Aceh, Bantam (Banten), Makasar (Makassar), and Ternate were only
the most prominent of many such Islamic sultanates; on the mainland, Chiang
Mai (Chiengmai), Luang Prabang, and Pegu at various times during the period were powerful
enough to be taken seriously. They both imitated and contributed to the court cultures of their
larger neighbours and made alliances, war, and peace with many powers. Above all, these
states participated in a dynamic and prosperous trade, not merely in exotics or high-value
goods (such as gems and metal items) but in such relatively mundane goods as salted dried
fish, ceramics, and rice. While institutions of servitude were structured somewhat differently
from those of the West, there was no mistaking that a lively trade in human beings prized for
their labour or craftsmanship took place. The proliferation of states and the rapid growth of
an accompanying intricate web of local cultural and commodity exchange laid the foundation
for both greater local autonomy and increased regional interdependency.

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The dynamics of regional trade brought change to most Southeast Asian societies during this
period. These changes were by no means uniform; the effect on hill tribes subject to periodic
raiding, for example, was understandably different from that on
coastal communities suddenly wealthy from trade. In some instances the alterations must
have been dramatic: the native sago diet of many inhabitants of the Moluccas (Maluku)
region, for example, was displaced by one based on rice brought from Java, more than 1,500
miles to the west. Yet it does seem that some changes were felt widely, especially in the
larger states. Perhaps the most important was that, while old ideas of kingship
and sovereignty were cultivated, in reality much power—and in some places critical power—
had fallen into the hands of a merchant class. The royal courts themselves often dabbled in
trade to an unprecedented degree. It perhaps is not accurate to say that kingship as an
institution was weakening, but the courts, particularly in insular Southeast Asia, became more
complicated centres of elite power.
Urbanization was another development of importance. Although some societies, notably that
of the Javanese, seem not to have been affected, the growth of large and densely populated
centres was a widespread phenomenon. By the 16th century some of these rivaled all but the
very largest European cities. Malacca, for example, may have had a population of 100,000
(including traders) in the early 16th century; in Europe only Naples, Paris, and perhaps
London were larger at that time. Finally, Southeast Asians during the 16th and 17th centuries
appear to have enjoyed good health, a varied diet, and a comparatively high standard of
living, especially when compared with most of the population of Europe of the same period.

Religion and culture

New religions appeared in Southeast Asia, accompanying the currents of trade and often
entwined with social changes already underway. Gradually, in most areas, these religions
filled the gaps left by weakening local Hindu-Buddhist establishments and beliefs, and by the
mid-18th century the region had assumed something much like its modern
religious configuration. On the mainland, Theravada Buddhism, which had been making
inroads in Cambodia since the 11th century, underwent revitalization, the result especially of
royal patronage and direct contact with Theravada monasteries in Sri Lanka. Both the
general idiom and many precepts of Theravada already were familiar in Indianized societies,
making this a gentle, nearly silent revolution that despite its subtlety was no less important. In

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Ayutthaya and the other Tai kingdoms and in the Mon-Burman states, Theravada Buddhism
buoyed the kingship and introduced a vigorous intellectual leadership; it also spread broadly
among the populace and thus played an important role as a cohesive social and cultural force
from which the people of modern Thailand and Myanmar later were to draw much of their
sense of identity.

The Hindu Temple of Borobudur?

The First written records of the Borobudur are from 732 CE and that year a Hindu Nobleman
Sanjay installed a Kingdom called Mataram of Medang on the Kedu Plain and in 775 he
began construction of a Hndu temple- a monument to commemorate the introduction of
Hinduism to Java ( by his efforts?). A plateau created by the confluence of the Progo river
provided the site.

Ten years later this Hindu Kingdom was replaced by the BUDDHIST Shailendra Dynasty a
Vassal of the Srivijay Empire and thus changed the fortunes of the earlier Hindu Temple that
now began to be converted into a Buddhist Stupa which got completed after 50 more years.

Outline
drawing during the time of Raffles circa

According to the Canggal Inscription the Sanjay Dynasty founded by the original designer
of Borobudur the then Hindu temple appears to have been founded in 732 by Sañjaya. The
Canggal inscription was discovered in Canggal village, Southwest from the town
of Magelang. This inscription was written in south Indian Tamil Pallava letters and tells
about the erection of a linga (symbol of Shiva) on the hill in Kunjarakunja area. This area is
located at a noble island called Yawadwipa (Java) which is blessed with abundance of rice
and gold. This inscription tells that Yawadwipa was reigned by King Sanna, whose long

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period of reign was marked with wisdom and virtue. After king Sanna died, the kingdom fell
into disunity. Confusion was widespread due to loss of a ruler and patron. Amidst
this, Sanjaya ascended to the throne. According to this inscription, he was the son
of Sannaha, who is described as the sister of King Sanna. Sanjaya was a king who mastered
holy scriptures, martial arts, and also military prowess. He conquered neighboring areas
around his kingdom and his wise reign blessed his land with peace and prosperity for all his
subjects.
The Canggal inscription is a Sanskrit inscription dated to 732, discovered in the Gunung
Wukir temple complex in Kadiluwih village, Salam, Magelang Regency, Central
Java, Indonesia. The inscription is written in the Pallava alphabet. The inscription documents
an edict of Sanjaya, in which he declared himself the universal ruler of Medang. The
inscription describes the erection of a lingam (the symbol of Shiva) on the country of
Kunjarakunja, by Sanjaya's order. The lingam is sited on the noble island of Yava (Java),
which the inscription describes as "rich in grain and gold mines". Yawadwipa ("Java island"),
and had long been under the rule of the wise and virtuous king Sanna, but fell into disunity
after his death. Amid a period of confusion Sanjaya, son of Sannaha (the sister of Sanna)
ascended to the throne. Sanjaya mastered holy scriptures, martial arts, and displayed military
prowess. After the conquest of neighboring areas his reign was peaceful and prosperous.
The inscription makes reference to Kunjarakunja-desa, perhaps meaning "the hermitage land
of Kunjara", which has been identified as the hermitage of Rishi Agastya, a Hindu Maharishi
revered in Southern India. The Ramayana contains a reference to a visit to Agastya hermitage
on Kunjara by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana.
The name Sanjaya, Sanna and Sannaha curiously was also mentioned in Carita Parahyangan,
a book from later period composed around 16th century which suggested refer to same
historical person.

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Ancient Javanese Canggal inscription dated 732 edicted by King Sanjaya of Medang i Bhumi
Mataram kingdom. The inscription was discovered in Kadiluwih, Salam, Magelang Regency,
Central Java. Collection of National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta. RIGHT-The Carita
Parahyangan

Indiae Orientalis, 17th century map by by Nicolaes Visscher II

Carita Parahyangan (Tale of Parahyangan) is a manuscript consisting of 47 leaves
of lontar palm leaf measuring 21 by 3 cm (8.3 by 1.2 in); each leaf contains four lines, written
in Old Sundanese script in archaic Sundanese languageis a text contained in a single
manuscript written around the late 16th century, registered as Kropak 406 from the former
collection of the Bataviaasch Genootschap voor Kunsten en Wetenschappen (Batavian
Society of Arts and Sciences), now in the Perpustakaan National (National Library)
in Jakarta. It was identified as early as 1882 by Holle as the "Carita Parahyangan", the name
derived from Parahyangan highlands in West Java, originated from Sundanese words which
means "the abode of hyangs (gods)". Since that time the manuscript has received much
scholarly attention.

According to this book from later period which mainly tells the history of Sunda Kingdom,
Sanjaya was instead the son of King Sanna and Sannaha. This relationship of King Sanna and
Sanjaya was not provided in the Canggal inscription. It also mentions that King Sanna was
defeated by his cousin, King Purbasora of Galuh, and so, he had to retreat to Mount Merapi.
Later, Sanjaya reclaimed Sanna's kingdom and ruled West Java, Central Java, East Java,
and Bali. He was also involved in battle with Malayu and Kalingga (against their king Sang
Srivijaya).

Apart from minor differences, the main theme of Carita Parahyangan corresponds to Canggal
inscription. This story suggested the links of the dynasty with West Java.

Peaceful co-existence and cooperation.

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Relation with Shailendra: During this period, the Sañjaya dynasty existed next to Sailendra
dynasty in Central Java, and much of the period was characterized by peaceful co-existence
and cooperation.
There are some theories regarding the Sañjaya-Sailendra relationship. Some scholars
suggested that there is no such things as Sanjaya dynasty, since there was only one dynasty
called Sailendra that ruled central Java. This theory was proposed by Poerbatjaraka and
suggested that there was only one kingdom and one dynasty; the kingdom is called Medang
with the capital in Mataram area, and the ruling dynasty is Sailendra. He holds that Sanjaya
and all of his offspring were belongs to Sailendra family that initially were Shivaist.
The Sañjaya dynasty was forced to the north of Java by the Sailendra dynasty, which
emerged around 778. The evidence for this event is based on the Kalasan inscription.
CONVERSION to BUDDHISM
The association of Sailendra with Mahayana Buddhism began after the conversion of Raja
Sankhara (Rakai Panaraban or Panangkaran) to buddhism. The later Sailendran kings,
successors of Panangkaran become Mahayana Buddhist too and gave Buddhism royal
patronage in Java until the end of Samaratungga reign. This theory was based on Raja
Sankhara Inscription (now missing), Sojomerto inscription and Carita
Parahyangan manuscript. Shivaist Hindu gain royal patronage again since the reign of
Pikatan, well until the end of the Medang kingdom.
Another evidence pointed that Sailendra family was using old Malay language in some of
their inscriptions, which suggested Sailendra dynasty's foreign origin in Sumatra and their
connections with Srivijaya. This theory holds that the Sailendras, with their strong
connections to Srivijaya, managed to gain control of Central Java and imposing overlordship
on the Rakais (local Javanese lords) including the Sañjaya, thus incorporated the kings of
Mataram Sañjaya dynasty in their bureaucracy. The center of the dynasty court seems to be
located in South Kedu (around Magelang, North of Yogya

The Shailendra dynasty : Śailēndra, derived from Sanskrit combined

words Śaila and Indra, meaning "King of the Mountain", also
spelled Sailendra, Syailendra or Selendra was the name of a notable Indianised dynasty that
emerged in 8th-century Java, whose reign signified a cultural renaissance in the region. The
Shailendras were active promoters of Mahayana Buddhism with the glimpses of Hinduism,
and covered the Kedu Plain of Central Java with Buddhist monuments, one of which is the
colossal stupa of Borobudur.
The Shailendras are considered to have been a thalassocracy and ruled vast swathes of
maritime Southeast Asia, however they also relied on agricultural pursuits, by way of
intensive rice cultivation on the Kedu Plain of Central Java. The dynasty appeared to be the
ruling family of both the Mataram Kingdom of Central Java, for some period, and
the Srivijaya Kingdom in Sumatra.
The inscriptions created by Shailendras use three languages; Old Malay, Old Javanese,
and Sanskrit - written either in the Kawi alphabet, or pre-Nāgarī script. The use of Old Malay
has sparked speculation of a Sumatran origin, or Srivijayan connection of this family. On the
other hand, the use of Old Javanese suggests their firm political establishment on Java. The
use of Sanskrit usually indicates the official nature, and/or religious significance, of the event
described in any given inscription.

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Sojomerto Inscription mentions the family of Dapunta Shailendra, the ancestor of the Shailendra
Dynasty.// The bas relief of 8th century Borobudur depict a King sitting in Maharajalilasana (king's
posture or royal ease) pose, with his Queen and their subjects, the scene is based on Shailendran royal
court.

The Sojomerto inscription (c. 725) discovered in Batang Regency, Central Java,
is Shaivist in nature, which suggests that the family was probably initially Hindu Shaivist
before converting to Mahayana Buddhism.
This inscription concluded that the family of Dapunta Selendra is settled at the north coast of
Central Java, speak Old Malay and that they are Shivaist Hindus.
The discovery of this inscription has led to the development of theories proposing a Sumatran
origin of the Sailendras, also with the possibility of their initial establishment at the north
coast of Central Java before moving inland to Kedu Plain.
Just like the Sojomerto inscription, some of Sailendra's inscriptions of the later period—
although discovered in Central Java—are also written in Old Malay instead of Old Javanese,
which suggested Sumatran connections. The name 'Selendra' mentioned in this inscription as
"Dapunta Selendra" is suggested as the ancestor of the Sailendras. The title 'Dapunta' is
similar to those of Srivijayan King Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, which suggested the
Srivijayan connection to Sailendra family. The family was first settled in Central Java
northern coast around Batang and Pekalongan regency, they were initially Hindu Shivaist. At
a certain point of time they moved southward and established themselves in Kedu Plain and
later probably converted to Mahayana Buddhism.
Another interpretation suggests that the family was probably a native Javanese family,
but having Srivijayan connection. This ruling family was probably a local ruler but somehow
subjugated by Srivijayan through invasion and served as Srivijayan vassal.
The early Sailendras were probably belongs within Srivijaya's mandala sphere of influence.
Previously known through Kota Kapur inscription (686 CE) that Srivijaya launched series of
military campaign against Bhumi Java, which also corresponds to the fall
of Tarumanagara kingdom in West Java.

According to R.C. Majumdar in, ANCIENT INDIAN COLONIESIN THE FAR EAST VOL.
II SUVARNADVIPA- PART I Political History, 1933, the Shailendra dynasty that
established itself in the Indonesian archipelago originated from Kalinga (modern Odisha) in

23
Eastern India. This opinion is also shared by Nilakanta Sastri and J. L. Moens. Moens further
describes that the Shailendras originated in India and established themselves
in Palembang before the arrival of Srivijaya's Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa. In 683, the
Shailendras moved to Java because of the pressure exerted by Dapunta Hyang and his troops.
(See alsoJ.L. Moens, “Çrīvijaya, Yāva en Kaṭāha.” TBG 77: 317-487.)

The Borobudur Temple

The religion of Buddhism is one of India's most successful exports. The religion developed
in the Indian subcontinent, and over time spread across nearly all of Asia. That's pretty
common knowledge, but did you know where Buddhism went first? After leaving India, one
of the first places to adopt Buddhism wasn't in China or Japan; it was Indonesia. As a result,
Indonesia has some of the oldest Buddhist monuments in Asia, as well as some of the most
spectacular. The crown jewel of these is the Borobudur Temple a stunning example of a
mix of traditional Hindu and Indonesian architectures.

History of the Temple

In many of today’s arbitrary texts the story of the Borobudur Temple begins with
the Shailendra Dynasty. I say arbitrary because of the flippant cut and paste style of writing
with no deep research. So. this then was a ruling family who concentrated their power in
central Java in the eighth century CE, and grew to control all of Java and parts of Sumatra.

Some scholars think that the Shailendra came to Indonesia from India, while others think
they were native to the island. Regardless, they clearly had some cultural connections to India
and were major proponents of Mahayana Buddhism, which they actively spread across
Indonesia.

Their biggest achievement was the Borobudur Temple, which was built over roughly 120
years from the eighth through ninth centuries. What they accomplished was an engineering
marvel for the time; the 95-foot tall step pyramid is made of locally sourced stone set without
mortar.
For centuries, Borobudur was a major pilgrimage site, attracting the faithful from as far away
as India and China. It seems to have been very popular, but then was inexplicably abandoned
in the 15th century. We don't know why Borobudur was left to be reclaimed by the jungle,
but it remained lost for roughly 400 years before the colonial governor of British Java
decided to have it excavated.

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The excavations freed Borobudur from the jungle but also left it open to looters. Finally, in
the 1960s a massive campaign was launched by the Indonesian government and UNESCO to
save and restore the site. Statues were taken out of private collections, stones were returned,
and piece by piece Borobudur was cleaned, rebuilt, and reopened to the public. It is currently
a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a stunning example of Indonesian architecture, but it has
also reclaimed its role as a Buddhist pilgrimage site.

Hindu Design Elements

They say that Borobudur Temple was built in 750 AD by an architect named
Gunadharma, from the Syailendra dynasty. This temple is the largest Buddhist temple
monument during the Ancient Mataram Kingdom reign.

Borobudur Temple is located in Magelang, Central Java province. Magelang is

surrounded by many active volcanoes, such as: Mount Merapi, Mount Sumbing, and
Mount Merbabu.

Mount Merapi, Magelang, Central Java

In 1006 AD, Mount Merapi had erupted. So the Borobdur temple was allegedly buried in
lava and disappeared from civilization. Since then no one knows the existence of the
temple because many people around the temple also died and some were displaced.

There are several things that led to the emergence of the number 1006 which in the
inscriptions or old manuscripts is called the pralaya (great disaster), the disaster is
considered to be related to the history of the eruption of Merapi and makes it considered
as a truth.

One of them is the discovery of the Pucangan Inscription dating to 1041 AD. Believed by
H. Kern in Een Oud-Javaansche steeninscriptie van Koning Er-Langga (1913), the
inscription made by King Airlangga of the Kahuripan Kingdom revealed that a pralaya

25
had occurred in the Ancient Mataram Kingdom in 928 Saka or 1006 AD.

Another historical clue, which shows the cause of the burial of Borobudir Temple is the
Calcutta inscription. In the Calcutta Inscription that reads Awama which means sea of
milk says that possibility. The word Awama is then interpreted as Merapi's lava which
then allows Borobudur to be buried in cold lava.

According to some geology researches, an earthquake accompanied the volcanic eruption

and damaged the Borobudur Temple which was built in the 9th century. This tectonic
activity was followed by the eruption of Mount Merapi whose eruption was expected to
bury the Borobudur temple.

After the eruption of Mount Merapi, the Ancient Mataram King at that time, Mpu Sindok,
moved the capital and ordered the people to move to East Java. Since then the Borobudur
temple has been abandoned. After a long time buried by volcanic ash, bushes and wild
trees began to grow, until the temple resembled a small hill. At the same time, no one
made a pilgrimage to Borobudur.

F.C. Wilsen Sketch/The ruins of Borobudur temple when it was first discovered
In 1811-1816 the island of Java was under British rule. Thomas Stamford Raffles who is
a Governor is very interested in the history of Java. He collected ancient Javanese antique
arts and wrote notes on Javanese history and culture, and he deliberately toured the island
of Java searching for historical inscriptions.

He arrived in Semarang in 1814, he received news about a large monument in the forest
area of Bumisegoro, Magelang, Central Java. Raffles was very interested, but was unable
to attend because he was on duty. He also sent H.C. Cornelius to investigate the
monument in question.

H.C. Cornelius finally investigated it by bringing 200 of his subordinates to cut down
trees and dig the soil that covered the temple. But at that time the land was considered
prone to landslides, so that excavation was not optimal, then he gave a sketch of the
Borobudur temple to Sir Thomas. Although Sir Thomas Raffles is considered to be very

26
meritorious.

In 1835 Java was controlled by the Dutch, Governor General Hartmann continued the
work of Sir Thomas Stamford Rafless. He was interested in researching and caring for the
Borobudur Temple. Unfortunately he did not write a note with what he did, but the
temple cleansing continued. In 1842 Hartmann discovered the main stupa but its contents
were empty.

Next, a Dutch engineer named F.C. Wilsen, an expert in engineering, examined the
monument and drew a relief sketch of Borobudur. Until the research continued by J.F.G
Brumund to examine in more detail the monument and combine the reliefs that have been
drawn in F.C. Wilsen, he completed his research in 1859. The Borobudur temple begins
to restored under the supervision of a Dutch engineer, Theodoor van Erp on 1902. The
major restoration performed until 1960s, before it’s opened to public as tourism
attraction. This temple was included in the UNESCO list in 1991 as a Cultural Heritage
Site of Indonesia.

Another reason why big temple like Borobudur forgotten is socio-cultural factor. Since
time has changed, Sanskrit that used to be the language of Ancient Mataram Kingdom
was no longer spoken, whereas the inscription that shows the location of Borobudur is
written in Sanskrit. Thefore, no one knows about the location Borobudur and there's no
comprehensive research about it before Dutch colonial period.

Other socio-cultural factor is religious changing. The locals who lived surrounding
Borobudur mostly converts to Islam or Catholics, so they are no longer visit Borobudur
temple, which is a Buddhist temple to make a pilgrimage, therefore this temple becomes
forgotten.

Borobudur means Barha Buddha (बड़ा बुद्ध). It is located in Central Java. The temple
consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central
dome. It is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The central dome
is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa. It was
constructed based on previous births of Lord Buddha as described by Aryasura.

Cosmology of the Borobudur Path

Paths have been pervasive in human civilization. The idea of path is an important concept in
Buddhism, and is essential in understanding the meaning and purpose of one of the most
remarkable and impressive monuments in the world: Borobudur. : the Buddhist teaching of
the means of attaining Nirvana through rightness of belief, resolve, speech, action, livelihood,
effort, thought, and meditation - the four noble truths. These are crustallized in
the Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra or The Excellent Manifestation Sūtra ( Sutra of the Tree's Display;
"gaṇḍi", "the trunk of a tree from the root to the beginning of the branches") is a
Buddhist Mahayana Sutra of Indian origin dating roughly c. 200 to 300 CE.
It depicts one of the world's most celebrated spiritual pilgrimages, and comprises the 39th

27
chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra, or Flower Ornament Scripture. In Buddhabhadra's Chinese
translation of the Avatamsaka, this 39th chapter is entitled "Entrance into the Dharma
Realm". The Sutra is described as the "Sudhana's quest for the ultimate truth", as the sutra
chronicles the journey of a disciple, Sudhana ("Excellent Riches"), as he encounters various
teachings and Bodhisattvas until his journey reaches full circle and he awakens to teachings
of the Buddha.
The Gandavyuha Sutra forms a major segment of the temple’s upper galleries. The last
chapter of a larger text called the Flower Garland Sutra, it relates the story of Suddhana, a
youth who commences a journey to meet fifty-three teachers while seeking the path to
enlightenment. The concept of “path” is a central theme in the text. He eventually meets an
enlightened being (bodhisattva) named Samantabadhra. Excerpts from the larger sutra
illustrate the concepts under discussion:

“I will lead those who have lost their way to the right road. I will be a bright light for those in
the dark night, and cause the poor and destitute to uncover hidden treasures. The Bodhisattva
impartially benefits all living beings in this manner.
I vow to shut the door to evil destinies and open the right paths of humans, gods and that of
Nirvana.
Once any sentient beings see the Buddha, it will cause them to clear away habitual
obstructions. And forever abandon devilish actions: This is the path traveled by Illumination.
Sentient Beings are blinded by ignorance, always confused; the light of Buddha illuminates
the path of safety. To rescue them and cause suffering to be removed.

All sentient beings are on false paths—Buddha shows them the right path, inconceivable,
causing all worlds to be vessels of truth…”
The temple has been described in a number of ways. Its basic structure resembles that of a
pyramid, yet it has been also referred to as a caitya (shrine), a stupa (reliquary), and a sacred
mountain. In fact, the name Śailendra literally means “Lord of the Mountain.” While the
temple exhibits characteristics of all these architectural configurations, its overall plan is that
of a three-dimensional mandala—a diagram of the cosmos used for meditation—and it is in
that sense where the richest understanding of the monument occurs.

Candi Borobudur’s design was conceived of by the poet, thinker, and architect Gunadharma,
considered by many today to be a man of great vision and devotion. Meticulously carved
relief sculptures mediate a physical and spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively
toward higher states of consciousness. But one has to climb the paths set out on the STUPA.

28
 If one looks from afar and goes home then the pathis not traversed. Just like in Buddhism,
one can become a Buddhist by embracing the path and walking on it. Similarly in Borobudur
the way or paths built on the structure have to be climbed from the floor to the TOP. Whether
searing heat or pouring rain there is no roof or overhed shelter. In fact the journey of
Borobudur consists of a series of open-air passageways that radiate around a central axis
mundi (cosmic axis). It is set high upon a hill vertically enhanced by its builders to achieve a
greater elevation. Devotees circumambulate clockwise along walkways that gradually ascend
to its uppermost level. At Borobudur, geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct
adherents toward the ultimate goal of enlightenment. Alog the path from the bottom to the to,
meticulously carved relief sculptures stare doen from : ‘walls” upon the pilgrims as they
progressively ascend upwards toward higher states of the structure and also the pictorials
representing higher levels of consciousness- from bottom to the top. Moving past the base
and through the four galleries, the devotee emerges onto the three upper terraces,
encountering 72 stupas each containing a three-dimensional sculpture of a seated Buddha
within a stone latticework. At the temple’s apex sits the large central stupa, a symbol of the
enlightened mind

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The entire site contains 504 statues of the Buddha. 1460 stone reliefs on the walls and
opposite balustrades decorate the first four galleries, with an additional 1212 decorative
reliefs augmenting the path. The relief sculptures narrate the Buddha’s teachings (the
Dharma), depict various events related to his past lives (Jataka tales), and illustrate didactic
stories taken from important Buddhist scriptures (sutras). Interestingly, another 160 relief
sculptures adorn the base of the monument, but are concealed behind stone buttresses that
were added shortly after the building’s construction in order to further support the structure’s
weight. The hidden narrative reliefs were photographed when they were discovered in the late
19th century before the stones were put back to help ensure the temple’s stability.

The experience of meaning

The experience of Borobudur relates to the philosophic and spiritual foundation of the
Buddhist religion it concretises and celebrates. Since its inception, roughly 2500 years ago,
Buddhism has directly engaged what it sees as the paradoxical nature of human existence.
The most essential tenet the religion promulgates is the impermanent, transient nature of
existence. Transcendental wisdom via the Dharma (the Noble Eight-Fold Path) hinges on
recognizing that attachment to the idea of a fixed, immutable “self” is a delusion.

Enlightenment entails embracing the concept of “no-self” (anattā), understood to be at the

heart of eliminating the suffering and dissatisfaction (dukkha) of sentient beings. This is the
ultimate message expressed in the sacred scriptures that are solidified in artistic magnificence
along the stone walls and railings of Borobudur. The physical movement of
circumambulating the structure symbolizes the non-physical—or spiritual—path of
enlightenment. In a real sense, then, the concept of path within Borobudur monumentalizes
the impermanent. Like a river that is never the same from moment to moment, to physically
move along the path while meditating on the spiritual message of the sutras is meant to help
one fully embrace the Buddha’s paradoxical message of impermanence.

From the Gandavyuha Sutra (RIGHT) Crowning stupa The texts illustrated on the walls refer
to pathways as well.

From darkness into light

The idea of moving from the darkness into the light is the final element of the experience of
Borobudur. The temple’s pathway takes one from the earthly realm of desire (kamadhatu),

30
represented and documented on the hidden narratives of the structure’s earthbound base,
through the world of forms (rupadhatu) as expounded on the narratives carved along the four
galleries set at right angles, until one finally emerges into the realm of formlessness
(arupadhatu) as symbolized and manifested in the open circular terraces crowned with 72
stupas.

However, the symbolization of enlightenment these stupas represent is not intended to be

merely aesthetic. Buddhist stupas and mandalas are understood as “spiritual technologies”
that harness spiritual “energies” in the creation of sacred space.

The repetition of form and the circumabulatory progress of the pilgrim mimic, and thereby
access, the cosmological as a microcosm. The clockwise movement around the cosmic center
reproduces the macrocosmic path of the sun. Thus, when one emerges from the dark galleries
representing the realms of desire and form into the light of the “formless” circular open air
upper walkways, the material effect of light on one’s physical form merges concomitantly
with the spiritual enlightenment generated by the metaphysical journey of the sacred path.
Light, in all its paradoxes, is the ultimate goal. The crowning stupa of this sacred mountain is
dedicated to the “Great Sun Buddha” Vairocana. The temple sits in cosmic proximity to the
nearby volcano Mt. Merapi. During certain times of the year the path of the rising sun in the
East seems to emerge out of the mountain to strike the temple’s peak in radiant synergy.
Light illuminates the stone in a way that is intended to be more than beautiful. The brilliance
of the site can be found in how the Borobudur mandala blends the metaphysical and physical,
the symbolic and the material, the cosmological and the earthly within the structure of its
physical setting and the framework of spiritual paradox.

3 MANDALAs
The 3 circular platforms & the big stupa of
Borobudur
Dr Uday Dokras Phd Stockholm

Sanchi
The first photograph by Isidore van Kinsbergen (1873) after the monument had been cleared up.

31
With over 17,000 islands, Indonesia is the world's largest island country and boasts of
mesmerising history and culture but did You Know Indonesia Houses The World's Largest
Buddha Temple, With 504 Buddha Statues and Covering a Vast Area of 56,600 Cubic
Metres?
Borobudur is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage.
The ten levels of the temple symbolize the three divisions of the religion's cosmic system. As
visitors begin their journey at the base of the temple, they make their way to the top of the
monument through the three levels of Budhist cosmology, Kamadhatu (the world of desire),
Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness). As visitors walk
to the top the monument guides the pilgrims past 1,460 narrative relief panels on the wall and
the balustrades.
This design is a mix of Javanese style and Gupta dynasty architecture, reflecting the blend of
indigenous and Indian aesthetics in ancient Java. Over 500 statues of Buddha are positioned
around Borobudur, and Borobudur contains roughly 3,000 bas-relief sculptures.The design of
Borobudur, a temple-mountain symbolizing the structure of universe, influenced temple built
as Angkor, Cambodia.
However, the symbolization of enlightenment these stupas represent is not intended to be
merely aesthetic. Buddhist stupas and mandalas are understood as “spiritual technologies”
that harness spiritual “energies” in the creation of sacred space.It was built in three tiers: a
pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular
platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa. The walls and balustrades are decorated with
fine low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,500 m2.

Each of the monument's three main levels represents a stage on the way to the bodhisattva
ideal of enlightenment; symbolizing this spiritual journey, a pilgrim begins at the eastern
stairway and walks clockwise around each of the monument's nine levels before reaching the
top, a distance of more than 3 miles (5 km).
The monument's three divisions symbolize the three "realms" of Buddhist cosmology,
namely Kamadhatu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally
Arupadhatu (the formless world).
The monument is built to represent the universe according to Buddhist cosmology, divided
into the Spheres of Desire, Form and Formlessness. Kamadhatu, the Sphere of Desire, is
represented by the panels of the hidden base, which depict man's concern for worldly desires
and pleasures.

The temple is well-known because it is enormous, for one thing. There are nine different levels, and it is a
three-mile walk to wind one's way from the base to the stupa at the top. Each of the three main stages of the

32
temple stands for one of the stages on a Buddhist's path to enlightenment.Tawang Monastery, located in
Tawang city of Tawang district in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, is the largest monastery in India.

There are no internal cell shrines, and the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist
stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions
and niches along the whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing
into any of the other levels.
The goal of Buddhism is to become enlightened and reach nirvana. Nirvana is believed to be
attainable only with the elimination of all greed, hatred, and ignorance within a person.
Nirvana signifies the end of the cycle of death and rebirth.
Each of the monument’s three main levels represents a stage on the way to
the bodhisattva ideal of enlightenment; symbolizing this spiritual journey, a pilgrim begins at
the eastern stairway and walks clockwise around each of the monument’s nine levels before
reaching the top, a distance of more than 3 miles (5 km). At the lowest level, which is
partially hidden, are hundreds of reliefs of earthly desires, illustrating kama-dhatu (“the realm
of feeling”), the lowest sphere of the Mahayana Buddhist universe. On the next level, a series
of reliefs depict rupa-dhatu (the middle sphere and “the realm of form”) through events in the
life of the Gautama Buddha and scenes from the Jatakas (stories of his previous lives). The
upper level illustrates arupa-dhatu, “the realm of formlessness,” or detachment from the
physical world; there is little decoration, but lining the terraces are 72 bell-shaped stupas,
many still containing a statue of the Buddha, partly visible through the perforated stonework.
During the Waicak ceremony, which occurs once a year during a full moon, thousands of
saffron-robed Buddhist monks walk in solemn procession to Borobudur to commemorate the
Buddha’s birth, death, and enlightenment.
Buddhist symbolism is the use of symbols (Sanskrit: pratīka) to represent certain aspects of
the Buddha's Dharma (teaching). Early Buddhist symbols which remain important today
include the Dharma wheel, the Indian lotus, the three jewels and the Bodhi tree.
Anthropomorphic symbolism depicting the Buddha (as well as other figures) became very
popular around the first century CE with the arts of Mathura and the Greco-Buddhist
art of Gandhara. New symbols continued to develop into the medieval period, with Vajrayana
Buddhism adopting further symbols such as the stylized double vajra. In the modern era, new
symbols like the Buddhist flag were also adopted.

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Many symbols are depicted in early Buddhist art. Many of these are ancient, pre-Buddhist
and pan-Indian symbols of auspiciousness (mangala). According to Karlsson, Buddhists
adopted these signs because "they were meaningful, important and well-known to the
majority of the people in India." They also may have had apotropaic uses, and thus they
"must have been a way for Buddhists to protect themselves, but also a way of popularizing
and strengthening the Buddhist movement." At its founding in 1952, the World Fellowship of
Buddhists adopted two symbols to represent Buddhism. These were a traditional eight-
spoked Dharma wheel and the five-colored flag. Perhaps the most admired and discussed
symbol of Buddhist religion and art is the mandala, a word which, like guru and yoga, has
become part of the English language. Its popularity is underscored by the use of the word
mandala as a synonym for sacred space in scholarship world over, and by its presence in
English-language dictionaries and encyclopedias. Both broadly define mandalas as geometric
designs intended to symbolize the universe, and reference is made to their use in Buddhist
and Hindu practices.
Borobudur was built by the Sailendra Dynasty kings in the 8th and 9th centuries, around
that time that Charlemagne ruled Europe. When it was completed an epic poet from Ceylon
wrote: "Thus are the Buddha incomprehensible, and incomprehensible is the nature of the
Buddhas, and incomprehensible is the reward of those who have faith in the
incomprehensible." According to UNESCO: Founded by a king of the Saliendra dynasty,
Borobudur was built to honour the glory of both the Buddha and its founder, a true king
Bodhisattva. This colossal temple was built between AD 750 and 842: 300 years before
Cambodia's Angkor Wat, 400 years before work had begun on the great European cathedrals.
Little is known about its early history except that a huge army of workers worked in the
tropical heat to shift and carve the 60,000 square meters of stone.

Why it was built remains a mystery. There are no written records on the subject. No ancient
cities have been found nearby. There is no clear sanctuary as a place of worship and no room
to store icons. Many historians and archeologists believe that Borobudur is not a temple but
rather a kind of advertisement for Buddhism. According to an expert on the subject, John
Mikic, Borobudur was built to “to engage the mind” and to “give a visual aid for teaching a
gentle philosophy of life."

Borobodur was an active religious center until the 10th century when it was abandoned for
reasons that are not clear. At the beginning of the 11th century AD, because of the political
situation in Central Java, divine monuments in that area, including the Borobudur Temple
became completely neglected and given over to decay. According to UNESCO: the
Stylistically the art of Borobudur is a tributary of Indian influences (Gupta and post-Gupta
styles).

34
 Borobudur, northwest view

The Gupta Dynasty ruled the North Central India between the 4th and 6th centuries CE
and is considered a golden age for arts. The Dynasty was founded by Chandragupta I who
acceded to the throne in 320 CE. The Guptas were the first to build Hindu and Buddist
temples to fulfill a certain purpose. This style of architecture displays a variety of beautifully
adorned towers, engravings and carvings, and rock cut shrines in their temples. Unfortunately
very few among the many temples of the Gupta Dynasty survive today.

During the Gupta empire—from about 320 to 550 CE—emperors used Hinduism as a
unifying religion and helped popularize it by promoting educational systems that
included Hindu teachings; they also gave land to brahmins. The Gupta emperors helped
make Hinduism the most popular religion on the Indian subcontinent. North
Central India saw the first purpose-built Hindu (and also Buddhist) temples which evolved
from the earlier tradition of rock-cut shrines.

Mahavairocana Tantra
Buddhist Tantric texts began appearing in the Gupta Empire period though there are
texts with elements associated with Tantra that can be seen as early as the third century. By
the eighth century, Tantra was a dominant force in North India and the number of texts
increased with numerous Tantric pandits writing commentaries.

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The earliest known datable Buddhist Tantra is possibly the Mahavairocana Tantra, which was
mentioned and collected by the Chinese pilgrim Wu-xing (無行) c. 680 CE.
Some of the material is also similar to content in the Yoga Upanishads. Buddhist Tantric
traditions were variously influenced by Śaiva and Pancharatra Hindu traditions, local
god/goddess cults, Yaksha or nāga rites, as well as drawing on pre-
existing Mahāyāna Buddhist ideas and practices.
Many early Buddhist Tantric texts, later termed “action Tantras” (kriyā tantra), are mostly
collections of magical mantras or phrases for mostly worldly ends called mantrakalpas
(mantra manuals) and they do not call themselves Tantras. Later Tantric texts from the eighth
century onward (termed variously Yogatantra, Mahayoga, and Yogini Tantras) advocated
union with a deity (deity yoga), sacred sounds (mantras), techniques for manipulation of
the subtle body and other secret methods with which to achieve swift Buddhahood. Some
Tantras contain antinomian and transgressive practices such as ingesting alcohol and other
forbidden substances as well as sexual rituals. Some of the unique themes and ideas found in
the Buddhist Tantras is the revaluation of the body and its use in attaining great bliss
(mahasukha), a revaluation of the role of women and female deities, and a revaluation of
negative mental states, which can be used in the service of liberation as the Hevajra
Tantra says "the world is bound by passion, also by passion it is released".
Buddhist Tantra quickly spread out of India into nearby countries like Tibet and Nepal in the
eighth century, as well as to Southeast Asia. Buddhist Tantra arrived in China during
the Tang Dynasty (where it was known as Tangmi) and was brought to Japan by Kukai (774–
835), where it is known as Shingon. It remains the main Buddhist tradition
in Nepal, Mongolia and Tibet where it is known as Vajrayana.
There are between 1500 and 2000 surviving Indian Buddhist Tantric texts in the original
Sanskrit, and over 2000 more Tantras solely survive in translation (mostly Tibetan or
Chinese). In the Tibetan canons, there are 450 Tantras in the Kanjur collection and 2400 in
the Tengyur.
Cosmos: In Gupta-era India, the square was considered to be the perfect shape and often used
as a representation of the cosmos. Gupta temples often served as monuments to multiple
deities, not just one, so this understanding of things united within the cosmos is significant.
Gupta rule, while solidified by territorial expansion through war, began a period of peace and
prosperity marked by advancements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectics,
literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy. Buddhism greatly
influenced the Indian religion. It gave to Indian people a simple and popular religion. It
rejected ritualism, sacrifices and dominance of priestly class. Buddhism spread
rapidly because its teachings were very simple and it was taught in the language of the
people. The patronage of two great emperors — Ashoka and Kanishka — made it a world
religion. Its opposition to the caste system made it popular among the castes that were
considered low.

The Borobudur monument combines the symbolic forms of the stupa (a Buddhist
commemorative moundusually containing holy relics),
temple mountain (based onMount Meru of Hindu mythology), and the
mandala (a mystic Buddhist symbol of the universe, combining the square
as earth and sky.)

The Shailendra-dynasty (from Sanskrit combined words Śaila and Indra, meaning "King of
the Mountain"), was the name of a notable Indianised dynasty that emerged in 8th-

36
century Java, whose reign signified a cultural renaissance in the region. The inscriptions
created by Shailendras use three languages; Old Malay, Old Javanese, and Sanskrit - written
either in the Kawi alphabet, or pre-Nāgarī script. The use of Old Malay has sparked
speculation of a Sumatran origin, or Srivijayan connection of this family. On the other hand,
the use of Old Javanese suggests their firm political establishment on Java. The use of
Sanskrit usually indicates the official nature, and/or religious significance, of the event
described in any given inscription. After 824, there are no more references to the Shailendra
house in the Javanese ephigraphic record. Around 860 the name re-appears in the Nalanda
inscription in India. According to the text, the king Devapaladeva of Bengala (Pala Empire)
had granted 'Balaputra, the king of Suvarna-dvipa' (Sumatra) the revenues of 5 villages to a
Buddhist monastery near Bodh Gaya. Balaputra was styled a descendant from the Shailendra
dynasty and grandson of the king of Java.
https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Hans/2016-05-31/Understanding-Gupta-Architecture/231823

Relations with Indic Kingdoms

From Sumatra, the Shailendras also maintained overseas relations with the Chola kingdom in
Southern India, as shown by several south Indian inscriptions. An 11th-century inscription
mentioned the grant of revenues to a local Buddhist sanctuary, built in 1005 by the king of
the Srivijaya. Rajendra Chola I the Emperor of the Chola dynasty conquered some territories
of the Shailendra Dynasty in the 11th century. The devastation caused by Chola invasion of
Srivijaya in 1025, marked the end of Shailendra family as the ruling dynasty in Sumatra. The
last king of Shailendra dynasty - the Maharaja Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman — was
imprisoned and taken as hostage. Nevertheless, amity was re-established between the two
states, before the end of the 11th century.

In 1090 a new charter was granted to the old Buddhist sanctuary, it is the last known
inscription with a reference to the Shailendras. With the absence of legitimate successor,
Shailendra dynasty seems ceased to rule. Other family within Srivijaya mandala took over the
throne

The Sailendras and indian buddhism The rise of the pāla dynasty in the 8th century AD
brought paradigm shifts in Buddhist text, ritual, and sacred architecture that sent cultural
waves across the expanding maritime and land trade routes of Asia.The architectural concepts
travelled in the connected Buddhist world between the Ganges valley and Java. A movement
of architectural ideas can be seen from studying the corpus of the temples in the Pāla (750–
1214 AD) and Śailendra (775–1090 AD) domains of India and Indonesia. This led to a
paradigm shift in the design of a stūpa architecture at Kesariya (Bihar) that emphasizes the
arrangement of deities in the circular maṇḍalic fashion with a certain numerological
configuration of life-size Buddha figures placed in the external niches of the monument. This
new architectural concept possibly played a key role in the development of a more elaborate
structure of Borobudur in Java.The architectural linkages emerge stronger with the central
fivefold structure of the temples of the Pālas and Śailendras. In order to make the essential
comparison, a quick method of drawing architectural plans is developed that is based on the
basic measurements and not archaeological plans.

Architectural development in stūpa structure: The main archaeological sites of the middle
and lower Ganges plain were recorded in the 19th century by Alexander Cunningham,
following the travel accounts of the Chinese scholar-pilgrims Faxian (c. 337–422) and
Xuanzang (c. 602–64). Northeast India contained not only early Buddhist stūpas and

37
monastic complexes, but also a range of stūpa structures that advanced from the traditional
hemispherical stūpa of Sanchi, through the cruciform, terraced stūpa structure of Nandangaṛh
to the elaborate stūpa-maṇḍala of Kesariya. Most of the Pāla structures that may have served
as a model for Central Javanese temples are in dilapidated state today, making it difficult to
track the architectural borrowings.

But since 1998, the excavations of some parts of Kesariya Stupa in Bihar,India have
uncovered striking design similarities with the massive Central Javanese stūpa of Borobudur,
whose stepped pyramid structure and maṇḍalic arrangement of deities in circular

The Buddhas of Borobudur, for example, resemble in some ways the stone Buddhas of the
Pāla Buddhist monastery of Ratnagiri in Odisha . There are unresolved debates about the
origin of the Śailendra dynasty69 and their sudden rise to power in Central Java in c. 750–1090
that coincided with a massive surge in temple construction that included Borobudur (c. 760–
830) and Candi Kalasan.

The construction dates of Buddhist monuments of the Śailendras and the Pālas are close and
they have many design features in common. We have already seen how the design ideas for
Buddhist art and architecture were circulating from the 5th century. It was the network of
monks, artists, and craftsmen that made possible the construction of the huge monuments and
ritual centres.

The first record of the association of the Śailendras and Pāla India is dated to the Kelurak
inscription of c. 778 and the last inscription found in India referring to Śailendras is the
smaller Leiden copperplate inscription of c. 1090.By then, the ties between the two states had
been sustained for more than three centuries.

From an architectural point of view, a monument like Borobudur can only have been the
culmination of a long period of artistic gestation three to four until the breakthrough
development in the Pāla domain, which transformed a stūpa into a maṇḍala of life-size
Buddhas, and developed in the narrative reliefs at Somapura and Vikramaśīla. Śailendras
built their monuments in direct cooperation with Indian architects and craftsmen. This seems
possible at the high conceptual level of architectural design, but at the level of relief carving
and highly innovative stūpikā design there is no trace of non-Javanese influences. Pala
dynasty, ruling dynasty in Bihar and Bengal, India, from the 8th to the 12th century. Its
founder, Gopala, was a local chieftain who rose to power in the mid-8th century during a
period of anarchy. His successor, Dharmapala (reigned c. 770–810), greatly expanded the
kingdom and for a while was in control of Kannauj. Pala power was maintained
under Devapala (reigned c. 810–850), who carried out raids in the north, the Deccan, and the
peninsula; but thereafter the dynasty declined in power, and Mahendrapala, the Gurjara-
Pratihara emperor of Kannauj in the late 9th and early 10th centuries, penetrated as far as
northern Bengal. Pala strength was restored by Mahipala I (reigned c. 988–1038), whose
influence reached as far as Varanasi, but on his death the kingdom again weakened.

Ramapala (reigned c. 1077–1120), the last important Pala king, did much to strengthen the
dynasty in Bengal and expanded its power in Assam and Orissa; he is the hero of a Sanskrit
historical poem, the Ramacarita of Sandhyakara. On his death, however, the dynasty was
virtually eclipsed by the rising power of the Senas, though Pala kings continued to rule in
southern Bihar for 40 years. The main capital of the Palas appears to have been Mudgagiri
(now Munger) in eastern Bihar.The Palas were supporters of Buddhism, and it was through

38
missionaries from their kingdom that Buddhism was finally established in Tibet. Under Pala
patronage a distinctive school of art arose, of which many noteworthy sculptures in stone and
metal survive.

Site and plan of Borobudur

Association of the positioning of Borobudur Temple with the four nearby temples
Borobudur Temple is located in the west of Elo River. The temple possesses several
meanings related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism. Moreover, in the past, Borobudur
had served as the center of other sacred buildings surrounding it.. Within a distance of 5
km around the temple, there are three other temples affiliated with Mahayana Buddhism,
among which are Pawon Temple (1,150 m from Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m) .
Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut Temples are located in the west of Elo River, and
Ngawen is, in fact, located in the east side of the river, which is, in turn, 4 km away from
Borobudur . According to previous studies, Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are
positioned on a straight line and they form a triadic (a group of three) of sacred buildings
affiliated to Mahayana Buddhism.

However, according to Totok Roesmanto , the imaginary axis connecting the three
temples is not a straight line, and it is interpreted that they were the centers of religious
rituals and processions in the past. Furthermore, it is suggested that the three temples
were closely associated with Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, further examination of the map
shows an addition temple called Ngawen Temple, from which a parallel imaginary axis
can also be drawn, connecting it to the other three temples.Thus, on the basis of this fact,
it can be interpreted that, in the past, the procession of the religious rituals might begin in
Ngawen Temple and end in Borobudur.

Discussions on structures built during the Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated with
religious context. Revealing the religious background of a structure requires an
observation of the components of the building. Temples in Indonesia can be classified in
two major groups, namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the mainfeatures of
Buddhist temples is the existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the
shrine, which is a unique feature of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more
about the religious affiliation of a specific structure, we need to focus on the statues,
reliefs, sketches, and other ornaments of structures.

Tantra and Mountains

Whether mountains or deserts, vast places have a special spiritual attraction, making one feel
tiny and insignificant in comparison with the greater forces of nature. Clearly we would
eventually be drawn to perhaps the most mysterious mountain of them all, Mt. Kailash.

The ancient region in Western Tibet known as Shangshung, and beyond to parts of Spiti,
Kinnaur, Zanskar and Ladakh are all,Lands of the Tantric Mountains.
Tantra was introduced to Tibet in the 8th century by Padma Sambhava. It was integrated into
Tibetan Buddhism and was later encompassed by the different sects to varying degrees.
Padma Sambhava meditated in many places, including a cave in the western valley of
Kailash, and his influence remains strong in Tibet. The Tibetan culture of the 1 1 th century
reached as far north as Ladakh, and we have given relevant background details of this.

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Before Buddhism gained a foothold in Tibet, another equally mysterious faith, Bon or Bonpo,
was observed by the people. The Bon also practised forms of shamanism and demonic cult
worship. Some scholars believe that Tantra predates Hindu and Buddhist ideas, and is
descended from more ancient mediaeval cults involving worship of the mother goddesses.
Whether Tantra predates Bon has never been established.

Bodobodur and Merapi Volcano: Borobudur was mysteriously abandoned by the

1500s, when the center of Javan life shifted to the East and Islam arrived on the island in
the 13th and 14th centuries. Perhaps Mount Merapi had erupted, choking the rice lands
with layers of volcanic ash. Whatever the cause, the population moved to East Java in a
mass exodus, and Borobudur was left behind, its meaning lost in time. Some scholars
believe that famine caused by an eruption of Mount Merapi forced the inhabitants of
Central Java to leave their lands behind in search of a new place to live. When people
once again inhabited this area, the glory of Borobudur was buried by ash from Mount
Merapi.
Mountain peaks, according to Buddhist thought, are the place where contact with divine
truth may take place. There are 129 volcanoes in Indonesia and smoke can be seen
emerging from the mountaintop at least 300 days a year. Mount Merapi, which stands at
about 9,551 feet (2,911 meters) tall, lies in one of the world's most densely populated
areas and dominates the landscape immediately north of the major city of Yogyakarta,
on the island of Java.It is a stratovolcano being the youngest and southernmost of a
volcanic chain extending north and northwest, to the Mount Ungaran volcano. The name
Merapi could be loosely translated as "Mountain of Fire" from the Javanese combined
words "Meru," meaning "mountain," and "api," meaning "fire."Tectonically, Merapi is
situated at the subduction zone where the Indo-Australian Plate is sliding beneath the
Eurasian Plate. It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire – a section of fault lines and
volcanoes stretching from the western coast of South America, Alaska through Japan
and Southeast Asia.

Merapi has been active for about 10,000 years. The volcano's biggest and most
devastating eruptions occurred in 1006 and 1930. The eruption of 1006 was so bad that
many believe the existing Hindu kingdom in the area was destroyed, as it spread ash over
all of central Java. During the 1930 eruption more than 1,300 people were killed."The
material has to travel 30 miles [48 km] to get to the surface; there has to be enough
propellant force to push them all that way and out.Merapi is the poster child for unstable
lava domes," Wunderman said. "The dome on Merapi rests on a steep, unstable
environment, and it is easy for pieces to break off and do damage; for example, hot gases
can be released and form a superheated, high speed cloud that rolls down the mountain.
The volcano is considered sacred by some local people who believe a supernatural
kingdom exists atop Merapi, according to Indhanesia.com, an informational website
about Indonesia. Every year a priest climbs to the top to make an offering.
Creation
Merapi is very important to Javanese, especially those living around its crater. As such,
there are many myths and beliefs attached to Merapi. Although most nearby villages have
their own myths about the creation of Mount Merapi, they have numerous commonalities.
It is believed that when the gods had just created the Earth, Java was unbalanced because
of the placement of Mount Jamurdipo on the west end of the island. In order to assure
balance, the gods (generally represented by Batara Guru) ordered the mountain to be
moved to the centre of Java. However, two armourers, Empu Rama and Empu Permadi,
were already forging a sacred keris at the site where Mount Jamurdipo was to be moved.

40
The gods warned them that they would be moving a mountain there, and that they should
leave; Empu Rama and Empu Permadi ignored that warning. In anger, the gods buried
Empu Rama and Empu Permadi under Mount Jamurdipo; their spirits later became the
rulers of all mystical beings in the area. In memory of them, Mount Jamurdipo was later
renamed Mount Merapi, which means "fire of Rama and Permadi."

Spirit Kraton of Merapi

The Javanese believe that the Earth is not only populated by human beings, but also by
spirits (makhluk halus). Villages near Merapi believe that one of the palaces
(in Javanese kraton) used by the rulers of the spirit kingdom lies inside Merapi, ruled by
Empu Rama and Empu Permadi. This palace is said to be a spiritual counterpart to
the Yogyakarta Sultanate, complete with roads, soldiers, princes, vehicles, and
domesticated animals. Besides the rulers, the palace is said to also be populated by the
spirits of ancestors who died as righteous people. The spirits of these ancestors are said to
live in the palace as royal servants (abdi dalem), occasionally visiting their descendants in
dreams to give prophecies or warnings.

Spirits of Merapi
To keep the volcano quiet and to appease the spirits of the mountain, the Javanese
regularly bring offerings on the anniversary of the sultan of Yogyakarta's
coronation. For Yogyakarta Sultanate, Merapi holds a significant cosmological
symbolism, because it forms a sacred north-south axis line between Merapi peak and
Southern Ocean (Indian Ocean). The sacred axis is signified by Merapi peak in the north,
the Tugu Yogyakarta monument near Yogyakarta main train station, the axis runs
along Malioboro street to Northern Alun-alun (square) across Keraton Yogyakarta (sultan
palace), Southern Alun-alun, all the way to Bantul and finally reach Samas and
Parangkusumo beach on the estuary of Opak river and Southern Ocean. This sacred axis
connected the hyangs or spirits of mountain revered since ancient times—often identified
as "Mbah Petruk" by Javanese people—The Sultan of Yogyakarta as the leader of the
Javanese kingdom, and Nyi Roro Kidul as the queen of the Southern Ocean, the female
ocean deity revered by Javanese people and also mythical consort of Javanese kings.

Architecture: From Darkness to Light

Borobudur covers a total surface area of around 2,500 m2. The monument is a marvel of
design, decorated with 2,672 relief panels and originally 504 Buddha statues. The
architecture and stonework of this temple have no equal. It was built without using any
cement or mortar! The structure is like a set of massive interlocking Lego blocks held
together without any glue. Built with about 2,000,000 cubic feet (56,600 cubic metres) of
gray volcanic stone, Borobudur encloses a small hill and is shaped like a stepped pyramid
with three major levels—a square base, a middle level of five square terraces, and an upper
level of three circular terraces—totaling, in effect, nine lesser sections It was built in three
tiers: a pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three
circular platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa.

Architecture: From Darkness to Light: The idea of moving from the darkness into the light
is the final element of the experience of Borobudur. The temple’s pathway takes one from the
earthly realm of desire (kamadhatu), represented and documented on the hidden narratives of
the structure’s earthbound base, through the world of forms (rupadhatu) as expounded on the
narratives carved along the four galleries set at right angles, until one finally emerges into the

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realm of formlessness (arupadhatu) as symbolized and manifested in the open circular
terraces crowned with 72 stupas.

However, the symbolization of enlightenment these stupas represent is not intended to be

merely aesthetic. Buddhist stupas and mandalas are understood as “spiritual technologies”
that harness spiritual “energies” in the creation of sacred space. The repetition of form and
the circumabulatory progress of the pilgrim mimic, and thereby access, the cosmological as a
microcosm. The clockwise movement around the cosmic center reproduces the macrocosmic
path of the sun. Thus, when one emerges from the dark galleries representing the realms of
desire and form into the light of the “formless” circular open air upper walkways, the material
effect of light on one’s physical form merges concomitantly with the spiritual enlightenment
generated by the metaphysical journey of the sacred path.
Light, in all its paradoxes, is the ultimate goal. The crowning stupa of this sacred mountain is
dedicated to the “Great Sun Buddha” Vairocana. The temple sits in cosmic proximity to the
nearby volcano Mt. Merapi. During certain times of the year the path of the rising sun in the
East seems to emerge out of the mountain to strike the temple’s peak in radiant synergy.
Light illuminates the stone in a way that is intended to be more than beautiful. The brilliance
of the site can be found in how the Borobudur mandala blends the metaphysical and physical,
the symbolic and the material, the cosmological and the earthly within the structure of its
physical setting and the framework of spiritual paradox.

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Borobudur and the concept of path in Buddhism
Paths have been pervasive in human civilization. We are all familiar with the streets, trails,
and lanes along which we routinely travel. Ancient Roman roads are utilized in some places
even today. In contemporary computer culture we follow “paths” on webpages as we find our
way to the information or experience we are searching for or find unexpectedly. There are
simulated paths in complex first-person virtual reality video environments, where role-
playing games formulate their content around the path to be conquered. The idea of path is an
important concept in Buddhism, and is essential in understanding the meaning and purpose of
one of the most remarkable and impressive monuments in the world: Borobudur.

Borobudur, Indonesia

Located on the island of Java in Indonesia, the rulers of the Śailendra Dynasty built the
Temple of Borobudur around 800 C.E. as a monument to the Buddha (exact dates vary
among scholars). The temple (or candi in Javanese, pronounced “chandi”) fell into disuse
roughly one hundred years after its completion when, for still unknown reasons, the rulers of
Java relocated the governing center to another part of the island. The British Lieutenant
Governor on Java, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, only rediscovered the site in 1814 upon
hearing reports from islanders of an incredible sanctuary deep within the island’s interior.

Set high upon a hill vertically enhanced by its builders to achieve a greater elevation,
Borobudur consists of a series of open-air passageways that radiate around a central axis
mundi (cosmic axis). Devotees circumambulate clockwise along walkways that gradually
ascend to its uppermost level. At Borobudur, geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct
adherents toward the ultimate goal of enlightenment. Meticulously carved relief sculptures
mediate a physical and spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively toward higher
states of consciousness.

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Borobudur

Moving past the base and through the four galleries, the devotee emerges onto the three upper
terraces, encountering 72 stupas each containing a three-dimensional sculpture of a seated
Buddha within a stone latticework. At the temple’s apex sits the large central stupa, a symbol
of the enlightened mind.
The archaeological excavation into Borobudur during reconstruction suggests that adherents
of Hinduism or a pre-Indic faith had already begun to erect a large structure on Borobudur's
hill before the site was appropriated by Buddhists. The foundations are unlike any Hindu or
Buddhist shrine structures, and therefore, the initial structure is considered more indigenous
Javanese than Hindu or Buddhist.

Design

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Borobudur ground plan taking the form of a Mandala

The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage.The
journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path around the
monument and ascends to the top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology:
Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the
world of formlessness).

Zone 1: Kamadhatu (The phenomenal world, the world inhabited by common people)
Borobudur’s hidden Kamadhatu level consists of 160 reliefs depicting scenes of
Karmawibhangga Sutra, the law of cause and effect. Illustrating the human behavior of
desire, the reliefs depict robbing, killing, rape, torture and defamation. A corner of the
covering base has been permanently removed to allow visitors to see the hidden foot, and
some of the reliefs.
Zone 2: Rapudhatu (The transitional sphere, humans are released from worldly matters)
The four square levels of Rapadhatu contain galleries of carved stone reliefs, as well as a
chain of niches containing statues of Buddha. In total there are 328 Buddha on these
balustrade levels which also have a great deal of purely ornate reliefs. The Sanskrit
manuscripts that are depicted on this level over 1300 reliefs are Gandhawyuha, Lalitawistara,
Jataka and Awadana. They stretch for 2.5km. In addition there are 1212 decorative panels.
Zone 3: Arupadhatu (The highest sphere, the abode of the gods) The three circular terraces
leading to a central dome or stupa represent the rising above the world, and these terraces are
a great deal less ornate, the purity of form is paramount.
The terraces contain circles of perforated stupas, an inverted bell shape, containing sculptures
of Buddha, who face outward from the temple. There are 72 of these stupas in total. The
impressive central stupa is currently not as high as the original version, which rose 42m
above ground level, the base is 9.9m in diameter. Unlike the stupas surrounding it, the central

45
stupa is empty and conflicting reports suggest that the central void contained relics, and other
reports suggest it has always been empty. The monument guides pilgrims through an
extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls
and the balustrades. Borobudur has the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist
reliefs in the world.

Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and, when viewed from above, takes the form of a
giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the
nature of mind. The original foundation is a square, approximately 118 metres (387 ft) on
each side. It has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three
are circular. The upper platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large
central stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings.
Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures.

The Realm of existence concept of the Design element of the Stupa

Loka (Sanskrit: लोक) is a concept in Indian religions, that means plane or realm of existence.
3 lokas of HINDUISM

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47
Vishvarupa of Vishnu as the Cosmic Man with the three realms: heaven - Satya to Bhuvar loka (head to
belly), earth - Bhu loka (groin), underworld - Atala to Patala loka (legs).

The most common arrangement of lokas in Hinduism are into three parts.
The scholar Deborah Soifer describes the development of the concept of lokas as follows:
The concept of a loka or lokas develops in the Vedic literature. Influenced by the special
connotations that a word for space might have for a nomadic people, loka in the Veda did not
simply mean place or world, but had a positive valuation: it was a place or position of
religious or psychological interest with a special value of function of its own.
Hence, inherent in the 'loka' concept in the earliest literature was a double aspect; that is,
coexistent with spatiality was a religious or soteriological meaning, which could exist
independent of a spatial notion, an 'immaterial' significance. The most common cosmological
conception of lokas in the Veda was that of the trailokya or triple world: three worlds
consisting of earth, atmosphere or sky, and heaven, making up the universe."

3 lokas
There is a cosmological view in Buddhism called Trailokya.In early Buddhism, based upon
the Pali Canon and related Agamas, there are three distinct realms:- First the Kama Loka, or
the world of sensuality, in which humans, animals, and some devas reside, the second
is Rupadhatu Loka, or the world of material existence, in which certain beings mastering
specific meditative attainments reside, and the third is Arupadhatu Loka, or the immaterial,
formless world, in which formless spirits reside. Arahants, who have attained the highest goal
of Nirvana have unbound themselves from individual existence in any form, in any realm,
and cannot be found here, there, or in between, i.e., they are found in no loka whatsoever.

We do not know what the design of the unfinished Hindu temple before the Borobudur was,
but one can make a suggestive guess that it may have been a 3 layered structure like the one
in Hindu Cosmology and the Buddhist design took inspiration from it.

Buddhist spatial cosmology, which describes the arrangement of the various worlds within the
universe/ The plan of the Borobudur temple complex in Java mirrors the three main levels of Buddhist
cosmology. The highest point in the center symbolizes Buddhahood.

The design of Borobudur took the form of a step pyramid. Previously,

the prehistoric Austronesian megalithic culture in Indonesia had constructed several earth
mounds and stone step pyramid structures called punden berundak as discovered in
Pangguyangan site near Cisolokand in Cipari near Kuningan. The construction of stone
pyramids is based on native beliefs that mountains and high places are the abode of ancestral
spirits or hyangs. The punden berundak step pyramid is the basic design in
Borobudur, believed to be the continuation of older megalithic tradition incorporated with
Mahayana Buddhist ideas and symbolism.

As mentioned earlier the monument's three divisions symbolize the three "realms" of
Buddhist cosmology, namely Kamadhatu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of
forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless world). Ordinary sentient beings live out their
lives on the lowest level, the realm of desire. Those who have burnt out all desire for
continued existence leave the world of desire and live in the world on the level of form alone:
they see forms but are not drawn to them. Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form and
experience reality at its purest, most fundamental level, the formless ocean of nirvana. The

48
liberation from the cycle of Saṃsāra where the enlightened soul had no longer attached to
worldly form corresponds to the concept of Śūnyatā, the complete voidness or the
nonexistence of the self. Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five
square platforms (the body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large
topmost stupa. The architectural features between the three stages have metaphorical
differences. For instance, square and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into
plain circular platforms in the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms—where men
are still attached with forms and names—changes into the world of the formless.

Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed in a walking pilgrimage. Pilgrims are

guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform
represents one stage of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed to
symbolize Buddhist cosmology.
In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The "hidden footing"
contains reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining
reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that apparently provide instructions for the sculptors,
illustrating the scenes to be carved. The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the
purpose of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered
to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument into the hill. There is another theory that
the encasement base was added because the original hidden footing was incorrectly designed,
according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning.
Regardless of why it was commissioned, the encasement base was built with detailed and
meticulous design and with aesthetic and religious consideration.

Building structure
Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of andesite stones were taken from
neighbouring stone quarries to build the monument. The stone was cut to size, transported to
the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints
between stones. The roof of stupas, niches and arched gateways were constructed
in corbelling method. Reliefs were created in situ after the building had been completed.
The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater to the area's
high stormwater run-off. To prevent flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each corner, each
with a unique carved gargoyle in the shape of a giant or makara.

Hilly Construction: Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of other structures
built for this purpose. Instead of being built on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural
hill. However, construction technique is similar to other temples in Java. Without the inner
spaces seen in other temples, and with a general design similar to the shape of pyramid,
Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a
temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as
devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship.
The meticulous complexity of the monument's design suggests that Borobudur is in fact a
temple.
The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined as the length of
a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of
the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum
distance. The unit is thus relative from one individual to the next, but the monument has exact
measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9

49
around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions
of the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design. This ratio is also found in the
designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have conjectured that
the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as
is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.The main structure can be divided
into three components: base, body, and top. The base is 123 m × 123 m (404 ft × 404 ft) in
size with 4 metres (13 ft) walls.] The body is composed of five square platforms, each of
diminishing height. The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft) from the edge of the base.
Each subsequent terrace is set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage.
The top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of
perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center, the
top of which is the highest point of the monument, 35 metres (115 ft) above ground level.
Stairways at the center of each of the four sides give access to the top, with a number of
arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The gates are adorned with Kala's head carved on
top of each and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly
found on the gates of Javanese temples. The main entrance is on the eastern side, the location
of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways on the slopes of the hill also link the monument to the
low-lying plain.

Features-Outer enclosure
uring the visit, which began at 4 am, I was able to witness the spectacle of the sunrise from
the temple, where the bluish light of dawn slowly unveils the mountains surrounding the
temple, while a thick fog that emanates from the Javanese jungle makes you feel like being in
a not earthly place, closer to heaven.

BOROBUDUR, THE ARCHITECTURAL MANDALA.

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In Buddhism, the mandala represents a landscape of the universe with Buddha in its center,
and shows the different steps in the process of finding the truth.Borobudur was built on a hill,
following the layout of a giant mandala, representing the Buddhist cosmology. It consists of
nine platforms divided into three sections:
- The upper three are circular platforms, called Arupadhatu, and have a slightly curved oval
shape consisting of two minor axes aligned with the cardinal points and two major axes
aligned with the intermediate directions.
- The six lower platforms are square, called Rupadhatu,
- Moreover, in 1885 a structure in the base was discovered and it was called Kamadhatu.
The lower platform probably also had a structural function to prevent the collapse of the
structure. It was added after the temple was finished, as it can be seen in one of the corners,
where the older reliefs have been exposed.

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The architectural layout leads the visitor throughout a system of stairs in order to ascend to
the platforms and reach the top of the structure, a clear representation of the journey towards
a spiritual "enlightenment". The pilgrims walked each platform twice, in order to learn from
the reliefs on each side.
Between the latest square platform and the first circular one there is an arch topped by an
intimidating figure of a guardian. It is a reference to a transition to a more pure place, where
evil spirits had no access.The bell-shaped stupas contain the figure of a Buddha. This is quite
unusual, I have not seen it in other Asian countries, perhaps due to a syncretism between
Buddhism and ancient Javanese traditions, where ancient ascetics used go to meditate in
caves.

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An interesting detail is that the openings of the stupas of the first two levels are in diamond
shape, while those of the stupas of the upper platform are in square shape. (Note the different
form of the pieces of stone). Perhaps this symbolized the path perfection, to the
enlightenment that every pilgrim aspired by climbing and meditating through the different
platforms.

The last great stupa, crowned by an octagonal pinnacle, has no opening and some people say
that inside there used to be a golden Buddha, stolen by a Dutchman explorer, but this theory
has not been proved. The simplicity of its form contrasts with the baroque richness of the
reliefs that are located in the platforms below, and I imagine that has to do precisely with the
austerity and simplicity that Buddha preached.

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ASTROLOGICAL-COSMOLOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL RELATIONS IN
BOROBUDUR

The structure can be divided into three main elements: the base, the central part and the top,
which in analogy to the feet, body and head represent the three states of mental preparation:
the Kamadhatu or world of desires,the Rupadhatu or world of forms and the Arupadhatu or
formless world. A 1977 study by the professor found a ratio of 4:6:9 for the composition of
both the three parts of the temple as well as each of the temple main parts. This ratio is equal
to that found in the temples of Pawon and Mendut as well as the impressive complex
of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.

Section of the temple according to Professor Atmadi.Image courtesy of Borobudur.tv

The researcher Mark Long, who has been studying the calendrical, astronomical and
cosmological relations in Borobudur for several years, based on its own survey of the
complex, proposed that the same ratio of 4:6:9 can be applied to the width of the whole
monument.
North South Section, where according to Mark Long the same 4:6:9 ratio was used, such as in
the height of the temple.
It is thought that the architect of Borobudur, named Gunadharma, believed that the plans of
temples played a direct role in determining the fate of each occupant of the structure, so the
architect's role should be to harmonize the forces of the microcosm that govern human life
with the macrocosm that governs the life of the gods. Gunadharma took the tala as a
measurement unit, which is the distance between the thumb and little finger when they are
stretched to their maximum separation, a system widely used in India. Because this measure
varies little from person to person it is possible that the tala form an important person may
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have been employed as a method of standardization. Mark Long has found that the extent of
the tala used in the monument was 22.9 cm.

Based on his own measurements, Long stated that the overall dimensions are based on a
number of talas that symbolize important events in the Hindu calendar, specifically a
calendar called Vatsu Purusha Mandala. In the faces and square corners of this diagram the
solstices and equinoxes are represented. The arrangement of the stupas follows a well-studied
geometric pattern, avoiding, for example, being placed in the main diagonals of the
monument, where it was believed the important divine energies flow.

DECORATION:Borobudur aside of the symbolism in their mandalic architectural layout

displays also many references to the life of Buddha, both in reliefs and statues.The reliefs
have an educational role. The scenes represent the history of Buddha, his various incarnations
and the path that the faithful should follow to reach Nirvana.

The Buddha statues, many of whom are maimed and some missing, are distributed
differently in the square platforms than in the circular ones.
In the five square platforms, called Rupadhatu, the Buddhas, numbering 432, are located in
niches, placed in rows in art outer part of the balustrades. The number of Buddhas diminishes
as platforms get higher. Thus, the first platform contains 104 niches, the second 104, the third
88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64.

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Details of Borobudur/ Extreme left pic Model top temple-Photo courtesy of Davey Sarge

The upper platforms or Arupadhatu, contain 72 small latticed stupas (which are mound-
shaped structures, typical of early Buddhism) that surround a larger stupa more. Thus, in the
first level there are 32 stupas, 24 in the second and 16 in the third level.

While at first glance the Buddhas seem to be the same. sitting lotus position, which is sitting
on crossed legs. However, the different hand position represents various statesof meditation.
http://architecturalmoleskine.blogspot.com/2010/02/borobudur-

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Aerial view of the concentric circulatory

Paharpur stupa on Left as a Mandala and Borobudur on right also in cross section

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58
 MANDALA
A mandala "circle” is a geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual traditions,
mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual
guidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid
to meditation and trance induction. In the Eastern
religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Shintoism it is used as a map representing
deities, or specially in the case of Shintoism, paradises, kami or actual shrines.

59
In New Age, the mandala is a diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents
the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically; a time-microcosm of the universe, but it
originally meant to represent wholeness and a model for the organizational structure of life
itself, a cosmic Religious meaning

In Hinduism, a basic mandala, also called a yantra, takes the form of a square with four gates
containing a circle with a center point. Each gate is in the general shape of a T. Mandalas
often have radial balance.

A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited colour palette. It
may be a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas, puja or
meditative rituals, and may incorporate a mantra into its design. It is considered to represent
the abode of the deity. Each yantra is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the
practitioner through the elaborate symbolic geometric designs. According to one scholar,
"Yantras function as revelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as instructional charts of the
spiritual aspect of human experience"

Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantras are not
representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khanna describes:

Plan And Symbolism Of Candi Borobudur

The monument is arranged as an ascending series of three circular platforms that rest upon
six square ones, capped by a large central stupa. It is symmetrical in plan with respect to the
four cardinal directions, with the principal entrance on its eastern side.

The original base was decorated with 160 relief panels depicting the law of cause and effect
(karma); unable to support the rest of the building, this collapsed during construction and was
replaced by a more substantial platform that covered the original reliefs. Today, four of the
original karma panels have been re-exposed at the southeast corner ("A", in the diagram).

The facade of the building is decorated with carvings that include makaras, guardian figures,
and 432 Buddha statues (108 on each side) that are set into niches. 108 is the number
of physical marks (such as urna, ushnisha, etc.) that distinguish a Buddha, and also
has numerological significance as the product of 27x4 = 3x3x3x2x2 = three threes times two
twos.) The buddhas on the lower four levels of each side display a characteristic
directional mudra: bhumisparsa on the east, varada on the south, dhyana on the west, and
abhaya on the north. On all four sides of the top row, the statues are in vitarka mudra.

The balustraded walls of the square terraces form a roofless, winding corridor on each level
(numbers "1" - "4" in the diagram). The walls of the corridors are decorated with reliefs:

 1, outer wall: lower and upper tiers: jataka stories

 1, inner wall: lower tier: avadanas; upper tier: life of Shakyamuni
 2, outer wall: jatakas and avadanas; inner wall: Gandavyuha
 3-4, inner and outer walls: Gandavyuha

The jatakas and avadanas are popular stories about the past lives (incarnations) of human
beings like Shakyamuni, who eventually became bodhisattvas as the result of their selfless
actions. The life of Shakyamuni, on the upper tier of corridor 1, is taken from an Indonesian

60
version of the Lalitavistara Sutra, that describes his birth, spiritual journey, and
enlightenment. The Gandavyuha Sutra (the last chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra) is the story
of a pilgrim named Sudhana, who visited 54 teachers 1 in the course of a spiritual quest. All of
these reliefs, in other words, are teaching aids that instruct visitors in how to become a
bodhisattva, the spiritual goal of Mahayana Buddhist practice.

After circumambulating the teaching corridors with their pictorial reliefs, the pilgrim ascends
to the open upper platform that is occupied by 72 buddha statues ("S" in the diagram), each
displaying dharmachakra mudra and enclosed in its own small, pierced, stupa. (The number
72 again has numerological significance, being the product of 9x8 = 3x3x2x2x2 = two threes
times three twos.) Two of these small stupas have been opened ("O" in the diagram) for
display to modern visitors. Many scholars believe that this level represents the Buddhist
Realm Of Formlessness (i.e. the spiritual world), a higher reality in contrast to the Realm Of
Form (i.e. the physical world) that is depicted in the corridor reliefs. The entire plan, with its
square and circular elements, can also be interpreted as a physical mandala through which the
pilgrim may navigate in order to further his spiritual growth.

The large central stupa that crowns the monument has a hollow chamber within, that is
completely walled off from the outside. When opened during restoration, it was found to
contain an unfinished Buddha image that may represent a transcendent spiritual state. Besides
these interpretations, the monument as a whole with its overall form and various levels and
decorations can be seen both as a symbolic stupa, and as a world-mountain. All of these
symbolic meanings are compatible with each other, and probably all were intended to apply
here. Such multivalent symbolism was culturally available and readily understood both to the
builders of the monument and to those who utilized it in their religious activities. This large
and magnificent work can also be seen, in secular terms, as a most impressive demonstration
of the power and piety of the Sailendra kings who organized and financed its construction.

The measurements of the monument are given by Soediman (in "Borobudur Cultural
Heritage," Studies in Conservation, Vol. 18, No. 3, August 1973, pp. 102-112) as 123m (400
ft) each side, by 31m (100 ft)
high---------------------------------------------------------------------------
1
J. W. Heisig, Way of Enlightenment, Way of Salvation, Studies In Interreligious Dialogue 14 (2004), p.
57. Fifty four is half of 108. Most commentators quote a figure of fifty two teachers, omitting to count
Maitreya and Samantabhadra.

What is the representation of Borobudur structure?

At Borobudur Temple, the kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five
square terraces, and the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big stupa .
Borobudur's design is a mix of Javanese style and Gupta dynasty architecture, reflecting the
blend of indigenous and Indian aesthetics in ancient Java. Over 500 statues of Buddha are
positioned around Borobudur, and Borobudur contains roughly 3,000 bas-relief sculptures.

The entire edifice is crowned by a large stupa at the centre of the top circle. The way to
summit extends through some 4.8 km of passages and stairways. The design of Borobudur, a

61
temple-mountain symbolizing the structure of universe, influenced temple built as Angkor,
Cambodia.

Buddhist elements in the Borobudur: The monument's three divisions symbolize the three
"realms" of Buddhist cosmology, namely Kamadhatu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the
world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless world). Ordinary sentient beings live
out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of desire.However, the symbolization of
enlightenment these stupas represent is not intended to be merely aesthetic. Buddhist stupas
and mandalas are understood as “spiritual technologies” that harness spiritual “energies” in
the creation of sacred space.
The monument is built to represent the universe according to Buddhist cosmology, divided
into the Spheres of Desire, Form and Formlessness. Kamadhatu, the Sphere of Desire, is
represented by the panels of the hidden base, which depict man's concern for worldly desires
and pleasures. The physical movement of circumambulating the structure symbolizes the
non-physical—or spiritual—path of enlightenment. In a real sense, then, the concept of ...

Around the circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of
the Buddha. The monument was restored with UNESCO's help in the 1970s. The structure,
composed of 55,000 square meters of lava-rock is erected on a hill in the form of a stepped-
pyramid of six rectangular storeys, A total of 72 of these stupas are arranged on
three circular terraces around the main central stupa.

Buddha statues — The structure comprises six square platforms topped by

three circular platforms, decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. Besides
decorated with beautiful reliefs, Borobudur Temple also has 504 statues of Buddha sitting all
of which are carved on a round stone ...

A carved spout (makaras) for water

drainage.

62
Borobudur, built as a single large stupa, takes the form of a giant tantric
Buddhist mandala when viewed from above, simultaneously representing the
Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind. The foundation forms a square,
approximately 118 meters (387 ft) on each side. Nine platforms, the lower six
square and the upper three circular, grace the structure. The upper platform features
seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa has a
bell-shape, pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit
inside the pierced enclosures.

Approximately 55,000 m³ (almost 2 million cubic feet) of stones came from

neighboring rivers to build the monument. Workman cut the stone to size,
transporting them to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and
dovetails formed joints between stones. Artists created reliefs in-situ after the
building had been completed. The monument enjoys a good drainage system to
cater for the area's high storm water run-off. To avoid inundation, 100 spouts
embellish each corner with a unique carved gargoyles (makaras). Stairways climb
up at the center of each side with a number of gates, watched by a total of 32 lion
statues.

Borobudur differs markedly with the general design of other structures built for
that purpose. Instead of building on a flat surface, Borobudur sits on a natural hill.
The building technique has similarities with other temples in Java. With no inner
space as in other temples and its general design similar to the shape of pyramid,
Borobudur at first had been mistaken as a stupa instead of a temple (or candi in
Indonesian).[13] A stupa serves as a shrine for the Lord Buddha. Sometimes
craftsmen build stupas only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the
other hand, serves as a house of deity and have inner spaces for worship. The
complexity of the monument's meticulous design suggests a temple.

The structure comprises six square platforms topped by three circular platforms,
decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues.[14] Seventy-two Buddha
statues seated inside the perforated stupa surround a main dome, located at the
center of the top platform. The monument serves both as a shrine to the Lord
Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims begins at the
base of the monument and follows a path circumambulating the monument while
ascending to the top through the three levels of Buddhist cosmology,
namely, Kamadhatu (the world of desire); Rupadhatu (the world of forms);
and Arupadhatu (the world of formless). During the journey, the monument guides
the pilgrims through a system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief
panels on the wall and the balustrades.

63
Pilgrimage constitutes the central congregational worship in Borobudur. The
system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform guide pilgrims.
Each platform represents one stage of enlightenment. The symbolism of sacred
knowledge according to the Buddhism cosmology served as the model for the path
that guides pilgrims.[15]

Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively.

Scant records about the architect Gunadharma exist. [16] Javanese legendary folk
tales, rather than written in old inscriptions, serve as the only account of his name,
referred to as the one who "… bears the measuring rod, knows division and thinks
himself composed of parts."[16] The architect had used the formula to lay out the
precise dimensions of Borobudur. The nearby Buddhist temples of Pawon and
Mendhut have identical formula. Archaeologists conjectured the purpose of the
ratio formula and the tala dimension has calendrical, astronomical and
cosmological themes, as of the case in other Buddhist temple of Angkor
Wat in Cambodia.

The main vertical structure divides into three groups: base (or foot), body, and top,
resembling the three major division of a human body. The base measures
123x123 m² square in size and 4 meters (13 ft) high of walls. Five square platforms
each with diminishing heights compose the body. The first terrace sets back
7 meters (23 ft) from the edge of the base. The other terraces set back by 2 meters
(6.5 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of three circular
platforms, with each stage supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in
concentric circles. One main dome sits at the center, the top reaches the highest
point of the monument (35 meters or 115 ft above ground level). Stairways at the
center of each side with a number of gates, watched by a total of 32 lion statues,
provide access to the upper part. The main entrance stands on the eastern side, the
location of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways linking the monument to the low-
lying plain rise on the slopes of the hill.

The monument's three-fold division symbolizes the three stages of mental

preparation towards the ultimate goal according to the Buddhism cosmology,

64
namely Kamadhatu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and
finally Arupadhatu (the formless world). The base represents Kamadhatu, five
square platforms (the body)Rupadhatu, and the three circular platforms and the
large topmost stupa Arupadhatu. The architectural features between three stages
have metaphorical differences. For instance, square and detailed decorations in
the Rupadhatu disappear into plane less circular platforms in the Arupadhatu to
represent how the world of forms—where men remain attached with forms and
names—changes into the world of the formless.[18]

In 1885, restorers discovered a hidden structure under the base. The "hidden foot"
contains reliefs, 160 providing narrative describing the real Kamadhatu. The
remaining reliefs, panels with short inscriptions, describe instruction for the
sculptors, illustrating the scene they would carve. An encasement base hides the
real base that served an unknown function. The encasement base had been built
with detailed and meticulous design with aesthetics and religious compensation.

Reliefs
Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and
1,212 decorative panels) covering the façades and balustrades. The total relief
surface measures 2,500 m², the panels distributed at the hidden
foot (Kamadhatu) and the five square platforms (Rupadhatu).

The narrative panels, telling the story of Sudhana and Manohara, group into eleven
series encircled the monument with the total length of 3,000 meters (1.86 miles).
The hidden foot contains the first series with 160 narrative panels and the
remaining ten series distribute throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries
starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall
read from right to left, while on the balustrade read from left to right. That
conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims
who move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right.

The hidden foot depicts the story of the karma law. The walls of the first gallery
have two superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper
part depicts the biography of Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also
balustrades in the first and the second galleries tell the story of Buddha's former
lives.[20] The remaining panels depict Sudhana's further wandering about his search;
terminated by his attainment of the Perfect Wisdom.

The law of karma (Karmavibhangga)

The 160 hidden panels form a discontinuous story, each panel providing one
complete illustration of cause and effect. Depictions of blameworthy activities,

65
from gossip to murder, with their corresponding punishments have been etched.
Praiseworthy activities, including charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their
subsequent rewards, appear. The pains of hell and the pleasure of heaven, as well
as scenes of daily life, complete with the full panorama of samsara (the endless
cycle of birth and death), have been illustrated.

The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara)

One relief on a corridor wall.

The story starts from the glorious descent of the Lord Buddha from the Tushita
heaven, and ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares. The relief
shows the birth of Buddha as Prince Siddharta, son of King Suddhodana and
Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in present-day Nepal).

Twenty-seven panels showing various preparations, in heavens and on earth, to

welcome the final incarnation of Bodhisattva precede the story.[21] Before
descending from Tushita heaven, Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor,
the future Buddha Maitreya. He descended on earth in the shape of white elephants
with six tusks, penetrated to Queen Maya's right womb. Queen Maya had a dream
of that event, which had been interpreted that his son would become either a
sovereign or a Buddha.

While Queen Maya felt the time to give the birth had arrived, she went to
the Lumbini park outside the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree,
holding one branch with her right hand and she gave birth to a son, Prince
Siddharta. The story on the panels continues until the prince became Buddha.

66
 Narrative Panels Distribution

section location story #panels

hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160

Lalitavistara 120
main wall
Jataka/Avadana 120
first gallery
Prince Siddharta story (Jataka)
Jataka/Avadana 372
and other legendary persons
balustrade
(Avadana)
Jataka/Avadana 128

Jatakas constitute main wall Gandavyuha 128 stories

about the Buddha second gallery before
his birth as Prince ballustrade Jataka/Avadana 100
Siddharta.
Avadanas bare main wall Gandavyuha 88
similarity with third gallery jatakas
ballustrade Gandavyuha 88
except with a main figure
other than main wall Gandavyuha 84
Bodhisattva fourth gallery
himself. Other ballustrade Gandavyuha 72
legendary persons have
been attributed with Total 1,460 the
saintly deeds. Jatakas
and avadanas receive
treatment in one and the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur.

The first twenty lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict
the Sudhanakumaravadana or the saintly deeds of Prince Sudhanakumara. The
first 135 upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades have been devoted to
the thirty four legends of the Jatakamala. The remaining 237 panels depict stories
from other sources, as do for the lower series and panels in the second gallery.
Some jatakas stories have been depicted twice, for example the story of King
Sibhi.

Sudhana search of the Ultimate Truth (Gandavyuha)

Gandavyuha, a story about Sudhana's tireless wandering in search of the Highest
Perfect Wisdom, covers two galleries (third and fourth) and also half of the second
gallery. They comprise in total 460 panels. The principal figure of the story, the
youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th panel. The
preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during
Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti.

67
During his search, Sudhana visited no less than thirty teachers but none of them
had satisfied him completely. Manjusri then instructed him to meet
the monk Megasri, where he received the first doctrine. Sudhana journey continues
to meet in the following order Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of
Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of
Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa, the Brahmin Jayosmayatna,
Princess Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara, the upasika
Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva Mahadeva, Queen
Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri. Each meeting has given
Sudhana a specific doctrine, knowledge and wisdom. Those meetings appear in the
third gallery.

After the last meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of Bodhisattva
Samantabhadra, depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth
gallery has been devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative panels
finally end with the Sudhana's achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the
Ultimate Truth.

A detailed carved relief stone./A Buddha statue with the hand position of dharmachakra
mudra (turning the Wheels of the Law).

Apart from the story of Buddhist cosmology carved in stones, Borobudur has many
Buddha statues. The cross-legged Buddha statues, distributed on the five square
platforms (the Rupadhatu level) and on the top platform (the Arupadhatu level), sit in lotus
positions.
The Buddha statues stand in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer
sides of the balustrades. As platforms progressively diminish to the upper level, the number
of Buddha statues decreasing. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third
88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64. In total, 432 Buddha statues appear at the Rupadhatu level.
[14]
At the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues stand inside
perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16,
totaling 72 stupas. Of the total 504 Buddha statues, over 300 have been mutilated (mostly
headless) and 43 have been stolen.
The preparation of a mandala is an artistic endeavor, but at the same time it is an act of
worship. In this form of worship concepts and form are created in which the deepest
intuitions are crystallized and expressed as spiritual art. The design, which is usually

68
meditated upon, is a continuum of spatial experiences, the essence of which precedes its
existence, which means that the concept precedes the form.

Science and Golden Ratios in Mandala Architecture

In its most common form, the mandala appears as a series of concentric circles. Each
mandala has its own resident deity housed in the square structure situated concentrically
within these circles. Its perfect square shape indicates that the absolute space of wisdom is
without aberration. This square structure has four elaborate gates. These four doors symbolize
the bringing together of the four boundless thoughts namely - loving kindness, compassion,
sympathy, and equanimity. Each of these gateways is adorned with bells, garlands and other
decorative items. This square form defines the architecture of the mandala described as a
four-sided palace or temple. A palace because it is the residence of the presiding deity of the
mandala, a temple because it contains the essence of the Buddha.

The series of circles surrounding the central palace follow an intense symbolic structure.
Beginning with the outer circles, one often finds a ring of fire, frequently depicted as a
stylized scrollwork. This symbolizes the process of transformation which ordinary human
beings have to undergo before entering the sacred territory within. This is followed by a ring
of thunderbolt or diamond scepters (vajra), indicating the indestructibility and diamond like
brilliance of the mandala's spiritual realms.
In the next concentric circle, particularly those mandalas which feature wrathful deities, one
finds eight cremation grounds arranged in a wide band. These represent the eight aggregates
of human consciousness which tie man to the phenomenal world and to the cycle of birth and
rebirth.
Finally, at the center of the mandala lies the deity, with whom the mandala is identified. It is
the power of this deity that the mandala is said to be invested with. Most generally the central
deity may be one of the following three:
REFERENCES
Connections, ed. Dorothy C. Wong and Gustav Heldt (Amherst: Cambria Press, 2014)
Borobudur’s Pāla forebear? A field note from Kesariya, Bihar, India,swati chemburkar

Sacred Buddhist Architecture- and the TOPOLOGY of Borobudur

Dr Uday Dokras
Featuring the erudite article on Topology of Sri-Lankan and Indian STUPAS

69
 Some Aspects of Stūpa Symbolism
Anagarika Brahmachari Govinda. "Some Aspects of Stūpa Symbolism." Journal of the Indian Society
of Oriental Art II/IV, no. 2/1 (1936): 25-44.
Original Publication: Sections I-IV published in JISOA: Vol II, No 2. Dec 1934, pp 87-105 and
sections V-VII in JISOA: Vol IV, No 1. June 1936, pp. 25-44

Stupa is built on a 2 level structure

At the first level sits a Buddha Statute preferably Golden
On a platform depicting turning wheel of Dharma.
There are very few Buddhist Temples in India only STUPAS, in Indonesia however we see a
trend of Buddhist Rock Fractal temples of complex design and varying sized which is
ubiquitous to the Javanese Landscape. We know that stupa is a mound-like or hemispherical
structure containing relics.(such as śarīra – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns)
that is used as a place of meditation. A related architectural term is a chaitya , which is a
prayer hall or temple containing a stupa. Let us see the evolution of Buddhist TOPOLOGY in
India in order to trace itsreplicatio and inspiration as taken into the Indonesian design
landscape.
Buddhist caves
During the time of the Buddha (c. 563/480 or c. 483/400 BCE), Buddhist monks were also in
the habit of using natural caves, such as the Saptaparni Cave, southwest from Rajgir, Bihar.
Many believe it to be the site in which Buddha spent some time before his death, and where
the first Buddhist council was held after the Buddha died (paranirvana). The Buddha himself
had also used the Indrasala Cave for meditation, starting a tradition of using caves, natural or
man-made, as religious retreats, that would last for over a millennium.
Monasteries

Stupas at Piprahwa are some of the earliest surviving stupas.RIGHT- Jivakarama vihara monastery.
Oblong communal hall (remains), 6th century BCE

The first monasteries, such as the Jivakarama vihara and Ghositarama monastery
in Rajgir and Kausambi respectively, were built from the time of the Buddha, in the 6th or
5th centuries BCE. The initial Jivakarama monastery was formed of two long parallel and
oblong halls, large dormitories where the monks could eat and sleep, in conformity with the
original regulations of the samgha, without any private cells. Other halls were then
constructed, mostly long, oblong building as well, which remind of the construction of

70
several of the Barabar caves. The Buddha is said to have been treated once in the monastery,
after having been injured by Devadatta.
Stupas
Religious buildings in the form of the Buddhist stupa, a dome-shaped monument, started to
be used in India as commemorative monuments associated with storing sacred relics of the
Buddha. The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight stupas,
in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Pava, Kushinagar,
and Vethapida. The Piprahwa stupa also seems to have been one of the first to be built. Guard
rails—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became a feature of safety surrounding a
stupa. The Buddha had left instructions about how to pay hommage to the stupas: "And
whoever lays wreaths or puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout heart, will reap
benefits for a long time". This practice would lead to the decoration of the stupas with stone
sculptures of flower garlands in the Classical period.
Temples
Saurashtra Janapada coins from the stratigraphic phase I dated 600-300 BC provide evidence
of elaborate Apsidal Chaitya temples along with domed temples (or stupa), square, cruciform
and octagonal temple plans, these coins also provide one of the first representations of Hindu
pantheon for instance Gaja Lakshmi etc. Elliptical Hindu temples
with mandapa from Nagari, Chittorgarh and Vidisha near Heliodorus pillar have been dated
to 4th century BC or 350-300 BC.
In Buddhism, circumambulation or pradakhshina has been an important ritual and devotional
practice since the earliest times, and stupas always have a pradakhshina path around them.
Development in Gandhara (3rd century BCE-5th century CE)

ButkaraStupa

The Ahin Posh stupa was dedicated in the 2nd century CE under the Kushans, and contained
coins of Kaniska I.
The stupa underwent major evolutions in the area of Gandhara. Since Buddhism spread
to Central Asia, China and ultimately Korea and Japan through Gandhara, the stylistic
evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in the later development of the stupa
(and related artistic or architectural forms) in these areas. The Gandhara stupa followed
several steps, generally moving towards more and more elevation and addition of decorative

71
element, leading eventually to the development of the pagoda tower. The main stupa type are,
in chronological order:

1. The Dharmarajika Stupa with a near-Indian design of a semi-hemispheric stupa

almost directly on the ground surface, probably dated to the 3rd century BCE. Similar
stupas are the Butkara stupa, the Manikyala stupa or the Chakpat stupa.[14]
2. The Saidu Sharif Stupa, pillared and quincunxial, with a flight of stairs to a dome
elevated on a square platform. Many Gandhara minutiures represent this spectacular
type (1st century CE)
3. The Loriyan Tangai Stupa, with an elongated shape and many narrative reliefs, in
many way the Classical Gandharan stupa (2nd century CE).
4. The near-pyramidal Jaulian stupa (2nd century CE).
5. The cruciform type, as in the Bhamala Stupa, with flights of stairs in the four cardinal
directions (4th century CE).
6. The towering design of the second Kanishka stupa (4-5th century CE).

A model resembling the Saidu Sharif Stupa, with square base and four columns (1st
century CE).

Origin of the pyramidal temple

Pyramidal temples

The Mahabodhi Temple in 150-200 CE The Mahabodhi Temple: a stepped pyramid with
round stupa on top.RIGHT PIC Model of the sikhara of a Buddhist temple; 900s

72
It is thought that the temple in the shape of a truncated pyramid may have derived from the
design of the stepped stupas which developed in Gandhara. The Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh
Gaya is one such example, formed of a succession of steps with niches containing Buddha
images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars. The structure is crowned by the shape of an
hemispherical stupa topped by finials, forming a logical elongation of the stepped Gandharan
stupas such as those seen in Jaulian.
Although the current structure of the Mahabdhodi Temple dates to the Gupta period (5th
century CE), the "Plaque of Mahabhodi Temple", discovered in Kumrahar and dated to 150-
200 CE based on its dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined finds of Huvishka coins,
suggests that the pyramidal structure already existed in the 2nd century CE. This is confirmed
by archaeological excavations in Bodh Gaya.
This truncated pyramid design also marked the evolution from the aniconic stupa dedicated to
the cult of relics, to the iconic temple with multiple images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
This design was very influential in the development of later Hindu temples.
Expansion in Asia

The Chinese Songyue Pagoda /Row of stupas on roadside east of Leh, Ladakh

(523 CE) is thought to derive from the Gandharan tower-stupa model

Stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it became prominent as
a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relicsThe Indian gateway arches,
the torana, reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. Some scholars hold
that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century
BCE – 11th century CE). In Tibet, the stupa became the chörten, and the pagoda in East Asia.
The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles. In the
Western context, there is no clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda. In general,
however, "stupa" is the term used for a Buddhist structure in India or Southeast Asia while
"pagoda" refers to a building in East Asia which can be entered and which may be used for
secular purposes. However, use of the term varies by region. For example, stupas in Burma
tend to be referred to as "pagodas."
73
 Stupas were built in Sri Lanka soon after Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura converted to
Buddhism. The first stupa to be built was the Thuparamaya. Later, many more were built
over the years, some like the Jetavanaramaya in Anuradhapura, being one of the tallest
ancient structures in the world.
Short note on the Development of the Pagoda
The Asian words for pagoda (tā in Chinese, t'ap in Korean, tháp in Vietnamese, tō in
Japanese) are all thought to derive from the Pali word for stupa, thupa,
the Sanskrit pronunciation being stupa.[36] In particular the type of the tower-like stupa, the
last stage of Gandharan stupa development, visible in the second Kanishka stupa (4th
century), is thought to be the precussor of the tower stupas in Turkestan and the Chinese
pagodas such as Songyue Pagoda (523 CE).
Gupta Architecture in SE Asia

It is variously claimed that Angkor Wat's architecture is distinctly Khmer, its inspiration was
essentially Indian- GUPTA architecture, Its builder sought to immortalise his presiding deity,
Vishnu, in a mountain of stone. The Gupta and post-Gupta artists of Bengal transmitted
Mahayana Buddhist imagery to Indonesia. Monks and traders traveled back and forth
between the two regions taking the scriptures and the votive statues from India to Indonesia.
The ease with which Mahayana was accepted in Indonesia was due to the association of the
ruler/king with a bodhisattva. The temporal authority of the ruler reinforces this concept.
Indonesia is a nation in Southeast Asia comprised of roughly seventeen thousand islands.
Indonesia has been an important trade destination since at least the seventh century, but trade
with both India and China began as early as the first few centuries BCE. It was through
contact with these two countries that Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism were introduced,
thriving from the eighth to the tenth centuries. During this period, the grand monuments such
as Borobudur were built. The approach to Borobudur, c. 800, is from the east, which is the
only staircase used to ascend the monument. The approach gets narrower closer to the top. [Is
this reminiscent of any other religious/administrative buildings already examined in
class? Perhaps a compare/contrast of Borobudur with a ziggurat.] Any staircase was
used to go down.

The reliefs on the lower level, which are now under the earth, depict the causes and effects of
good and evil. The main, first, level contains two sub-levels. The lower illustrates five
episodes from the former lives of the historic Buddha. The upper illustrates the jataka stories
of the conception of his mother, Buddha’s birth, his four encounters with poverty, illness,
death and aestheticism, the Enlightenment, and his first sermon at Deer Park.

On each side of the structure is a different Buddha that corresponds to the 4 cardinal points:

1. bhumisparsamudra (earth-touching gesture/Enlightenment)

2. varadamudra (fear-not gesture)

3. anjalimudra (prayer gesture)

4. abhayamudra (fear-not gesture)

74
There are three phases of Buddhist development and decline in these areas. The first five
hundred years were a period of development. By around year 1000, great Buddhist dynasties
had been created in Indonesia, Thailand, and Burma (Myanmar). More Buddhist images have
been produced in Burma than any other region in south-east Asia and no other country has
produced more temples and stupas than Burma. The Cambodian Buddhist dynasties
developed a bit later. The tenth to the fifteenth centuries marks the peak of Cambodian power
and the waning of the Indonesian influence. Only in Thailand did Buddhist and Thai politics
continue to flourish. Thailand and Burma are still the most viable Buddhist areas. Cambodia
and southern Vietnam are still Buddhist, but the political situation makes them less visible.

Cambodia

Similar to Indonesia, an important feature in Cambodia was the cult of the god-king. This
was the conflation of the ruler with the deity, which served to elevate the king to semi-divine
or even divine status. This practice was known in India, but this was also developed in
Southeast Asia especially in Cambodia and Java.

There are also similarities between Egypt and Angkor- not jst the Pyramids and the
Mountain temples but also the fact that Cambodia, just like Egypt and the Ancient Near East,
is a hydraulic society, meaning that myths connected to water and the control of water are
integral to the development of the country. The Mekong River is flooded annually by the
melting of the snows in the Himalayas in Tibet. Managing the high water table was a
considerable engineering feat in the construction of the primary Buddhist architectural
structures in Cambodia.

75
76
Lintel of Shiva on Nandi- 11 th Century Angkorian

The Khmer of Cambodia

From the ninth through the fifteenth centuries, the Khmer were the ethnic group that made up
the majority of the Cambodians, but knowledge of them is limited due to the lack of a written
language. Also, since most of their objects found in the gravesites have been relocated to
museums, it is difficult to tell by whom they were made and what was their purpose. The
Khmer Empire was the largest in Southeast Asia, consisting of area of what is now Laos,
Thailand, and southern Vietnam. It had close trade relations, and thus cultural and political
ties, with Java. Angkor was the capital city during the empire’s height. (Angkor is now
believed to be the largest pre-industrial urban center in the world.) At times, the Khmer

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empire’s official religions included Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism. Those who are
Buddhist in contemporary Cambodia now practice Theravada Buddhism (it was introduced
from Sri Lanka in the thirteenth century).

Water was important to the Khmer people—they were dependent upon water as the source of
their livelihood, trade, and agriculture. Looking to the ancient Indic Vedic legends, the
Khmers emphasized the naga (snake), the ruler of the underworld, and by extension, ruler of
the water and fertility, who also served as a protector for the Buddha and the Khmer kings.
An image of the Buddha with Muchalinda (protective water serpents) (twelfth century) with
a halo was a common way to depict the Buddha in Cambodia.

An aerial view of Angkor Wat with the canals clearly visible underscores the relationship of
the Buddhist ideology with the ubiquitous water. The earliest inscriptions that survive date
from the seventh century: 611 in Sanskrit and 613 in Khmer. The suffix attached to the rulers
name (‘varman’ meaning “protected by”), however, was in use much earlier. Since it is a
Sanskrit derivative it suggests that contact with India had occurred before hand.

Since the most distinctive Khmer religious belief was the cult of the god-king as the center of
the universe, this concept influenced the layout of temple complexes, with the primary shrine
being the temple mountain, the center of the universe. The grandest temples of this type are
the Angkor Wat, a Hindu monument, and the nearby Buddhist structure, the Bayon, the
focal point of the enormous Angkor Thom complex.

The Cambodian shrines are elaborate arrangements of walls, moats and bridges surrounded
by a raised platform usually with five towers to correspond to the five peaks of Mt. Meru. A
single sanctuary dominated the shrines, housing cult images of deified ancestors (further
linking the ruler and his family to the divine). Each monarch constructed a separate temple
for himself, resulting in a continuous building program covering some 500 years that rivaled
the building program of the ancient Egyptians.

The construction of these complexes were also linked to economic needs. In Cambodia, the
welfare of the society depended upon controlling the rivers through a system of extensive
canal systems laid out with extreme accuracy. This emphasis on complex engineering
concepts resulted in elaborate temples and remarkable hydraulic constructions, which enabled
the civilization both to re-create the grand cosmic vision and to control and utilize the
waterways for its agricultural requirements.

Angkor we know is a region of Cambodia that served as the seat of the Khmer Empire,
which flourished from approximately the ninth to the fifteenth centuries. The word Angkor is
derived from Sanskrit meaning “city.” The Angkorian period began in 802, when the Khmer

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Hindu monarch Jayavarman II declared himself a “universal monarch” and “god-king.” The
period ended in 1351.

The temples of the Angkor area number over one thousand, ranging in scale from nondescript
piles of brick rubble scattered through rice fields to the magnificent Angkor Wat. In 2007, an
international team of researchers using satellite photographs and other modern techniques
concluded that Angkor had been the largest preindustrial city in the world, with an elaborate
system of infrastructure connecting an urban sprawl of at least one-thousand square
kilometers (390 square miles) to the well-known temples at its core. The closest rival to
Angkor, the Mayan city of Tikal Guatemala, was between one hundred and one-hundred-fifty
square kilometers (39 and 58 square miles) in total size. Although its population remains a
topic of research and debate, newly identified agricultural systems in the Angkor area may
have supported up to one million people. From above it is clear that Angkor Wat resembles a
giant stupa.

The Bayon

Jayavarman VII was the first of the Angkor kings to be a follower of Buddhism and he built
the Bayon Temple in the center of the city as the symbol of Mt Meru, the symbol of the
Buddhist cosmology. The Bayon is a Mahayana Buddhist temple dedicated to spreading
compassion through the “three thousand worlds” of the universe.

The Bayon style emphasizes the human basis of images of the gods, which may have been
due to the cultivation of the persona of the king in a way that had not been attempted before.
Traditionally, Jayavarmin VII’s face was conflated with that of the bodhisattva , Lokeshvara
throughout the complex. Although, the identity of the faces has been subject to many
theories: it could be Lokeshvara (a form of Avalokitesvara, bodhisattva) looking in the
cardinal directions, which underscores the spreading of compassion through the “three
thousand worlds” of the universe, and/or the king himself. Since Lokeshvara seems to have
been central to the iconography throughout the kingdom, this interpretation seems likely.

The reliefs depict battles between the Khmer and the Chams (the indigenous people of
Cambodia and Viet Nam who predate the Khmer) as well as everyday activities of the
people: markets, food preparation, fortunetellers, etc., demonstrating the rich lives of the
people under the rule of Jayavarman VII. Reliefs throughout the complex also depict scenes
from Hindu mythology and some contemporary episodes from Cambodian history.

The Bayon is complex, mysterious, and was never finished. Originally there were said to be
forty-nine towers, but many have fallen—an example of what is ultimately faulty
engineering. Although made of sound materials with impressive drainage systems, the
buildings have deteriorated due to the lack of stacking with vertical joints, not mortar, and
being made of weak sandstone. The vertical pillars may have also exacerbated the pooling of
water under the structure.

Brief introduction to the BUDDHIST SHRINES of Indonesia

Brief introduction to the ‘temples’ of Indonesia: Temples of Indonesia are of three

different kinds - Pura, Candi and Koil.
1. CANDI (pronounced as Chandi) temples are more of Javanese temples, e.g., the
Candi Prambanan

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 2. PURA: The first type of temples are the ones constructed by the Balinese and
Tenggerese called Pura temples in Eastern Java and Bali, e.g., Pura Luhur Poten in
Mount Bromo.
3. KOLI are those temples constructed by Indian traders from Tamil Nadu, e.g.,
Mariamman Koil in Aceh in the 19th century.
The Colloquil term for all 3 temples is Candi. Candi itself is derived from Candika, one of the
manifestations of the goddess Durga and indicates the temples built in Indonesia, during the
‘Indianized period’, between the seventh and fifteenth centuries. Most of these structures are
built in that period when Indian culture was at its peak in these parts of the world.

Pallava-Chola architecture of the Prambanan Temple

Compounds

Entrance to the Prambanan Temple Complex

Significance of Chola Architecture

Chola temples had a beautiful shikara stone at the top. It had elaborate and carefully made
carvings. It is a marvel how these structures weighing in tonnes is placed without the help of
cranes. During their reign, Cholas made temples in Nagaeshwvara, Brihadeshwvara,
Airavateshwara and Chidambaram. Other kingdoms in South India and Sri Lanka followed
their style.

Ever since the temple building process began, the architecture reflected a synthesis of arts,
the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. Nagara,
Dravida, Vesara etc are different styles of temple architecture. Pallavas (7th century – 9th
century) and Cholas (9th century -11th century) were the major kingdoms which epitomized
the Dravidian Architecture. Chalukyas (7th century -11th century) followed Vesara style of

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architecture in the Karnataka region. Their style is also known as Karnata Dravida
style. Chalukya art was followed by Hoysala art (13th century).

Dravidian Architecture : Pallavas and Cholas

Pallavas used bricks, lion motifs, dwarfed gopurams etc. Things changed at the hands of
Cholas. They used stones instead of bricks. Walls were decorated with sculptures and
paintings of deities, kings and queens (not lion motifs). Temples have enclosed decorative
walls and entrance (Gopuram). They also have an audience hall known as Mandap. The deity
room is known as Garbhgriha. The pyramid like storey above the deity room is known as
Vimana.

Chola Temple Architecture in detail

The Dravidian temple architecture started by the Pallavas got matured at the hand of the
Cholas. Some prominent features of temple architecture in the Chola dynasty are enunciated
here.

1. Niche- These are characteristic architectural designs of Chola temples carved in

temple walls.
2. Devakusthas- These are decorative niches of chola temple walls where deities are
sculpted.
3. Pilasters- These magnificent architectural designs are carved as projection in walls
with placing of deities within it. The pilasters are positioned in both sides of the main
devakusthas.
4. Kumbhapapanjara and kushtapan- These are narrow niches in chola temple walls with
special design for placing sculpted images.
5. Kudus- These are two lion heads which crowns the curved roof of the pilasters.
6. Mythical motif- Makar along with warrior heads positions below all the decorative
devices.
7. Torus- It is a rounded structure placed on the basement of temple sculpture or motiff
sometimes decorated with ribs.
8. Yazhi- The base of the walls of chola temples are decorated with lines of mythical
animals called yazhi.
9. Mandapa features- Arthamandapa, nandi mandapa with special decoration are
characteristics of Chola temple architecture.

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 10. Parivardevatas- Besides the main shrine, Chola temples were evidences of subsidiary
shrines for other deities called parivardevatas which were highly decorative.
11. Dikapalas- These are some prominent directions transparent in Chola temple with
architectural design for placing of deities.
12. Inscription- The walls of Chola temples are seen with inscriptions with architectural
design.

Comparison between Pallava and Chola Architecture

 Yali – Pallava used yali or lion motif at the base of the pillar
Chola abandoned it and used yazhi at base or kudus in other parts of the pillar.
 Dwarapala – In pallava architecture dvarapalas are comparatively benign.
In chola architecture dwarapala became fierce with protruding tusk.
 Gopuram – The gopurams in pallava dynasties were comparatively dwarfed.
But in chola dynasty they became enlarged with high enclosure walls.
 Finial – The finial in Pallava dynasy was a little swelling in the top of the vimana.
But in Chola dynasty it became beautiful vase with artistic design.

Pallava art and architecture represent an early stage of Dravidian art

and architecture which blossomed to its fullest extent under the Chola Dynasty. The first
stone and mortar temples of South India were constructed during Pallava rule and were based
on earlier brick and timber prototypes. Starting with rock cut temples, built between 695AD
and 722AD, and archaeological excavations dated to the 6th century and earlier. Pallava
sculptors later graduated to free-standing structural shrines which inspired Chola dynasty's
temples of a later age. Some of the best examples of Pallava art and architecture are
the Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram, the Shore Temple and the Pancha
Rathas of Mahabalipuram. Akshara was the greatest sculptor of their time.
Pallava architecture was sub-divided into two phases
1. rock cut phase
2. structural phase.
JAIN religious rock cut phase lasted from the 610 AD to 668 AD and consisted of two
groups of monuments, the Mahendra group and the Mamalla group. The Mahendra group is
the name given to monuments constructed during the reign of Mahendravarman I (610 AD-
630 AD). The monuments of this group are invariably pillared halls hewn out of mountain
faces. These pillared halls or mandapas follow the prototype of Jain temples of the period.
The best examples of Mahendra group of monuments are the cave temples at
Mandagapattu, Pallavaram and Mamandur.
The second group of rock cut monuments belong to the Mamalla group in 630 to 668 AD.
During this period free-standing monolithic shrines called rathas (chariots) were constructed
alongside pillared halls. Some of the best examples of this style are the Pancha Rathas
and Arjuna's Penance at Mahabalipuram.

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 Pallava Pillar Mandagappattu, 7th century

The second phase of Pallava architecture is the structural phase when free-standing
shrines were constructed with stone and mortar brought in for the purpose. Monuments of
this phase are of two groups - the Rajasimha group (690 to 800 AD) and the Nandivarman
group (800 to 900 AD). The Rajasimha group encompasses the early structural temples of the
Pallavas when a lot of experimentation was carried out. The best examples of this period are
the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram
both constructed by Narasimhavarman II who was known as Rajasimha. The best example of
the Nandivarman group of monuments is the Vaikunta Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram.
During this period, Pallava architecture attained full maturity and provided the models upon

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which the massive Brihadeeswarar Temple of the Cholas at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda
Cholapuram and various other architectural works of note were constructed.

Prambanan temple compounds and its Buddhist counterparts

Prambanan temple compounds, named after the village nearby, has 5 major temples
complexes and more than five-hundred temples. The major temple complex is Prambanan
temple complex with 240 Hindu temples.
Another major temple complex is Candi Sewu, the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia after Borobudur with a total of 249 temples though the striking feature is the
massive dwara balas or protectors of the temple gates. The other temples are Bubrah,
Lumbung and Asu. All these temples except Asu are at different stages of restoration by the
UNESCO working with the Indonesian Government. Do note that Asu is still buried under
the soil due to the impact of the Mount Merapi volcano and yet to be excavated.

Prambanan Temple Complex

Prambanan temple complex is a Hindu Mandir and the most popular one among these various
temples.

Arrangement of Prambanan temple complex - Photo Credit - From Wikipedia

It has 240 temples. They are organized as follows

1. The 3 main temples for the 3 murtis of the Hindu religion - Siva, Vishnu and Brahma with
the Siva temple in the center.

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2. Vahana or vehicle temples of the respective murtis are opposite to each one of
the murtis for a total of 3 temples. The 3 Vahana temples are Garuda, Nandi and Angsa (or
swan).
3. There are two Apit temples or flank temples on either side of the 6 temples in the center
row between the rows of Vahana and Murthy temples.
4. There are 4 Kelir temples on four cardinal directions outside the inner courtyard.
5. There are 4 Pathok temples on 4 corners of the inner courtyard.
6. Then outside all these temples are the Perwara (“waiting woman”) temples organized in 4
concentric squares with different number of temples from the inner square to outer square as
follows - 44, 52, 60, 68

The Prambanan has striking architecture, which is a typical representation of the South
Indian Pallava-Chola architecture. It is typical of that architecture to have very tall Vimanas
and Gopurams (towers), large courtyards and aesthetically carved bass reliefs. Also the
Prambanan temples follow the Mandala concept of the Vastu Shastra, an ancient Indian
science of architecture and construction. The inner space with the Murti temples, the Perwara
temples and the space outside Perwara temples make up the three mandala concept of the
Vastu Shastra.
Today only the Murthy, Vahana, Apit and Kelir temples has been restored while the Pathok
and Perwara are not restored yet though work is in progress.

Siva temple on left and Vishnu temple on right

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The temples of Prambanan itself are organized as per the Logam concept. The foot of each
temple represents the Boologam or the realm of the mortals. The middle realm or the body of
the temple represents Bhuvarlogam or realm for the holy people. The upper realm or the
holiest part of the temple or the topmost layer is the realm of gods called Swarkalogam. The
upper realm is completed by a Vajra (it can mean both thunderbolt or diamond) on the roof.

The Bas reliefs of Prambanan is very extensive and narrative. The narrative part is about
Ramayana epic and Bhagavata Puranam - stories about Vishnu and his avatars. The reliefs
also have depictions about Kalpataru, Apsaras, Devadas - all part of Hindu/Buddhist
mythology.
History
The temple is believed to have been built by Rakai Pikatan of Sanjaya dynasty around 850
AD and expanded by subsequent kings building the Perwara temples surrounding the
centerpiece in concentric squares.

HINDU DHARAMSHALAS -Mini Universities with residences for the

Brahmins/ Priests

At its peak, hundreds of Brahmins lived in the temple complex while the royal court with
the urban center was located nearby. The royal court was shifted either due to Mount Merapi
volcano eruption or due to power struggle throwing Prambanan into disuse. The locals knew
about the existence of the temple but did not know the background and so the folklore of
Roro Jonggrang was attached to the temple.
.

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Folklore of Roro Jonggrang
Candi Prambanan is also called as Candi Roro Jonggrang based on the folklore in these parts
of the island. Roro Jonggrang is the story of a princess by the same name and her love and
betrayal. The other architectural sites existing today, Ratu Boko, Candi Sewu temple complex
and the statue of Durga Mahishasuramardini within Prambanan temple complex all have their
mythical connections to this story.

Father of Roro Jonggrang, Prabu Boko was killed in a battle by neighboring kingdom’s
prince, Bandung Bondowoso. Prince Bondowoso along with his army captures the Ratu Boko
palace. On seeing Princess Roro Jonggrang, he falls in love with her and wishes to marry her.
Roro Jonggrang, not wishing to marry him for killing her father but at the same time does not
want to reject him for him being the victor, places an impossible condition to be fulfilled by
the prince - build 1000 temples in a night.

But Prince Bondowoso, has the magical powers to invoke demon spirits (kind of like Genies)
to build the 1000 temples. But the demon spirits can only work in the night as the sunlight
can burn these spirits during daytime. They proceed to build the temples and had completed
999 temples when the princess hears this news. She tricks the rooster in the Palace by having
the maids light candles on the eastern side. The rooster, thinking that the sun was rising, starts
to crow and the spirits rush back to below the earth.

Prince Bondowoso tries to build the 1000th temple but fails. In his anger at being tricked, he
curses the Princess, who becomes a statue in the Prambanan temple complex, that of the
statue of Durga.

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Roof Stuopoas that resemble Borobudur’s

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Candi Bubrah: It is a Buddhist temple constructed in the 9th century by the Sailendra
dynasty. It is named as Bubrah as it was discovered in complete ruins. What exists today is a
12 meters x 12 meters platform where I could see works carried on to restore this temple. As
per my conversation with the workers, the temple is made up of volcanic rocks. Candi
Bubrah and Candi Lumbang. It is however smaller which is found within the Prambanan
Cultural Park near Yogyakarta, in Central Java. The name means the Broken Temple in
Javanese, as it was in poor condtion when found. It has recently undergone substansive
restoration. The buildings date from the 9th century at the same time as Candi Lumbung and
Candi Sewu. The floor of the main temple is around 12 metres on each side. It is notable for
the stūpas that decorate the roof. Most of the Buddha statues are damaged, with missing
heads.

Side/ Front View showing Roof Stupas resembling BOROBUDUR

Side Wall

89
 Buddha on Lotus

Makara and Lion RIGHT Apsara and Kala

Candi Lumbung- Buddhist Temple

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Fifteen minutes walk from Candi Bubrah si - Candi Lumbung which was built around the
same time frame as Candi Bubrah in the 9th century by Sailendra Dynasty but predates
Prambanan temple. The main temple is a Buddhist temple dedicated to Manjushri
Bodhisattva. There are sixteen Perwara temples similar to the Perwara temples of Prambanan.
On top of the main temple is the stupa, typical of a Buddhist temple. The main temple can be
accessed from the 4 cardinal points. Just like other temples in the compounds, Lumbung is
going through renovation but is in a better condition than Bubrah.

Candi Lumbang stands nearby to Candi Bubrah and south of Candi Sewu in the Park, and
dates to around the same time as those temples, in the 9th century CE. The name means the
Rice Barn Temple in Javanese, because of its shape. The temple compound is composed of a
main temple surrounded by 16 perwara (smaller) temples in concentric formal layout. The
architectural style is similar to those of the Sewu temple complex nearby. Just like the Sewu
and Prambanan temples, this temple faces east with its main entrance located on the east side
of the temple compound. However the temple can be reached from all cardinal points. The
structure is crowned with stūpas (partly adapted from Wikipedia).

Main

Side Chapels

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Founda\
Kala Figure

Main chamber where the bronze statue of Manjushri is missing/TOP RIGHT PIC Bodhisattva

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In walking distance is also Candi Sewu, which is a large temple complex unlike the smaller
ruins of Bubrah.It is the second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia after
Borobudur with a total of 249 temples in its complex. The architecture resembles the Pala
architecture due to the Perwara temples arranged in a geometric fashion similar to
Prambanan. But Sewu predates Prambanan by at least a century. The original name for this
temple was Manjusrigrha (meaning “house of Manjushri”) and was dedicated to Manjushri
Bodhisattva similar to the Lumbung temple nearby.

The main temple itself is 30 meters in height and 29 meters in diameter and is in a 20 sided
Polygon shape. The temple was believed to have had a bronze statue of Manjushri. The main
temple is surrounded by four concentric rows of Perwara temples similar to Prambanan and
the temple complex itself follows the same Vaastu-based Mandala concept. Candi Sewu
shares its Folklore of Roro Jonggrang with the Prambanan as many associate it with this
temple complex.

Decorated stupas

Stupas were soon to be richly decorated with sculptural reliefs, following the first
attempts at Sanchi Stupa No.2 (125 BCE). Full-fledged sculptural decorations and
scenes of the life of the Buddha would soon follow at Bharhut (115 BCE), Bodh
Gaya (60 BCE), Mathura (125–60 BCE), again at for the elevation of the toranas (1st
century BCE/CE) and then Amaravati (1st–2nd century CE).[62] The decorative
embellishment of stupas also had a considerable development in the northwest in the
area of Gandhara, with decorated stupas such as the Butkara Stupa ("monumentalized"
with Hellenistic decorative elements from the 2nd century BCE) or the Loriyan
Tangai stupas (2nd century CE). Stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East
Asia, where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred
relics.[45] The Indian gateway arches, the torana, reached East Asia with the spread of
Buddhism. Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist
historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE – 11th century CE).

Sanchi Stupa No.2, the earliest known stupa with important displays of decorative reliefs, c. 125 BCE
RIGHT PUC East Gateway and Railings of Bharhut Stupa. Sculptured railings: 115 BCE, toranas: 75
BCE

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 The Great Stupa at Sanchi. Decorated toranas built from the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE./
Slab of Amaravati Marbles, depicting of the Great Amaravati Stupa, with a Buddha statue at the
entrance, Amaravathi, Andhra Pradesh, India

Panorama of the stupa. BOROBUDUR line drawing is below

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 One of
the Stupas Kesariya stupa shares many architectural similarities with the Buddhist temple
located in Indonesia, Borobodur which points to a historical connections between east India
and South East Asia.
A. Both monuments share a circular mandala form with
B. terraces containing figures of Buddha in the niches.
C. Like Borobodur, Kesariya is also built atop of a hill.
D. The excavated chambers at Kesariya show a combination of statues
in bhumisparsha (of Akshobya) and dhyanimudra (of Amitabha) on the same side,
whereas Borobudur houses four Jina Buddhas, displaying their respective mudras on
the four sides of the monument.
This Kesariya Stupa is a Buddhist stupa in Kesariya, located at a distance of 110
kilometres (68 mi) from Patna, in the Champaran (east) district of Bihar, India. The first
construction of the Stupa is dated to the 3rd century BCE.[1] Kesariya Stupa has a
circumference of almost 400 feet (120 m) and raises to a height of about 104 feet (32 m).

Buddha Statue
The site's exploration reportedly started in the early 19th century, from its discovery led by
Colonel Mackenzie in 1814 to General Cunningham's proper excavation in 1861–62. An
excavation was conducted by archaeologist KK Muhammed of the Archaeological Survey of
India (ASI) in 1998.[1] The original Kesariya stupa probably dates to the time
of Ashoka (circa 250 BCE), as the remains of a capital of a Pillar of Ashoka were discovered
there.

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The stupa mound may even have been inaugurated during the Buddha's time, as it
corresponds in many respects to the description of the stupa erected by the Licchavis
of Vaishali to house the alms bowl the Buddha has given them.
The current stupa dates to the Gupta Dynasty between 200 AD and 750 AD, and may have
been associated with the 4th century ruler Raja Chakravarti. The local people call this stupa
"Devala", meaning "house of god".
The ASI has declared the stupa a protected monument of national importance. Despite being a
popular tourist attraction, Kesariya is yet to be developed and a large part of the stupa still remains
under vegetation. In fact Swati Chemburkar in her brilliant research paper --Stūpa to
Maṇḍala: Tracing a Buddhist Architectural Development from Kesariya to Borobudur
to Tabo- Swati Chemburkar Jnanapravaha, Mumbai

According to her a paradigm shift in architecture occurred from stūpa to maṇḍala at the ritual
center of the royal Buddhist sphere. The mandalic architecture of Kesariya and Borobudur 1, a
central supreme deity and subordinate deities, reflects the political structure of samānta
feudalism. Ronald Davidson in his Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the
Tantric Movement (1st Indian ed., Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas, 2004), 118, 302, the
circular arrangement of deities in certain numerological configurations on the upper three
terraces of Borobudur—reflect a characteristic of the yoginī-tantras that developed at
Nālandā in the late eighth to early ninth centuries. Unlike her I do not place too uch
importance to the Buddhist strains that emanated out of Tibet- having visited and studied
there I feel that there is a Richard Gere type of moement to give importance to Tibetan
Buddhism but if one visits Tibet one can find too little of everything ( man and Materials)
and to lift it on a pedestal higher than it deserves does injustice to the real precipitate of
evolutiuonary Buddhist thought and dogma.
But I will agree to the Kesariya hypothesis. Having said that the evolutionary nature of the
STUPA starts at the change of topology as brought about by Sanchi Stupa. Discussing
Further:

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In a later paper Swati ( referred to above) 1 connects architectural concepts between India and
Java as a “movement of architectural ideas can be seen from studying the corpus of the
temples in the Pāla (ad 750–1214) and Śailendra (ad 7 75–1090)2 domains of India and
Indonesia. “ She proposes that we see a paradigm shift in the design of a stūpa architecture at
Kesariya (Bihar) that emphasizes the arrangement of deities in the circular maṇḍalic fashion
with a certain numer-ological configuration of life-size Buddha figures placed in the
external niches of the monument. This new architectural concept possibly played a
key role in the development of a more elaborate structure of Borobudur in Java.

________________________________________________________-_______________

1. Chapter 8. Borobudur’s Pāla Forebear? A Field Note from Kesariya, Bihar, India
From the book Esoteric Buddhism in Mediaeval Maritime Asia,Swati Chemburkar

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souvenirs

I agree to this but let us not forget the contribution of the Ghandhara movement to adding
complexity to Stupa design starting from Sanchi and onwards. In fact the souveniers sold in
the markets at Pasar Beringharjo Market which is the oldest market in the Kraton area of
Yogyakarta( see pic above) point towards how the designers and architects must have
climbed the stairs to reach a more magnificent and meaningful design of Stupa Typology.

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 Typology amd the Doctrine of Exposition

From my paper Borobudur- BIG BUDDHA- as a complete exposition of doctrine

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 Citation: Dr uday Dokras,Borobudur- BIG BUDDHA- as a complete exposition of doctrine Indo Nordic
Author’s Collective 2021

You are walking down a forest path. You meet a man who positively beams serenity.
You ask his teacher’s name. He replies, Nobody is my teacher. Nobody is comparable
to me. I am the only perfect buddha in the world. I have attained supreme
enlightenment. I am conqueror over all. I know everything. I am not contaminated by
anything at all... I have all the powers of the omniscient. I am an arhat in the world. I
am unrivaled in all realms, including those of the gods. I am the victor who
conquered Mara. This happened—so we are told—to a wanderer named Upagu,
sometime in the fifth century BCE. Upagu answered with a shrug, “perhaps,” and
left quickly by a different road. Now we remember Upagu as the fool. He could have
been Fakyamuni Buddha’s first disciple. But where a wiser man would have
recognized the truthful words of a Buddha fresh from enlightenment, Upagu heard a
megalomaniacal rant: violent words of conquest seemingly at odds with the serene
visage of the man who spoke them. Would you have recognized the man as
enlightened? Would you have discerned a spirit of universal peace, beyond politics,
in words that valorize hierarchy, celebrate raw power, and speak well of battle?
1 Raniero Gnoli, ed., The Gilgit Manuscript of the Sakghabhedavastu (Rome: ISMEO, 1977), 1:132.

Someone asked : Does enlightenment mean illumination?

Illumination is when someone shines a torch in your ear. Enlightenment is when you're the torch.

Scholars disagree about the nature of Candi Borobudur, for instance, whether it is a symbolic
mountain of the Sailendra kingdom, a stupa or a mandala . At its simplest, a stupa is a dirt
burial mound faced with stone. In Buddhism, the earliest stupas contained portions of the
Buddha's ashes, and as a result, the stupa began to be associated with the body of the Buddha.
Adding the Buddha's ashes to the mound of dirt activated it with the energy of the Buddha
himself. Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and, when viewed from above, takes the
form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist
cosmology and the nature of mind. The original foundation is a square, approximately 118
metres (387 ft) on each side. Kesariya Stupa is a Buddhist stupa in Kesariya, located at a
distance of 110 kilometres (68 mi) from Patna, in the Champaran (east) district of Bihar,
India. The first construction of the Stupa is dated to the 3rd century BCE.
A stupa, Buddhist commemorative monument usually housing sacred relics associated with
the Buddha or other saintly persons. The hemispherical form of the stupa appears to have
derived from pre-Buddhist burial mounds in India. Many stupas are Pooja Pradakshina on all
levels? What does that mean and how to explain to non- hindus? Puja is paying obeisance to
God and pradakshina is circumambulation of the Godly image. Puja involves a ritual=
whether in Buddhism or Hinduism. Lighting Candles, Ringing bells, turning prayer wheelsall
are rituals. One such ritual kis circumambulation. In Borobudur as well as many other Stupas
some discussed below this ritual is and that Stupa are presented.One pays ones respect by

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circumambulation to the stupa.

Kesariya Stupa seen in the above picture, is a Buddhist stupa in Kesariya, located at a
distance of 110 kilometres (68 mi) from Patna, in the Champaran (east) district
of Bihar, India. The first construction of the Stupa is dated to the 3rd century BCE. Kesariya
Stupa has a circumference of almost 400 feet (120 m) and raises to a height of about 104 feet
(32 m).
The construction of stupas were considered acts of great merit. The purpose of stupas were
mainly to enshrine relics of Buddha. The design specifications are consistent within most of
the stupas, entrances to stupas are laid out so that their centre lines point to the relic
chambers.
The Shailendra dynasty with a name derived from Sanskrit combined
words Śaila and Indra, meaning "King of the Mountain", was the name of a
notable Indianised dynasty that emerged in 8th-century Java, whose reign signified a cultural
renaissance in the region. The Shailendras were active promoters
of Mahayana Buddhism with the glimpses of Hinduism, and covered the Kedu
Plain of Central Java with Buddhist monuments, one of which is the
colossal stupa of Borobudur, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

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The bas relief of 8th century Borobudur depict a King sitting in Maharajalilasana (king's posture or royal
ease) pose, with his Queen and their subjects, the scene is based on Shailendran royal court. The

Shailendras are considered to have been a thalassocracy and ruled vast swathes of maritime
Southeast Asia, however they also relied on agricultural pursuits, by way of intensive rice
cultivation on the Kedu Plain of Central Java. The dynasty appeared to be the ruling family of
both the Medang Kingdom of Central Java, for some period, and the Srivijaya Kingdom in
Sumatra.
The inscriptions created by Shailendras use three languages; Old Malay, Old Javanese,
and Sanskrit - written either in the Kawi alphabet, or pre-Nāgarī script. The use of Old Malay has
sparked speculation of a Sumatran origin, or Srivijayan connection of this family. On the other
hand, the use of Old Javanese suggests their firm political establishment on Java. The use of
Sanskrit usually indicates the official nature, and/or religious significance, of the event described
in any given inscription.

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103
 SIMILARITIES WITH BORIOBUDUR

It has been noted that the Kesariya stupa shares many architectural similarities with the
Buddhist temple located in Indonesia, Borobodur which points to a historical connections
between east India and South East Asia. Both monuments share a circular mandala form with
terraces containing figures of Buddha in the niches. Like Borobodur, Kesariya is also built
atop of a hill. The excavated chambers at Kesariya show a combination of statues
in bhumisparsha (of Akshobya) and dhyanimudra (of Amitabha) on the same side, whereas
Borobudur houses four Jina Buddhas, displaying their respective mudras on the four sides of
the monument.
In Indonesian, ancient temples are referred to as candi; thus locals refer to "Borobudur
Temple" as Candi Borobudur. The term candi also loosely describes ancient structures, for
example gates and baths. The origins of the name Borobudur, is derived from Boro for big and
Budur for Buddha. The name Borobudur was first written in Raffles's book on Javan history.
Raffles wrote about a monument called Borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting
the same name. The only old Javanese manuscript that hints the monument called Budur as a holy
Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca, a Buddhist scholar
of Majapahit court, in 1365. Most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese
language conventions and was named after the nearby village of Bore, the monument should have
been named "BudurBoro". Raffles thought that Budur might correspond to the modern Javanese

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word Buda ("ancient")—i.e., "ancient Boro". He also suggested that the name might derive
from boro, meaning "great" or "honourable" and Budur for Buddha. However, another
archaeologist suggests the second component of the name (Budur) comes from Javanese
term bhudhara ("mountain").
Vihara Buddha Uhr: Another possible etymology by Dutch archaeologist A.J. Bernet Kempers
suggests that Borobudur is a corrupted simplified local Javanese pronunciation of Biara
Beduhur written in Sanskrit as Vihara Buddha Uhr. The term Buddha-Uhr could mean "the city
of Buddhas", while another possible term Beduhur is probably an Old Javanese term, still
survived today in Balinese vocabulary, which means "a high place", constructed from the stem
word dhuhur or luhur (high). This suggests that Borobudur means vihara of Buddha located on a
high place or on a hill. As far as I understand, Vihara Buddha means the Abode of Buddha and
not the city…
Inscriptions: The construction and inauguration of a sacred Buddhist building—possibly a
reference to Borobudur was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in
Kedu, Temanggung Regency.
1. The Karangtengah inscription, dated 824, mentioned a sacred building
named Jinalaya (the realm of those who have conquered worldly desire and reached
enlightenment), inaugurated by Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga.
2. The Tri Tepusan inscription, dated 842, is mentioned in the sima, the (tax-free) lands
awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance
of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra. Kamūlān is from the word mula, which means "the
place of origin", a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably those of
the Sailendras.
Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra: Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra, which
in Sanskrit means "the mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood", was
the original name of Borobudur.That is however incorrect, even a schoolchild in India will tell
you that Bhumi means land.See the pujsa bhoomipoojan or the actress of Bollywood- Bhumi
Pednekar.
Apart from being called a most impressive monument, Borobudur is both a temple and a
complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and completed as it was designed, with
only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a pattern for Hindu temple mountains
at Angkor, and in its own day it must have been one of the wonders of the Asian world.

Built about 800, it probably fell into neglect by c. 1000 and was overgrown. It was excavated
and restored by the Dutch between 1907 and 1911. It now appears as a large square plinth
(the processional path) upon which stand five terraces gradually diminishing in size. The
plans of the squares are stepped out twice to a central projection. Above the fifth terrace
stands a series of three diminishing circular terraces carrying small stupas, crowned at the
centre of the summit by a large circular bell-shaped stupa. Running up the centre of each face
is a long staircase; all four are given equal importance. There are no internal cell shrines, and
the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist stupa in the Indian sense.

Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions and niches along the
whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing into any of the other
levels. All of these terraces are lined with relief sculptures, and the niches contain Buddha
figures. The top three circular terraces are open and unwalled, and the 72 lesser bell-shaped
stupas they support are of open stone latticework; inside each was a huge stone Buddha
figure. The convex contour of the whole monument is steepest near the ground, flattening as
it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the processional path, was the major afterthought. It

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consists of a massive heap of stone pressed up against the original bottom story of the
designed structure so that it obscures an entire series of reliefs—a few of which have been
uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to hold together the bottom story, which
began to spread under the pressure of the immense weight of earth and stone accumulated
above.

Borobudur: Buddha sculpture and stupas

The Thai & Myanmar Stupas-There are three basic forms of the Thai Stupa; each will
be explored in turn. These forms — as well as those of India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar’s
Bagan (Burma) — are laid out in Fig. below Note that andas are highlighted in green,
harmikas in red, chattras in purple, and bases or terraces in black. We will continue to refer
to back to this three style framework as we review the stupas in specific temples in sections
that follow.

.
Thai stupa predecessors and types.

The whole building symbolizes a Buddhist transition from the lowest manifestations of
reality at the base, through a series of regions representing psychological states, toward the
ultimate condition of spiritual enlightenment at the summit.

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Maynmar influenced?-For about 250 years, from c. 1044 to 1284 CE, Pagan or Bagan, was
the capital of a kingdom covering most of what is modern-day Myanmar (Burma).

During this period, more than 2,500 Buddhist monuments—stupas, temples, and monasteries
—were built in and around the city alone; further religious edifices were erected in the
provincial centers of the kingdom, such as Pakkoku, Sale, Salin, and Myinmu.

The people of Pagan were in close contact with other Buddhist communities of South and
Southeast Asia, most notably Sri Lankans, Northeast Indians, and the Khmers, and perhaps
with the Tibetans and Chinese as well. Between these regions and communities, there was a
regular flow of royal ambassadors, Buddhist monks, artists, pilgrims, and other travelers, who
exchanged letters and Buddhist scriptures, skills, and ideas.

Given this position as a nodal point in a wider Buddhist network, the Buddhism of Pagan was
cosmopolitan in nature, embracing influences from various sources and different traditions.
Particularly in the late 12th and the early 13th centuries, when increased contact with external
Buddhist communities coincided with the maturation of internal developments, Pagan
became the crucible in which the major features of Burmese Theravada were mixed.

What is enlightenment? For Buddhists it involves the discovery of the truth of duhkha—pain,
suffering, and sorrow—followed by the realization that duhkha can be brought to an end. In
like manner, Protestant Christians speak of enlightenment as a moment when, touched by
God, one becomes aware of one’s own escape from eternal damnation. Likewise, European
philosophers have imagined an age of Enlightenment, a time of individual freedom and
social equality. In all three cases, enlightenment, as insight into reality, is conjoined with
enlightenment, as a state of harmony and peace, beyond politics. Beyond Enlightenment
treats the political implications of this apolitical ideal. It is a sophisticated study of some of
the assumptions underlying, and ramifications involved in, the study of Buddhism (especially,
but not exclusively, in the West), and of the tendency of scholars to ground their study of
Buddhism in particular assumptions about the Buddha’s enlightenment and a particular
understanding of religion, traced back through Western orientalists to the Enlightenment and
the Protestant Reformation. Richard Cohen’s book will be of interest to buddhologists,
indologists, scholars of comparative religion, and intellectual historians. - Richard S. Cohen

Borobudur represents the unity of the cosmos permeated by the light of truth, which
the visitor will search and get as he climbs up the terraces. This transformation occurs while
climbing through the levels of Borobudur, encountering illustrations of progressively more
profound doctrines nearer to the summit.

The indefinable ultimate spiritual state is at the topmost terrace, where an unfinished image
of Buddha that was hidden from the spectator’s view, symbolized thsat crystallization of
fruition. The 72 openwork stupas on the circular terraces, with their barely visible internal
Buddhas, symbolize incomplete states of enlightenment on the borders of manifestation. The
usual way for a pilgrim to pay reverence to a Buddhist stupa is to walk around it, keeping it
on his right hand. The vast series of reliefs about three feet (one metre) high on the exterior
walls of the terraces would thus be read by the visitor in series from right to left. Between the
reliefs are decorative scroll panels, and a hundred monster-head waterspouts carry off the

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tropical rainwater. The gates on the stairways between terraces are of the standard Indonesian
type, with the face of the Kala monster at the apex spouting his scrolls.

The reliefs of the lowest level illustrate scenes that show the causal workings of good and bad
deeds through successive reincarnations. They show, for example, how those who hunt, kill,
and cook living creatures, such as tortoises and fish, are themselves cooked in hells or die as
children in their next life. They show how foolish people waste their time at entertainments.
From these scenes of everyday life, one moves to the terraces above, where the subject matter
becomes more profound and metaphysical. It illustrates important Mahayana texts dealing
with the self-discovery and education of the bodhisattva, conceived as being possessed by
compassion for and devoted wholly to the salvation of all creatures. The reliefs on the
uppermost terraces gradually become more static. The sensuous roundness of the forms of the
figures is not abated, but, in the design, great emphasis is laid upon horizontals and verticals
and upon static, formal enclosures of repeated figures and gestures. At the summit all
movement disappears, and the design is entirely subordinated to the circle enclosing the
stupa.

The iconography of Borobudur suggests that the legend of the royal bodhisattva
recounted in many of the reliefs was meant to “authenticate” some king or dynasty. Yet, it
hardly seems possible that Borobudur was the focus of a specific royal cult, as there is no
provision at all for the performance of royal ritual. It must have been, then, in some sense a
monument for the whole people, the focus for their religion and life, and a perpetual reminder
of the doctrines of their religion.

A considerable number of bronzes, some small, some large, have been found in Indonesia in
a style close to that of the sculptures of Borobudur and Mendut. One fine, large standing
image comes from Kotabangun in Borneo, but some come from Java. Many small cult
images of the Buddha and Buddhist deities exist. Some are close in type to the
early Pala images of Indian Bihar, the homeland of Buddhism, with which the Javanese must
have maintained close touch. A few small but extremely fine gold figurines of undoubted

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Javanese workmanship have also turned up. For all their small size they must rate as first-
class works of art. As well as images, there are many beautiful bronze ceremonial objects,
such as lamps, trays, and bells.

Pyramid? We all know about Great Pyramids of Ancient Egypt. How many of us know
about Great Pyramid of Ancient India?

Bareilly, formerly known as Ahichhatra was mentioned in Mahabharata as capital of

Draupada's kingdom Panchala. It was later conquered by Arjuna and bestowed upon Drona.
Drupada had to shift his capital to Kampilya in Southern Panchala. Ahicchatra was described
as a great city

Excavations in Bareilly have uncovered a giant ancient temple in form of a large

pyramid.Even the ruin is 22 meters in height( for comparison, Kaaba is 13 m) and there is a
Linga on top. The site is 187 hectares. By comparison, London of Roman era was just 140
hectares

If the brick temple ruin is so massive even after its destuction by ISLAMIC invaders in 12th
century , one could only imagine how gigantic the temple would have been in its
heydays. Ahichhatra is probably the longest surviving site in India. Remains from earliest
layers in 2000 BC include ochre colored pottery followed by Painted Grey Ware(PGW). The
site survived for 3000 years until "iconoclastic tendencies" in 12th century destroyed it. Many
Hindu sculptures have been found at the site They are now in Museums around the world.
There is a sculpture of Ganga standing on Makara. Another is of lord Shiva in what seems to
be depiction of Kiratarjuniya scene

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 Borobudur - Buddhist Stupa in the Indian sense
There are no internal cell shrines, and the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist
stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions
and niches along the whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing
into any of the other levels. What is the difference between stupa and pagoda?

While there is not a clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda, a stupa tends to be a
structure that usually can not be entered, while a pagoda is often referred to as a building that
can be entered. It is easy to get confused because a pagoda is generally a temple, but the
design of a pagoda evolved from stupas.
In the Borobudur, around the circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a
statue of the Buddha. The vertical division of Borobudur Temple into base, body, and
superstructure perfectly accords with the conception of the Universe in Buddhist cosmology.

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First of all can be mentioned that nowhere else has it been found a combination of stupa and
terraced circumambulatory platforms like what we have at Borobudur. Moreover, the whole
structure might be regarded as an integration of the stupa concept and the terraced sanctuary.
The last one being possibly inherited from the prehistoric period, functioning as a sanctuary
to worship ancestors. Moreover, we found here at Borobudur a combination of circular and
rectangular platforms. In terms of religious concepts and their physical-visual interpretations,
there are two phenomena that can be indicated at Borobudur. The first is the physical-spatial
interpretation of the concept of bhiimi and dhatu as it has been interpreted and exposed in the
previous studies of J.G. deCasparis, and the second one is regarding the pantheon and its
placing within the structure of the sanctuary.
It has been said that the merchants and tradesmen from India, bringing with them a
mixed bag of folk and oral traditions from the Indian spiritual heritage served as the source of
inspiration to the Indonesian sculptors and grand visualisers alike. But what was the mixed
bag like? Some interesting examples from Cambodia are seen in the Terrace of the Elephants
at Angkor Thom, as well as at Bayon. Here we also find several hidden panels, much like the
hidden base at Borobudur. This paper will explore both structural and metaphorical
explanations for this hidden panel phenomenon.
The caitya worship is known as the belief in the descent of Buddharaja Maitreya. Descent or
ascent. From being a prince with worldly possessions of immense value and aappeasement,
he became a hermit, a wanderer- seeking enlightenment and asking others to meditate and
introspect and thus ascend. To a Higher Level!
Candi Borobudur and Candi Mendut were the two sites in Central Java that promoted caitya worship.
Even before their establishment in the 8th century A.D., it is probable that the belief was already
brought into Java by Gunavarma the architect of Borobudur in the beginning of the 5th century A.
D.1
__________________________________________________________________________________
__
1. A RE-INVESTIGATION OF THE NATURE OF CANDI BOROBUDUR by Kathy Cheng Mei K u
Proceedings of INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR Borobudur, Magelang, f - 5'" July 2008 pn

Uncovering the Meaning of the Hidden Base of Candi Borobudur

BOROBUDUR’s VERTICAL COSMOLOGY

Buddhist cosmology can be divided into two related kinds: spatial cosmology, which
describes the arrangement of the various worlds within the universe; and temporal
cosmology, which describes how those worlds come into existence, and how they pass away.
Spatial cosmology displays the various, multitude of worlds embedded in the universe.
Spatial cosmology can also be divided into two branches. The vertical (or cakravāḍa;
Devanagari: चक्रवाड) cosmology describes the arrangement of worlds in a vertical pattern,
some being higher and some lower. By contrast, the horizontal (sahasra) cosmology describes
the grouping of these vertical worlds into sets of thousands, millions or billions.

Vertical cosmology

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"In the vertical cosmology, the universe exists of many worlds (lokāḥ; Devanagari: लोकाः) –
one might say "planes/realms" – stacked one upon the next in layers. Each world corresponds
to a mental state or a state of being". A world is not, however, a location so much as it is the
beings which compose it; it is sustained by their karma and if the beings in a world all die or
disappear, the world disappears too. Likewise, a world comes into existence when the first
being is born into it. The physical separation is not so important as the difference in mental
state; humans and animals, though they partially share the same physical environments, still
belong to different worlds because their minds perceive and react to those environments
differently.

The vertical cosmology is divided into thirty-one planes of existence and the planes into three
realms, or dhātus, each corresponding to a different type of mentality. These three realms
(Tridhātu) are the Ārūpyadhātu (4 Realms), the Rūpadhātu (16 Realms), and the Kāmadhātu
(15 Realms). In some instances all of the beings born in the Ārūpyadhātu and the Rūpadhātu
are informally classified as "gods" or "deities" (devāḥ), along with the gods of the
Kāmadhātu, notwithstanding the fact that the deities of the Kāmadhātu differ more from those
of the Ārūpyadhātu than they do from humans. It is to be understood that deva is an
imprecise term referring to any being living in a longer-lived and generally more blissful state
than humans. Most of them are not "gods" in the common sense of the term, having little or
no concern with the human world and rarely if ever interacting with it; only the lowest deities
of the Kāmadhātu correspond to the gods described in many polytheistic religions.

The term "brahmā; Devanagari: ब्रह्मा" is used both as a name and as a generic term for one
of the higher devas. In its broadest sense, it can refer to any of the inhabitants of the
Ārūpyadhātu and the Rūpadhātu. In more restricted senses, it can refer to an inhabitant of one
of the eleven lower worlds of the Rūpadhātu, or in its narrowest sense, to the three lowest
worlds of the Rūpadhātu (Plane of Brahma's retinue) A large number of devas use the name
"Brahmā", e.g. Brahmā Sahampati ब्रह्मा सहम्पत्ति, Brahmā Sanatkumāra ब्रह्मा
सनत्कुमारः, Baka Brahmā बकब्रह्मा, etc. It is not always clear which world they belong to,
although it must always be one of the worlds of the Rūpadhātu. According to the Ayacana
Sutta, Brahmā Sahampati, who begs the Buddha to teach Dhamma to the world, resides in the
Śuddhāvāsa worlds.
One theory is that the complex represents Buddhist cosmology, it's a mandala. A group of
reliefs hidden at the back of lined stones at the base were discovered in 1885. It was a
significant discovery. The words "ugly face" are inscribed in ancient Javanese script. It
describes the earthly world dominated by greed. The monument represents the "three worlds"
of Buddhist cosmology. The base level is the world of desire. The world of forms is above.
Then comes the world of formlessness, the highest level of enlightenment.

Borobudur's vertical organization reflects Buddhist cosmology, according to which the

universe is divided into three superimposing spheres: kamadhatu (desire), rupadhatu (forms)
and arupadhatu (formlessness). Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and
evolution of the Universe according to the Buddhist scriptures and commentaries.

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It consists of temporal and spatial cosmology: the temporal cosmology being the division of
the existence of a 'world' into four discrete moments (the creation, duration, dissolution, and
state of being dissolved; this does not seem to be a canonical division, however). The spatial
cosmology consists of a vertical cosmology, the various planes of beings, their bodies,
characteristics attainment of the Perfect Wisdom.

Apart from the story of the Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues
of various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on
the five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the top platform (the
Arupadhatu level).

The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides
of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to
the upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth
72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level. At the
Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside
perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16,
that add up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly
headless) and 43 are missing (since the monument's discovery, heads have been stolen as
collector's items, mostly by Western museums).

, food, lifespan, beauty and a horizontal cosmology, the distribution of these world-
systems into an "apparently" infinite sheet of “worlds”. The existence of world-
periods (moments, kalpas), is well attested to by the Buddha.

The historical Buddha (Gautama Buddha) made references to the existence of aeons (the
duration of which he describes using a metaphor of the time taken to erode a huge rock
measuring 1x1x1 mile by brushing it with a silk cloth, once every century), [3] and
simultaneously intimates his knowledge of past events, such as the dawn of human beings in
their coarse and gender-split forms his ability to convey his voice vast distances, [5] as well as
the ability of his disciples (who if they fare accordingly) to be reborn in any one of these
planes (should they so choose).

If we talk about Spatial Cosmology of Buddhism

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The plan of the Borobudur temple complex in Java mirrors the three main levels of Buddhist
cosmology. The highest point in the center symbolizes Buddhahood. Aerial view of
Borobudur
Spatial cosmology displays the various, multitude of worlds embedded in the universe.
Spatial cosmology can also be divided into two branches. The vertical (or cakravāḍa;
Devanagari: चक्रवाड) cosmology describes the arrangement of worlds in a vertical pattern,
some being higher and some lower. By contrast, the horizontal (sahasra) cosmology describes
the grouping of these vertical worlds into sets of thousands, millions or billions.

As visitors walk across the gallery of the 3 levels of the Borobudur, they enter the world of
forms - they can see images of people trying to achieve mastery over worldly desires. The
daughters of the author of evil, opposed to Buddha, are trying to seduce him. He absorbs
himself in meditation convinced they are illusions of his own mind. As visitors progress and
reach the top level, the gate to the world of formlessness awaits.

Some Aspects of Stūpa Symbolism

Anagarika Brahmachari Govinda. "Some Aspects of Stūpa Symbolism." Journal of the
Indian Society of Oriental Art II/IV, no. 2/1 (1936): 25-44.
Original Publication: Sections I-IV published in JISOA: Vol II, No 2. Dec 1934, pp 87-105
and sections V-VII in JISOA: Vol IV, No 1. June 1936, pp. 25-44
I. Origin of the Buddhist stūpa.
Wherever Buddhism has flourished it has left its visible traces in form of monuments which
have their origin in the tumuli of prehistoric times. These tumuli were massive structures in
form of hemispheres, cones, pyramids and similar plain stereometrical bodies which
contained the remains of heroes, saints, kings or other great personalities.

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In India the more or less hemispheric form, as we know it from the first Buddhist stūpas or
caītyas (p. 95 Figs. 1, 3), has been the prevalent type of such monuments. That they were
erected for great rulers (cakkavattḯ) in pre-Buddhistic times according to the oldest Aryan
tradition—perhaps in connection with the prehistoric nordic Kurgans—is to be seen from
Dḯgha Nikāya XVI, 5, where the Buddha mentions in his conversation with Ānanda that “at
the four cross roads they erect a cairn to the king of kings.”
The Buddha proclaims that the same honour should be given to the Awakened Ones and to
their true disciples.
“As they treat the remains of a king of kings, so, Ānanda, should they treat the remains of the
Tathāgata. At the four cross roads a cairn should be erected to the Tathāgata. And whosoever
shall there place garlands or perfumes, or paints, or make salutation there or become in its
presence calm in heart that shall long be to them for a profit and a joy.
The men, Ānanda, worthy of a cairn, are four in number. Which are the four?
A Tathāgata, an Able Awakened One, is worthy of a cairn. One awakened for himself alone
(Pacceka-Buddha) is worthy of a cairn, a true hearer of the Tathāgata is worthy.
And on account of what circumstance, Ānanda, is a Tathāgata, an Able Awakened One (or ‘a
Pacceka Buddha, ’ etc.) worthy of a cairn?
At the thought, Ānanda, ‘This is the cairn of that Able Awakened One’ (or ‘This is the cairn
of that Pacceka Buddha’ etc), the hearts of many shall be made calm and happy; and since
they had calmed and satisfied their hearts, they will be reborn after death, when the body has
dissolved, in the happy realms of heaven. It is on account of this circumstance, Ānanda, that a
Tathāgata, an Able Awakened One (or a Pacceka Buddha, etc., ) is worthy of a cairn.”
(Transl. by Rhys Davids in Vol. II., Dialogues of the Buddha.)
In this way the Buddha gives a new meaning to the stūpas. They are no longer intended to be
the abodes of souls or spirits or mere receptacles of magic substances as in prehistoric times,
but memorials which should remind later generations of the great pioneers of humanity and
inspire them to follow their example, to encourage them in their own struggle for liberation
and to make their hearts “calm and happy”.
Thus the caītya is elevated from the service of the dead to the service of the living. Its
meaning does not remain in cantered in the particular relics, or the particular personality to
whom those remains belonged, but in that higher actuality which was realized by the Holy
Ones. The Buddha does not say ‘a stūpa should be erected for me or for my disciples’ but ‘for
the Awakened Ones and their disciples’.
Thus the stūpas did not become objects of hero worship but symbols of nibbāna, of
illumination.
In this connection it may be mentioned that some of the old stūpas were covered from top to
bottom with small triangular recesses for oil lamps, so that the whole monument could be
illuminated and appeared as one huge radiating dome of light.
The universality of the principle of enlightenment (bodhi) and the boundlessness of the
Enlightened One who has surpassed the limits of individuality, who is deep and
immeasurable like the ocean;—this universality is expressed in the cosmic symbolism of the
stūpa. Its main element, the cupola, in fact, imitates the infinite dome of the all embracing sky
which includes both, destruction and creation, death and rebirth. The early Buddhists
expressed these principles by comparing the cupola of the stūpa to the water bubble and the

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egg (aṇḍa) as the symbol of latent creative power (as such ‘aṇḍa’ was also a synonym for the
universe in the oldest Indian mythology), while the kiosk or altar-like structure (harmikā)
which rose on the summit of the cupola (p. 95), symbolised the sanctuary enthroned above
the world, beyond death and rebirth. Nepalese stūpas, which in many respects have preserved
archaic features, decorate the harmikā with painted human eyes, thus suggesting a human
figure in the posture of meditation hidden in the stūpa: the crossed legs in the base, the body
up to the shoulders in the hemisphere; the head in the harmikā. This also corresponds to the
psycho-physiological doctrine of the cakras or centres of psychic force, which are located one
above the other in the human body and through which consciousness develops in ascending
order: from the experience of material sense-objects through that of the immaterial worlds of
pure mental objects, up to the supramundane consciousness (lokuttara-cittaṁ) of
enlightenment which has its base-in the crown cakra of the head (sahasrara cakra). The latter
would correspond to the harmikā.
The symbolism proceeds in two lines, the cosmic and the psychic; they find their synthesis in
the psycho-cosmic image of Man, in which the physical elements and laws of nature and their
spiritual counterparts, the different world planes (loka) and their corresponding stages of
consciousness (lokiya cittāni) as well as that what transcends them (lokuttara-cittaṁ) have
their place. That such ideas go back to the earliest periods of Indian history can be seen from
representations of the Jain world system in the shape of a human figure.
The altar-shaped harmikā on the summit of the cupola was crowned by one or more honorific
umbrellas of stone and served, in accordance with its symbolical importance, as a receptacle
of relics; in pre-Buddhistic times these were buried most probably in or under the massive
and more or less flattened stone hemisphere or its (round) terrace-like base if such a one
existed. The resemblance of the harmikā to a sacrificial altar is perhaps not unintentional,
because the Holy One, instead of sacrificing other beings, sacrifices himself to the world. As
the Buddha teaches:There is only one sacrifice which is of real value, the sacrifice of our own
desires, our own “self”.1 The ultimate form of such a sacrifice is that of a Bodhisattva who
renounces even nirvāṇa until he has helped his fellow-beings to find the path of liberation.
From the standpoint of the sacrificial alter also, the later idea, which compares the harmikā
with the element of fire, gets a new significance. Even the eyes on the harmikā of Nepalese
stūpas fit into this symbolism, because according to the Tantras, fire (agni) corresponds to the
eye (faculty of vision, also of inner vision).
The stūpas were surrounded by great stone fences (vedikā) originally made of wood, as their
architectural character indicates, separating the sacred place from the profane world. Most of
them were decorated with auspicious signs in order to ward off evil influences and to prepare
the minds of the worshippers before entering the sanctuary. Four beautifully carved gates,
(toraṇa), the climax of the decorations of the fence, opened towards the four quarters of the
world, emphasizing the universal spirit of the Buddha Dharma, which invites all beings with
the call: ‘come and see!’ The inner space, between the fence and the stūpa, and the circular
terrace (medhi) at the basis of the cupola were used as pradakśinā patha for ritualistic
circumambulation in the direction of the sun’s course. The orientation of the gates equally
corresponds to the sun’s course, to sunrise, zenith, sunset and nadir. As the sun illuminates
the physical world, so does the Buddha illuminate the spiritual world. The eastern toraṇa
represents his birth (buddha-jati), the southern his enlightenment (sambodhi), the western his
‘setting in motion the wheel of the Law’ (dhammacakkapavattana) or the proclamation of his
doctrine, and the northern his final liberation (parinibbāna).

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The entrances were built in such a way that they appear in the ground-plan as the four arms of
a svastika (p. 95, Fig. 2), which has its centre in the relic shrine on the top of the hemisphere
in other words: in place of the cosmic centre, which according to ancient Indian ideas, was
mount Meru with the tree of divine life and of knowledge (in Buddhism the Bodhi tree), there
stood the Buddha, the Fully Enlightened One, who realized that knowledge in his own life.
II. Stages in the development of the stūpa in India and Ceylon.
It is interesting to see how closely the architectural development follows the spiritual growth
of the Buddha Dharma. The early schools of Buddhism are mainly realistic. They are still
under the influence of the historical personality of the Buddha. The fact that he lived in this
world, as a human being and attained his aim in this earthly life, is still in the foreground and
urges them to imitate his career. Their mind is directed on the practical fulfilment of his
precepts and the monastic rules as given by his first disciples. The Vinaya stands in the centre
of their attention; to them the life here is more important than the life to come, the empirical
world more actual than the worlds beyond, the objects of perception have comparatively
more reality than the perceiving subject: concentration and pacification of the mind are the
highest virtues.
The original elements of the stūpa speak the same language if we analyse them from the
psychological point of view. The ground-plan and starting principle of the stūpa is the circle,
the symbol of concentration. As a three-dimensional form the stūpa is essentially a
hemisphere; it represents the principle of concentration in a higher dimension which does not
only co-ordinate the forces of one plane but creates an equilibrium of all the forces
concerned, a complete relaxation of tension, the harmony of coming to rest within oneself.
Every point of the surface is equally related to the centre, gets its meaning and its importance
from there, immune against external influences or disturbances, combining concentration and
restfulness.
The earliest stūpas did not attain the shape of a perfect hemisphere but rather of a spheric
calotte (p.95, Fig.I) which, together with the cubic harmikā structure on its crown, produced
an earth-drawn effect. The cube by virtue of its own inherent principle of resistance, inertia or
heaviness deprives the spheric contour of its abstract or transcendental effect, just as the early
Buddhists rejected transcendental problems and metaphysical speculations, contenting
themselves with the empirical world. But this was not a narrow or materialistic contentment.
According to the Buddha’s teaching, the empirical world does not denote a constant factor
but something that grows and expands its limits according to the growth of our mind and
experience so that even what we call metaphysical may come into the range of the physical
and empirical. The higher jhānas for instance, and the worlds corresponding to them are
transcendental only to those who have not experienced them. For the Buddha they are part of
the empirical world. His anti-metaphysical attitude is not a negation of higher realities but,
quite on the contrary, an affirmation of the possibility to attain them, which would be
precluded if people would content themselves with intellectual definitions and speculations.
This also shows the limits of rationalism, which has been declared the main feature of the
early Buddhists by misinterpretation of their realistic and empiric tendencies. They accepted
‘ratio’ as a means of expression or an approach to the Dharma but never as the ultimate
principle for the attainment of enlightenment.
This we have to keep in mind if we call the archaic type of stūpas realistic, empirical or earth-
drawn: specially the last term is well to be distinguished from earth-bound. All these terms
are to be regarded as synonyms of experience, as opposed to speculation, transcendentalism,
philosophic idealism, etc. The architectural relationship to the earth corresponds exactly to

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the spiritual connection of the Buddhist with the earth as the foundation of his experience, as
the firm ground on which, ever conscious, the structure of his life and thought is erected.
While in other religions heaven or the life to come form the centre of gravity, Buddhism has
re-installed the life here in its legitimate rights. Man creates his own hells and his own
heavens. Why then to wait? Why should one not begin right now to bring down the heaven
into this life here? Thus the true Buddhist stands with both his feet firmly planted on the
earth, without a glance towards heavenly rewards and delights, solely bent upon liberation.
The bhūmisparsa-mudrā, the gesture of touching the ground which has become one of the
characteristic features of Sakyamuni, the historical Buddha (and this not without reason) is
the iconographical counterpart of the archaic (‘historical’) type of the stūpa and the most
perfect expression of ‘this-sidedness’ or earthliness in a new and higher sense.
Those schools which centered round the tradition of the historical Buddha naturally preserved
the archaic type of the stūpa; not only on account of their conservativism, but mainly because
this type of architecture was the most adequate expression of their mentality and their
religious ideal.
It is not surprising that Ceylon as the country of Vinaya and as the home of one of the
orthodox schools of early Buddhism has almost perfectly preserved the original shape of the
stūpa. The monumental dāgobas of Anuradhapura for instance (pp. 96, 97), which were built
in the period between the third century B.C. and the third century A.D., and even those of
Polonnaruva, which are as late as the twelfth century A.D., (p. 98, Fig. I) do not essentially
differ from their Indian prototypes, in Sanchi and Barhut. The cupola has retained its
dominating importance in the shape of a plain hemisphere: the harmikā in some cases is even
decorated in the old Indian fashion, imitating the structure of a railing (vedikā), which
originally surrounded the altar-like relic shrine. But the honorific umbrellas on top of it have
changed into a more architectural form. They appear as an elongated cone with a number of
horizontal notches, or rings, progressively diminishing towards the summit
It seems that the idea of the honorific umbrellas, which were held parallel one above the other
as the insignia of royalty, had been fused with the idea of the tree of life on the summit of
mount Meru or the tree of enlightenment which stands in the corresponding centre of the
Buddhist world. In fact, the latter idea seems to have overgrown finally the first one, for in
later times the honorific umbrella was actually fixed above the cone, thus showing that the
cone was not regarded as a set of umbrellas. Furthermore it is explained in later scriptures
that the different strata of the cone correspond to certain psychic faculties or stages of
consciousness on the way to enlightenment and to their respective world-planes. This goes
well with the symbol of the world-tree on the axis of the universe, representing the higher
worlds which spread one above the other in innumerable planes beyond the summit of the
sacred Meru like the branches of a gigantic tree.
The relation between the hemisphere and the socle has become closer. The substructure is no
longer sharply separated from the cupola so as to form a terrace for circumambulation, but it
is composed of several (generally three) projecting rings each a little narrower than the lower
one. In this way the continuity of the general outline of the stūpa is not all at once interrupted,
but the dynamic power of the main curve is gradually broken in the ‘cascades’ of the socle
and finally arrested in the basic step. The basis has lost its independent importance and has
become part of the greater body of the dome.
Railings (vedikā) of the Sanchi type have not been preserved in Ceylon, though there was a
kind of an enclosure or demarcation of the sacred place around the monument serving as

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circumambulatory path (pradakṣinā patha). The oldest stūpa of Ceylon, the Thūparāma
dāgoba, which goes back to the times of Asoka (272-232 B.C. ) has its pradakṣinā patha on
an elevated round platform which, together with the monument seems to have been protected
by a roof. There are still two concentric rows of stone pillars, the inner ones higher than the
outer ones, so that there can be hardly any doubt about their function. Even nowadays we can
find ‘roofed’ dāgobas in Ceylon, for instance at Danbadeniya (westward from Polgahawela)
and Gadaladeniya near Kandy. But in all these cases the dāgobas are of small dimensions.
The Thūpārāma dāgoba too, according to the proportions of the stone pillars, must have been
much smaller originally, and we can not take its present shape as representative of the oldest
stūpa architecture in Ceylon.
The platforms of the other old stūpas at Anuradhapura, like Mirisveti, Ruvanveli, Jetavana,
Abhayagiri etc. (which are to be dated from the second to the first century B.C.) were
quadrangular, the sides corresponding to the four chief points of the compass as in the case of
the toraṇas. But in place of the latter there were four small shrines or altars annexed to the
base of the dāgoba. These shrines are also to be found at the main dāgobas of Polonnaruva.
The modern Sinhalese dāgoba (p. 98, Fig.2) on the whole remains true to the original
character of its predecessors. The several elements of the structure, however, enter into more
intimate relations with one another and merge into one organized whole. The hemisphere
grows into a bell and acts as a mediator between the base and the crowning structure so that
these parts enter into closer relation with its plastic body.
This fusion of architectural elements coincides with the progressive organisation of the
Buddhist doctrine and its tradition, in a solid system which is worked out in commentaries
and subcommentaries, leaving no gap unfilled. The old teaching has been preserved carefully,
but new layers of thought and explanatory work, not excluding scholastic speculation, have
crystallised around the kernel and have given it a smoother, well organized surface, rich in
details but simplified as a whole.

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STŪPAS OF SANCHI, Figure on JISOA., Vol II/2 pp. 95

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THŪPĀRĀMA DĀGOBA, ANURADHAPURA. (Third Century B.C.), Figure on JISOA., Vol II/2 pp. 96

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RUVANVELI DĀGOBA, ANURADHAPURA (IInd—Ind Century B.C.), Figure on JISOA., Vol II/2 pp. 97

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 TYPES OF MEDIEVAL AND MODERN DĀGOBAS IN CEYLON, Figure on JISOA., Vol II/2 pp. 98

III. Proportions of the dāgoba.

“Thūpesu tramā kṛata pañca-bhāgam/Guṇaṁ pamāṁrh tribhāga-tuṇgam/Ghaṇṭākāra-
ghaṭākāram/Bubbulākāra-dhānyakam/Padmā-kārāmbala-saṭvidham./Thūpsu tāram kṛta-
pañca-bhāgam/Guṇṁ pamāṇaṁ catuvisa-bhāgam/Trimāla-pañcārdhaka-garbbham
aṣṭam/Catus-surākoṣṭha-yugarddha-yugmam/Sasṭānta-kuntam puṇarddha-chatram/Vadanti
cātaḥ munihiḥ purāṇaiḥ.”

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jsioa-ii-symbolism-stupa-page-13.png

According to these verses which are quoted by H. Parker, Ancient Ceylon p. 336, one has to
divide the width of the stūpa into five parts. Three of them represent the height of the cupola,
which has six types: bell-shape, waterpot-shape, bubble-shape, heap-of-paddy-shape, lotus-
shape and Nelli-fruit-shape. The height of the dāgoba is divided into 24 parts: five and a half
of them are counted for the three basal rings or “garlands” (trimāla), eight for the cupola
(garbbha, lit. “womb”), a couple and a half for the quadrangular enclosure (catussurākoṣṭha),
i.e. the harmikā, two for the base of the spire, the last six for the spire, and again half a unit
for the umbrella. In Parker’s opinion one and a half parts should be counted for the base of
the spire, because summing up all the other items, including half a unit for the chatra only,
one and a half parts remain. But the verse simply mentions a ‘pair’ (yugmam) at this place
and the term sasṭānta, the “last six” indicates that the half unit for the umbrella is an
additional one (the word ‘puṇa’ itself emphasises the additional character). The modern
practice supports my view, as it counts two parts for the base of the spire, leaving out the
umbrella, which shows that the chatra was not regarded an essential part of the dāgoba.
The main proportions of the dāgoba can be expressed in the following way: The height of the
cupola, which is three-fifth of the diameter of its groundplan, represents one-third of the
height of the entire building, and is equal to the height of the spire (including its base) and to
the height of the threefold base (trimāla) plus that of the harmikā.
As these proportions generally do not agree with those of the archaic Ceylonese dāgobas, the
rules of the verses quoted above cannot go back to pre-Christian times, but according to
Parker there are sufficient reasons to say that they are not later than the fifth century A.D.

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Nevertheless there is a fundamental principle which reveals itself as well in the original
proportions of the stūpa as in the later measurements. As we can see from our summary, the
key-number in the vertical composition of the dāgoba is three. This is not a mere accident but
it is characteristic even of the earliest Buddhist monuments. Besides the three main parts of
the stūpa, namely basis, cupola and kiosk, of which the cupola was three times the height of
the basis,—the railing as well as the toraṇas were formed by three bars, or architraves, of
purely symbolical meaning, corresponding to the Buddhist trinity: Buddha, Dhamma,
Sangha.
The three is characteristic for the dimension of space, the four characterises the extension on
the plane, the second dimension. It appears in the ground-plans as the four gates, four main
places of worship, four-cornered platforms, four staircases, finally as four- or eight-cornered
substructures.
If we see the Buddha-Dharma as a spiritual building, we can find a similar tendency: to
develop at the same time in two directions or dimensions which penetrate each other. The one
may be called the individual one, the other the universal one. Their relationship is like that of
plane to space. The individual one corresponds to the plane, the universal one to space.
The individual principle is bound up with morality and ethics. It is the foundation, the
spiritual ground-plan on which the ‘vertical’ development into the next higher dimension, the
universal aspect of the Dharma is based. Just as the four is the prominent principle in the
architectural ground-plans of Buddhist monuments, this number prevails also among the
ethical categories or individual aspects and conditions of truth in the Buddhist doctrine: as for
instance, the four noble truths, the eightfold path, the four foundations of mindfulness (sati-
paṭṇhāna), the four great efforts (sammappadhāna), the four fundamental (or sublime)
meditations (appamaññāya: ‘illimitable’ state of mind), the four trances (jhāna: 4 in rūpa, 4 in
arūpa), the four psychic powers (iddhipāda), etc.
The universal aspect of the Dharma which I compared to the dimension of space, is expressed
by categories in which the number three prevails in the same sense as in the vertical
development or composition of Buddhist architecture. There are, for instance, three universal
planes or conditions of conscious existence: kāmaloka, rūpaloka and arūpaloka; three
principles of life or universal characteristics (lakkhana): anicca, dukkha, anattā; three
fundamental motives (hetu): lobha, dosa, moha (and their opposites); three principles of
action (in the broadest sense): kamma, vipāka, kriyā; three principles of existence: paṭisandhi,
bhavaṅga, cuti. Just as the third dimension can not exist without the second, or an elevation
apart from its ground-plan so are all these categories inseparable from the individual and yet
they go beyond it. They are universal in the sense of inherent principles or laws. Though
being part of our subjective experience they belong to the ‘objective side’ of life, i.e., they
exist wherever life exists, while the other categories, which I called individual and ethical, are
to be acquired or perceived by the individual as they do not exist in it automatically. It is only
from this point of view that a distinction between ‘individual’ and ‘universal’ can be made
here, but not in the sense of mutual exclusiveness. In a more general sense any state of mind
which overcomes the limits of individuality may be called universal, as for instance the
‘appamaññāya’s, but it is neither a constant factor of consciousness nor a universal function
or principle of life.
IV. Symbolical terminology of the main elements of the dāgoba.
Not only the proportions but also the names of the different parts of the dāgoba as preserved
by the Sinhalese tradition (cf. Parker, Ancient Ceylon) are of some interest to us. The
decorative function to which the threefold terrace has been reduced is indicated in the

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Sinhalese term tun-māl pesāva or pesāvalallu, ‘the three-story ornaments’ or ‘ornamental
bangles’. The bell-shaped cupola is called gaeba, generally translated as ‘chamber’. The same
word is used for the holy of holies. But it means much more than that, being connected with
one of the most significant term s of Indian architecture. The holy of holies, the shrine or
sanctuary of Hindu temples is called garbha-gṛha, lit. womb. The sanctuary, be it the cella of
a temple or the relic chamber of a stūpa, is regarded as a centre of creative forces, which like
those of the motherly womb generate and transform the seeds of the past into the life-forms
of the future. The same function is represented by the egg (aṇḍa), and it is not difficult to
understand that both terms, aṇḍa and (dhātu-)garbha could be applied simultaneously to the
stūpa-dome.
This indicates that the stūpa is the continuation of an age-old tradition which has its roots in
the telluric symbolism of prehistoric, matriarchal religions, in which the creative force of the
earth (soil) as the mother of all visible life was worshipped in caves or subterranean
sanctuaries or dark temple chambers. The early Buddhist cave temple (caītya-halls) may be
reminiscences of these chthonic cults2 in which the motherhood of matter and the mysteries
of life and creation were the centre of religious attention.
The ‘dynamic materialism’ of Sāṁkhya with its philosophy of Prakṛti and the ‘biological
materialism’ of the Jains—in which even mental properties were reduced to substances which
‘flow’ into the soul, substances which can be mixed and separated and which act upon each
other like chemical fluids or elements, are the religious and philosophical followers of the
telluric tendencies or the earliest religions of humanity. Matter was regarded a living reality
—not something mechanical or opposed to spiritual forces or to consciousness. It was not by
accident that the temples and monuments of old were· built of huge blocks of stone, each of
which was in proportion to the weight of the entire structure and represented a definite
fraction of the whole. It was not in vain that immense masses of stone were piled one upon
the other, and that walls were constructed of an almost unbelievable thickness, regard less of
the labour required and of mere utility or expediency; for in those days, men still knew the
value of solid masses.
The historical an philosophical neighbourhood of Sāṃkhya and Jainism agrees with the
realistic attitude, the this-sided-ness of Buddhism and its appreciation of the cosmic qualities
of matter, in the sense of being the basic state and the most fundamental function in the
development of the world. The ‘materia’ itself contains this meaning: denoting that which is
the mother of all phenomena, of all things. It is latent energy, life at rest, but full of hidden
activity (like the egg, which is taken as a simile of creation). It is magic substance, endowed
with the memory of the past (seed) and charged with potential forces which though
continuously radiating and influencing the surroundings are capable to convert themselves
into visible life and activity.
Matter is not only the exponent of physical forces, as apparent in the laws of gravitation,
resistance, continuity, cohesion, indestructibility (though it may change its form or even its
state of aggregation) and in its conformity to certain laws of growth or crystallisation—but
also an accumulator of spiritual forces, which are not fundamentally different from those of
matter but only intensified to a higher potentiality and transformed into a higher dimension
which includes the visible and the invisible, matter and space, the unconscious (i.e., that
which is not yet conscious) and the conscious. There is no essential difference between
matter and mind, between the outer and the inner world, between the movement of the wind
and the movement of breath.

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This attitude was not only preserved by the Buddhist doctrine, but it had been, facilitated and
developed by the idea that the elements of mind and matter are in constant flux and
correlation. In the sixth chapter of Abhidhammattha-Sangaha (a compendium of the
Theravāda Abhidhamma) for instance, we see that among the eleven qualities or principles of
rūpa, the material as well as the immaterial elements are enumerated. Throughout the history
of Buddhist philosophy and psychology we find the statements of definite relations between
elements, forms, colours, sense organs, sensations, states and properties of consciousness,
world-planes, stages of meditation, etc.
If we can see matter from this point of view, we shall also be able to grasp the real meaning
of relics and sacred objects like amulets, etc.. Both are saturated with spiritual influences—
the former by the nature of their own past, the latter by an intentional concentration of
conscious forces upon them through the elaborate execution of their shape. In both cases it is
the action that matters, the act of shaping, the concentration of consciousness, of intention, of
will-power, in which life is focussed on a particular unit of matter. The amulet is, so to say:
an imitation of a materialized life process. It is an abridged growth, artificial process of
reshaping certain life forms or potential moments of consciousness in the condensed form of
symbols.
This applies exactly to the stūpa, which is not only a centre of accumulated forces by virtue
of the relics, but just as well, and later on mainly, by virtue of its own symbolical
composition, which reflects and reconstructs the eternal properties of the Enlightened Ones
and the essence of their life. Though these eternal properties manifest themselves individually
in ever new incarnations, they are supra-personal and reflect the cosmic order. For this reason
the cosmic symbolism of the pre-Buddhistic tumulus could serve the Buddhists as a starting
point for their religious architecture and thus preserve one of the most venerable monuments
of pre-historic civilisation.
“In the stūpa one of the oldest and most profound cosmic symbols has been preserved for us,
a symbol that humanity has created in its remotest past and in its sacred awe before the
wonders of the creative power of the world. Without Buddhism this symbol might have never
come down to us.” (E. Diez).
Originally the term dhātu-garbha referred only to the harmikā, which actually contained the
relics (dhātu) and preserved them as precious seeds for the future of humanity. Later on the
aṇḍa became identified with the dhātu-garbha; in fact the dome, on account of successive
enlargements grew in many cases beyond (above) the original relic chamber, thus including it
and taking over its function, also in the material sense: finally the whole-monument was
called dhātu-garbha, Sinhalese dāgoba, in Burma and the neighbouring countries, pagoda.
That this name does really justice to the fundamental character of these monuments becomes
clear if we take into account all their symbolical elements: the latent creative power of the
egg, in which life is condensed into the smallest unit, the womb in which these powers are
transformed and developed, the sacrificial altar which effects a similar transformation
through the purifying force of the fire, and the dhātus, the ‘magic elements’, which were not
only purified by the fire of the pyre, but through the fire of self-denial, in which the Holy
One consumed himself during his life-time, nay, during innumerable lifes.
And as the Phoenix rises from the ashes so the tree of life and enlightenment grows out of the
ashes of the sacrificial altar (harmikā; Sinhalese: hataraes kotuva, the four-sided or square
enclosure), which crowns the dome, the monumental world-egg and the womb of a new
world which has been fecundated by the seeds of a glorious past, receiving the dhātus, the
potential elements for the spiritual rebirth of the world. The spire (Sinhalese: kota) of the

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dāgoba represents this tree of life with its higher worlds, which are realized in profound
meditation on the way to enlightenment. Thus the spiritual rebirth of the world starts in the
mind of man and the tree of life grows out of his own heart, the centre of his being, the axis
of his own world.. And while he experiences the different world-planes, the tree of life
sprouts and develops within him and spreads its branches in ever new infinities; in fact, he
himself turns into a tree of life, into a tree of enlightenment.
A lonely wanderer on a similar path, Angelus Silesius, has expressed this experience in the
following verse:
Shall the life tree free thee from death and strife,
Thyself must tum divine a tree of life.” 3
The Sinhalese term for the stem of the spire, devata kotuva, ‘the enclosure of gods’, is closely
connected with the mythical mount Meru with its tree of divine world-planes, inhabited by
hierarchies of gods. How strong this tradition has been and how great its influence on the
imagination of later generations, even in the remotest places of Indian colonisation, like the
Sunda Islands to the east of Java, is shown by the fact that on the island of Lombok in the
park of Cakranagara there are pagodas with nine-and eleven-storied roofs and these pagodas
are called Meru. But they are not at all dāgobas or stūpas, as they are without the main body,
i.e. the dome and its basal terraces. They consist only in the hypertrophic spire of the dāgoba,
which has been separated and developed independently as a representation of mount Meru in
the shape of the cosmic tree with nine or eleven world-planes.
V. Pre-buddhistic origins of stūpa symbolism4
In Mahāyāna Buddhism the transcendental symbolism of the crowning parts of the stūpa got
a new impetus. Their structure became more and more elaborate and extensive and the
number of stories steadily increased from five to seven, to nine, to eleven, and finally to
thirteen Bhūmīs. The general outline of the stūpa was no longer dominated by the dome but
determined by an upward movement which raised and multiplied the substructure, narrowed
the dome, enlarged the Harmikā and elongated the spire. The direction of the religious
outlook had turned from a completed past to the growing future, from the ideal of an
accomplished Buddha to that of a becoming one, from the world as it is to the world as it
should be and as it had been dreamt of in the vision of mount Meru’s supramundane realms.
In this vision the religious aspirations of the Buddhists and the followers of the Vedas met; on
this ground only their compromise was possible. We are therefore justified in thinking that it
was not a mere accident that at the time when Mahāyāna was in its bloom, at about the fifth
century, a type of religious architecture came into existence which realized the spiritual and
structural tendency of this vision (which was embodied in the crowning parts of the stūpa) in
a parallel but otherwise independent form, developing into what is known to us as the Śikhara
type of temple.
The earliest stages of this type are still wrapped in darkness. It seems that they did not
originate before the Gupta period. The earliest example dating from the fifth century is a
votive Śikhara temple found at Samath.
The village hut itself is the prototype of these shrines. And as the hut serves the earthly life,
the shrine serves the cult of life-giving and life-preserving forces (generally personified in the
sun-god). It stood in the shadow of the sacred tree and was surrounded by a fence as a
demarcation of the sacred place. The ground-plan of the shrine, like that of the altar, was
almost square and the roof high, either on account of the fire or in order to distinguish it from

128
ordinary huts. The development of pyramidal and conical forms (as in the case of the spire of
the stūpa) was more or less pre-conditioned.
The temples were erected within the village, while the tumuli which served the cult of the
dead were built outside their walls. The Buddhist stūpa which combined the elements of the
village sanctuary with that of the ancient tumulus recognized in its form that life and death
are only the two sides or poles of the one reality of the world, complementing and
conditioning each other, as the co-existent principles of Viṣṇu and Śiva.5
To think them separate is illusion and only as long as the veil of Maya has not been lifted, the
worship of these two forces proceeds separately, some times even as two different forms of
religion. But once it has been understood that the plant cannot be born to the light before the
seed has perished in the dark womb of the earth, that the egg must break in order to give life
to a new being, that transformation is that which conditions life, “that we are living our death
and dying our life”—if this has been understood, then the great synthesis takes place, and the
foundation of a world-religion is established. Existence is constant transformation, i.e. it
combines the elements of stability and change. Transformation without constancy, law, or
rhythm is destruction. Constancy without transformation means eternal death. He who wants
to ‘preserve’ his life will lose it. He who does not find his inner law (dharma) will perish. The
principle of ‘Śiva’ without the regulating force of ‘Viṣṇu’ is destruction. The principle of
‘Viṣṇu’ without the creative dynamics of ‘Śiva’ is stagnation. The same holds good for all the
other pairs of opposites under which the universe appears to us. Their mutual relations and
their interpenetration in every stage of existence are illustrated by the architectural
composition and development of the stūpa and the ideas connected with it.
The hemisphere stands for the dark and motherly forces of the earth, the transforming power
of death (and rebirth), the concentration of yoga and asceticism (ascetics and yogins always
preferred cemeteries).
The cone as well as the similar pyramidal forms, characterised by one pointedness and
vertical direction stand for the forces of the sun: light and life, represented by the fire-altar
(harmikā) and the tree (spire). The tree later on includes all the other symbols representing
the universe (mount Meru). The sun and the stars are its fruits, and its branches the different
world-planes. Tree worship has been preserved in Buddhism until the present day, the
worship of light in that of Āmitābha (the Buddha of infinite light, the sun-Buddha, who
emanates innumerable ‘enlightened beings’, the worship of life in that of Āmitāyus (who is
only another form of Āmitābha). The idea of the Ādibuddha and his emanations shows that
with the advent of Mahāyāna the symbols of the solar cult came again to the foreground.
VI. Relations between stūpa and Hindu-architecture
With the revival of Brāhmaṇīsm Śiva became the exponent of all those principles that were
connected with the hemisphere of the stūpa while Viṣṇu continued the tradition of sun
worship as represented in the conical or pyramidal spire.

jsioa-iv-symbolism-stupa-page-03.png

129
Stūpi principle in Vimāna-architecture: Outline of the Dharmarāja ratha in Mavalipuram as
an example of the Vimāna-type of temples, in which the cupola (stūpi) or pavilion-principle governs
the system, and in which each unit expresses centralisation. In the general composition the horizontal
character is stronger than the upward movement.Figure on JISOA., Vol IV/1 pp. 27
Śiva is called the yogin among the gods; he unites in himself asceticism and ecstasy,
concentration and activity; he is the liberator, the destroyer of the world of illusion, the
transformer, the creative principle. (līṅgam), the potential force of the womb (therefore moon
and water are his attributes).
Viṣṇu represents the law, the direction in movement, the sun that rotates and moves in its
prescribed course; he is the preserver of life, the protector of the world, the illuminator, who
rides in his sun car (vimāna) from horizon to horizon, the loving friend and helper of all
creatures (cf. avatārs). His main attribute is the wheel of the law (dharmacakra).

130
Architectural and symbolical relations between the Śikhara and the crowning part of the stūpa: \

Simplified elevation of an Orissa Śikhara (fig. 3) with its five Bhūmis, comparable to the
Rūpaloka-bhūmis of the Bud hist psychocosmos, repreented by the spire of a stūpa with tentative
reconstruction of an Āmalaka-kalaśa-termination (Fig. 21. Fig. I shows a slmilar termination of a
modern Nepalese stūpa.

The combination of Āmalaka and Tripatadhāra (Fig. 5) has been preserved in the termination of the
Tibetan stūpa (mchorten) (Fig. 6). Tripatadhāra is here replaced by an honorific umbrella from which
most probably it has been derived. The shape of the Tripatadhāra is exactly the same as that of the
original honorific umbrella (Fig. 4 and upper part of Fig. 5).Figure on JISOA., Vol IV/1 pp. 28
The south of India is mainly Śivaitic and has preserved the dome as the crowning part of the
temple. Up to the present day the technical term for this dome or cupola is “stūpi” (see
drawing on p. 27 — Figure 1). The north, however, which is more inclined towards
Viṣṇuism, prefers the Śikhara (see drawings, below, — Figure 2). This fact proves, that
psychologically and symbolically the cupola is closer related to the principle of Śiva, the
Śikhara to that of Viṣṇu.

131
The crowning spire of a stûpa with its Bhūmis or strata of world planes, in this respect
corresponds to the Śikhara. In the Orissa temples (Figure 3) it is divided into five Bhūmis,
which are sub-divided again into smaller strata (just as the Bhūmis in the psycho-cosmic
world system of Buddhism: there are, for instance, five Rūpaloka-bhūmis, each of them
subdivided into three and more classes). The Bhūmis culminate in the Vedikā, the sacred
quadrangular enclosure (Sinh. “hataraes kotuva, ” corresponding to the Harmikā and the
Vedic altar), which is crowned by the Āmalaka or Āmalasāra, the ‘pure kernel’, upon which
the Āmṛtakalasa, the vessel with the water of immortality—which is also the attribute of
Buddha Amitāyus is placed. According to the Divyāvadāna the primitive Caītya ended in a
kind of pot, which was called Kalasa (Tucci, “lndo-Tibetica” I, p. 47, nI).
There can be no doubt about the symbolical relationship between the Mahāyāna-Buddha
Āmitābha, the Buddha of infinite light (and life, in his aspect of Amitāyus) and Viṣṇu, the
sun-god. Both of them are supposed to incarnate their love and compassion in the form of
helpers and teachers of humanity: as Bodhisattvas and avatārs. Both of them have the wheel
of the law as their attribute. The Dharmacakra is also ascribed to the historical Buddha
Śākyamuni. But it was only used to represent him in his Viṣṇutic aspect, as the establisher of
the Dharma, in the act of setting in motion the wheel of the law at h is first sermon at Sarnāth.
The other great events of his life, his enlightenment and his Parinirvāṇa, were hinted at by the
tree of enlightenment and the Caītya. This means that the historical Buddha cannot be
connected exclusively with either the Viṣṇutic or the Śivaitic aspect. He represents the one or
the other according to the period of his life. The orthodox school has never given any
attribute to their Buddha image because their worship was centred on the one historical
Buddha and even when his predecessors were depicted he could easily be recognized by his
position. Later on, when other Buddhas were introduced by the Mahāyānists, Śākyamuni was
characterised by the alms-bowl, the symbol of the ascetic, which shows that his quality of a
yogin, his Śivaitic aspect, was felt as his main characteristic by the followers of Mahāyāna.
And in fact the orthodox schools themselves emphasised strongly the ascetic side of
Buddhism (vinaya) and in their architecture the tumulus or dome shape of the stūpa
prevailed. The followers of the Mahāyāna on the other hand tried to avoid the exclusiveness
of asceticism by taking the whole world into their scheme of salvation and emphasised the
Viṣṇutic qualities of the Buddha which transcend the historical personality and remain a
permanent source of light to the world. Thus the solar symbolism of the world tree came
again into prominence, while the hemisphere of the stūpa became one element among others
and the vertical development of the monument proceeded further.
VII. Fundamental form-principles
Before we continue our description it may be useful to summarize the main ideas suggested
by the two fundamental form-principles, hemisphere and cone: the former standing for
centralisation, the latter for vertical direction and one pointedness, which may also be
represented by tapering pyramids with square or polygonal base.
Hemisphere: Cone:
lunar worship solar worship
motherhood—earth Fatherhood—sky
symbols: moon, taurus, Triśūla, yoni-lingam symbols: sun, disc, w
night (unity of interpenetration) day (unfoldment, diff
cult of the dead cult of life

132
tumulus village sanctuary tumulus
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life) (parāvṛtti)
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the yogin
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concentration emanation inner activity
inner activity outer activity inner transformation
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133
asceticism (hermit life) worldly or practical morality (family revolution
life) (parāvṛtti)
revolution (parāvṛtti) evolution intuitive
intuitive discursive yoga
yoga pūjā help from within
help from within help from without self-deliverance
self-deliverance deliverance by grace belief in the divine qu
belief in the divine quality of man belief in the human quality of god Viṣṇu,
the yogin
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creative (potential) stimulative (growth) becoming and dissolv
becoming and dissolving being freedom (nirvāṇa)
freedom (nirvāṇa) Law (karma)
tumulus village sanctuary tumulus
hemisphere of the stūpa conical or pyramidal spire hemisphere of the stū
cupola, pavilions, barrel-vaulted pyramidal and conical towers with square
cupola, andpavilions,
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roofs horizontal developme
horizontal development vertical development concentration
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inner activity outer activity inner transformation
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asceticism (hermit life) worldly or practical morality (family revolution
life) (parāvṛtti)
revolution (parāvṛtti) evolution intuitive
intuitive discursive yoga
yoga pūjā help from within
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self-deliverance deliverance by grace belief in the divine qu
belief in the divine quality of man belief in the human quality of god Viṣṇu,
the yogin
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Śiva, the yogin the transformer
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becoming and dissolving being freedom (nirvāṇa)
freedom (nirvāṇa) Law (karma)
tumulus village sanctuary tumulus
hemisphere of the stūpa conical or pyramidal spire hemisphere of the stū
cupola, pavilions, barrel-vaulted pyramidal and conical towers with square
cupola,and pavilions,
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roofs horizontal developme
horizontal development vertical development concentration
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Śiva, the yogin the transformer
the transformer the preserver creative (potential)
creative (potential) stimulative (growth) becoming and dissolv

134
becoming and dissolving being freedom (nirvāṇa)
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135
revolution (parāvṛtti) evolution intuitive
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tumulus village sanctuary tumulus

136
hemisphere of the stūpa conical or pyramidal spire hemisphere of the stū
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137
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hemisphere of the stūpa conical or pyramidal spire hemisphere of the stū
cupola, pavilions, barrel-vaulted pyramidal and conical towers with squarecupola,
and polygonal
pavilions,
bases
bar
roofs horizontal developme
horizontal development vertical development concentration
concentration emanation inner activity
inner activity outer activity inner transformation
inner transformation inner stability asceticism (hermit life
asceticism (hermit life) worldly or practical morality (family life)revolution (parāvṛtti)
revolution (parāvṛtti) evolution intuitive
intuitive discursive yoga
yoga pūjā help from within
help from within help from without self-deliverance
self-deliverance deliverance by grace belief in the divine qu
belief in the divine quality of belief in the human quality of god Viṣṇu,thetheyogin
solar god
man Śiva, the yogin the transformer
the transformer the preserver creative (potential)
creative (potential) stimulative (growth) becoming and dissolv
becoming and dissolving being freedom (nirvāṇa)
freedom (nirvāṇa) Law (karma)
tumulus village sanctuary tumulus
hemisphere of the stūpa conical or pyramidal spire hemisphere of the stū
cupola, pavilions, barrel- pyramidal and conical towers with squarecupola,
and polygonal
pavilions,
bases
bar

138
vaulted roofs horizontal developme
horizontal development vertical development concentration
concentration emanation inner activity
inner activity outer activity inner transformation
inner transformation inner stability asceticism (hermit life
asceticism (hermit life) worldly or practical morality (family life) revolution (parāvṛtti)
revolution (parāvṛtti) evolution intuitive
intuitive discursive yoga
yoga pūjā help from within
help from within help from without self-deliverance
self-deliverance deliverance by grace belief in the divine qu
belief in the divine quality of belief in the human quality of god Viṣṇu, the yogin
solar god
man Śiva, the yogin the transformer
the transformer the preserver creative (potential)
creative (potential) stimulative (growth) becoming and dissolv
becoming and dissolving being freedom (nirvāṇa)
freedom (nirvāṇa) Law (karma)
tumulus village sanctuary tumulus
hemisphere of the stūpa conical or pyramidal spire hemisphere of the stū
cupola, pavilions, barrel- pyramidal and conical towers with square and cupola,
polygonal
pavilions,
bases
bar
vaulted roofs horizontal developme
horizontal development vertical development concentration
concentration emanation inner activity
inner activity outer activity inner transformation
inner transformation inner stability asceticism (hermit life
asceticism (hermit life) worldly or practical morality (family life) revolution (parāvṛtti)
revolution (parāvṛtti) evolution intuitive
intuitive discursive yoga
yoga pūjā help from within
help from within help from without self-deliverance
self-deliverance deliverance by grace belief in the divine qu
belief in the divine quality of belief in the human quality of god Viṣṇu, thethesolar
yogingod
man Śiva, the yogin the transformer
the transformer the preserver creative (potential)
creative (potential) stimulative (growth) becoming and dissolv
becoming and dissolving being freedom (nirvāṇa)
freedom (nirvāṇa) Law (karma)
tumulus village sanctuary tumulus
hemisphere of the stūpa conical or pyramidal spire hemisphere of the stū
cupola, pavilions, barrel- pyramidal and conical towers with square and cupola,
polygonal
pavilions,
bases bar
vaulted roofs horizontal developme
horizontal development vertical development concentration
concentration emanation inner activity
inner activity outer activity inner transformation
inner transformation inner stability asceticism (hermit life
asceticism (hermit life) worldly or practical morality (family life) revolution (parāvṛtti)
revolution (parāvṛtti) evolution intuitive
intuitive discursive yoga
yoga pūjā help from within
help from within help from without self-deliverance

139
self-deliverance deliverance by grace belief in the divine qu
belief in the divine quality of belief in the human quality of god Viṣṇu, thethe
solar
yogin
god
man Śiva, the yogin the transformer
the transformer the preserver creative (potential)
creative (potential) stimulative (growth) becoming and dissolv
becoming and dissolving being freedom (nirvāṇa)
freedom (nirvāṇa) Law (karma)
these two categories of principles complement each other and were never completely
separated, as the history of religion and religious architecture shows. There was, on the
contrary, a constant tendency towards fusion which succeeded more or less in the periods of
highest religious culture and experience. But the equation Śiva-Viṣṇu was never completely
solved, because there is an irrational residue beyond expression and calculation which has its
root in the fact that the world cannot be divided into equal halves, because there is a third
principle which takes part in the other two. In this way there are no complete contrasts—even
in opposites there is something in common—and on the other hand that is no absolute
identity between anything existing in the world.
The third great principle which partly overlaps the other two is the Brahmā principle. Its main
features are those of extension, unfoldment, birth, manifestation, materialisation, universal
expansion. In its expansive character it is not determined by one direction like the principle,
but acts in all detections simultaneously. Its stereometrical equivalent is the cube.
We have not yet spoken of this fundamental form, because it has been combined with both
the other principles of architecture and has no deciding influence on our classification. Just as
in Hindu religion, Brahma is supposed to inherent in the aspects of Śiva and Viṣṇu, and is not
considered and worshipped separately, so the principle of Brahma, of materialisation, is
immanent in the other two principles, in so far as they take material shape, come into
appearance and unfold themselves.
The Buddhist starts from the experience of the world of sense perception and frees himself
from its overpowering diversity and its unsatiable thirst of becoming by analysing its
elements and reducing them to their fundamental laws. He thus overcomes the Brahma aspect
of the world by the Viṣṇu aspect of the law (‘dharma’ in its noumenal character, ‘karma’ in
its phenomenal appearance, in its relation to action). This struggle is the foundation of the
Buddha-sāsanā, represented in the basis of the stūpa, the mass of which is reduced step by
step, from its greatest unfoldment to its greatest concentration. The personality of the seeker
of truth, however, with progressive understanding loses the narrowness of particularity. He
becomes the embodiment of the ineluctable law, of the living and yet so rigid procedure of
the world. And so the new aim presents itself, not only as freedom from the limitations of
personality and the impulses that form and maintain it, but equally as freedom from the law
of the world, which is the world itself; for the world does not possess this law as something
additional but consists in this conformity to law, i.e., in action and reaction (karma-law-
cosmos-world). In this sense the Enlightened One is able to overcome the world within his
own being by the annihilation of karmic tendencies (saṃskāra) and the chain of dependent
origination (pratityasamutpāda) by which nirvāṇa is realized. This is the last step from the
principle of Viṣṇu to the principle of Śiva—as symbolized in the stūpa’s hemisphere—the
deliverance from the formed, to the un-formed: the ultimate transition from law to freedom.
While the first stage seeks freedom in the ‘cosmos’, the deliverance from becoming into
being and from the undirected and indiscriminate thirst for existence, the ‘chaos’, to the
consciously directed existence, the last stage seeks freedom from the ‘cosmos’. The term
cosmos as used here, denotes the experience of the world under the aspect of the law.

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Buddhism itself also belongs to the ‘cosmos’, that is, as far as its mental form is concerned.
Only in meditation, with attainment of the Arūpaloka stages, does the breaking loose from the
‘cosmos’ begin, and nirvāṇa lies beyond these.
But in order to be freed from the ‘cosmos’—the ultimate object of suffering in the stage of
the highest, most refined consciousness—one must be capable of experiencing it, must really
experience it. One must first have found one’s way to freedom in the law before one can
attain to freedom from the law, that is to freedom final and complete.
The Parinirvarāṇa of the Buddha becomes the starting point for his followers and for the
future world, to go his way again, on the basis of his Noble Eightfold Path, into which he
condensed his experience. This new basis is represented by the Harmikā from which the tree
of life rises as a symbol of future attainments, fulfilling the sacrifice and the message of the
past. The spire shows again the gradual reduction of the world (cosmos) until it reaches the
point of complete unity which transcends all ‘cosmic’ experience and realizes the perfect
Śūnyatā or metaphysical emptiness. The cone is crowned with a ball 6 (kaeraella) or similar
forms of the Śivaitic principle.
It goes without saying that the formal and symbolical development in conformity with the
principles of Brahma, Viṣṇu and Śiva took place automatically, i.e., in accordance with the
inner necessities of the human psyche, without being conscious to the originators of those
monuments, —at least not in the earlier periods. later on, specially among Indian Buddhist
architects, these principles may have become known to those who were initiated into the
esoteric meaning of architectural forms and metaphysical symbolism.
In the Manasara the four-sided pillar is called Brahmakānda, the eight-sided ne Viṣṇukāṇḍa,
the round column Candrakāṇḍa (candra, the moon: symbol of Śiva). This harmonizes well
with our respective classifications of the main elements of the stūpa (though we arrived at our
conclusions in a different and safer way): the Brahma character of the square platform and
(later on) the square terraces of the base; the Śivaitic character of the dome; the Viṣṇutic
character of the Harmikā which, as we shall see later on, was identified with the Eightfold
Path. But we have to keep in mind that in architecture the ground-plans of the different parts
are not alone decisive, but there is also their development in the third dimension and the
relations among themselves, which are determined by their architectural composition and
modify their meaning. The cubical Harmikā, for instance, which starts already from the
principle of Śiva (hemisphere) cannot have the same symbolical value as a cubical element in
the actual basis of the monument. The basal terraces grow narrower with every step, which
means that the Brahma principle decreases and gives room to another. The vertical and one
pointed tendency itself is a feature of the Viṣṇutic principle. In the ground-plan the
hemisphere and the cone show the same shape, which means that also symbolically they have
something in common, namely the Śivaitic principle; but in the third dimension the cone is
quite different from the hemisphere, expressing a one-pointed vertical movement, which
means that the Viṣṇutic principle is combined with it. In this sense we can say that the cone
itself represents the Viṣṇutic character and that the shape of its ground-plan only modifies it
towards the principles of Brahma or Śiva.
In later Buddhist symbolism the four-sided pillar is associated with the Buddha, the eight-
sided with the Sangha, the sixteen-sided one or the round column with the Dharma. Buddha
has been put in the place of Brahma, because he is the originator, the creator of the Buddhist
religion, the Saṅgha is compared with Viṣṇu, as the preserver of this doctrine, and the
Dharma is compared with Śiva, because it is not the world-preserving law of god Viṣṇu but

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the law that proclaims the impermanence, the suffering and the non-substantiality of the
world.
This transformed terminology is of no importance as far as our architectural definitions go
and is interesting only in so far as it shows that god Viṣṇu’s Dharma is not to be considered
an equivalent of the term Dharma as used in Buddhism.
VIII. Scholastic symbolism
Scholastic symbolism though it had its origin in the philosophy and psychology of orthodox
schools existed side by side with the symbolism of later periods.7
The extension of the name Mahāyāna was, and is, of a vague and fluid kind. Those to whom
it was applied formed no closed unit. And this is true of m of the so-called ‘sects’. They
frequently overlapped in their heretical views.”8
This overlapping can be observed also with regard to the symbolism of the stūpa and there to
an even greater extent, as architecture is more apt to express fundamental ideas than small
dogmatical differences. These fundamental ideas were those of the Abhidhamma which
contains the philosophical and psychological foundation common to all schools of Buddhism,
whether realistic or idealistic, empirical or metaphysical, objectivistic or subjectivistic, etc.
In this way we find in the Tibetan Tanjur a description and explanation of the stūpa (mc’od
rten)9 in terms of the orthodox Abhidhamma, which throws a new fight on the ideas that were
connected with the stūpa even in pre-Mahāyāna times.
As we have seen in the case of the Ceylonese Dāgobas the socle of the stūpa which was
formerly of a low cylindrical shape had been divided into three steps to which later on a new
basis was added, while the three concentric steps slowly merged into the cupola in the form
of ‘ornamental bangles’.
A similar process took place in the development of the Indian stūpa: the cylindric socle was
first raised and later on subdivided into a number of steps, but instead of losing its
independence it gained in importance by taking in the railings and Toraṇas. The railings
became decorative elements of the surface of the elevated substructure and in place of the
Toraṇas there were staircases leading from the four quarters of the universe to the terrace on
top of the socle.
These staircases which emphasised the universal character of the monument were apparently
fore-runners of the square basal structures, which led up to the cupola in several steps. This
change coincided with the advent of Mahāyāna Buddhism and was, it seems, equally
accepted by all Indian schools of Buddhism just as the universal attitude itself of the
Mahāyāna.
The symbolical meaning of the different parts of the stūpa according to the description of the
Tanjur is as follows (cf. scheme, in elevation on p. 36, and in horizontal projection on p. 40):
I. The first step of the four-sided basal structure, i.e., the foundation of the whole building
corresponds to the Four Foundations of Mindfulness (cattāri satipaṭṭhānāni), namely:
(1) mindfulness as regards the body (kāyānupassanā satipaṭṭhānaṃ); (2) mindfulness as
regards sensation (vedanānupassanā satip.); (3) mindfulness as regards the mind
(cittāinupassanā satip.); (4) mindfulness as regards the phenomena (dhammānupassanā s.).

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II. The second step of the four-sided basal structure corresponds to the Four Efforts (cattri
sammappadhānāni):
(1) the effort to destroy the evil wilch has arisen (uppannānaṃ pāpakānaṃ pahānāya
vāyāmo); (2) the effort to prevent the evil which has not yet arisen (anuppannānaṃ
pāpakānaṃ anuppādāya vāyāmo); (3) the effort to produce the good which has not yet arisen
(anuppannānaṃ kusalānalṃ uppādāya vāyāmo); (4) the effort to cultivate the good that has
arisan (uppannānaṃ kusalānalṃ bhḯyobha vāyā vāyāmo).
III. The third step of the four-sided basal structure corresponds to the Four Psychic Powers
(cattāro iddhipādā):
(1) the desire to act (chandiddhipādo); (2) energy (viriyiddhipādo); (B) thought
(cittiddipādo); (4) investigation (vḯmaṃsiddhipādo).
IV. The fourth step or the top of the four-sided basal structure corresponds to the Five
Faculties (pañcindriyāni):
(1) the faculty of faith (saddhindriyaṃ); (2) the faculty of energy (viriyindriyaṃ); (3) the
faculty of mindfulness (satindriyaṃ); (4) the faculty of concentration (samādhindriyaṃ); (5)
the faculty of reason (pañāindriyaṃ).
V. The circular basis of the cupola corresponds to the Five Forces (pañca balāni) which are of
the same kind as the Faculties, namely the forces of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration
and reason. These two groups represent the passive (latent) and the active side of the same
properties and they can be regarded practically as one category. The same holds good of their
architectural counterparts: they were originally one element, the mediator between the cubic
substructure and the hemisphere, and were split into two according to the usual tendency of
later periods to subdivide or to multiply the original elements.
Obviously only the three fourfold categories were to represent originally the cubic basal
structure and in fact the older types of square-terraced stūpas show only three steps, as we
can see from the usual Ceylonese, Nepalese and Burmese Dāgobas and from certain Tibetan
Chortens which represent replicas of ancient Indian Stūpas. A good example of the latter kind
is a Chorten built by one of the kings of Western Tibet at Shen in the Upper Indus Valley
(Plate V).
VI. The cupola (aṇḍa) represents the Seven Factors of Enlightenment (satta bojjhaṅgā):
(1) mindfulness (satisambojjhaṅgo); (2) discerning the truth (dhammavicāya sambojjhaṅgo);
(3) energy (viriya sambojjhaṅgo); (4) rapture (pḯti sambojjhaṅgo); (5)serenity (passaddhi
sambojjhaṅgo); (6) concentration (samādhi sambojjhaṅgo): equanimity (upekkhā
sambojjhaṅgo).
VII. The Harmikā corresponds to the Eightfold Path (aṭṭha maggaṅgāni):
(1) right views (sammā diṭṭhi); (2) right aspirations (sammā saṃkappo); (3) right speech
(sammā vācā); (4) right action (sammā kammanto); (5) right livelihood (sammā ajḯvo); (6)
right effort (sammā vāyāmo); (7) right mindfulness (sammā sati); right concentration (sammā
samādhi).
VIII. The stem of the tree of lif e corresponds to the Tenfold Knowledge (ñāṇaṃ):

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(1) knowledge of the law; (2) knowledge of other persons’ thoughts; (3) knowledge of
relations; (4) empirical knowledge; (5) knowledge of suffering; (6) knowledge of the cause of
suffering; (7) knowledge of the annihilation of suffering; (8) knowledge of the way that leads
to the annihilation of suffering; (8) knowledge of the things connected with despair; (10)
knowledge of the non-production of things.
Up to the Harmikā or the seventh element in the construction of the stūpa, the Tanjur follows
word by word the enumerations of the Pāli-Abhidhamma as found for instance in the third
paragraph of the seventh chapter (Samuccaya-Saṅgaha) of Anuruddha’s Abhidhammattha-
Saṅgaha. Though this work cannot have been written before the eighth century A.D., it is
exclusively compiled ftom the canonical Abhidhamma books and if we see a Tibetan text like
the one mentioned based on a parallel Sanskrit version which does not only have the same
subject-matter but even the same arrangement down to the smallest details like the order in
which the respective terms follow each other, we witness the faithfulness of tradition and the
accuracy of Indian and Tibetan compilers and translators. While Thera Anuruddha was
compiling his Abhidhammattha-Saṅgaha in Ceylon, thousands of miles away in Tibet pious
monks were translating Sanskrit texts into their own language. And though both drew their
knowledge from a source that lay at least thousand years back, their results were in almost
perfect accordance! Where however certain differences occur, they cannot be attributed to
misunderstandings but to later additions which are necessary expressions of a historical
development.
In our particular case for instance, it is characteristic that the categories representing the stūpa
up to the Harmikā are identical with those of the orthodox canon while those which
correspond to the tree of life show certain deviations. This indicates that the development of
the more elaborate shape and symbolism of the crowning parts of the stūpa (htḯ) took place in
later periods and under the influence of post-canonical ideas closely connected with the
growth of Mahāyāna.
The deviations of the post-canonical categories can be seen by a comparison with the
corresponding group, as found in the Pali canon (Dḯgha-Nikāya Ill, 33):
(1) dhamme ñāṇaṃ; (2) anvaye ñāṇaṃ; (3) paricchede ñāṇaṃ; (4) sammuti ñāṇaṃ; (5)
dukkhe ñāṇaṃ; (6) dukkha-samudaye ñāṇaṃ; (7) dukkha-nirodhe ñāṇaṃ; (8) magge ñāṇaṃ.
The last two items of the Tibetan classification are not contained in this group, though they
may be found in other combinations (for instance as anuloma and paṭiloma
paṭiccasamuppāda). More typical deviations are to be found in the next group, representing
IX. the thirteen discs or layers of the tree of life which correspond to the mystical powers of
the Buddha. Ten of them are mentioned in Aṅguttara-Nikāya, Dasaka-Nipata xxii.
The 13 mystical powers according to the Tanjur:
(1) The mystical power, consisting in the knowledge of the places which are suitable for the
preaching and the activity of the Buddha; (2) the knowledge of the ripening of the different
kinds of karma; (3) the knowledge of all the (states of) meditations, liberations, ecstasies, and
unions with higher spheres: (4) the knowledge of the superior and inferior faculties; (5) the
knowledge of the different inclinations of other beings; (6) the knowledge of the different
spheres of existence; (7) the knowledge of those ways which lead to any desired end; (8) the
knowledge and recollection of former existences; (9) the knowledge of the time of death and

144
of rebirth; (10) the destruction of evil forces; (11 to I3) the three foundations of the particular
mindfulness of the Buddhas (āveṇikasmṛtyupasthāna).
The 10 powers (dasa-tathāgata balāni) according to Aṅguttara-Nikāya:
(1) The Enlightened one perceives what is possible as possible, what is impossible as
impossible in accordance with reality; (2) he perceives the results of actions done in the past,
the present, and the future according to circumstances and causes, etc.; (3) he perceives every
result, etc.; (4) he perceives the world with its different elements, etc.; (5) he perceives the
inclinations of other beings, etc.; (6) he perceives the superior or inferior faculties of other
beings, etc.; (7) he perceives the purity or impurity of the states of trance and of liberation, of
concentration and its attainments, etc.; (8) he remembers innumerable former existences, etc.;
(9) he perceives with the celestial eye, the purified, the supra-human how the beings re-
appear according to their deeds, etc.; (10) by conquering his passions he has attained,
perceived and realized by himself the passionless liberation of heart and mind, etc..
At first sight this scholastic symbolism will appear rather arbitrary, but if we examine it more
carefully we flnd that it is consistent with the constructive principles of the stūpa and their
ideology. It represents the way to enlightenment, revealing the psychological structure of the
Buddha-Dharma and the qualities of the Enlightened One in whom the Dharma is realized.
The stūpa, accordingly, is as much a memorial for the Buddhas and saints of the past as a
guide to the enlightenment of every individual and a pledge for the Buddhas to come.

Figure on JISOA., Vol IV/1 pp. 40

145
As the stūpa consists of three main elements, socle, hemisphere and crowning parts, the
spiritual development also proceeds in a threefold way. The first part (foundation) contains
the preparatory, the second one (hemisphere) the essential conditions or psychic elements of
enlightenment, the third one (Harmikā and tree of life) consists in its realisation. Each of
these main parts has again three subdivisions.
The first, preparatory step is mental and analytical. Just as the foundation of the monument
rests on the natural ground, the foundation of the spiritual building of Buddhism rests on the
experience and analysis of nature as far as it is accessible in the psycho-physical constitution
of man.
The second preparatory step is moral: morality based on the insight into the nature of life.
The third preparatory step intensifies the mental and moral achievements and, converts them
into a psychic dynamism which arouses those latent forces which are the essential conditions
or elements of enlightenment.
These elements form the static axis of the Buddhist system and occupy the central part of the
stūpa: the hemisphere, its basis and the uppermost terrace on which it rests. The fact that the
latter represents the same five psychic elements as the circular basis of the hemisphere
justifies its combination with the central group, though from the standpoint of architecture it
forms only the link between the original substructure and the hemisphere.

Figure on JISOA., Vol IV/1 pp. 40 - facing

The first step of the upper triad (the Harmikā) corresponds to the three steps of the
substructure: it starts with right views and aspirations (sammā diṭṇhi and sammā saṃpkappo)

146
which are the outcome of the analytic knowledge (pañṛa) prepared in the flrst step; it
continues with right speech, right action, and right livelihood (sammā vācā, s. kammanto, s.
ajḯvo), which is the fulfllment of morality (sḯlaṃ); it culminates in right energy, concentration
and meditation (sammā vāyāmo, s. sati, s. samādhi) in which the dynamic forces of psyche
reach their greatest potentiality.
Knowledge, morality, and concentration (paññā, sḯlaṃ, samādhi) are; the pillars of the
Buddha-sāsāna. Morality has no meaning or value without knowledge. Therefore knowledge
is placed before morality. Concentration on the other hand without morality is like a house
without foundation. Morality is the discipline in the outer life on which concentration the
discipline of the inner life, is built up. Morality thus has to precede concentration.
Concentration again is of no value in itself; it is an instrument for the attainment of insight
(vipassanā) and wisdom (paññā), which in its turn produces a higher form of morality and
concentration until by this spiral-like progression (in which the same elements re-appear on
each higher stage in greater intensity) Bodhi or enlightenment is attained. On the first step
Paññā is not more than an intellectual attitude, based on investigation and reflection
(vitakkavicārṇa). On the corresponding step of the higher triad it is wisdom based on the
experience of meditation (inner vision) and in the last two stages it is enlightenment as the
true nature of a Tathāgata. These two highest stages (represented by the stem and the 13
Bhūmis of the tree of life) correspond to the factors of, enlightenment (bojjhaṅgā) and to
those faculties and forces which form their basis.

Figure on JISOA., Vol IV/1 pp. 42

147
The parallelism is also obvious in the architectural forms and in the numerical composition of
their elements. The ground-plans of substructure, intermediate part, hemisphere, Harmikā,
stem and cone of the tree of life are: square, circle, circle, square, circle, circle. Their further
relations may be seen from the drawing on p.42 and the following table:

The fundamental functions are expressed by even numbers, the essential by odd numbers, and
the mediating by even numbers (10) composed of odd halves. The intermediate parts belong
essentially to the next higher elements, i.e., to the main parts of the stūpa (hemisphere and
cone: stūpa and Śikhara principle). This is proved by the fact that the hemisphere includes
nearly all the elements of the preceding two steps, namely Viriyaṃ, Sati, Samādhi and Paññā
(in form of dhammavicāyaṃ) and the cone contains similar elements as the stem, namely
different aspects of Paññā. In the stem they are more fundamental and general, and in the
cone more differentiated and specialised.
The symbolism of numbers is well developed in Buddhist philosophy, art and architecture.
The following example may suffice to give an idea of the numerical relationship between the
scholastic stūpa and the co-existing psycho-cosmology. Within the three worlds (ti-loka) or
main forms of consciousness (cittāni), Kāma-, Rūpa-, and Arūpa-loka, there are fifteen word-
planes (six in kāma-, five in rūpa-, four in arūpa-loka), thirty classes of beings (ten in kāma-,
sixteen in rūpa-, four in arūpa-loka, according to their states of consciousness), and there are
sixty elements of spiritual development, as represented by the stūpa. In figures10:
3= 3 = (key-number)
I) 15 = 5x3

148
 II) 30 = 5 x (3 + 3)
III) 60 = 5 x (3 + 3 + 3 + 3)
These sixty elements constitute a continuous way ascending through the three worlds and its
different states of existence in the form of a spiral, spiritual Pradakṣinā. This idea has been
materialized most perfectly in the great terrace-stūpa of Barabuḍur. Though this monument
belongs to the later Mahāyāna period (VIIIth century) it can be seen from the drawing on p.
41 that the actual ground-plan of Barabuḍur fits exactly on the spiritual ground-plan of the
orthodox stūpa as explained by scholastic symbolism. Barabuḍur has the unbroken tradition
of a millennium, and instead of more or less justified speculations which have been made
about its symbolism, we are now in a position to know at least the fundamental ideas which
were accepted by the Buddhists of all schools and which hold good even for the Burmese and
Siamese pagodas of later periods, in which Mahāyāna and Theravada meet in a new
synthesis.
1.In the Kūṭadanta Sutta, Dḯghanikaya I, 5, the Buddha discusses the value of sacrifice with a
Brahmin who holds the view that there can not be religion without sacrifice. The Buddha does
not deny this, but while rejecting the bloody Brahmanical sacrifices he shows in their place a
number of higher sacrifices, each better than the previous one, and finally he explains the best
and highest of all, the sacrifice of one’s own selfish passions रासव
सव )in the attainment of
रा रा
sainthood. “This, O Brahmin, is a sacrifice less difficult and less troublesome, of greater fruit
and greater advantage than the previous sacrifices. And there is no sacrifice man can celebrate,
O Brahmin, higher and sweeter than this.”
2.E. Diez, Die Kunst lndiens, emphasises this idea (p. 182 f.), which, I think, holds good
specially for the earliest cave-temples, though I am quite conscious of the fact that also other
reasons came in, for instance the necessity for those who wanted to lead a life of meditation, to
retire into the loneliest and most undisturbed places. The Buddha himself recommended caves
for this purpose.
3.Soll dich des Lebens Baum
befrein von Todsbtchwerden,
So masst du selbst in Gott
ein Baum des Lebens werden.”
’Cherubinischer Wandersmann” II, verse 230.( First Edition 1675).
4. See J.I.S.O.A., Vol II, pp. 87-105.
5.It must be understood, however, that while considering the principles of Śiva and Viṣṇu we
are not so much concerned with the historical aspect of architecture but with the basic
tendencies of their inherent symbolism.
6.Perhaps derieved from the kalaśa
7.The division of Mahāyāna and Hinayāna has probably never been so strict as some scholars
believe and if we like to use these terms we should be conscious of their limited historical
meaning. They originated at Kanṣika’s famous council, where a discussion se about die ideals
of Buddhism. According to the Tripiṭaka, liberation can be attained in three ways: by that of an
Arahan, by that of a Paccekabuddha, and by that of a Sammāsambuddha. While the
Sammāsambuddha does not enter Parinibbāna before having taught to the world the Dhamma

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which he has found through his own efforts in innumerable existences, the Pacceka-buddha and
the Arahan are realizing this Dhamma (the former independ ently, the latter under the guidance
of a Sammāsambuddha) in the shortest possible way, without possessing or cultivating the
faculties of a world teache
It seems that originally the Arahan, the Paccekabuddha and the Sammāsambuddha were merely
classified as three types of men, while in Kanṣika’s time they were conceived as ideals, and from this
point of view there could be no doubt that the ideal of a Perfect Enlightened One was the highest. It is
not probable that any Buddhist school rejected this ideal, but there may have been individuals who
preferred the shorter way of an Arahan either because they found it more congenial to their own
temperament and character or because they thought that there was little chance of ever attaining the
highest ideal. Thus in each school of Buddhism there must have been followers of the greater
(mahāyāna) as well as of the lesser (hinayāna) ideal.

In fact even nowadays it is a custom in the southern countries of Buddhism, that all those who are
earnestly interested in their religion choose one of these ideals, and most of them decide for the ideal of
Buddhahood, the Bodhisattvamārga. The Mahāyāna ideal is recognized and followed even in the
countries of so-called Hinayāna Buddhism and the terms Hinayāna and Mahāyāna should not be used as
distinctive characteristics of two separate groups or schools of Buddhism but only in the sense of
individual ideals or in the strictly historical sense of the two parties at Kanṣika’s council at which, by the
way, the Theravādins, though they were later on wrongly identified with Hinayānists, were not present,
while from those who were present only the followers of the exclusive Mahāyāna ideal have survived.
The different schools should be called by the names they give to themselves, and as there are non who
call their school Hinayāna this term may be dropped altogether.

The fact that the Theravādins did not enter into the discussion about these two ideals is not only
asserted by the impartial attitude of the Pāli Tipiṭaka which leaves the choice to the individual, but also
by the Kathāvatthu, the latest book of the Abhidhamma, dealing with the points of controversy with
regard to the early eighteen schools of Buddhism, among which neither the term Mahāyāna nor
Hinayāna occurs.

Where among all these schools does the rise of Mahāyānism come in? The Chinese pilgrims speak of
Mahāyānists and Hinayānists, of Mahaṁsākas, Mahāsāṅghikas, Sarvāstivādins and Sammitiyas, of
Sthaviras, Lokottaravādins, of the Pubbasela and Aparasela Viharas. The date assigned to Fa-Hian is
about A.D. 400. The commentary, as we have it, written either by Buddhaghoṣa, or, possibly, by ‘one of
his school’ is probably half a century later. Why are these well-known divisions in the Buddhist world
omitted by the latter writer.

One thing seems fairly clear in this yet unsolved problem, namely that Fa-Hian and Yuan-Chwang
whose chronicles brought the distinction into prominence have given the Chinese versions of the names
Mahāyāna and Hinayāna to institutions which they recognized as such, either by first-hand observation
or by hearsay, institution; which in Buddhaghoṣa’s school were known under quite different
designations.

8.C.A.F. Rhys Davids, “Points of Controversy” (Kathā-Vatthu). pp. XLV-XLVI.

9.Cf. Tucci: lndo-Tibetica l; “Mc’od rren e Ts’a rs’a nel Tibet lndiano ed Occidentale”.

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10.CF. part III, proportions of the Dāgoba: The universal aspect of the Dharma which I
compared to the dimension of space, is expressed by categories in which the number three
prevails in the same sense as in the vertical development or composition of Buddhist
architecture.
Boner, Alice. "The Symbolic Aspect of Form." Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental
Art XVII, no. 1: A.K. Coomaraswamy Commemoration Volume. Part III (1949): 42-50.
Havell, Ernest Binfield. "Chapter VI." In Indian Architecture, Its Psychology, Structure, and
History from the First Muhannadan Invasion to the Present Day, 79-115. London: John Murray,
1913.
Fergusson, James, and James Burgess. "Classification of Buddhist Monuments." In The Cave
Temples of India, 171-181. London: W. H. ALLEN & Co., et al, 1880.
Fergusson, James, and James Burgess. "Religions." In The Cave Temples of India, 12-20.
London: W. H. ALLEN & Co., et al, 1880.

A Sense of Virtue in the Work of Jayavarman

VII
DR Uday Dokras

INTRODUCTION

Who was the greatest Cambodian kings ? I’m sure that would depend very greatly on whom
you were to ask; but I can offer a few candidates (in date order):

 Jayavarman II, the founder of the Khmer Empire.

 Suryavarman II, who led the Empire at its peak, and who was responsible for the
construction of Angkor Wat (Angkor Wat is kind of a big deal).
 Jayavarman VII, arguably the most powerful of the Khmer kings, and the one who
first instituted Buddhism as the national religion, and who built the most
monuments.

Devarāja, in ancient Cambodia, the cult of the “god-king” established early in the 9th century
ad by Jayavarman II, founder of the Khmer empire of Angkor. For centuries, the cult
provided the religious basis of the royal authority of the Khmer kings. The devarāja cult grew
out of both Hindu and indigenous traditions. King Jayavarman VII (reigned 1181–1219) was
generally considered Cambodia's greatest king. He had already been a military leader as a
prince under the previous kings. According to Nietupski, P., 2019. Medieval Khmer Society:
The Life and Times of Jayavarman VII (ca. 1120–1218). ASIANetwork Exchange: A Journal for
Asian Studies in the Liberal Arts, 26(1), pp.33–74. DOI: http://doi.org/10.16995/ane.280--Jayavarman VII is
one of the best known Cambodian “Angkor” leaders, in part because he was able to unite the

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numerous small, fragmented Khmer Cambodian and Cham kingdoms of the day. He ruled his
consolidated Khmer kingdom from 1181–1218, bringing the decentralized Khmer and Cham
states together through political and military alliances. Religion, especially India-derived
Brahmanism, or “Hinduism,” Mahāyāna Buddhism, and local Cambodian religion, was a key
component of Khmer society. Over time different Khmer rulers endorsed one or more of the
religious systems to their own advantage. Jayavarman VII was especially committed to
Mahāyāna Buddhism, evidenced by the remarkable extent of his support for Buddhist
monuments, and attested in many hundreds of Sanskrit inscriptions. This essay tells the story
of Jayavarman VII, a political and military leader who used Indian religious visions and
prototypes as models to build a remarkable cultural edifice.
He is considered as a forceful and productive kings of the Khmer (Cambodian) empire
of Angkor (reigning 1181–c. 1220). He expanded the empire to its greatest territorial extent
and engaged in a building program that yielded numerous temples (including Angkor Thom),
highways, rest houses, and hospitals. King Jayavarman VII saw himself as a warrior for his
subjects. As a result, his rule was marked by its tolerance and his drive to create a place of
safety and paradise for his subjects. He went on to make Mahayana Buddhism the state
religion, breaking with 400 years of Khmer Hinduism.

Early life

Jayavarman was born into the royal family of Angkor. He married a very religious and
strong-minded princess named Jayarajadevi, who exerted an important influence on him, both
before he gained the throne and during the early years of his reign. Following her death he
married her older sister, a very pious and learned woman whom he had previously installed as
the head professor in an important Buddhist monastery.

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Though practically nothing is known of Jayavarman’s childhood and youth, it is clear that
during his late 30s and early 40s he settled in the neighbouring kingdom of Champa, in what
is now the central region of Vietnam. At the time of the death of his father, King
Dharanindravarman II (ruled 1150–60), Jayavarman was engaged in a military campaign in
Champa, and, after the accession of his brother (or possibly his cousin), Yasovarman II (ruled
1160–66), he chose to remain there, returning to Cambodia only when he received word that
a palace rebellion was in progress. Although Jayavarman arrived at Angkor too late to
prevent the murder of Yasovarman and the accession of the rebel Tribhuvanadityavarman

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(ruled 1166–77), he decided to remain in his homeland and to await an opportunity to assert
his own claim to the throne.

Some 12 years later, when Jayavarman was in his late 50s, that opportunity came as a result
of a Cham invasion, which brought about the demise of Tribhuvanadityavarman, the sacking
of Angkor, and its subjection to foreign rule. In this situation Jayavarman organized a
struggle for independence and in less than five years’ time succeeded in driving out the
invaders and establishing his hegemony over all his Cambodian rivals. Finally in 1181, at the
age of 61, he was crowned king of a reconstituted Khmer empire and began a brilliant reign
of more than 30 years, during which he brought the empire to its zenith, both in terms of
territorial expansion and of royal architecture and construction.
Jayavarman’s building program

During his reign Jayavarman continued his military activities, bringing Champa, southern
Laos, and portions of the Malay Peninsula and Burma under his control. But increasingly he
devoted his energies and organizational capacities to the kind of religious and religio-political
construction projects that had been carried on by his royal predecessors. He built a large
number of awesome new temples, including the Bayon, a distinctively Mahāyāna Buddhist
central pyramid temple designed to serve as the primary locus of the royal cult and also as his
own personal mausoleum; personal funerary temples of the Mahāyāna type, which were
dedicated to his mother and father; and a series of provincial temples, which housed reduced
replicas of the Royal Buddha—i.e., Jayavarman represented with the attributes of the
Buddha, the original of which had been set up in the Bayon. He rebuilt the city of Angkor,
now known as Angkor Thom, and rebuilt and extended the system of highways, which
radiated outward from the Bayon and the royal palace and reached far into the provinces. In
addition, he constructed more than 100 rest houses along these roads and built more than 100
hospitals, which he dispersed throughout his kingdom and placed under the protection of
Baiṣajyaguru Vaiḍūryaprabhā, the Great Buddha of Healing.

Jayavarman seems to have been obsessed with the need for rapid and extensive construction.
For example, the less than careful workmanship evident in the temples attributed to
Jayavarman’s reign vividly points to the great haste with which they were built. Some
scholars have suggested that the almost frantic sense of urgency associated with
Jayavarman’s works derived from the fact that, having begun his reign at a relatively
advanced age, he felt that his time was short and had to be utilized to the fullest. Others have
suggested that Jayavarman’s concern to carry through such a vast program of largely
Buddhist-oriented construction was greatly encouraged by Jayarajadevi and her sister, both of
whom dedicated a tremendous amount of energy toward gaining support for Buddhism and
specifically for building Buddhist temples. And finally, if scholars are correct in their surmise
that Jayavarman suffered from the dread disease of leprosy, his concern to mitigate his sin
and suffering through the accumulation of great merit may have given a still
further impetus to his piety and zealousness. Whatever his true motivations, Jayavarman
succeeded during his lifetime in creating a legacy that few monarchs in history (Khmer or
otherwise) have been able to equal; he was more than 90 years old when he died.

Modern reputation

Despite the importance of Jayavarman VII in the history of the Angkor kingdom, no memory
of him was preserved in the later Cambodian chronicles. In modern times, however, as
archaeological studies generated popular interest in his reign, Jayavarman VII became a kind

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of paradigmatic national hero, who was credited not only with establishing the full greatness
of the Cambodian nation but also with bringing into being a welfare state that was motivated
by Buddhism and dedicated to serving both the spiritual and the physical needs of the
Cambodian people. Scholars, however, have sought to maintain a more balanced view of
Jayavarman, recognizing the obvious immensity of his accomplishments but also taking
account of the fact that the overweening demands that he placed on the material and human
resources of his kingdom may have been a major factor in its subsequent loss of creativity
and its eventual demise. His government built many projects including hospitals, highways,
rest houses, and temples. With Buddhism as his motivation, King Jayavarman VII is credited
with introducing a welfare state that served the physical and spiritual needs of the Khmer
people.

I
VIRTUE in BUDDHISM

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 The Buddhist king Ashoka built pillars throughout the Indian
subcontinent inscribed with edicts promoting Buddhist moral virtues and precepts.

Buddhist ethics are traditionally based on what Buddhists view as

the enlightened perspective of the Buddha. The term for ethics or morality used in Buddhism
is Śīla or sīla (Pāli). Śīla in Buddhism is one of three sections of the Noble Eightfold Path,
and is a code of conduct that embraces a commitment to harmony and self-restraint with the
principal motivation being nonviolence, or freedom from causing harm. It has been variously
described as virtue,[2] moral discipline and precept.
Sīla is an internal, aware, and intentional ethical behavior, according to one's commitment to
the path of liberation. It is an ethical compass within self and relationships, rather than what
is associated with the English word "morality" (i.e., obedience, a sense of obligation, and
external constraint).
Sīla is one of the three practices foundational to Buddhism and the non-sectarian Vipassana
movement; sīla, samādhi, and paññā as well as the Theravadin foundations of sīla, dāna,
and bhavana. It is also the second pāramitā. Sīla is also wholehearted commitment to what is
wholesome. Two aspects of sīla are essential to the training: right "performance" (caritta),
and right "avoidance" (varitta). Honoring the precepts of sīla is considered a "great gift"
(mahadana) to others, because it creates an atmosphere of trust, respect, and security. It
means the practitioner poses no threat to another person's life, property, family, rights, or
well-being.
Moral instructions are included in Buddhist scriptures or handed down through tradition.
Most scholars of Buddhist ethics thus rely on the examination of Buddhist scriptures, and the
use of anthropological evidence from traditional Buddhist societies, to justify claims about
the nature of Buddhist ethics.
The source for the ethics of Buddhists around the world are the Three Jewels of
the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. The Buddha is seen as the discoverer of liberating
knowledge and hence the foremost teacher. The Dharma is both the teachings of the Buddha's
path and the truths of these teachings. The Sangha is the community of noble ones (ariya),
who practice the Dhamma and have attained some knowledge and can thus provide guidance
and preserve the teachings. Having proper understanding of the teachings is vital for proper

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ethical conduct. The Buddha taught that right view was a necessary prerequisite for right
conduct, sometimes also referred to as right intention.
The Four Noble Truths
The foundation of Buddhist ethics is the Four Noble Truths, which are:

 dukkha (suffering, incapable of satisfying, painful) is an innate characteristic of existence

with each rebirth;
 samudaya (origin, cause) of this dukkha is the "craving, desire or attachment";
 nirodha (cessation, ending) of this dukkha can be attained by eliminating all "craving,
desire, and attachment";
 magga (path, Noble Eightfold Path) is the means to end this dukkha.
The Four Noble Truths express the central problem motivating Buddhist ethics, the need for
liberation from suffering. According to the first Noble Truth, worldly existence is fraught
with suffering (dukkha). Dukkha is seen to arise from craving, and putting an end to craving
can lead to liberation (Nirvana). The way to put an end to craving is by following the Noble
Eightfold Path taught by the Buddha, which includes the ethical elements of right speech,
right action and right livelihood. From the point of view of the Four Noble Truths, an action
is seen as ethical if it is conductive to the elimination of dukkha. Understanding the truth
of dukkha in life allows one to analyze the factors for its arising, that is craving, and allows us
to feel compassion and sympathy for others. Comparing oneself with others and then
applying the Golden Rule is said to follow from this appreciation of dukkh.[ From the
Buddhist perspective, an act is also moral if it promotes spiritual development by conforming
to the Eightfold Path and leading to Nirvana. In Mahayana Buddhism, an emphasis is made
on the liberation of all beings and bodhisattvas are believed to work tirelessly for the
liberation of all.
Karma and rebirth

The bhavacakra (wheel of life) shows the realms of karmic rebirth,

at its hub are the three poisons of greed, hatred and delusion.
The principle governing suffering and liberation from it is the law of karma, often understood
to involve rebirth. Karma literally means "action" and can also refer to the consequences of
action. Suffering, both in the present and the future, is perpetuated by wrong action and ended
by right action. The Buddha is recorded to have stated that right view consisted in believing
that (among other things): "'there is fruit and ripening of deeds well done or ill done': what

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one does matters and has an effect on one's future; 'there is this world, there is a world
beyond': this world is not unreal, and one goes on to another world after death" ( MN 117,
Maha-cattarisaka Sutta). Although the doctrine of rebirth has been avowed by many
Buddhists, it is rejected by many East Asian Buddhists, and some scholars regard it as
inessential to Buddhist ethics.
In the Buddhist conception, Karma can refer to a certain type of moral action which has
moral consequences on the actor. The core of karma is the mental intention, and hence the
Buddha stated 'It is intention (cetana), O monks, that I call karma; having willed one acts
through body, speech, or mind'. Therefore, accidentally hurting someone is not bad Karma,
but having hurtful thoughts is. Buddhist ethics sees these patterns of motives and actions as
conditioning future actions and circumstances – the fruit (Phala) of one's present actions,
including the condition and place of the actor's future life circumstances (though these can
also be influenced by other random factors). One's past actions are said to mold one's
consciousness and to leave seeds (Bīja) which later ripen in the next life. The goal of
Buddhist practice is generally to break the cycle, though one can also work for rebirth in a
better condition through good deeds.
The root of one's intention is what conditions an action to be good or bad. There are three
good roots (non-attachment, benevolence, and understanding) and three negative
roots (greed, hatred and delusion). Actions which produce good outcomes are termed "merit"
(puñña – fruitful, auspicious) and obtaining merit (good karma) is an important goal of lay
Buddhist practice. The early Buddhist texts mention three 'bases for effecting karmic
fruitfulness' (puñña-kiriya-vatthus): giving (dana), moral virtue (sila) and meditation
(bhāvanā).] One's state of mind while performing good actions is seen as more important than
the action itself. The Buddhist Sangha is seen as the most meritorious "field of merit".
Negative actions accumulate bad karmic results, though one's regret and attempts to make up
for it can ameliorate these results.

Precepts
The foundation of Buddhist ethics for laypeople is The Five Precepts which are common to
all Buddhist schools. The precepts or "five moral virtues" (pañca-silani) are not commands
but a set of voluntary commitments or guidelines, to help one live a life in which one is
happy, without worries, and able to meditate well. The precepts are supposed to prevent
suffering and to weaken the effects of greed, hatred and delusion. They were the basic moral
instructions which the Buddha gave to laypeople and monks alike. Breaking one's sīla as
pertains to sexual conduct introduces harmfulness towards one's practice or the practice of
another person if it involves uncommitted relationship.When one "goes for refuge" to the
Buddha's teachings one formally takes the five precepts, which are.

1. I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking life;

2. I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking what is not given;
3. I undertake the training rule to abstain from sexual misconduct;
4. I undertake the training rule to abstain from false speech;
5. I undertake the training rule to abstain from liquors, wines, and other intoxicants,
which are the basis for heedlessness.
Buddhists often take the precepts in formal ceremonies with members of the monastic
Sangha, though they can also be undertaken as private personal commitments. Keeping each
precept is said to develop its opposite positive virtue. Abstaining from killing for example

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develops kindness and compassion, while abstaining from stealing develops non-attachment.
The precepts have been connected with utilitarianist, deontological and virtue approaches to
ethics.[32] They have been compared with human rights because of their universal nature, and
some scholars argue they can complement the concept of human rights.
Undertaking and upholding the five precepts is based on the principle of non-
harming (Pāli and Sanskrit: ahiṃsa). The Pali Canon recommends one to compare oneself
with others, and on the basis of that, not to hurt others. Compassion and a belief in karmic
retribution[ form the foundation of the precepts.
The first precept consists of a prohibition of killing, both humans and all animals. Scholars
have interpreted Buddhist texts about the precepts as an opposition to and prohibition of
capital punishment, suicide, abortion and euthanasia. The second precept prohibits theft.
The third precept refers to adultery in all its forms, and has been defined by modern teachers
with terms such as sexual responsibility and long-term commitment. The fourth precept
involves falsehood spoken or committed to by action, as well as malicious speech, harsh
speech and gossip. The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs or other
means. Early Buddhist texts nearly always condemn alcohol, [47] and so do Chinese Buddhist
post-canonical texts. In practice however, many lay Buddhists do not adhere to this precept
and drinking is common in many Buddhist majority countries. Buddhist attitudes toward
smoking differ per time and region, but are generally permissive. In modern times, traditional
Buddhist countries have seen revival movements to promote the five precepts. As for the
West, the precepts play a major role in Buddhist organizations.
There is also a more strict set of precepts called the eight precepts which are taken at specific
religious days or religious retreats. The eight precepts encourage further discipline and are
modeled on the monastic code. In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct
is made more strict and becomes a precept of celibacy. The three additional rules of the Eight
Precepts are:

6. "I accept the training rule to abstain from food at improper times." (e.g. no solid foods
after noon, and not until dawn the following day)
7. "I accept the training rule (a) to abstain from dancing, singing, instrumental music,
and shows, and (b) from the use of jewelry, cosmetics, and beauty lotions."
8. "I accept the training rule to abstain from the use of high and luxurious beds and
seats."
Novice-monks use the ten precepts while fully ordained Buddhist monks also have a larger
set of monastic precepts, called the Prātimokṣa (227 rules for monks in the Theravādin
recension). Monks are supposed to be celibate and are also traditionally not allowed to touch
money. The rules and code of conduct for monks and nuns is outlined in the Vinaya. The
precise content of the scriptures on vinaya (vinayapiṭaka) differ slightly according to different
schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of
adherence to the vinaya.
In Mahayana Buddhism, another common set of moral guidelines are the Bodhisattva
vows and the Bodhisattva Precepts or the "Ten Great Precepts". The Bodhisattva Precepts
which is derived from the Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra include the Five precepts with some
other additions such as the precept against slandering the Buddha's teachings. These exist
above and beyond the existing monastic code, or lay follower precepts. The Brahmajala Sutra
also includes a list of 48 minor precepts which prohibit the eating of meat, storing of
weapons, teaching for the sake of profit, abandoning Mahayana teachings and teaching non
Mahayana Dharma. These precepts have no parallel in Theravāda Buddhism.

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Ten wholesome actions-Another common formulation of Buddhist ethical action in the early
Buddhist texts is the "path of the ten good actions" or "ten skilled karma paths" (Pali: dasa-
kusala-kammapatha, Sanskrit: daśa-kuśala-karmapatha) which are "in accordance
with Dharma."
These are divided into three bodily actions (kaya kamma), four verbal actions (vaci kamma)
and three mental actions (mano kamma) all of which are said to cause "unskillful qualities to
decline while skillful qualities grow".[62] These ten paths are discussed in suttas such
as Majjhima Nikaya MN 41 (Sāleyyaka Sutta), and MN 114
Bodily actions:

1. "Someone gives up killing living creatures", they "renounce the rod and the sword",
"They're scrupulous and kind, living full of compassion for all living beings."
2. "They give up stealing. They don't, with the intention to commit theft, take the wealth
or belongings of others from village or wilderness."
3. "They give up sexual misconduct. They don't have sexual relations with women who
have their mother, father, both mother and father, brother, sister, relatives, or clan as
guardian. They don't have sexual relations with a woman who is protected on
principle, or who has a husband, or whose violation is punishable by law, or even one
who has been garlanded as a token of betrothal."
Verbal actions:

1. "A certain person gives up lying. They're summoned to a council, an assembly, a

family meeting, a guild, or to the royal court, and asked to bear witness: 'Please,
mister, say what you know.' Not knowing, they say 'I don't know.' Knowing, they say
'I know.' Not seeing, they say 'I don't see.' And seeing, they say 'I see.' So they don't
deliberately lie for the sake of themselves or another, or for some trivial worldly
reason."
2. "They give up divisive speech. They don't repeat in one place what they heard in
another so as to divide people against each other. Instead, they reconcile those who
are divided, supporting unity, delighting in harmony, loving harmony, speaking
words that promote harmony."
3. "They give up harsh speech. They speak in a way that's mellow, pleasing to the ear,
lovely, going to the heart, polite, likable and agreeable to the people."
4. "They give up talking nonsense. Their words are timely, true, and meaningful, in line
with the teaching and training. They say things at the right time which are valuable,
reasonable, succinct, and beneficial."
Mental actions:

1. "It's when someone is content. They don't covet the wealth and belongings of others:
'Oh, if only their belongings were mine!' They have a kind heart and loving
intentions: 'May these sentient beings live free of enmity and ill will, untroubled and
happy!'"
2. "It's when someone is content, and lives with their heart full of contentment. They are
loving, and live with their heart full of love. They're kind, and live with their heart
full of kindness."
3. "It's when someone has such a view: 'There is meaning in giving, sacrifice, and
offerings. There are fruits and results of good and bad deeds. There is an afterlife.
There are duties to mother and father. There are beings reborn spontaneously. And

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 there are ascetics and brahmins who are well attained and practiced, and who
describe the afterlife after realizing it with their own insight.'"
These ten paths are also commonly taught in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism as
foundational ethical teachings
Bases of meritorious actions
Yet another common ethical list in the Pali tradition is the "ten bases of meritorious action"
(Dasa Puñña-kiriya Vatthu). As noted by Nyanatiloka Thera, some texts (Itivuttaka 60) only
mention three of these but later Pali commentaries expanded these to ten, and the list of ten is
a popular list in Theravada countries. Ittivuttaka #60 says:
"Bhikkhus, there are these three grounds for making merit. What three? The ground for
making merit consisting in giving, the ground for making merit consisting in virtue, and the
ground for making merit consisting in mind-development. These are the three.
One should train in deeds of merit, that yield long-lasting happiness: Generosity, a balanced
life, developing a loving mind. By cultivating these three things, deeds yielding happiness,
the wise person is reborn in bliss, in an untroubled happy world."
According to Nyanatiloka, Digha Nikaya 30 also mentions several related meritorious
behaviors. D.N. 30 mentions various exemplary meritorious actions done by the Buddha such
as:
"...good conduct by way of body, speech, giving and sharing, taking precepts, observing the
sabbath, paying due respect to mother and father, ascetics and brahmins, honoring the elders
in the family, and various other things pertaining to skillful behaviors."
"Truth, principle, self-control, and restraint; giving, harmlessness, delighting in non-
violence..."
"giving and helping others, kindly speech, and equal treatment, such action and conduct as
brought people together..."
The later expanded listing of ten bases is as follows-

 Giving or charity (dāna), This is widely done by giving "the four requisites" to monks;
food, clothing, shelter, and medicine. However giving to the needy is also a part of this.
 Morality (sīla), Keeping the five precepts, generally non-harming.
 Mental cultivation (bhāvanā).
 Paying due respect to those who are worthy of it (apacāyana), showing appropriate
deference, particularly to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, and to seniors and parents.
Usually done by placing the hands together in Añjali Mudrā, and sometimes bowing.
 Helping others perform good deeds (veyyāvacca), looking after others.
 Sharing of merit after doing some good deed (anumodana)
 Rejoicing in the merits of others (pattanumodana), this is common in communal
activities.
 Teaching the Dhamma (dhammadesana), the gift of Dhamma is seen as the highest gift.
 Listening to the Dhamma (dhammassavana)
 Straightening one's own views (ditthujukamma)

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Key values and virtues

Giving (Dana) is an important Buddhist virtue. The community of monastics is seen as the
most meritorious field of karmic fruitfulness.
Following the precepts is not the only dimension of Buddhist morality, there are also several
important virtues, motivations and habits which are widely promoted by Buddhist texts and
traditions. At the core of these virtues are the three roots of non-attachment (araga),
benevolence (advesa), and understanding (amoha).
One list of virtues which is widely promoted in Buddhism are the Pāramitās (perfections)
– Dāna (generosity), Sīla (proper
conduct), Nekkhamma (renunciation), Paññā (wisdom), Viriya (energy), Khanti (patience), S
acca (honesty), Adhiṭṭhāna (determination), Mettā (Good-Will), Upekkhā (equanimity).
The Four divine abidings (Brahmaviharas) are seen as central virtues and intentions in
Buddhist ethics, psychology and meditation. The four divine abidings are good
will, compassion, empathetic joy, and equanimity. Developing these virtues through
meditation and right action promotes happiness, generates good merit and trains the mind for
ethical action.
An important quality which supports right action is Heedfulness (Appamada), a combination
of energy/effort (Viriya) and Mindfulness. Mindfulness is an alert presence of mind which
allows one to be more aware of what is happening with one's intentional states. Heedfulness
is aided by 'clear comprehension' or 'discrimination' (Sampajañña), which gives rise to moral
knowledge of what is to be done. Another important supporting quality of Buddhist morality
is Trust or Confidence in the teachings of the Buddha and in one's own ability to put them
into practice. Wisdom and Understanding are seen as a prerequisite for acting morally.
Having an understanding of the true nature of reality is seen as leading to ethical actions.
Understanding the truth of not-self for example, allows one to become detached from selfish
motivations and therefore allows one to be more altruistic. Having an understanding of the
workings of the mind and of the law of karma also makes one less likely to perform an
unethical action.
The Buddha promoted 'self-respect' (Hri) and Regard for consequences (Apatrapya), as
important virtues. Self-respect is what caused a person to avoid actions which were seen to
harm one's integrity and Ottappa is an awareness of the effects of one's actions and sense of
embarrassment before others.

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Giving (Dāna) is seen as the beginning of virtue in Theravada Buddhism and as the basis for
developing further on the path. In Buddhist countries, this is seen in the giving of alms to
Buddhist monastics but also extends to generosity in general (towards family, friends,
coworkers, guests, animals). Giving is said to make one happy, generate good merit as well
as develop non-attachment, therefore it is not just good because it creates good karmic fruits,
but it also develops one's spiritual qualities. In Buddhist thought, the cultivation of dana and
ethical conduct will themselves refine consciousness to such a level that rebirth in one of the
lower hells is unlikely, even if there is no further Buddhist practice. There is nothing
improper or un-Buddhist about limiting one's aims to this level of attainment.
An important value in Buddhist ethics is non-harming or non-violence (ahimsa) to all living
creatures from the lowest insect to humans which is associated with the first precept of not
killing. The Buddhist practice of this does not extend to the extremes exhibited by Jainism (in
Buddhism, unintentional killing is not karmically bad), but from both the Buddhist and Jain
perspectives, non-violence suggests an intimate involvement with, and relationship to, all
living things.[73]
The Buddha also emphasized that 'good friendship (Kalyāṇa-mittatā), good association, good
intimacy' was the whole, not the half of the holy life (SN 45.2). Developing strong
friendships with good people on the spiritual path is seen as a key aspect of Buddhism and as
a key way to support and grow in one's practice.
In Mahayana Buddhism, another important foundation for moral action is
the Bodhisattva ideal. Bodhisattvas are beings which have chosen to work towards the
salvation of all living beings. In Mahayana Buddhist texts, this path of great compassion is
promoted as being superior to that of the Arhat because the Bodhisattva is seen as working
for the benefit of all beings. [74] A Bodhisattva is one who arouses a powerful emotion
called Bodhicitta (mind of enlightenment) which is a mind which is oriented towards the
awakening of oneself and all beings.
Killing
The first precept is the abstaining from the taking of life, and the Buddha clearly stated that
the taking of human or animal life would lead to negative karmic consequences and was non
conductive to liberation. Right livelihood includes not trading in weapons or in hunting and
butchering animals. Various suttas state that one should always have a mind filled with
compassion and loving kindness for all beings, this is to be extended to hurtful, evil people as
in the case of Angulimala the murderer and to every kind of animal, even pests and vermin
(monks are not allowed to kill any animal, for any reason). Buddhist teachings and
institutions therefore tend to promote peace and compassion, acting as safe havens during
times of conflict. In spite of this, some Buddhists, including monastics such as
Japanese warrior monks have historically performed acts of violence. In China, the Shaolin
Monastery developed a martial arts tradition to defend themselves from attack.
In Mahayana Buddhism, the concept of skillful means (upaya) has in some circumstances
been used to excuse the act of killing, if it is being done for compassionate reasons. This form
of "compassionate killing" is allowed by the Upaya-kausalya sutra and the Maha-Upaya-
kausalya sutra only when it "follows from virtuous thought." Some texts acknowledge the
negative karmic consequences of killing, and yet promote it out of compassion.
The Bodhisattva-bhumi, a key Mahayana text, states that if a Bodhisattva sees someone about
to kill other Bodhisattvas, they may take it upon themselves to kill this murderer with the
thought that:

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"If I take the life of this sentient being, I myself may be reborn as one of the creatures of hell.
Better that I be reborn a creature of hell than that this living being, having committed a deed
of immediate retribution, should go straight to hell."
If then, the intention is purely to protect others from evil, the act of killing is sometimes seen
as meritorious.
Ahimsa § Buddhism

Statue portrait of 5th Dalai Lama.

The Buddhist analysis of conflict begins with the 'Three Poisons' of greed, hatred and
delusion. Craving and attachment, the cause of suffering, is also the cause of conflict.
Buddhist philosopher Shantideva states in his Siksasamuccaya: "Wherever conflict arises
among living creatures, the sense of possession is the cause". Craving for material resources
as well as grasping to political or religious views is seen as a major source of war. One's
attachment to self-identity, and identification with tribe, nation state or religion is also
another root of human conflict according to Buddhism.
The Buddha promoted non-violence in various ways, he encouraged his followers not to fight
in wars and not to sell or trade weapons. The Buddha stated that in war, both victor and
defeated suffer: "The victor begets enmity. The vanquished dwells in sorrow. The tranquil
lives happily, abandoning both victory and defeat" (Dhammapada, 201). Buddhist
philosopher Candrakīrti wrote that soldiery was not a respectable profession: "the sacrifice of
life in battle should not be respected, since this is the basis for harmful actions."
The Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra states that those who take the Bodhisattva vows should not
take any part in war, watch a battle, procure or store weapons, praise or approve of killers and
aid the killing of others in any way. In his Abhidharma-kosa, Vasubandhu writes that all
soldiers in an army are guilty of the killing of the army, not just those who perform the actual
killing. Modern Buddhist peace activists include The 14th Dalai Lama, Thich Nhat
Hanh, Sulak Sivaraksa, A. T. Ariyaratne, Preah Maha Ghosananda and Nichidatsu Fujii.
While pacifism is the Buddhist ideal, Buddhist states and kingdoms have waged war
throughout history and Buddhists have found ways to justify these conflicts. The 5th Dalai
Lama who was installed as the head of Buddhism in Tibet by Gushri Khan after the Oirat
invasion of Tibet (1635–1642), praised the acts of the Khan and said that he was an
emanation of the great Bodhisattva Vajrapani.[79] Under the fifth Dalai Lama and the powerful
Gelug Regent Sonam Chophel (1595–1657), treasurer of the Ganden Palace, the Tibetan
kingdom launched invasions of Bhutan (c. 1647, ending in failure) and Ladakh (c. 1679,
which regained previously lost Tibetan territory) with Mongol aid
Another example is that of Buddhist warrior monks in feudal Japan who sometimes
committed organized acts of war, protecting their territories and attacking rival Buddhist
sects. During the late Heian Period, the Tendai School was a particularly powerful sect,
whose influential monasteries could wield armies of monks. A key text of this sect was
the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, which contains passages allowing the use of violence

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for the defense of the Dharma. The Ashikaga period saw military conflict between the Tendai
school, Jōdo Shinshū school and the Nichiren Buddhists. Zen Buddhism was influential
among the samurai, and their Bushido code.
During World War II almost all Japanese Buddhists temples (except the Soka Gakkai)
strongly supported Japanese imperialism and militarization. The Japanese Pan-Buddhist
Society (Myowa Kai) rejected criticism from Chinese Buddhists, stating that "We now have
no choice but to exercise the benevolent forcefulness of 'killing one in order that many may
live'" (issatsu tashō) and that the war was absolutely necessary to implement the dharma in
Asia.
Suicide and euthanasia
Buddhism understands life as being pervaded by Dukkha, as unsatisfactory and stressful.
Ending one's life to escape present suffering is seen as futile because one will just be reborn
again, and again. One of the three forms of craving is craving for annihilation (vibhava
tanha), and this form of craving is the root of future suffering. Dying with an unwholesome
and agitated state of mind is seen as leading to a bad rebirth, so suicide is seen as creating
negative karma. Ending one's life is also seen as throwing away the precious opportunity to
generate positive karma. While suicide does not seem to be interpreted as a breaking of the
first precept (not killing other beings) it is still seen as a grave and unwholesome action.
In Theravada Buddhism, for a monk to praise the advantages of death, including simply
telling a person of the miseries of life or the bliss of dying and going to heaven in such a way
that he/she might feel inspired to commit suicide or simply pine away to death, is explicitly
stated as a breach in one of highest vinaya codes regarding the prohibition of harming life,
hence it will result in automatic expulsion from Sangha.
Buddhism sees the experience of dying as a very sensitive moment in one's spiritual life,
because the quality of one's mind at the time of death is believed to condition one's future
rebirth. The Buddhist ideal is to die in a calm but conscious state, while learning to let go.
Dying consciously, without negative thoughts but rather joyously with good thoughts in mind
is seen as a good transition into the next life. Chanting and reciting Buddhist texts is a
common practice; in Tibet the Bardo Thodol is used to guide the dying to a good rebirth.
Traditional Buddhism would hold Euthanasia, where one brings about the death of a suffering
patient (whether or not they desire this) so as to prevent further pain, as a breach of the first
precept. The argument that such a killing is an act of compassion because it prevents
suffering is unacceptable to traditional Buddhist theology because it is seen to be deeply
rooted in delusion. This is because the suffering being who was euthanized would just end up
being reborn and having to suffer due to their karma (even though not all suffering is due to
karma), and hence killing them does not help them escape suffering. The Abhidharma-
kosa clearly states that the killing of one's sick and aged parents is an act of delusion. The act
of killing someone in the process of death also ruins their chance to mindfully experience
pain and learn to let go of the body, hence desire for euthanasia would be a form of aversion
to physical pain and a craving for non-becoming. According to Kalu Rinpoche however,
choosing to be removed from life support is karmically neutral The choice not to receive
medical treatment when one is terminally ill is then not seen as morally reprehensible, as long
as it does not arise from a feeling of aversion to life. This would also apply to not
resuscitating a terminal patient.
However, there are exceptions to the injunction against suicide. Several Pali suttas contain
stories where self-euthanizing is not seen as unethical by the Buddha, showing that the issue
is more complex. These exceptions, such as the story of the monk Channa and that of the

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monk Vakkali, typically deal with advanced Buddhist practitioners. In these exceptional
cases, both Channa and Vakkali are both said to be enlightened arhats and euthanized
themselves in a calm and detached state of mind.[
In East-Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, the practice of Self-immolation developed. In China,
the first recorded self-immolation was by the monk Fayu (d. 396). According to James A.
Benn, this tended to be much more common during times of social and political turmoil and
Buddhist persecution. It was often interpreted in Buddhist terms as a practice of heroic
renunciation. This practice was widely publicized during the Vietnam war and have also
continued as a form of protest by Tibetans against the Chinese government.

Animals
The Buddha, represented by the Bodhi tree, attended by animals, Sanchi vihara.
Buddhism does not see humans as being in a special moral category over animals or as
having any kind of God given dominion over them as Christianity does.Humans are seen as
being more able to make moral choices, and this means that they should protect and be kind
to animals who are also suffering beings who are living in samsara. Buddhism also sees
humans as part of nature, not as separate from it. Thich Nhat Hanh summarizes the Buddhist
view of harmony with nature thus:
We classify other animals and living beings as nature, acting as if we ourselves are not part of
it. Then we pose the question 'How should we deal with Nature?' We should deal with nature
the way we should deal with ourselves! We should not harm ourselves; we should not harm
nature...Human beings and nature are inseparable.
Early Buddhist monastics spent a lot of time in the forests, which was seen as an excellent
place for meditation and this tradition continues to be practiced by the monks of the Thai
Forest Tradition.
Buddhist vegetarianism
There is a divergence of views within Buddhism on the need for vegetarianism, with some
schools of Buddhism rejecting such a claimed need and with most Buddhists in fact eating
meat. Many Mahayana Buddhists – especially the Chinese, Vietnamese and most Korean
traditions – strongly oppose meat-eating on scriptural grounds.
The first precept of Buddhism focuses mainly on direct participation in the destruction of life.
This is one reason that the Buddha made a distinction between killing animals and eating
meat, and refused to introduce vegetarianism into monastic practice. While early Buddhist
texts like the Pali Canon frown upon hunting, butchering, fishing and 'trading in flesh' (meat
or livestock) as professions, they do not ban the act of eating meat. Direct participation also
includes ordering or encouraging someone to kill an animal for you.
The Buddhist king Ashoka promoted vegetarian diets and attempted to decrease the number
of animals killed for food in his kingdom by introducing 'no slaughter days' during the year.
He gave up hunting trips, banned the killing of specific animals and decreased the use of
meat in the royal household. Ashoka even banned the killing of some vermin or pests. His
example was followed by later Sri Lankan kings. One of Ashoka's rock edicts states:
Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in
sacrifice...Formerly, in the kitchen of Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, hundreds of
thousands of animals were killed every day to make curry. But now with the writing of

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this Dhamma edict only three creatures, two peacocks and a deer are killed, and the deer
not always. And in time, not even these three creatures will be killed.
Many Buddhists, especially in East Asia, believe that Buddhism advocates or
promotes vegetarianism. While Buddhist theory tends to equate killing animals with
killing people (and avoids the conclusion that killing can sometimes be ethical, e.g.
defense of others), outside of the Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and some Japanese
monastic traditions, most Buddhists do eat meat in practice; [111] there is however, a
significant minority of Buddhist laypersons in the aforementioned traditions that maintain
vegetarianism on a set schedule and a smaller minority who are full-time Buddhist
vegetarians. There is some controversy surrounding whether or not the Buddha himself
died from eating rancid pork. While most Chinese and Vietnamese monastics are
vegetarian vegetarian Tibetans are rare, due to the harsh Himalayan climate. Japanese lay
people tend to eat meat, but monasteries tend to be vegetarian. In the Pali version of
the Tripitaka, there are number of occasions in which the Buddha ate meat as well as
recommending certain types of meat as a cure for medical conditions. On one occasion, a
general sent a servant to purchase meat specifically to feed the Buddha. The Buddha
declared that:
Meat should not be eaten under three circumstances: when it is seen or heard or suspected
(that a living being has been purposely slaughtered for the eater); these, Jivaka, are the
three circumstances in which meat should not be eaten, Jivaka! I declare there are three
circumstances in which meat can be eaten: when it is not seen or heard or suspected (that
a living being has been purposely slaughtered for the eater); Jivaka, I say these are the
three circumstances in which meat can be eaten.

— Jivaka Sutta
The Buddha held that because the food is given by a donor with good intentions, a monk
should accept this as long as it is pure in these three respects. To refuse the offering
would deprive the donor of the positive karma that giving provides. Moreover, it would
create a certain conceit in the monks who would now pick and choose what food to eat.
The Buddha did state however that the donor does generate bad karma for himself by
killing an animal. In Theravada Buddhist countries, most people do eat meat, however.
While there is no mention of Buddha endorsing or repudiating vegetarianism in surviving
portions of Pali Tripitaka and no Mahayana sutras explicitly declare that meat eating
violates the first precept, certain Mahayana sutras vigorously and unreservedly denounce
the eating of meat, mainly on the ground that such an act violates the bodhisattva's
compassion. The sutras which inveigh against meat-eating include the Mahayana version
of the Nirvana Sutra, the Shurangama Sutra, the Brahmajala Sutra, the Angulimaliya
Sutra, the Mahamegha Sutra, and the Lankavatara Sutra, as well as the Buddha's
comments on the negative karmic effects of meat consumption in the Karma Sutra. In
the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, which presents itself as the final elucidatory and
definitive Mahayana teachings of the Buddha on the very eve of his death, the Buddha
states that "the eating of meat extinguishes the seed of Great Kindness", adding that all
and every kind of meat and fish consumption (even of animals found already dead) is
prohibited by him. He specifically rejects the idea that monks who go out begging and
receive meat from a donor should eat it: ". . . it should be rejected . . . I say that even
meat, fish, game, dried hooves and scraps of meat left over by others constitutes an
infraction . . . I teach the harm arising from meat-eating." The Buddha also predicts in
this sutra that later monks will "hold spurious writings to be the authentic Dharma" and

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 will concoct their own sutras and lyingly claim that the Buddha allows the eating of meat,
whereas in fact he says he does not. A long passage in the Lankavatara Sutra shows the
Buddha speaking out very forcefully against meat consumption and unequivocally in
favor of vegetarianism, since the eating of the flesh of fellow sentient beings is said by
him to be incompatible with the compassion that a Bodhisattva should strive to cultivate.
In several other Mahayana scriptures, too (e.g., the Mahayana jatakas), the Buddha is
seen clearly to indicate that meat-eating is undesirable and karmically unwholesome.
Forests and jungles represented the ideal dwelling place for early Buddhists, and many
texts praise the forest life as being helpful to meditation. Monks are not allowed to cut
down trees as per the Vinaya, and the planting of trees and plants is seen as karmically
fruitful. Because of this, Buddhist monasteries are often small nature preserves within the
modernizing states in East Asia. The species ficus religiosa is seen as auspicious, because
it is the same kind of tree that the Buddha gained enlightenment under.
In Mahayana Buddhism, some teachings hold that trees and plants have Buddha
nature. Kukai held that plants and trees, along with rocks and everything else, were
manifestations of the 'One Mind' of Vairocana and Dogen held that plant life was Buddha
nature.
In pre-modern times, environmental issues were not widely discussed,
though Ashoka banned the burning of forests and promoted the planting of trees in his
edicts. Bhikkhu Bodhi, an American Theravada monk, has been outspoken about the
issue of environmental crisis. Bodhi holds that the root of the current ecological crisis is
the belief that increased production and consumption to satisfy our material and sensual
desires leads to well-being. The subjugation of nature is directly opposed to the Buddhist
view of non-harming and dwelling in nature. Buddhist activists such as Ajahn Pongsak in
Thailand and the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement have worked for reforestation and
environmental protection. The Dalai Lama also professes the close relationship of human
beings and nature, saying that since humans come from nature, there is no point in going
against it. He advocates that a clean environment should be considered a basic human
right and that it is our responsibility as humans to ensure that we do all we can to pass on
a healthy world to those who come after us

Uppalavanna was a Buddhist bhikkhuni, or nun, who was considered one of the top female
disciples of the Buddha. She is considered the second of the Buddha's two chief female
disciples, along with Khema. She was given the name Uppalavanna, meaning "color of a blue

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water lily", at birth due to the bluish color of her
skin.000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

II

Borobudur and the concept of path in Buddhism

Paths have been pervasive in human civilization. The idea of path is an important concept in
Buddhism, and is essential in understanding the meaning and purpose of one of the most
remarkable and impressive monuments in the world: Borobudur. : the Buddhist teaching of
the means of attaining Nirvana through rightness of belief, resolve, speech, action, livelihood,
effort, thought, and meditation - the four noble truths. These are crustallized in
the Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra or The Excellent Manifestation Sūtra ( Sutra of the Tree's Display;
"gaṇḍi", "the trunk of a tree from the root to the beginning of the branches") is a
Buddhist Mahayana Sutra of Indian origin dating roughly c. 200 to 300 CE.
It depicts one of the world's most celebrated spiritual pilgrimages, and comprises the 39th
chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra, or Flower Ornament Scripture. In Buddhabhadra's Chinese
translation of the Avatamsaka, this 39th chapter is entitled "Entrance into the Dharma
Realm". The Sutra is described as the "Sudhana's quest for the ultimate truth", as the sutra
chronicles the journey of a disciple, Sudhana ("Excellent Riches"), as he encounters various
teachings and Bodhisattvas until his journey reaches full circle and he awakens to teachings
of the Buddha.
The Gandavyuha Sutra forms a major segment of the temple’s upper galleries. The last
chapter of a larger text called the Flower Garland Sutra, it relates the story of Suddhana, a
youth who commences a journey to meet fifty-three teachers while seeking the path to
enlightenment. The concept of “path” is a central theme in the text. He eventually meets an
enlightened being (bodhisattva) named Samantabadhra. Excerpts from the larger sutra
illustrate the concepts under discussion:

“I will lead those who have lost their way to the right road. I will be a bright light for those in
the dark night, and cause the poor and destitute to uncover hidden treasures. The Bodhisattva
impartially benefits all living beings in this manner.
I vow to shut the door to evil destinies and open the right paths of humans, gods and that of
Nirvana.
Once any sentient beings see the Buddha, it will cause them to clear away habitual
obstructions. And forever abandon devilish actions: This is the path traveled by Illumination.

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Sentient Beings are blinded by ignorance, always confused; the light of Buddha illuminates
the path of safety. To rescue them and cause suffering to be removed.

All sentient beings are on false paths—Buddha shows them the right path, inconceivable,
causing all worlds to be vessels of truth…”
The temple has been described in a number of ways. Its basic structure resembles that of a
pyramid, yet it has been also referred to as a caitya (shrine), a stupa (reliquary), and a sacred
mountain. In fact, the name Śailendra literally means “Lord of the Mountain.” While the
temple exhibits characteristics of all these architectural configurations, its overall plan is that
of a three-dimensional mandala—a diagram of the cosmos used for meditation—and it is in
that sense where the richest understanding of the monument occurs.

Candi Borobudur’s design was conceived of by the poet, thinker, and architect Gunadharma,
considered by many today to be a man of great vision and devotion. Meticulously carved
relief sculptures mediate a physical and spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively
toward higher states of consciousness. But one has to climb the paths set out on the STUPA.

If one looks from afar and goes home then the pathis not traversed. Just like in Buddhism,
one can become a Buddhist by embracing the path and walking on it. Similarly in Borobudur
the way or paths built on the structure have to be climbed from the floor to the TOP. Whether
searing heat or pouring rain there is no roof or overhed shelter. In fact the journey of
Borobudur consists of a series of open-air passageways that radiate around a central axis
mundi (cosmic axis). It is set high upon a hill vertically enhanced by its builders to achieve a
greater elevation. Devotees circumambulate clockwise along walkways that gradually ascend
to its uppermost level. At Borobudur, geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct
adherents toward the ultimate goal of enlightenment. Alog the path from the bottom to the to,
meticulously carved relief sculptures stare doen from : ‘walls” upon the pilgrims as they
progressively ascend upwards toward higher states of the structure and also the pictorials
representing higher levels of consciousness- from bottom to the top. Moving past the base
and through the four galleries, the devotee emerges onto the three upper terraces,

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encountering 72 stupas each containing a three-dimensional sculpture of a seated Buddha
within a stone latticework. At the temple’s apex sits the large central stupa, a symbol of the
enlightened mind

The entire site contains 504 statues of the Buddha. 1460 stone reliefs on the walls and
opposite balustrades decorate the first four galleries, with an additional 1212 decorative
reliefs augmenting the path. The relief sculptures narrate the Buddha’s teachings (the
Dharma), depict various events related to his past lives (Jataka tales), and illustrate didactic
stories taken from important Buddhist scriptures (sutras). Interestingly, another 160 relief
sculptures adorn the base of the monument, but are concealed behind stone buttresses that
were added shortly after the building’s construction in order to further support the structure’s
weight. The hidden narrative reliefs were photographed when they were discovered in the late
19th century before the stones were put back to help ensure the temple’s stability.

The experience of meaning

The experience of Borobudur relates to the philosophic and spiritual foundation of the
Buddhist religion it concretises and celebrates. Since its inception, roughly 2500 years ago,
Buddhism has directly engaged what it sees as the paradoxical nature of human existence.
The most essential tenet the religion promulgates is the impermanent, transient nature of
existence. Transcendental wisdom via the Dharma (the Noble Eight-Fold Path) hinges on
recognizing that attachment to the idea of a fixed, immutable “self” is a delusion.

Enlightenment entails embracing the concept of “no-self” (anattā), understood to be at the

heart of eliminating the suffering and dissatisfaction (dukkha) of sentient beings. This is the
ultimate message expressed in the sacred scriptures that are solidified in artistic magnificence
along the stone walls and railings of Borobudur. The physical movement of
circumambulating the structure symbolizes the non-physical—or spiritual—path of
enlightenment. In a real sense, then, the concept of path within Borobudur monumentalizes
the impermanent. Like a river that is never the same from moment to moment, to physically
move along the path while meditating on the spiritual message of the sutras is meant to help
one fully embrace the Buddha’s paradoxical message of impermanence.

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From the Gandavyuha Sutra (RIGHT) Crowning stupa The texts illustrated on the walls refer to
pathways as well.

From darkness into light

The idea of moving from the darkness into the light is the final element of the experience of
Borobudur. The temple’s pathway takes one from the earthly realm of desire (kamadhatu),
represented and documented on the hidden narratives of the structure’s earthbound base,
through the world of forms (rupadhatu) as expounded on the narratives carved along the four
galleries set at right angles, until one finally emerges into the realm of formlessness
(arupadhatu) as symbolized and manifested in the open circular terraces crowned with 72
stupas.

However, the symbolization of enlightenment these stupas represent is not intended to be

merely aesthetic. Buddhist stupas and mandalas are understood as “spiritual technologies”
that harness spiritual “energies” in the creation of sacred space.

The repetition of form and the circumabulatory progress of the pilgrim mimic, and thereby
access, the cosmological as a microcosm. The clockwise movement around the cosmic center
reproduces the macrocosmic path of the sun. Thus, when one emerges from the dark galleries
representing the realms of desire and form into the light of the “formless” circular open air
upper walkways, the material effect of light on one’s physical form merges concomitantly
with the spiritual enlightenment generated by the metaphysical journey of the sacred path.
Light, in all its paradoxes, is the ultimate goal. The crowning stupa of this sacred mountain is
dedicated to the “Great Sun Buddha” Vairocana. The temple sits in cosmic proximity to the
nearby volcano Mt. Merapi. During certain times of the year the path of the rising sun in the
East seems to emerge out of the mountain to strike the temple’s peak in radiant synergy.
Light illuminates the stone in a way that is intended to be more than beautiful. The brilliance
of the site can be found in how the Borobudur mandala blends the metaphysical and physical,
the symbolic and the material, the cosmological and the earthly within the structure of its
physical setting and the framework of spiritual paradox.

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 III
The History of the Khmer Empire
By NicholasMorlin

Jan 1, 802-Jayavarman II founds Khmer Empire

Possibly of Khmer descent, Jayavarman II came from Java, where he had
been in captivity or exile, to succeed to the throne as Java’s vassal around
800. An unwilling puppet, he defied the Javanese and asserted Khmer
independence in 802, when he also was installed under Hindu rites as
devarāja, or god-king. He established a series of capitals, first at Indrapura,
on the lower Mekong River east of Kâmpóng (Kompong) Cham; then, moving
northwards, at Hariharalaya, southeast of present-day Siĕmréab (S
Period: Jan 1, 802 to Jan 1, 1431-The History of the Khmer Empire-Oct 17,
877.Indravarman I builds Preah Ko, Bakong Temples and the Indrtaka

While Jayavarman II was credited for the founding of the Khmer Empire ca.
800 AD, Indravarman I was credited for an extensive building program. He
set the foundations for the future Angkorian kings to follow. The king's first
act was to performed a public service for his subjects by building an
irrigation network for the rice fields. The goal was usually achieved by
constructing a large reservoir to retain water during the Monsoon season.
Oct 17, 910- Harshavarman I reigns

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Harshavarman was a son of King Yasovarman I and his Queen, who was a
sister of Jayavarman IV. Grandparents of Harshavarman were King
Indravarman I and his wife Indradevi. Harshavarman had a younger
brother, Ishanavarman II. His queen was Kambujarajalakshmi. They were
the maternal grandparents of Jayavarman VII. His grandson was
Yajnavaraha. He was a knowledgeable teacher.
Oct 17, 944- Rajendravarman II Reigns

Rajendravarman II was a nephew of former king Yasovarman I. His principal

monuments, located in the Angkor region of Cambodia's Siem Reap
province, are Pre Rup and East Mebon. The king claimed links to the royal
line of the Chenla state that had its capital at Bhavapura (the city's location
is debated) and predates the start of the Khmer empire in 802 AD.
Inscriptions say that the Khmer empire under his tutelage extended to
southern Vietnam, Laos.

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Oct 17, 1002- Civil War

The king died. A civil war ensued between Jayaviravarman and

Suryavarman I, both of whom claimed the throne.
Oct 17, 1011- Suryavarman I founds Dynasty of the Sun

After nine years of war, Suryavarman I won the throne. Suryavarman I

established diplomatic relations with the Chola dynasty of south India.
Suryavarman I sent a chariot as a present to the Chola Emperor Rajaraja
Chola I.
Oct 17, 1080- Jayavarman VI founds the Mahidharapura Dynasty
Coming from Phimai area, in Mun River Valley, he appears as an usurper
and the founder of a new dynasty, the Mahidharapura, from the name of his

175
family's ancestral home. In inscriptions at the beginning of his reign, he
claimed to be a descendant of the mythical couple of princess Sage Kambu
Swayambhuva and his sister (and wife) Mera, rather than having real
ancestors of royal lineage.
Oct 17, 1113- Suryavarman II Reigns

He was a king of the Khmer Empire from 1113 AD to 1145-1150 AD and the
builder of Angkor Wat, which he dedicated to the Supreme God Vishnu. His
reign's monumental architecture, numerous military campaigns and
restoration of strong government have led historians to rank Suryavarman
as one of the empire's greatest kings.
Oct 17, 1181-Jayavarman VII Reigns

Was king (reigned c.1181-1218) of the Khmer Empire in present day Siem
Reap, Cambodia. He was the son of King Dharanindravarman II (r. 1150-
1160) and Queen Sri Jayarajacudamani. He married Jayarajadevi and then,
after her death, married her sister Indradevi. The two women are commonly
thought to have been a great inspiration to him, particularly in his unusual
devotion to Buddhism, as only one prior Khmer king was a Buddhist.
Oct 17, 1220- Indravarman II Reigns

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Indravarman II (Khmer: ឥន្វរ្ម័នទី២) was a ruler of the Khmer Empire, son of
Jayavarman VII. There is some dispute regarding the actual period of his
reign, even because his successor, Jayavarman VIII, probably destroyed
historical records about him, but the only inscription which directly mention
him reports that he died in 1243.He was a Buddhist and was also credited
with having enlarged (or completed) some of Jayavarman VII's temple.
Oct 17, 1243- Jayavarman VIII Reigns

Jayavarman VIII (Khmer: ជ័យវរ្ម័នទី៨) was one of the kings of the Khmer
empire. His rule lasted from 1243 till 1295, when he abdicated.
It was during the reign of Jayavarman VIII that the Mongol forces under the
command of Kublai Khan attacked the Angkor empire in 1283. In 1281,
Jayavarman VIII had imprisoned emissaries of the Mongol generalissimo in
Champa. In 1283, he decided to pay tribute and buy peace and thus his rule
survived. In 1290, the Mon people regained their independence.

Oct 17, 1413- The Thai Enslave

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The Thai sack Angkor, enslaving thousands and causing Khmer to move it's
capitsl to Phnon Penh region.

https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/the-history-of-the-khmer-empire--2

The Diversity of Angkorian Kings

Modern Cambodia has been shaped significantly by the ideological nationalism introduced in the
French colonial period. It was at that time, for instance, that Khmers receptive to French ideas of
civilization and racial hierarchy began to think of themselves as the collective inheritors of Angkor’s
greatness, and it was only then that the current word for nation, race, or ethnic group, jāti, entered the
Khmer lexicon via Thailand. One can make a persuasive case that an idea of nationality could not
have existed prior to the introduction of the term for nation into the language.1

178
The Khmer Empire, or the Angkorian Empire are the terms that historians use to refer
to Cambodia from the 9th century to the 15th century when the nation was a Hindu-Buddhist empire
in Southeast Asia. The empire grew out of the former civilizations of Funan and Chenla, at times
ruled over and/or vassalised most of mainland Southeast Asia[3] and parts of Southern China,
stretching from the tip of the Indochinese Peninsula northward to modern Yunnan province, China,
and from Vietnam westward to Myanmar. At its peak, the Khmer Empire was larger than
the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) which existed around the same time.
Perhaps its most notable legacy is the site of Angkor, in present-day Cambodia, the Khmer capital
during the empire's zenith. The majestic monuments of Angkor, such as Angkor Wat and Bayon, bear
testimony to the Khmer Empire's immense power and wealth, impressive art and culture, architectural
technique, aesthetics achievements, and the variety of belief systems that it patronised over time.
Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak in the 11th to 13th centuries, was the
largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world.
The beginning of the era of the Khmer Empire is conventionally dated to 802, when King Jayavarman
II declared himself chakravartin ("universal ruler", title equivalent to "emperor") on Phnom Kulen.
The empire ended with the Siege of Angkor by the Siamese Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1431. Modern
scholars often refer to the empire as the Khmer Empire, or the Angkorian Empire, the latter of which
has its named derive from the former capital city of Angkor.
कम्बुजदेश Kambujadeśa
The empire referred to itself as Kambuja (Sanskrit: कम्बोज) or Kambujadeśa (Sanskrit: कम्बुजदेश; which
were ancient terms for Cambodia. The history of Angkor as the central area of settlement of the
historical kingdom of Kambujadesa is also the history of the Khmer kingdom from the 9th to the 13th
centuries.
From Kambuja itself—and so also from the Angkor region—no written records have survived other
than stone inscriptions. Therefore, the current knowledge of the historical Khmer civilisation is
derived primarily from:

 Archaeological excavation, reconstruction and investigation

 Stone inscriptions (the most important of which are foundation steles of temples), which report on
the political and religious deeds of the kings
 Reliefs in a series of temple walls with depictions of military marches, life in the palace, market
scenes, and the daily life of the population
 Reports and chronicles of Chinese diplomats, traders and travellers.

Formation and growth

Jayavarman II – the founder of Angkor

Archers mounted on elephants

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According to Sdok Kok Thom inscription, circa 781 Indrapura was the first capital of Jayavarman II,
located in Banteay Prey Nokor, near today's Kampong Cham. After he eventually returned to his
home, the former kingdom of Chenla, he quickly built up his influence, conquered a series of
competing kings, and in 790 became king of a kingdom called Kambuja by the Khmer. He then
moved his court northwest to Mahendraparvata, far inland north from the great lake of Tonlé Sap.
Jayavarman II (802–835) is widely regarded as a king who set the foundations of the Angkor period
in Cambodian history, beginning with a grandiose consecration ritual that he conducted in 802 on the
sacred Mount Mahendraparvata, now known as Phnom Kulen, to celebrate the independence of
Kambuja from a place inscriptions call "Java"] At that ceremony Prince Jayavarman II was
proclaimed a universal monarch (Cambodian: Kamraten jagad ta Raja) or God King (Sanskrit: Deva
Raja) or "The Lords of Mountains", hence the concept of Deva Raja or God King was ostensibly
imported from Java.
He declared himself Chakravartin in a ritual taken from the Hindu tradition, thereby not only
becoming the divinely appointed and therefore uncontested ruler, but also simultaneously declaring
the independence of his kingdom from Java. According to some sources, Jayavarman II had resided
for some time in Java during the reign of Sailendras,[14]: 35 or "The Lords of Mountains", hence the
concept of Deva Raja or God King was ostensibly imported from Java. At that time, Sailendras
allegedly ruled over Java, Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula and parts of Cambodia, around
the Mekong delta.
The first pieces of information on Jayavarman II came from the K.235 stone inscription on a stele in
Sdok Kok Thom temple, Isan region, dating to 1053. It recounts two and a half centuries of service
that members of the temple's founding family provided for the Khmer court, mainly as chief chaplains
of the Shaivite Hindu religion.
Historians debate whether "Java" means the Indonesian island of Java, Champa or a different location.
According to an older established interpretation, Jayavarman II was a prince who lived at the court
of Sailendra in Java and brought back to his home the art and culture of the Javanese Sailendran court
to Cambodia. This classical theory was revisited by modern scholars such as Claude Jacques and
Michael Vickery, who noted that Khmer used the term chvea to describe the Chams, their close
neighbours. Moreover, Jayavarman's political career began at Vyadhapura (probably Banteay Prey
Nokor) in eastern Cambodia, which makes the scenario of longtime contacts with the Chams (even
through skirmishes, as the inscription suggests) more probable than the scenario of a long stay in
distant Java.[19] Finally, many early temples on Phnom Kulen show both Cham (e.g. Prasat Damrei
Krap) and Javanese influences (e.g. the primitive "temple-mountain" of Aram Rong Cen and Prasat
Thmar Dap), even if their asymmetric distribution seems typically Khmer.
In the following years, he extended his territory and, later in his reign, moved from Mahendraparvata
and established his new capital of Hariharalaya near the modern Cambodian town of Rolous. He
thereby laid the foundation of Angkor, which was to arise some 15 km to the northwest. Jayavarman
II died in the year 835 and he was succeeded by his son Jayavarman III. Jayavarman III died in 877
and was succeeded by Indravarman I.
The successors of Jayavarman II continually extended the territory of Kambuja. Indravarman
I (reigned 877–889) managed to expand the kingdom without wars and initiated extensive building
projects, which were enabled by the wealth gained through trade and agriculture. Foremost were the
temple of Preah Ko and irrigation works. Indravarman I developed Hariharalaya further by
constructing Bakongm circa 881. Bakong in particular bears striking similarity to
the Borobudur temple in Java, which strongly suggests that it served as the prototype for Bakong.
There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not missions, between the Khmer kingdom and the
Sailendras in Java, transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural
details.

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 INDO-CHINA 1300 AD

Yasodharapura – the first city of Angkor

1. Bakong, one of the earliest temple mountains in Khmer architecture

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 2. Banteay Srei, a 10th-century Cambodian temple dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva

3. Ta Keo, a state temple built around the year 1000

4. Baphuon, a temple-mountain dedicated to the Hindu God Shiva

Indravarman I was followed by his son Yasovarman I (reigned 889 – 915), who established a new
capital, Yasodharapura – the first city of Angkor. The city's central temple was built on Phnom
Bakheng, a hill which rises around 60 m above the plain on which Angkor sits. Under Yasovarman I
the East Baray was also created, a massive water reservoir of 7.1 by 1.7 km.
At the beginning of the 10th century, the kingdom split. Jayavarman IV established a new capital
at Koh Ker, some 100 km northeast of Angkor, called Lingapura. Only with Rajendravarman
II (reigned 944–968) was the royal palace returned to Yasodharapura. He took up again the extensive
building schemes of the earlier kings and established a series of temples in the Angkor area, not the
least being the East Mebon, a temple located on an artificial island in the center of the East Baray, and
several Buddhist temples, such as Pre Rup, and monasteries. In 950, the first war took place between
Kambuja and the kingdom of Champa to the east (in the modern central Vietnam).
The son of Rajendravarman II, Jayavarman V, reigned from 968 to 1001. After he had established
himself as the new king over the other princes, his rule was a largely peaceful period, marked by
prosperity and a cultural flowering. He established a new capital slightly west of his father's and
named it Jayendranagari; its state temple, Ta Keo, was to the south. At the court of Jayavarman V
lived philosophers, scholars, and artists. New temples were also established: the most important of
these are Banteay Srei, considered one of the most beautiful and artistic of Angkor, and Ta Keo, the
first temple of Angkor built completely of sandstone.

The pyramid of Koh Ker. Koh Ker was briefly the capital of the Khmer Empire

A decade of conflict followed the death of Jayavarman V. Three kings reigned simultaneously as
antagonists until Suryavarman I (reigned 1006 – 1050) gained the throne. Suryavarman I established
diplomatic relations with the Chola dynasty of south India. Suryavarman I sent a chariot as a present
to the Chola Emperor Rajaraja Chola I. His rule was marked by repeated attempts by his opponents to
overthrow him and by military conquests. Suryavarman was successful in taking control of the Khmer
capital city of Angkor Wat.
At the same time, Angkor Wat came into conflict with the Tambralinga kingdom of the Malay
peninsula. In other words, there was a three-way conflict in mainland Southeast Asia. After surviving
several invasions from his enemies, Suryavarman requested aid from the powerful Chola
Emperor Rajendra Chola I of the Chola dynasty against the Tambralinga kingdom. After learning of
Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from
the Srivijaya King Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.
This eventually led to the Chola Empire coming into conflict with the Srivijaya Empire. The war
ended with a victory for the Chola dynasty and of the Khmer Empire, and major losses for
the Srivijaya Empire and the Tambralinga kingdom. This alliance also had religious nuance, since
both Chola and Khmer empire were Hindu Shaivite, while Tambralinga and Srivijaya
were Mahayana Buddhist. There is some indication that before or after these incidents Suryavarman I
sent a gift, a chariot, to Rajendra Chola I to possibly facilitate trade or an alliance. Suryavarman I's

182
wife was Viralakshmi, and following his death in 1050, he was succeeded by Udayadityavarman II,
who built the Baphuon and West Baray. In 1074, conflict arose between Harshavarman III and
the Champa King Harivarman IV.

Golden age of Khmer Civilization

Suryavarman II – Angkor Wat- Khmer–Cham wars

The 12th century was a time of conflict and brutal power struggles. Under Suryavarman II (reigned
1113–1150) the kingdom united internally and the large temple of Angkor was built in a period of 37
years: Angkor Wat, dedicated to the god Vishnu. Khmer–Cham wars were a series of conflicts and
contests between states of the Khmer Empire and Champa, later involving Đại Việt, that lasted from
the mid-10th century to the early 13th century in mainland Southeast Asia. The first conflict began in
950 CE when Khmer troops sacked the Cham principality of Kauthara. Tensions between the Khmer
Empire and Champa reached a climax in the middle of the 12th century when both deployed field
armies and waged devastating wars against each other. The conflicts ended after the Khmer army
voluntarily retreated from occupying Champa in 1220.

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 Suryavarman 2

Vietnamese war elephant and soldiers pottery figure

Around 950, the Khmer under Rajendravarman II pillaged the temple of Po Nagar in Kauthara
and carried off the statue of the goddess. The invasion however ended in a "bloody defeat". [1] In 965,
the Cham King Jaya Indravaman I restored the temple and rebuilt the statue of the goddess to replace
the one stolen by the Khmer.

Khmer Invasion of Northern Champa( 1074-1080)

In 1074, Harivarman IV became king of Champa. He had close ties to Song China and made peace
with Dai Viet, but provoked a war with the Khmer Empire. In 1080, a Khmer army
attacked Vijaya and other centers in northern Champa. Temples and monasteries were sacked and
cultural treasures were carried off. After much chaos, Cham troops under King Harivarman were able
to defeat the invaders and restore the capital and temples. [6] Subsequently, his raiding forces
penetrated Cambodia as far as Sambor and the Mekong, where they destroyed all religious
sanctuaries.
Suryavarman’s Wars(1128-1150)Khmer–Vietnamese war (1123–1150)
In 1127, Suryavarman II demanded Vietnamese king Lý Dương Hoán to pay tribute for the Khmer
Empire, but the Vietnamese refused. Suryavarman decided to expand his territory northward into
Vietnamese territory. The first attack was in 1128 when King Suryavarman led 20,000 soldiers
from Savannakhet to Nghệ An, where they were routed in battle. The following year Suryavarman
continued skirmishes on land and sent 700 ships to bombard the coastal areas of Đại Việt. In 1132, he
persuaded Cham king Jaya Indravarman III to join forces with him to attack Đại Việt, where they
briefly seized Nghệ An and pillaged the coastal districts of Thanh Hoá.
In 1136, a Vietnamese force under Đỗ Anh Vũ counterattacked the Khmer Empire across modern-day
Laos with 30,000 men, but later retreated. The Cham thereupon made peace with the Vietnamese, and
when Suryavarman renewed the attack, Jaya Indravarman refused to cooperate with the Khmers.
[7]
After a failed attempt to seize seaports in southern Đại Việt, Suryavarman turned to invade Champa
in 1145 and sacked Vijaya, ending the reign of Jaya Indravarman III and destroying the temples at Mỹ
Sơn. In 1147 when a Panduranga prince named Sivänandana was enthroned as Jaya Harivarman I of
Champa, Suryavarman sent an army consisting of Khmers and defected Chams under the command of
the senäpati Sankara to attack Harivarman, but was defeated in the battle of Räjapura in 1148.
Another stronger Khmer army also suffered the same wretchedness fate at the battles of Virapura
(present-day Nha Trang) and Caklyaṅ. It is conjectured that both Räjapura, Virapura, and Caklyaṅ's
modern-day precise locations are unknown, but proposes that those medieval locations should be
somewhere between Qui Nhon and Phan Rang.

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Unable to overwhelm the Cham, Suryavarman appointed Prince Harideva, a Cham royalty of
Cambodian background, as the puppet king of Champa in Vijaya. In 1149, Harivarman marched his
army northward to Vijaya, besieged the city, vanquished Harideva's army at the battle of Mahisa, then
executed Harideva along with all of his Cambodian–Cham officials and military, therefore ended
Suryavarman's occupation of northern Champa. Harivarman then reunited the kingdom. A royal
pretender, Vamsaraja, attacked Harivarman with highland troops but was defeated and escaped to Đại
Việt. Later Vamsaraja was crushed by Harivarman and slain during the Battle of Mỹ Sơn in 1150.
Cham Invasion of Angkor( 1170,1177-1181 and the Battle of Tonlé Sap
After securing peace with Đại Việt in 1170, Cham forces under Jaya Indravarman IV invaded
the Khmer Empire over land with inconclusive results. In 1177, however, his troops launched
a surprise attack against the Khmer capital of Yasodharapura from warships piloted up the Mekong
River to the great lake Tonlé Sap and killed the Khmer king Tribhuvanadityavarman. Multiple-bow
siege crossbows were introduced to Champa from Song dynasty in 1171, and later were mounted on
the backs of Cham and Vietnamese war elephants. They were deployed by the Cham during the siege
of Angkor, which was defended only by wooden palisades, leading to the Cham occupation of
Cambodia for the next four years.
The Khmer empire was in the verge of collapse. Jayavarman VII from the north coalesced an army to
battle the invaders. He had campaigned against the Chams during in his youth in the 1140s and
participated a campaign in Cham capital Vijaya. His army won a series of unprecedented victories
over the Cham, and by 1181 after winning a decisive naval battle, Jayavarman had rescued the empire
and expelled the Cham.
Conquest of Champa: In 1190, the Khmer king Jayavarman VII appointed a Cham prince
named Vidyanandana, who had defected to Jayavarman in 1182 and had been educated at Angkor, to
lead the Khmer army. Vidyanandana defeated the Chams, and proceeded to occupy Vijaya and
capture Jaya Indravarman IV, whom he sent back to Angkor as a prisoner. Adopting the title of Shri
Suryavarmadeva (or Suryavarman), Vidyanandana made himself king of Panduranga, which became a
Khmer vassal. He made Prince In, a brother-in-law of Jayavarman VII, "King Suryajayavarmadeva in
the Nagara of Vijaya" (or Suryajayavarman). In 1191, a revolt at Vijaya drove Suryajayavarman back
to Cambodia and enthroned Jaya Indravarman V. Vidyanandana then re-occupied Vijaya, killed both
Jaya Indravarman IV and Jaya Indravarman V, then "reigned without opposition over the Kingdom of
Champa," declaring his independence from the Khmer Empire. The Khmer later also had double bow
crossbows mounted on elephants, which Michel Jacq Hergoualc’h suggest were elements of Cham
mercenaries in Jayavarman VII's army.
Khmer armies under Jayavarman VII continued campaigning against Champa until the Chams were
finally defeated in 1203. A Cham renegade-Prince ong Dhanapatigräma, overthrew and expelled his
ruling nephew Vidyanandana/Suryajayavarmadeva to Dai Viet, completed the Khmer conquest of
Champa. From 1203 to 1220, Champa as a Khmer province was ruled by a puppet government led by
either ong Dhanapatigräma and then prince Angsaräja, son of Harivarman I, who would later
become Jaya Paramesvaravarman II. In 1207, Angsaräja led Khmer army with Burmese and Siamese
contingents and battled Dai Viet army. Following the voluntary Khmer evacuation of Champa and
dwindling Khmer military presence, Angsaräja took over the reins of government peacefully,
proclaimed himself Jaya Paramesvaravarman II, and restored Champa's independence.
ROYAL ETHNICITIES

185
 Buddha image in the gesture of touching earth and sheltered by serpents

1.King Jayavarman II (802-835 AD), came from Java, where he had been in captivity or exile, to
succeed to the throne as Java’s vassal around 800. An unwilling puppet, he defied the Javanese and
asserted His independence in 802, when he also was installed under Hindu rites as devarāja, or god-
king. He established a series of capitals, first at Indrapura, on the lower Mekong River east of
Kâmpóng (Kompong) Cham; then, moving northwards, at Hariharalaya, southeast of present-day
Siĕmréab (Siem Reap); and then at Mahendraparvata, in the region just north of the Tonle Sap (Great
Lake), not far from Angkor, the next seat of the Angkor Empire, which remained its capital for 600
years.

2.King Jayaviravarman (1002-1006 AD), The origin of this prince is uncertain: According Achilles
Dauphin-Meunier, he was the rightful successor and brother of Udayadityavarman I, who lives
climbing the pretensions of a usurper, Suryavarman I, but managed to stay in Yaçodhapura. George
Coedès, who considers him a usurper, believes that Jayaviravarman was the prince of the city of
Tambralinga (Tamil-Melayu), was an Indianised Kingdom. Nowadays, Nakhon Si Thammarat
Province, Thailand, and that he takes power and reigns in Angkor. MJ Boisselier awards him Ta Keo.
In any case, Jayaviravarman disappears after a nine-year civil war.

3.King Suryavarman I (1006 -1050 AD), Said to have been a son of a King of Tambralinga (Tamil-

186
Melayu), was an Indianised Kingdom. Nowaday, Nakhon Si Thammarat Province Thailand, and to
have claimed his right to the same throne. He based his right on the claim of descent through his
mother, from the maternal line of Indravarman I.

4.King Jayavarman VI (1090-1107 AD), at the present town of Phimai, in the Khorat Plateau or
Upper Mun River Valley, which became territory of Thailand after the conquest by Ayutthaya at
beginning of the 15th century.2 Vimayapura was created as the provincial capital of the Khmer empire
when the attention of the kings focussed on this region at the end of the 11th century, around one
hundred years after seizing it from the previous leader of Mon Dvaravati(Easthern Dvaravati)
occupants.3 At that time, the Mahidhapura dynasty (Jayavarman vi – Suryavarman ii) wanted to
establish a power base to the north of the Dang Raek mountain range (Dagens 2003, 30; Hendrickson
2007, 196–97) and construct a roadway connecting it to the capital of the empire, Yashodharapura
(Angkor).4 Furthermore, King Jayavarman vi was born in the region of modern Phimai (Higham
2003, 107) and the city was strategically located on an ancient trade route from Khorat to the Chao
Phraya Delta

Modern Cambodia has been shaped significantly by the ideological nationalism introduced in the
French colonial period. It was at that time, for instance, that Khmers receptive to French ideas of
civilization and racial hierarchy began to think of them.…

REFERENCE
1 Referred: The Descendants of Kambu: The Political Imagination
of Angkorian Cambodia By Ian Nathaniel Lowman
For modern Khmer jāti, see Penny Edwards, Cambodge: The Cultivation of a Nation, 1860-1945
(Honolulu: University
of Hawai’i Press, 2007), 118.

2.Referred: The Malay Peninsula: Crossroads of the Maritime Silk Road (100 BC - 1300 AD).
3. Referred: A History of South-East Asia. Macmillan Asian Histories Series Book.
IMG: Head of Buddha Statue, Angkorian Art, 11th century.

4.Referred: In: Manusya: Journal of Humanities E-ISSN: 2665-9077 Print ISSN: 0859-9920
Publisher: Brill

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IMG: Buddha Statue, Angkorian Art in Jayavarman VI period at Prasat Hin Phimai, Thailand.

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Suryavarman-II as depicted on Angkor Frescos
IV
BAYON AS JAYMALA or VICTORY GARLAND of Jayavarman VII
King Suryavarman (Sun Shield) II, builder of the great Angkor Wat, died in 1150. He was
succeeded by Dharanindravarman II, who ruled until 1160. Due to the absence of Jayavarman
VII, Yashovarman II succeeded the throne, who was himself overthrown
by Tribhuvanadityavarman (Protegee of the Sun of three worlds), assumed to be an usurper.
In 1177, the Chams, led by Jaya Indravarman IV, invaded and Angkor was
sacked. Nonetheless, this date, not to mention the event itself, has been questioned
by Michael Vickery, who doubts the reliability of the Chinese sources for this periodIn 1181
Jayavarman VII became king after leading the Khmer forces against the Chams Jayavarman
VII then exacted vengeance against Champa in 1190, for the earlier raid in 1177.
Originally a Hindu temple, the Bayon(Jayagiri) was the centrepiece of Jayavarman VII's
massive program of monumental construction and public works. However, the local Khmer
who worked on the restoration of the temple were responsible for its final name change. The
workers mispronounced the name as “Bayon” instead of “Banyan” and the name stuck.

Its 54 Gothic towers are decorated with 216 gargantuan smiling faces of Avalokiteshvara, and
it is adorned with 1.2km of extraordinary bas-reliefs incorporating more than 11,000 figures.

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The upper level of Bayon was closed for restoration when we visited and is not scheduled to
reopen until 2022.

Constructed in the heart of Angkor Thom, the Bayon Temple was intended to
represent Mt. Meru on earth.

Bayon, the, Cambodian Buddhist pyramid temple constructed c. 1200 at the behest
of Jayavarman VII (1181–c. 1220), who had broken with Khmer tradition and adopted
Mahāyāna Buddhism.

Khmer temples thus often portray the ruling king incarnated as the god, whose shrines are
within a monument on earth that models the design of the cosmos and heavens. The faces
depicted on the Bayon towers clearly resemble faces on known portrait statues of Jayavarman
VII.
Bayon was built in the late 12th or early 13th century with the exact date being unknown. It
was constructed well after Angkor Wat by a century or so and whilst not the last temple built
in Angkor, it was certainly the last of the large state temples to be built.2

The Bayon is also known as the temple of faces for the 216 serene faces sculpted on its
towers. Initially, the faces were believed to represent the four-headed Brahma, the Hindu God
of Creation. It was later established that the faces belong to Lokeshwara or Avalokiteshvara,
the bodhisattva of compassion.20-Sept-2022

A pediment found in 1925 depicting an Avalokitesvara identified the Bayon as a Buddhist

temple. This discovery moved the date of the monument ahead some 300 years to the late
twelfth century. Since Bayon Temple was constructed in stages over a span of many years, it
appears to be a bit of an architectural jumble. When seen from a distance, it can seem like a

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rather formless pile of stone, while the interior is a maze of galleries, towers and passageways
on 3 different levels.
There are many reasons why the Bayon Temple is an enigma. The first is the name of the
temple, or rather our lack of knowledge of how people referred to the structure which would
have thrown some light on the origins. For example the modern name Angkor Wat,
alternatively Nokor Wat, means "Temple City" or "City of Temples" in Khmer. Angkor
meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular form of the word nokor , which comes from
the Sanskrit/Pali word nagara (Devanāgarī: नगर).

It's sometimes called Jayavarman's Temple, in honour of the Khmer king who ordered its
construction. It's best known for its many towers with gently smiling . faces resembling the
builder. The Bayon was the state temple of King Jayavarman VII, built at the end of the
12th century. It is a mountain temple built to represent Mount Meru,

Defeat of the CHAMs and the CORONATION of Jayavarman

In 1177 and again in 1178, the Cham invaded the Khmer Empire. In 1177, Champa
King Jaya Indravarman IV launched a surprise attack on the Khmer capital by sailing a fleet
up the Mekong River, across Lake Tonlé Sap, and then up the Siem Reap River, a tributary of
the Tonle Sap. The invaders pillaged the Khmer capital of Yasodharapura and put
king Tribhuvanadityavarman to death. Also in 1178, when he was in his mid 50s, Jayavarman
came to historical prominence by leading a Khmer army that ousted the invaders, which
included a naval battle depicted on the walls of the Bayon and Banteay Chmar. Returning to
the capital, he found it in disorder. He put an end to the disputes between warring factions
and in 1181 was crowned king himself.
Early in his reign, he probably repelled another Cham attack and quelled a rebellion of the
vassal Kingdom of Malyang (Battambang). He was greatly helped by the military skill of
refugee Prince Sri Vidyanandana, who also played a part in the subsequent sacking and
conquest of Champa (1190–1191). His conquest of Champa made it a dependency of the
Khmer Empire for thirty years. Jayavarman expanded Khmer control of the Mekong Valley
northward to Vientiane and to the south, down the Kra Isthmus.

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 Neither are there words to quite describe the mysterious atmosphere inside the
entire Bayon complex that suggests a fragile sense of balance between destruction and
quietude.
Takeshi NakagawaWaseda University, Field Director of Japan-APSARA project
The Bayon is a highly dense, three-dimensional complex with the main structure of the
temple having a large terrace projection on the east front and a rectangular ground
plan that measures approximately 130 m wide along the front and 140 m along its sides.
It is enclosed by the outer gallery, the cruciform has vast numbers of massive faces of dieties
that are difficult to define as either sculpture or architecture. The 43 m high central
tower, having an oval ground plan, is joined by groups of numerous halls and towers on
an elaborately structured three-tiered terrace, some arranged in orderly fashion in the four
directions – north, south, east and west – and others with versatile flexibility.
In spite of the fact that almost half the stone masonry of the central tower has collapsed, it
nevertheless rises straight up into the sky and valiantly commands a broad view into the far
distance. Indeed, throughout the intricate structure of the Bayon, roof and stone
masonry walls are on the verge of collapse, bearing eloquent gallery and the inner gallery,
the last of which was built in later years and composed of corner galleries.
There is diversity and distinctiveness in the 173 faces of Deva / Devata / Asura images (more
than 181 faces at the time of initial construction) that are carved in a total of fifty-two deity-
faced towers. Each face not only differs from the others in size, position, height and
appearance.
Three guardian deities are:

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 1. Devata -Devata as the deity to protect the main deity enshrined in the central
tower of the Bayon,
2. Asura- Asura as the deity to protect the perimeter of the temple
3. Deva- Deva as a neutral deity

These are also found contained in the ‘Churning of the Sea of Milk’ in the gallery of
Angkor Wat but here in bayon they are ingeniously arranged inside the complex and at
the entrances to the temple to produce a new structural style that distinguishes Bayon from
Angkor; so that the Bayon represents a multilayered world protected in its entirety by the
deities.Royal authority legitimized. The bas-reliefs carved on the walls of the inner and
outer galleries, which distinctly characterize the Bayon, also hold significant meaning.
Centred on the beliefs of Jayavarman VII himself (who ruled from around 1181 to 1219) and
the royal family, the bas-reliefs on the front wall of the inner gallery show the succession of
kings and their legitimacy of rule and authority.
A.the north and west walls respectively depict stories that artfully contain motifs relating
to the legends of Shiva and Vishnu,
B. South wall is thought to have been planned around a Buddhist theme.
Since it had religious images and the French didn’t know the original name at the time, they
chose to call it Banyan Temple when they arrived.Because there were so many depictions of
Buddhism there, they gave it the name Banyan temple (i.e. the Buddha is said to have
attained enlightenment under the Banyan tree). A pronunciation error occurred when native
Khmer workers arrived to renovate the Banyan temple, leading to the creation of Bayon.
Another view on Bayon is that it was named in 1880 by Etienne Aymonier. According to his
report, Bayon is the Latin term for what he had seen written in Khmer as “Bayânt,” which he
believed was most likely a distorted form of the Pali Vejayant or Sanskrit Vaijayant, the
name of the heavenly palace of Indra, of which the Bayon was thought to be the terrestrial
counterpart.

The Vaijayanti (Sanskrit: वैजयन्ति, lit. Victory Garland and not 'garland of victory') is a
mythological garland or elemental necklace, primarily associated with Vishnu. Employed in
its worship as a garland, this object is also called the Vaijayantimala, or the Vanamala. The
latter makes no sense. In Sri Vaishnava tradition, the poet-saint Thondaradippodi Alvar is
regarded to be a manifestation of the Vanamala.

In the Skanda Purana, Varuna presents Lakshmi with the garland as a wedding gift.
According to the Vishnu Purana, the garland prominently displays five precious gemstones:
emerald, sapphire, ruby, pearl, and diamond. These correspond with the five classic elements
commonly named earth, water, fire, air, and ether respectively.
In the Shiva Purana, Vishnu offers his garland to his son-in-law Kartikeya, before his battle
with the asura Taraka.The Garuda Purana includes a prayer known as the Vishnu Panjaram,
which includes the following verse: "Taking up Vaijayanti and Srivatsa, the ornament of thy
throat do thou protect me in the north-west, O god, O Hayagriva. I bow unto thee".

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 The Vaijayanti, Karnataka/ Garuda the vehicle of Vishnu
Vaijayanti finds a mention in Vishnu Sahasranama, a stotram dedicated to Vishnu in
the Mahabharata, as vanamali (forest flowers).The garland of victory is mentioned in
the Mahabharata, as made of never-wilting lotuses.
Jayavarman VII, posthumous name of Mahaparamasaugata (c. 1122–1218), was king of
the Khmer Empire. He was the son of King Dharanindravarman II (r. 1150–1160) and
Queen Sri Jayarajacudamani. [2] He was the first king devoted to Buddhism, as only one prior
Khmer king was a Buddhist. He then built the Bayon as a monument to Buddhism.
Jayavarman VII is generally considered the most powerful of the Khmer monarchs by
historians.[3] His government built many projects including hospitals, highways, rest houses
and temples. With Buddhism as his motivation, King Jayavarman VII is credited with
introducing a welfare state that served the physical and spiritual needs of the Khmer people.

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Bronze replica of one of the twenty-three stone images King Jayavarman VII sent to
different parts of his kingdom in 1191. The Walters Art Museum.
Over the 37 years of his reign, Jayavarman embarked on a grand program of construction that
included both public works and monuments. As a Mahayana Buddhist, his declared aim was
to alleviate the suffering of his people. One inscription tells us, "He suffered from the
illnesses of his subjects more than from his own; the pain that affected men's bodies was for
him a spiritual pain, and thus more piercing." This declaration must be read in light of the
undeniable fact that the numerous monuments erected by Jayavarman must have required the
labor of thousands of workers, and that Jayavarman's reign was marked by the centralization
of the state and the herding of people into ever greater population centers.
Historians have identified many facets in Jayavarman's intensive building program. In one
phase, he focused on useful constructions, such as his famous 102 hospitals, rest houses along
the roads, and reservoirs. Thereafter, he built a pair of temples in honor of his parents: Ta
Prohm in honor of his mother and Preah Khan in honor of his father
Finally, he constructed his own "temple-mountain" at Bayon and developed the city
of Angkor Thom around it. He also built Neak Pean ("Coiled Serpent"), one of the smallest
but most beautiful temples in the Angkor complex, a fountain with four surrounding ponds
set on an island in that artificial lake.

Ta Prohm
In 1186, Jayavarman dedicated Ta Prohm ("Ancestor Brahma" or " Eye of Brahma") to his
mother. An inscription indicates that this massive temple at one time had 80,000 people
assigned to its upkeep, including 18 high priests and 615 female dancers.
Angkor Thom and Bayon
Angkor Thom ("Grand Angkor" or "Angkor of Dham(ma)") was a new city centre, called in
its day Indrapattha. At the centre of the new city stands one of his most massive
achievements—the temple now called the Bayon, a multi-faceted, multi-towered temple that
mixes Buddhist and Hindu iconography. Its outer walls have startling bas reliefs not only of
warfare but the everyday life of the Khmer army and its followers. These reliefs show camp
followers on the move with animals and oxcarts, hunters, women cooking, female traders
selling to Chinese merchants, and celebrations of common foot soldiers. The reliefs also
depict a naval battle on the great lake, the Tonle Sap.
Popular Icon
Jayavarman VII's bust has been a favorite of Khmer households and a masterpiece of the
National Museum for many years. The recent discovery of portions of the rest of his statue
confirmed speculations about his spiritual aura as a sovereign.

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 Jayavarman VII is commonly depicted with both his arms amputated.
Jayavarman died around 1218. He was succeeded by Indravarman II, who died by 1243.
Indravarman was succeeded further by Jayavarman VIII, a Shivaite. He embarked on the
destruction or defacement of Jayavarman VII's Buddhist works. The niches all along the top
of the wall around the city contained images of the Buddha, and most of these were removed.
This included the great statue of Buddha at Bayon, and the Buddha images in Angkor Thom,
which were converted into linga.
The Bayon was the state temple of King Jayavarman VII, built at the end of the 12th century.
It is a mountain temple built to represent Mount Meru, the center of the universe in Hindu
and Buddhist cosmology.

The King had the temple constructed in the center of Angkor Thom, the 9 km2 large capital
city of the Khmer empire. Four roads from the four entrance gopuras of Angkor Thom lead
directly to the temple.

Unlike most Khmer temples, the Bayon is not surrounded by a moat and walls
with gopura entrance gates. Archaeologists believe that instead the moat and walls of Angkor
Thom served as the temple’s line of defense.

Buddhist temple with separate shrines for Vishnu and Shiva

The Bayon was built as a Buddhist temple. A statue of the main idol, a seated Buddha image
sheltered under the hoods of the snake Mucalinda, was discovered in a pit under the main
shrine.

Turned into a Hindu temple

A few decades after the death of King Jayavarman VII, the temple was turned into a Hindu
temple when King Jayavarman VIII reverted the official Khmer religion back to Hinduism;
images of the Buddha were destroyed or turned into Hindu images.

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Shrine for Vishnu and Shiva
Although the Bayon was a Buddhist temple, other Gods were also worshipped. Separate
shrines were dedicated to Vishnu and Shiva, while countless other deities were worshipped.

Complicated design
The Bayon is best known for the mysterious faces on its many towers. Due to its many
alterations over time, the structure is of a very complicated design and has a cluttered feel,
with the many towers and other structures cramping the monument. The Bayon has three
enclosures. The galleried 3rd and 2nd enclosure, and the inner enclosure, which contains the
3rd floor platform with the central sanctuary.

Two concentric galleries are sculpted with bas reliefs. The inner galleries contain mainly
religious and mythological scenes, while the outer galleries mainly show historical events,
battles and scenes from daily life.

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 v
Hospitals of the JAYAVARMAN VII
All ancient civilizations of the world developed their own medicinal systems, but the ancient
Indian system of medicine is considered to be the most methodical and the most holistic
system, both in its ideas and its curative measures and today we are finding its impact
( should we say) on the ancient Khmer medical system. So when the ground breaking and
Krong Pali Ceremony was held at the construction site in Cambodia of a Huge Hospital at
Sangkat Veal Vong, Khan 7 Makara last year (2021) how many thought of the excellent
healthcare and Hospitals that Khmer Kings.had.built.centuries.ago?

Workshop on “Buddhism and Traditional Medicine” at the ANA’s Angkor Training Centre on July 20, 2021

Researchers are claiming that the ancient Angkorian Khmer Empire established the world’s
first healthcare system within the government structure, with a total of 102 hospitals built
throughout the empire. Healthcare in past historical periods show the Khmer Empire was the
first to create an organised healthcare system in the world. The international experts
presented research indicating that each hospital established by the Khmer Empire had a
proper management system show Khmer empire had medical facilities with nearly 100
employees, including one director at each hospital and other staff such as doctors, nurses,
pharmacists and medical assistants.The healthcare system they described was created under
King Jayavarman VII and was in operation from the end of the 12th century onwards. The
first scholars to start researching this topic were the French, who translated the inscriptions at
an ancient hospital in Cambodia in 1903, which confirmed that the Khmer Empire had
hospitals in ancient times.

With 102 functioning hospitals all across the kingdom during the reign of King Jayavarman
VII, people of the Angkorian era possessed a great deal of knowledge on medication and the
scientific as well as spiritual healing process. The buildings and temples of some of these
ancient hospitals is discussed below. Historians with the APSARA National Authority in
Cambodia, said regarding the Leak Neang temple which is unique and different from the
others because it was at a hospital. The Leak Neang temple is one of the four temples located
at the entrances of Angkor Thom. Let me explain. [The walled city of] Angkor Thom has the
overall shape of a square in which the Bayon temple stands in the center. On each side is a
gate to the city. Actually, there is a fifth gate, but let’s consider only the gates that are
perpendicular to the Bayon temple.

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In front of the Angkor Wat temple stands another temple called Prohm Kel, which is in fact a
hospital. Similarly, there’s another temple at the western gate named Tramoung, which is also
a hospital. To the northern gate stands another hospital named Tonle Snguot. We now are at
the Leak Neang temple of the eastern gate. At every gate of the city, there is a hospital.
Specifically, an ancient hospital consisted of the medical-care building, the place where the
physician could stay, the healing center, and the administration center. In every hospital
compound, there’s a temple. Today, we would call it a shrine. The shrine was built for the
people to worship. For example, this is a hospital. Back then, the hospital was usually built of
wood with a tile roof. In that wooden hospital, there was a temple. It was for the sick to pray,
worship, make offerings, or the doctors themselves to worship. What we are seeing today is
the remaining stone temple whereas the wooden hospital with its tile rooftop might be laying
around here somewhere.

As the roofs were made of wood the building slowly crumbled, the pieces fell on the ground.
And the surrounding forest eventually spread over the area. So, the temple was surrounded by
the hospital. The overall structure and architectural design of each hospital is identical to one
another. Thus, if we can recognize one hospital temple, we can easily spot the others. The
temple is the clue or key for us to find where the hospital is. We cannot find the hospital itself
without this clue because the wooden building is now gone. Fortunately, we are left with the
temple. So, where the temple stands, the hospital stood. The hospital was not a place to teach.
It was a place to heal the sick...The inscription at the Ta Prohm temple, which…is very near
to where are we right now, contains details on how many medical schools or ak-roak-sala
there were during that period. The “ak” in ak-roak-sala can translate into “Anti-Sickness
Building.” The “ak” is a negative prefix. So, it is the place that cures diseases. There were
102 places that cured illness in the whole Khmer Empire during the reign of King
Jayavarman VII.

Researchers say there were a total of 102 in the Khmer Empire that spread thousands and tens
of thousands of square kilometers. Up to now, we have managed to find the locations of the
hospitals through the temples. Some of them are in Leaw [Laos], Siam [Thailand], the
Mekong Delta of Vietnam, the Angkor region, and other places. Also, in every province or
commune, there is a “doctor’s house.” According to the inscription, it is specifically called a
place that cures diseases or ak-roak-sala- “The place that heals all kinds of diseases”. This
place is similar to a ministry, consisting of a director, doctors, nurses, assistants, guards and
much more.

Mainly the inscriptions at every hospital share the same content. It is as if the Angkorian
government implemented a decree to have an inscription at every hospital. Because of the
inscriptions, we are able to know more about the hospitals including the medications, the
management, the origins of the medicines and so on and so forth.

Medicines

The majority of the medicines were written in the Khmer alphabet or through the Sanskrit
language. So far, we know a little about it. There were two categories of medicine being used
at that time. The first category was imported from abroad. The second type of medicine was
grown domestically. Perhaps the hospital had a garden to grow [medicinal plants and herbs]
and produce medicine. The medications were extremely organic. We can see that it is in

199
contrast with today’s medication, which involve [synthetic] chemicals. Back then, medicines
were totally natural. Based on the inscriptions, most of the medicines were imported from
India, another portion came from China, and some were grown locally as well. These
medicines would go to the government. The government then would distribute the imported
medicines and domestic ones. Whereas other medicinal plants and herbs could be grown
around the hospital. At that time, the medical technology was quite advanced. Some of the
ingredients were grinded, separated, formed into small tablets, and carefully stored. Since
these medicines were organic, they could only be kept for a short period of time. Therefore,
each hospital had to visit the royal storage in Angkor City every three months to get fresh
medicine. The hospital directors had to journey to the main city to get new medicines and
materials to supply their hospitals.

A survey of Indian medical historiography will reveal no dearth of work on the systems of
medicine and medical literature of ancient India. However, the people who were responsible
for the healing have not received much attention. The evolution of the physician as a
professional in ancient India was detailed by an article-Physicians of ancient India, Anu Saini,
(
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5084543/). This article reviews the secondary
literature on healing and medical practice in India, specifically pertaining to the individual
medical practitioner, drawing from varied sources. The healers of ancient India hailed from
different castes and classes. They were well-respected and enjoyed state patronage. They
were held to the highest ethical standards of the day and were bound by a strict code of
conduct. They underwent rigorous training in both medicine and surgery. Most physicians
were multi-skilled generalists, and expected to be skilled in elocution and debate. They were
reasonably well-off financially. Could this be the system followed by the Khmer Kings?
Traditional Cambodian medicine comprise several traditional medicine systems
in Cambodia.
Healers and herbalists of Cambodian traditional medicine are collectively referred to as Kru
Khmer. There are many regional variations of the practice and herbal knowledge of
traditional medicine within Cambodia. Traditional Cambodian medical practices are widely
used in Cambodia.Because of the ethnic Chinese and ethnic Vietnamese populations of
Cambodia, traditional Chinese medicine and traditional Vietnamese medicine are also
practiced and represented in the country.

The exact origins of traditional Khmer medicine (TM) remains unclear, but it is believed
to have been founded and formalised from the Nokor Phnom period (Funan era) to the 9th
century, during the Angkorian period. It is influenced by Ayurveda (traditional Indian
medicine) and traditional Chinese medicine. These foreign frameworks and practices were
mixed with local beliefs and superstitions to create the foundations of TKM. The temple
of Neak Poan is believed
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
See also-Indian Systems of Medicine: A Brief Profile,B Ravishankar and VJ
Shukla(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2816487/)
to have been the central temple for Khmer medicine during the Angkorian era. Jayavarman
VII, who reigned c.1181–1218, ordered the construction of 102 hospitals ('halls devoid of
disease' or arogyasala) throughout his realm.

Khmer inscriptions investigated by French archeological researcher George Cœdès in the

early 20th century, confirmed the existence of 15 hospitals (out of Jayavarman VII's 102
hospitals) across the kingdom. Those 15 hospitals are:

200
Ta Prohm Kel temple is one of the 102 hospitals of king Jayavarman VII, located in Angkor historical
park.

Inscriptions detailing Hospitals and their presence

Sources (inscription codes,

No. Names in English Names in Khmer
pages)
1 Choan Chum ជាន់ជំុ K-11 Inv.I p. 3
2 Kh'na temple ប្សាទខ្នា K-160 p. 240
K-435 BEFEO, XIII p. 34,
3 Kok Roka គោករកា
XV p. 108
K-667 BEEFEO, XXX,
4 Banteay Thleng temple ប្សាទបន្ទា យថ្ង
p. 222, 224
5 Sai Fong សាយហ្វុង K-368 Inv.II p. 96
6 Ta Moan Toch temple ប្សាទតាមាន់តូច K-375 Inv.II p. 132
7 Wat Pak'am វត្តផ្គាំ K.386 Inv.II p. 223
8 Konburi គន់បូរី K.387 Inv.II p. 238
9 Nom Van នំវ័ន K-395 Inv.II p. 265
10 Wat Ku វត្តគុ K-402 Inv, II p. 310
West gopura of Angkor K-602 BEFEO, XXVI,
11 គោបុរៈខាងលិចអង្គរធំ
Thom p. 512
12 Ta Prohm Kel temple ប្សាទតាព្ហ្មកិល K-614 Inv.III, p. 116
13 Ta Keo, the hospital temple ប្សាទតាកែវ K-537 BCA1, 1917–30
14 Ta Ke Pong temple ប្សាទតាកេពង់ K-209 Inv, III p. 438
15 Wat Svay វត្តស្វា យ K-912, EFEO No 22, p. 8

Inscriptions in these hospitals describe the number of medical staff and their different roles
such as hospital managers, drug combiner staff, water boiler staff, drug grinders and drug
distributors. An inscription in Sai Fong has become the most renowned quote of King
Jayavarman VII: "Diseases of the people make him more painful than his own illness."
Prasat Chrey and Prasat Lek 8 (Number 8 temple) are temples in Sambor Prei Kuk that were
previous hospital chapels during the Chenla era. Inside the hospital chapels, ground or
smashed traditional herbal medicines extracted from plant trunks, roots and leaves were
mixed with purified water. The drug liquid was then poured over a Shiva Linga to enhance

201
the effectiveness, after which it flowed from the Linga base through the outside part of the
chapels via a drainpipe connected to the north side of the buildings. Here, patients, who were
waiting outside the hospital, finally received the drug liquid.

Ta Prohm Kel temple is one of the 102 hospitals of king Jayavarman VII, located in Angkor historical
park.
Jayavarman VII ordered a total of 102 'halls of diseaselessness' across the Angkorian Empire in the 12th century,
serving the general population.

Khmer traditional medicine used to rely on written texts, Khmer sastras or palm-leaf
manuscripts, since the 9th century, stored and studied at the many temples across the
former Khmer Empire. However, during the Cambodian civil war and the following Khmer
Rouge regime, virtually all historic scholarly texts and philosophical literature in Cambodia
were destroyed, including many Khmer medical manuscripts.
To understand the profession and practice of the Kru Khmer in more detail, the profession
may be divided into a number of sub-classifications, each tied to a specific method, affliction

of attention and/or service provided. The knowledge and practice of Traditional medicine( ™)
was written down on palm-leaf manuscripts, written in the pali language, and stored in
temples all over the empire. Most of these original Khmer medicinal manuscripts are thought
to have been destroyed in the Cambodian civil war, but some still exists and they represent

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some of the most reliable sources to the origins of TM. Surviving ancient Khmer medical
texts shows a considerable systematization of medical knowledge, but an institutionalized
Khmer medical system with associated doctrine-based practices, did not survive into the
modern age in Cambodia. Scholars and historians have long wondered what happened to this
grand medical tradition and the 13th century is considered a crucial tipping point in the
history of traditional Khmer medicine. The gradual decline of the Angkorian Empire and the
religious shifts to Theravada Buddhism appears to have affected the original medical culture
greatly. The Siamese conquest of Angkor is not thought to have destroyed the medical
traditions, but rather appropriated the medical knowledge and preserved it as Thai instead of
Khmer. The French colonial era is also thought to have affected and prevented the rise of the
ancient Khmer medical tradition. Unlike India for example, where dialogue and knowledge
exchange between initial colonialists and Indian doctors took place, the colonial presence
beginning with the 18th century in Cambodia was almost instantaneous and the French
demanded and relied upon Western medicine from the very start, abolishing the local
Cambodian medical traditions altogether. The following independence and warring upheaval
of Cambodia during the civil war, the Khmer Rouge regime and the Vietnamese occupation,
all continued this suppression of medical traditions, in particular the spiritual aspects. This
centuries-long pressure fragmented the Khmer medical tradition, sometimes with local
reinventions emerging.

Historically, three sub-categorizations of the Kru Khmer profession have been noted: kru
pet kru thnam and tmup. Kru pet were the most revered and theoretically educated. They
studied the palm-leaf manuscripts in temples and were mostly found around the royalty's
residences and temples, less so among the general population. Kru thnam, who were
herbalists without much interest in religious aspects, were much more numerous and to be
found throughout the country. Tmup were sorcerers.
These general categorizations are still in use in Cambodia today, but the kru pet class is
nonexistent.

Notable Kru Khmers

Kru pet hermits have always been glorified and venerated in the Khmer culture for their
kindness of saving human and animal lives. Statues were made to pay respect to kru pet, like
the hermit sculpture on Phnom Santuk mountain, and hermitages or temples dedicated to kru
pet were built such as Maha Rusey hermitage on Phnom Da mountain.Semahatata was a
royal doctor of King Rodravarman and Jayavarman I during Chenla period. In addition, he
was the royal official of King Bhavavarman I and Mahendravarman. At that time, he was the
mayor of Vyadhapura also.

Yajnavaraha was a religious Kru Khmer and royal physician of the Khmer Empire in the 10th
century. Along with Khmer traditional medicine he also practiced Ayurveda, an Indian
traditional medicine system.

Of course, there were schools. The hospital was solely used for medical practice whereas
theories and lessons could be learned at school. The schools were actually the pagodas or the
religious temples such as Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, or Banteay Kdei. These were universities.
Even though they are sacred temples, all the huge temples were also a place for education.
Moreover, higher degree of learning up to the university level for doctors, engineers,
architects, and astrologists was available at the temples as well. Therefore, the temple had
multiple functions aside from religious purposes. Furthermore, the teachers or professors who
taught at the temples were sponsored by the government. Then, they could use their salaries

203
to support and provide for themselves. The government also supported each doctor who
worked at hospitals. A hospital had to have two doctors, probably 18 nurses and medical
assistants, guards, people in charge of boiling water, people who grinded medicine, rice and
more. So, there was approximately 90 to 98 people for a single hospital. This makes a
hospital similar to a ministry.

This was only at the last period of the Khmer Empire. There was a legacy from the earlier
generations. It is not as if everything just suddenly appeared during the era of King
Jayavarman VII. Obviously, there were people before him. Nevertheless, in terms of
inscriptions or written evidence, it is clear that the details [regarding hospitals] were inscribed
during King Jayavarman VII’s years. The medical and education sectors appeared earlier,
before his reign.

9th and the 10th century inscriptions,when translated show the written information that
mentions a variety of scholarships including age-oriented government sponsorships, food and
even school supplies. In addition, the inscriptions also mention graduation events for
individuals including the royalty and the king himself becoming teachers. But I would like to
emphasize that no single inscription contains all of these details at once. Instead, this is the
result of combining and saving inscriptions over the years. We have about 3,000 inscriptions
and we try to study each of them and put them together to get the full picture. That’s why a
research cannot come to conclusion based on a single piece of evidence. We have to put all
the information together so that we can understand and, subsequently, compare and analyze
disparities in the information.

Restoration Projects --Tonle Snguot

The Tonle Snguot temple, located in the northern section of Angkor Thomis a temple inside a
hospital. Moreover, the study of hospital and medical procedures is still in progress. Although
the Shastras -studied the historical research data, has not been studies people are bworking on
shastra [manuals of instruction] and ancient medications.

204
In the past, doctors examined the patient’s condition based on four main factors. These
factors are linked to the four elements, which are water, earth, fire, and air. Our body is made
of these four elements. Similarly, these elements will influence our health and that might be
the cause of why we are feeling sick. In the instance of this case, they are treating the cause
of sickness based on the element of air. For some other cases, the doctors will refer to the
other three elements. The absence or imbalance in any element will unsettle our health. We
could get sick. This traditional approach is being used today as well. Whenever one feels
discomfort, one will say “chong kert k’chol” [catching-the-air or minor dizziness]. This is
because the air element inside our body is imbalanced. Traditionally, in order to cure this
illness, people would have to chase the air away through the gua sha body-massage
technique. The massage will ease and stabilize the “air” in one’s body. Then, when one
would start to feel more and more lightheaded, they would say “k’chol ko” (spinning air or
fainting). Just like how it feels like when the wind is spinning. And if one is feeling heavier
and heavier as if the air is turning into a tornado, they would exclaim “dach k’chol” (air
disconnection or suffocation). This is the last and harmful part. So, you see, first it is “kert
k’chol” (dizziness). Then, it will lead to “k’chol kor” (fainting). People will experience
unsteadiness and headache at this point. And if it continues to get worst, it will be harmful.

Temples as contributors to medical care

The reason why the Angkor period was so flourishing is neither because of the impressive
temples or the excellent sculptures. Any country could have done the same thing. Instead, the
reason for Angkor’s glory is what we have seen so far. There were hospitals and proper
techniques used to diagnose, proper medications to cure diseases, skilled physicians, nurses,
and first-aid staff. Moreover, another reason that contributed to this peak medical care is the
temples.

1. What do you think it means to have a temple inside a hospital?

2. First of all, the temple is meant for the sick to perform monthly or annual ritual
ceremonies. Inside the temple, there are two priests. One will assist with related
religious activities while the other priest will treat the sick.
3. In cases when doctors cannot identify a patient’s disease, then the priest will have to
step in and examine the patient himself.

205
 4. In the end, they will use the two results from both religion and science to come to a
conclusion. All those who enter the hospital will be cured and healthy once again for
sure.
5. If they are possessed by any spirits, the priest over there will know immediately.

Tonlle Sgnout is one of four hospital chapels

Tonlle Sgnout is one of four hospital chapels surrounding Angkor Thom. Another, known
simply as the Chapel of the Hospital is located to the east, with two others--Prasat Tamoung
and Ta Prohm Kel--located to the west and south, respectively. Jayavaraman VII built at least
102 of these 'arogayasala' throughout the empire, primarily in central Cambodia and modern-
day eastern Thailand (the Khorat plateau). Apart from the chapels, the hospitals were not
constructed of durable materials so no traces of the medical facilities survive.
Although small, the hospitals are decorated in the style of the Bayon with numerous Apsara
figures on each of the four sides.

Neak-Pean-Pean
Neak Pean (or Neak Poan "the entwined serpents") at Angkor, Cambodia is an artificial
island with a Buddhist temple on a circular island in Jayatataka Baray, which was associated
with Preah Khan temple, built during the reign of King Jayavarman VII. Neak Pean was
originally designed for medical purposes (the ancients believed that going into these pools
would balance the elements in the bather, thus curing disease); it is one of the many hospitals
that Jayavarman VII built. It is based on the ancient Hindu belief of balance. Four connected
pools represent Water, Earth, Fire and Wind. Each is connected to the central water source,
the main tank, by a stone conduit "presided over by one of Four Great Animals (maha
ajaneya pasu) namely Elephant, Bull, Horse, and Lion, corresponding to the north, east,
south, and west quarters....The stone conduits in the little pavilions are fashioned to represent
the heads of the Four Great Animals...the only exception being that on the east, which
represents a human head instead of a bull's." Originally, four sculptures stood on the floor of
the lake. The only remaining statue is that of the horse Balaha, a form of the
bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, saving sailors from the ogresses of Tamradvipa. The temple on
the lake was originally dedicated to Avalokitesvara. Willetts believed that "this is Jayavarman
as he would have wished to have appeared to his people.

206
 Hospital Chapel

It is the "Mebon" of the Preah Khan baray (the "Jayatataka" of the inscription). Some
historians believe that Neak Pean represents Anavatapta,a mythical lake in the Himalayas
whose waters are thought to cure all illness. The name is derived from the sculptures of
snakes (Nāga) running around the base of the temple structure, neak being the Khmer
rendering of the Sanskrit naga. "They are Nanda and Upananda, two nagas traditionally
associated with Lake Anavatapta."
Zhou Daguan refers to Neak Pean in his visit to Angkor in the late 13th century.

At the same time, one should not confuse the Neak Pean temple [built on a small island in the
middle of the north baray at Angkor] with a hospital, which many people do. The Neak Pean
temple is not a hospital for it does not have enough facilities for treatment. The Neak Pean
temple is a whole other story…it is different from a hospital. There are even accommodations
inside a hospital. In the past, a hospital was not only a place to cure diseases. A hospital was
also a charity-and-rescue center like the present-day Red Cross. People also prepared food
and water at the hospital for the poor and needy. They were allowed to eat there if they could
not find food. There were shelters for the homeless to stay. Anyone could come to stay at the
hospital or the rescue department if one did not have a place to go during the cold season.
Therefore, the hospital was both a charity and rescue place. Furthermore, the hospital was a
place that distributed donations. Every year, the hospital would donate to the poor and sick
who were struggling. They could come to get medicines or goods directly from the hospital.

Hospital Chapel (12th century) Picture to the RIGHT is One of the 102 hospital chapels
built by Jayavarman VII.
In the early years of his reign Jayavarman VII built a number of public works throughout the
empire, including 102 hospitals. Apart from the chapels, they were not constructed of durable
materials so no traces of the medical facilities survive. Four such hospitals
(called arogayasala) were built around Angkor Thom, including this building and Ta Prohm
Kel near Angkor Wat. Although small, they were decorated in the style of the Bayon.
The structure comprises a central sanctuary with an entrance facing east. Originally a gate
(now ruined) provided access from the east. It is located just 150 meters west of Ta Keo, so it
is recommended to combine visits both sites.

207
 Reference

Southeast Asia. Crossroad of Religions-K. P. Landon and Lawrence Palmer Briggs

208
 5 WORLD RECORDS of DR Uday Dokras as
World #1

Highest number of Literary ventures in Hindu Temple Architecture and Vastu ///Highest number of Literary ventures
in the world 2000 books and research Papers, Seen here with Ms. Mansse Bhandari, COO FUN and FOOD Village
Nagpur, Delhi and Uzbekisthan

LINK to 3 World Awards+ titel to 2 more

1. https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-dhamma
2. https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-written-on-
hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-dokras
3. https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-research-
papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras
4. Highest number of Literary Endeavours in the World by an Individual. URL to come later
5. Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu/ Buddhist Temples of
Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan). URL Later

209
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211
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THE AUTHOR DR UDAY DOKRAS

About the Author

The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in
India and abroad. He was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New
Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday
Inn;was General Manager-Health Human Resources at the Lata
Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant to
Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the
Central Institute of Business Management and Research, Nagpur.

In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor

to a multi millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he
obtained degrees of Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial
Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done his Graduate Studies
in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a
MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden.
Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in
Singapore.

A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel

Fund and Wineroth Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute
for 5 years.
In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of
the University of

213
 California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In
1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the
efficacy of the labour laws of Seychelles.

Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life

sketch is part of the English study text book of 7 th Class Students in
Sweden -“Studying English. SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students
in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”

RESEARCH PAPERS-320 + in Researchgate and academia.edu &

scribd-Followers(readers) 2 million consolidated as on 26 th
June,2023.

Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS

Dr. Uday Dokras
B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Vastu,Temple Construction and Management and Efficacy Consultant,
India/Bangkor------------------------------------------------------------------------
Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT

The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human

resources and offer success and failure factors guideline for a variety
of potential practitioners and students in global project marketplace.
Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm
SWEDEN

214
From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018

215
Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text
SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras

Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Institute of Architects,

New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU
TEMPLES on the web in CARONA times( May 2020)

216
217
DIRECTOR (Technical)-https://smkfoundation.com/our-
team/

218
 Unravelling the

SCIENSome of the 2300 Research Papers and 510 BOOKS written

by DR UDAY DOKRAS
Published by
The Indo Nodic Author’s Collective Sweden and Finland

Dr. Uday Dokras

Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers

The Cambodian Trilogy

I.HINDU CAMBODIA

219
 II.HYDROLOGY of ANGKOR
ANGKOR is known as a Hydraulic city- full or canals and river and
waterways. It is this water system they say that brought the downfall of this
intrinsic kingdom. But is that TRUE?

III.ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT VANISHED- Angkor

Building Materials of the Hindu Temple

Indo Nordic Author's collective, 2021
In depth study of how Building Materials of the Hindu Temple was used in
India,Indonesia and Cambodia and India

The Art & Architecture of THE GOLDEN TEMPLE COMPLEX, AMRITSAR

220
Mathematics in Temple Designs

Jain ART
Book on Jain Art and Iconography

Jain Temples- Part I -Complete Compendium-Book I

A to Z of the architecture, Design,Cosmology,Philosophy of Jain temples in

Jain Temples II
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF JAIN TEMPLES AND THE
ACTUAL PHOTOGRAPHS(ORIGINAL) OF 3JAIN TEMPLES of Nagpur

221
DWARKA- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost CITY of KRISHNA

TIRUPATI TEMPLE Book part I

TIRUPATI TemplePart II

Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods

Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods. Animals in Hinduism. demi Gods

SATYANARAYAN PUJA-The Complete Compendium

Satyanarayan Puja or 9 Graha Puja( a puja of 9 planets) has been performed
by most Hindus not only now but for 1,000’s of years.

222
MAHALAXMI Puja
Hindu Goddess MAHALAXMI Puja

ARCHITECTURE OF PALESTINE

Palestine my Love
Palestine my Love is about the culture arts and crafts of palestine so we
recognize it as a entity that is fighting for recognition of not only its
legitimacy but also its cultural heritage
QUINTET (5) BOOKS ON MANDALA

Unravelling the MAZE of the MANDALA BOOK I

First part of a two book treatise on MANDALAS. This introductory phase
introduces mandalas

223
Maze of MANDALA BOOK II
Advanced Mandala routine for those who want to know more about
MANDALAS

Mandala BOOK III on Nakshatra

BOOK IV MANDALA & ARCHITECTURE

The Use of Mandalas in Building Temples and Modern Buildings

Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdoms

224
Islamic Architectureal Arts of of Imam Ali's 2 Shrines

Hindu Gods in Scandinavia

Did the Hindu Gods originate or live in Scandinavia once? Find out

Book on Divinity and Architecture

What is divinity? How has man tried to harness architecture to create magic
in space

Virat Hridaya Padma-sthalam CHIDAMBARAM Temple -Celestial Mysteries

This book is about a mysterious and revered tempe built by the Chola Kings
of South India 2000 years ago

225
T2- Temple Tech. A Book
How are Hindu temples built and the technology that follows this craft.
From A to Z Complete Guide.

Rendezvous with Sri RAM Portfolio of Temple Art by Srishti Dokras,

Architect Special section on Hindu Foods by Karan Dokras, Product Guru

Best Foot Forward

The story of Footwear through the ages up to COVID times

Hindu Temple Panorama-Celestial Mysteries

A to Z of Temples. A total Panoramic View of design and architecture of
Hindu temples in 350 page...

226
 DUOLOGY (2) on JAINISM
Ativir
ATIVIR means Very Brave and is the name given to Lord Mahavir the 24 th
Saint(TIRTHANKAR) Contains rare translations of the Dialogue of the
Mahavir with his disciples called GHANDHARVAVAD

Vardhaman-वर्धमान
IThis book is about Jainism- written by a non-
THE TRILOGY(3) on DEVRAJA The God kIngs of Khemer

Book I DEVRAJ- The God Kings of Indo China-Cambodia.

This is the first Book of a Trilogy that traces the growth of Hinduism in
South East Asia.
BOOK I I DEVRAJA- The Great Civilizations of South East Asia -HINDU Era
How Hinduism reached Cambodia and how the Hindu Kings called Devraj
Built these magnificent structures

227
Devraja BOOK II I Devraja and Raj Dharma God King and Kingly Religion
The HINDU Era of Great Civilizations of Khemer
Book 2 of a Trilogy that traces the advent of Hinduism on South East Asian
and Indo-Chinese

Vayu- Man's taming of the winds

Man's conquest of nature spans a million years. How was wind tamed by
him. Here is the full story... more

VIMANA Ancient Conquests of Wind

Ancient flying machines of Gods and Men(?) Were they true. Did they really
exist. 7000 years ago?

LIGHT HOUSES In words and pictures

228
BOOK Architecture of the Lighthouse of Alexandria-BOOK
Indo Swedish Author's Collective, 2020
The lighthouse was built on an island off the coast of Alexandria called
Pharos. Its name, legend

Cosmology of lotus
Indo Nordic Author's Collective, 2020
The Lotus is the king of the flower world but few know it as a part of
creation. Find out the Cosmology.

Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple

Borobudur remains a mystery even today. The largest Buddhist Stupa in the
world has many unanswered...
Win with this new DIET

Hindu tempel of India , Cambodia and Indonesia

229
Hindu Temples dot India, Cambodia and Indonesia

DISRUPTION-Book

Book Architecture Creativity

Creativity and Architecture are linked and go hand in hand. This Book is a
culmination of 16 publications that have been put together as a book

Project HR Management
Indo Swedish Author's Collective
PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT/'Dr UDAY DOKRAS The
project sphere has not been valued appropriately

Human Resource Engineering in Theme Parks.

by Dr. Uday Dokras and Mansse Bhandari
As theme parks evolve into facilitating for greater thrill seeking audience,the
role of human res... more

230
Health Human Resource Management
Management of Health care workers in hospitals and the human resource
practices to be followed in hospitals.

WIN DIET Lose fat-Diet and Exercise Book ONLY BODY SHAPING GUIDE
YOU NEED
The Act on Co-determination at Work – an Efficacy study
Thesis of the Author for the degree of Doctor of Law
Stockholm University, SWEDEN 1990

The special meaning of Prambanan Temple BOOK

Durga Tantric goddess

Development of the Garbagriha

231
The 4 sided Hindu Mandir( temple ) plan

Vahanas the vehicles of Hindu Gods

Book on Rajmandala

TEMPLE MOUNTAIN o1 or ????

Borobudur as a Tantric Yantra

Mandalification BOOK

232
All you wanted to know about the structure of Buddhist Cosmology
featured in the Borobudur- but were afraid to ask

Will you walk with me to Borobudur

Bayon...Temple Mountain of Jayagiri

Dr. Uday Vasant Dokras, gets WORLD RECORD of writing and

uploading Highest number of Books and Research papers on Hindu
Temples, Vastu etc

VISHNU as a DESIGN COMPONENT of Angkor

233
Design Your Destiny. Astrological Readings of Dr Uday Dokras
The Orthogonal plan of Angkor Thom

Spiritual Technologies at Borobudur BOOK

Tantricity of the PRAMBANAN GROUP of Temples BOOK

Borobudur- Waiting for the Maitreya

Selected Essays on some Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur..

Book
234
 Borobodur BOOK

Celestial Mysteries of the Borobodur Temple

Scientific Borobudur

Transition between the pre and post Jayavarman II period

Jayavarman II BOOK The Monarch of the Khmer Empire

JAYAVARMAN II Book

235
The Mystery of the Tantric Dwarpals or Door Guardians in the
ELLORA Hindu Temple Architecture

Architecture and Creativity BOOK

The Book of SriYantra

MANDALA and ARCHITECTURE

Maze of MANDALA PART II

DISRUPTION Book
236
 Hill Temples BOOK

Borobudur---The Tantric Mystique of the Big Boro/ BOOK

“Direction of the Wind “ - “Movement of the Water” Voyage of the
Tantra to South East Asia

The secrets of the Moolasthanam Consecration of Hindu & Other

Temples

The Mysterious Continent of Nusuntara Book

237
 Angkorean Tantricism Revealed
Angkorean Tantricism Revealed COLLECTION of ESSAYS

DWARKA & Dvaravati -------Mysterious lost cities of the Hindu

World of Lord KRISHNA

Rama as DEVRAJA
Rama as DEVRAJA in India (Bharat) and Angkor

Krishna's Astonishment BOOK

Krishna's Astonishment BOOK The Complete Compendium of Rock Cut Temple
Architecture of Hindu Manndirs.

238
 Building Materials of the Hindu Temple

THE COSMOLOGY OF ANGKOR

The Enigma of KRISHNA in the KINGDOM of FUNAN (Dvaravati)

The Enigma of KRISHNA in the KINGDOM of FUNAN (Dvaravati)

Lingapura or KOH KER The complete Story-- BOOK

Erotic Sentiment in Indian Temple Sculptures Dr Uday Dokras

239
 MANDALA and Territorial Continuity in SE ASIA

Mandala of the Tantra

Selected Essays on some Celestial Mysteries

Grand iteration in Tantrism of Borobudur BOOK

Grand iteration in Tantrism of Borobudur BOOK

SACRED LANDSCAPE - BOROBUDUR & the COMPLEXITIES of

its CONSTRUCTION
SACRED LANDSCAPE - BOROBUDUR & the COMPLEXITIES of its CONSTRUCTION
Detailed PROJECT

240
 Complexities of the Construction work of Angkor Wat

The Complex Layout and Construction Plan of ANGKOR

TEMPLE )==SHORT BOOKLET(100 pages )
The Complex Layout and Construction Plan of ANGKOR TEMPLE

DWARKA----- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost Continent of

KRISHNA
DWARKA----- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost Continent of KRISHNA

MARCO POLOS OF ANCIENT MARITIME TRADE

MARCO POLOS OF ANCIENT MARITIME TRADE The amazing Tamilians as traders
and voyagers

241
 Neither here nor there- but where (NUSUNTARA)
The concept Nusantara is derived from two Sanskrit words: nusa meaning ‘island’
and antara meaning space

ATLANTIS The lost Continent -BOOK

ATLANTIS The lost Continent -BOOK

THUGEE Book
Before everything else, let me stress that there are 4 theories about the
existence of the Thugee

Prambanan Temple BOOK

242
 Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdom

The curtain walls in Khmer Architecture Also featuring The 5 gates

of Angkor Thom
The curtain walls in Khmer Architecture Also featuring The 5 gates of Angkor

MANDALA of BOROBUDUR

Borobudur as "Bhumisambharabhudura" \book

Borobudur as "Bhumisambharabhudura" \book collection of Essays

243
Shiva Bhairava worship in India and Indonesia. Featuring the
Tantric Ganesh

The Hidden cities of Angkor book

Mandala 6 Book

The destiny of Borobudur BOOK

Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdoms

The destiny of Borobudur BOOK

244
Destiny of Borobudur(How a Hindu Shiva Temple ended up becoming the Worlds
biggest monument to 2 religions

Triptych Mandirs(Temples) of Angkor-BOOK

A triptych is an artwork made up of three pieces or panels. Often used to impart
narrative.

THE TEMPLE OF Mahishasuramardini in JAVA - BOOK

THE TEMPLE OF Mahishasuramardini in JAVA - BOOK

The Mystic SHIKHARA ---A BOOK

The Mystic SHIKHARA ---A BOOK

Enter Mysterious Borobudur (REPRINT) BOOK

Enter Mysterious Borobudur (REPRINT) BOOK

245
 One Against Many- the Tantric Temples of Indonesia
One Against Many- the Tantric Temples of Indonesia Fully explained right from
how tantrcism reached Indonesia of those days..

SELECTED ESSAYS on Hindu Temples

SELECTED ESSAYS on Hindu Temples

The Troglodyte Architecture of ancient India part II book

The Troglodyte Architecture of ancient India part II book

Divinity and Royalty in the Khmer Lands

Indo Nordic Authors' Collective, 2022

Divinity and Royalty in the Khmer Lands Was Angkor connected to the power of
the Kings to use as a sword in their people

246
 The Technology of Hindu Mandirs (temples)
Indo Nordic Authors Collective, 2022

600 + pages of all info needed to understand the tech of the Hindu mandirs

The Empire that Practiced HYDROLOGY book

Angkor-The Empire that Practiced HYDROLOGY book Collection of the author's
essays

Hydrology of Angkor (BOOK)

HYDROLOGY of the Hindu Mandir BOOK

INAC, 2022

HYDROLOGY of the Hindu Mandir Water and the Holy Places of Hinduism

247
 SACRED INDIA Collection of Essays (BOOK)
SACRED INDIA Collection of Essays (BOOK) PART I-The Hindu Land of Bharat
Varsh (INDIA)

The Mandala of the Sunyata

In Search of the Mandala of emptyness If Mandalas are circular then why are they
bare and emply.

In Search of the Square Mandala

In Search of the Square Mandala If Mandalas are circular then is there a
SQUARE?...

The world OF sanskrit book

248
 Khmer cities' Town Planning
How were the Khmer cities planned? BOOK Chapter I-Town Planning in Khmer
Times-

Multiplicity of Hindu Temple Meaning BOOK

Indo Nordic Authors' Collective, 2020

Multiplicity of Hindu Temple Meaning Is the Hindu mandir A Mandala A stepped

Pyramid A temple Mountain.

Angkor as a SPIRITUAL LIGHTHOUSE

Angkor as a SPIRITUAL LIGHTHOUSE that attracted the Hindu Masses of the
Khmer Kings.

The Pillars and Mandapa of the Hindu Mandir

The Pillars and Mandapa of the Hindu Mandir BOOK

249
Sanskrit The SINDBAD

Dr Dokras( LEFT) with Dr Harish Rathi leading medical

practitioner of Nagpur,India

250
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