Obesity Jama

Clinical Review & Education
JAMA | Review
Obesity Management in Adults

A Review
Arielle Elmaleh-Sachs, MD, MS; Jessica L. Schwartz, MD, MHS; Carolyn T. Bramante, MD, MPH;
Jacinda M. Nicklas, MD, MPH; Kimberly A. Gudzune, MD, MPH; Melanie Jay, MD, MS
Multimedia
IMPORTANCE Obesity affects approximately 42% of US adults and is associated with CME at jamacmelookup.com
increased rates of type 2 diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, sleep disorders,
osteoarthritis, and premature death.
OBSERVATIONS A body mass index (BMI) of 25 or greater is commonly used to define

overweight, and a BMI of 30 or greater to define obesity, with lower thresholds for Asian
populations (BMI ⱖ25-27.5), although use of BMI alone is not recommended to determine
individual risk. Individuals with obesity have higher rates of incident cardiovascular disease.
In men with a BMI of 30 to 39, cardiovascular event rates are 20.21 per 1000 person-years
compared with 13.72 per 1000 person-years in men with a normal BMI. In women with a BMI of
30 to 39.9, cardiovascular event rates are 9.97 per 1000 person-years compared with 6.37 per
1000 person-years in women with a normal BMI. Among people with obesity, 5% to 10%
weight loss improves systolic blood pressure by about 3 mm Hg for those with hypertension,
and may decrease hemoglobin A1c by 0.6% to 1% for those with type 2 diabetes.
Evidence-based obesity treatment includes interventions addressing 5 major categories:
behavioral interventions, nutrition, physical activity, pharmacotherapy, and metabolic/bariatric
procedures. Comprehensive obesity care plans combine appropriate interventions for
individual patients. Multicomponent behavioral interventions, ideally consisting of at least 14
sessions in 6 months to promote lifestyle changes, including components such as weight
self-monitoring, dietary and physical activity counseling, and problem solving, often produce
5% to 10% weight loss, although weight regain occurs in 25% or more of participants at 2-year
follow-up. Effective nutritional approaches focus on reducing total caloric intake and dietary
strategies based on patient preferences. Physical activity without calorie reduction typically
causes less weight loss (2-3 kg) but is important for weight-loss maintenance. Commonly
prescribed medications such as antidepressants (eg, mirtazapine, amitriptyline) and
antihyperglycemics such as glyburide or insulin cause weight gain, and clinicians should review
and consider alternatives. Antiobesity medications are recommended for nonpregnant patients
with obesity or overweight and weight-related comorbidities in conjunction with lifestyle
modifications. Six medications are currently approved by the US Food and Drug Administration
for long-term use: glucagon-like peptide receptor 1 (GLP-1) agonists (semaglutide and liraglutide
only), tirzepatide (a glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide/GLP-1 agonist),
phentermine-topiramate, naltrexone-bupropion, and orlistat. Of these, tirzepatide has the
greatest effect, with mean weight loss of 21% at 72 weeks. Endoscopic procedures
(ie, intragastric balloon and endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty) can attain 10% to 13% weight loss
at 6 months. Weight loss from metabolic and bariatric surgeries (ie, laparoscopic sleeve
gastrectomy and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass) ranges from 25% to 30% at 12 months. Maintaining
long-term weight loss is difficult, and clinical guidelines support the use of long-term antiobesity
medications when weight maintenance is inadequate with lifestyle interventions alone.
CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE Obesity affects approximately 42% of adults in the US.
Behavioral interventions can attain approximately 5% to 10% weight loss, GLP-1 agonists and Author Affiliations: Author
affiliations are listed at the end of this
glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide/GLP-1 receptor agonists can attain
article.
approximately 8% to 21% weight loss, and bariatric surgery can attain approximately 25% to
Corresponding Author: Melanie
30% weight loss. Comprehensive, evidence-based obesity treatment combines behavioral Jay, MD, MS, Departments of
interventions, nutrition, physical activity, pharmacotherapy, and metabolic/bariatric Medicine and Population Health,
procedures as appropriate for individual patients. New York University Grossman
School of Medicine, 550 First Ave,
New York, NY 10016 (melanie.jay@
nyulangone.org).
Section Editor: Mary McGrae
JAMA. 2023;330(20):2000-2015. doi:10.1001/jama.2023.19897 McDermott, MD, Deputy Editor.
2000 (Reprinted) jama.com
© 2023 American Medical Association. All rights reserved.

Downloaded from jamanetwork.com by Narayan Rao V Tummala on 11/29/2023
Review of Obesity Management in Adults Review Clinical Review & Education
O
besity, currently defined as a body mass index (BMI) of
30 or greater, affects 800 million people worldwide.1 In Risk Factors
the United States, approximately 42% of adults have
obesity,2 and obesity-related costs are estimated at $173 billion Obesity reflects a chronic energy imbalance, with greater calorie con-
annually.3 Obesity is a chronic disease defined by excess adiposity sumption than energy expenditure,18 and is influenced by multiple
with structural and functional consequences resulting in factors. Genetic variants are implicated in its development.19 Most
increased risk of comorbidities and premature mortality.4,5 Obe- forms of obesity have polygenic risk factors with several variants
sity is often associated with stigma, which impairs quality of life strongly associated with BMI, while obesity due to a single gene vari-
and increases morbidity.6 Obesity bias contributes to decreased ant is rare.19 The environment influences the relationship between
use of preventive cancer screenings among patients with obesity, genetics and obesity risk.19 Adverse workplace, school, social, and
particularly in women. 7 Weight loss improves glucose, lipids, home environments, known as “obesogenic environments,” affect
blood pressure, and obesity-related comorbidities,4,5,8 and clini- physical and social structures.20 For example, greater availability of
cians can offer multiple effective obesity treatments. 9-11 This fast-food restaurants, poor neighborhood walkability, and per-
Review summarizes current evidence regarding the pathophysiol- ceived safety risks can limit physical activity and healthy food
ogy, diagnosis, and treatment of obesity. options.20 There is a bidirectional association between depression
and obesity, wherein each diagnosis is associated with increased risk
of developing the other.21 Additional risks include insufficient sleep
and low socioeconomic status, in part mediated by chronic stress
Methods
and food insecurity, which are commonly experienced by racial and
We reviewed 9 clinical practice guidelines from relevant medical ethnic minority populations.22
associations published in the last 10 years.4-6,9-14 We then con-
ducted a PubMed search on March 1, 2023, which identified 2418
obesity-related systematic reviews and meta-analyses published
Pathophysiology of Obesity
since 2018. We performed 3 additional PubMed searches on
March 6, 2023, to identify systematic reviews of antiobesity Influenced by genetic expression, energy homeostasis is deter-
medications published since 2018 (127 articles), clinical practice mined by feedback between circulating neuropeptide hormones and
guidelines for obesity published since 2018 (135 articles), and ran- the central nervous system.19,23 The gut-brain axis responds to pe-
domized clinical trials (RCTs) published since 2021 on glucagon- ripheral signals from the gastrointestinal tract, adipose tissue, and
like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic circulating hormones to stimulate or inhibit central neurons based
polypeptide/GLP-1 receptor agonists to identify studies of newer on satiety or hunger.24 Dysregulation of this system develops in obe-
medications (210 articles). We reviewed high-quality studies ref- sity, often leading to increased hunger and decreased satiety.18
erenced in these articles as well as policy guidelines released dur- Hormones involved in this process include leptin and ghrelin.18 Ad-
ing the writing of this article. A total of 126 articles were selected ditionally, hormone response and metabolic adaptation promote
for this Review, consisting of 26 RCTs, 29 meta-analyses/ weight regain.18
systematic reviews, 14 longitudinal/population-based studies, 15 Obesity increases rates of comorbid conditions through patho-
clinical practice guidelines, 4 policy guidelines, 2 cross-sectional physiologic and mechanical changes related to excess adiposity
studies, 2 study/intervention descriptions, and 34 narrative and increased weight.23,24 Related conditions include asthma, type
reviews. Highest-quality articles and those most relevant to gen- 2 diabetes, hypertension, obstructive sleep apnea, osteoarthritis,
eral medical practice were prioritized for inclusion. and cardiovascular disease (CVD).4,5 Compared with normal BMI,
obesity is associated with higher rates of incident CVD events,
eg, in a pooled cohort of adults aged 40 to 59 years with 856 523
person-years of follow-up, cardiovascular event rates were 20.21
Epidemiology per 1000 person-years in men with a BMI of 30 to 39.9 compared
The prevalence of obesity worldwide increased between 1975 with 13.72 per 1000 person-years in men with a normal BMI.25
and 2014 from 3.2% to 10.8% in men and from 6.4% to 14.9% in Cardiovascular event rates were 9.97 per 1000 person-years in
women.15 By 2025, it is anticipated that 18% of men and 21% women with a BMI of 30 to 39.9 compared with 6.37 per 1000
of women worldwide will have obesity. 15 The prevalence of person-years in women with a normal BMI.25 Even among patients
obesity in the US is higher: 17.4% of non-Hispanic Asian (22.4% with obesity without other CVD risk factors, the long-term inci-
using Asian-specific cutoffs 16 ), 49.6% of non-Hispanic Black, dence of CVD is increased compared with people without
44.8% of Hispanic, and 42.2% of non-Hispanic White adults have obesity.26 Weight-related cardiometabolic abnormalities occur
obesity.2 It is anticipated that by 2030, 48.9% of US adults will due to excess visceral adipose tissue (and possibly an impaired
have obesity and that racial differences in rates of obesity will in- ability to deposit fat into the peripheral adipose tissue such as
crease.17 The World Health Organization Acceleration Plan to Stop the gluteofemoral fat compartment), which secretes hormones
Obesity, adopted in 2022, outlines multisectoral policies, includ- and proinflammatory cytokines, leading to low-grade systemic
ing taxes on sugar-sweetened beverages and subsidies to pro- inflammation.23,24,27 Lipid deposition into adipose tissue and
mote healthy diets, school nutrition reforms, and reductions in occurrence of adiposity leads to anatomical changes such as
physical inactivity, with the goal of attaining a major reduction increased pharyngeal soft tissue, contributing to obstructive sleep
in obesity by 2030.1 apnea or mechanical joint load that results in osteoarthritis.23
jama.com (Reprinted) JAMA November 28, 2023 Volume 330, Number 20 2001

Clinical Review & Education Review Review of Obesity Management in Adults
Table 1. Evidence-Based Screening Recommendations for Weight-Related Comorbidities4,6,14
Comorbiditiesa Screening method/diagnostic criteria Abbreviations: HDL-C, high-density

lipoprotein-cholesterol;
Asthma/respiratory disease History, physical examination; spirometry as indicated
LDL-C, low-density
Diabetes Fasting plasma glucose ≥126 mg/dL; hemoglobin A1c ≥6.5%; 2-h oral lipoprotein-cholesterol.
glucose tolerance test
SI conversions: To convert total, HDL-,
Dyslipidemia Lipid panel that includes triglycerides, HDL-C, LDL-C, total cholesterol,
LDL-, and non-HDL cholesterol to
and non–HDL-C
millimoles per liter, multiply by 0.0259;
Gastroesophageal reflux disease History; endoscopy as indicated to convert triglycerides to millimoles
Hypertension Sitting blood pressure ≥130/80 mm Hg per liter, multiply by 0.0113.
a
Metabolic syndrome Three or more of the following: waist circumference ≥88 cm for women, The Association of Clinical
≥102 cm for men; triglycerides ≥150 mg/dL; fasting plasma glucose Endocrinologists and the American
≥100 mg/dL; blood pressure ≥130/85 mm Hg; HDL-C <40 mg/dL in men, College of Endocrinology guidelines
<50 mg/dL in women
also recommend screening for
Nonalcoholic fatty liver Liver function tests; consider calculation of Fibrosis-4 Index; imaging cardiovascular disease, polycystic
disease/nonalcoholic steatohepatitis as indicated
ovary syndrome, female infertility,
Obstructive sleep apnea Neck circumference, clinical screening questionnaires (eg, STOP-BANG male hypogonadism, urinary stress
score); polysomnography as indicated
incontinence, depression, anxiety,
Osteoarthritis History, physical examination (eg, weight-bearing joints); radiography binge eating disorder, and
as indicated
stigmatization.4 These should be
Prediabetes Fasting plasma glucose 100-125 mg/dL, hemoglobin A1c 5.7%-6.4%, evaluated as indicated or consider
2-h oral glucose tolerance test referral to a specialist.
clinician should begin by asking permission to talk to the patient about

Diagnosis and Classification of Obesity their weight and which terms the patient would prefer (ie, unhealthy
weight, elevated BMI, overweight).34 Each “A” can occur when appro-
Body mass index, calculated as weight in kilograms divided by priate during the clinician-patient discussion and/or over several vis-
height in meters squared, is most commonly used to classify obe- its, and each additional counseling step is associated with increased
sity on a population level.28 The World Health Organization uses patient motivation to lose weight (odds ratio, 1.31; 95% CI, 1.11-1.55).35
BMI to define overweight (25-29.99), class I obesity (30-34.99), Patients are also more likely to lose weight when clinicians commu-
class II obesity (35-39.99), and class III obesity (ⱖ40).28 Among nicate using a supportive, nonjudgmental approach.36
Asian populations, cardiometabolic diseases occur at lower BMI Establishing a supportive environment for patients with obe-
levels; therefore, some expert guidelines recommend lower BMI sity can be facilitated with examination tables and chairs that ac-
thresholds (guidelines differ in thresholds of BMI ⱖ25 and ⱖ27.5 commodate all body sizes.37 Staff training on obesity and bias may
for obesity).4,9,11 Clinical use of BMI is controversial, as it does not improve the patient experience, including asking patients’ permis-
directly measure adiposity or account for individual differences in sion to be weighed and providing alternatives including weighing in
risk; therefore, additional measures can be used.29 For example, a private room or self-report of weight.37 Given disparities in obe-
waist circumference is a marker of visceral adiposity associated sity prevalence by race, ethnicity, and income,17 equitable access to
with increased cardiometabolic risk,4,5 and guidelines recommend obesity treatment must be considered.38 Clinicians should be aware
risk stratification based on waist circumference (ⱖ102 cm for men of health insurance coverage, governmental nutrition programs, so-
and ⱖ88 cm for women) in patients with a BMI of 25 to 34.9.4-6 cial determinants of health, psychosocial stressors, and weight and
The Edmonton Obesity Staging System classifies risk based on sev- racial discrimination when treating obesity.38
eral factors independent of BMI6; higher severity scores are associ-
ated with increased all-cause mortality (hazard ratio, 2.69; 95% CI,
1.98-3.67).30
Weight-Loss Goals
Screening for secondary causes of obesity may be considered
based on history and physical examination, including hormonal ab- Setting personal weight-loss targets can increase the rate of achiev-
normalities (eg, hypothyroidism, hypercortisolism), psychiatric di- ing at least 10% weight loss at 12 months compared with not set-
agnoses (eg, binge eating disorder), iatrogenic obesity (eg, medi- ting goals (68.2% vs 31.8% in a study of 24 447 patients with
cations), and genetic syndromes (eg, proopiomelanocortin obesity).39 Weight-loss goals should be individualized to patient pref-
deficiency).4 Assessment for weight-related comorbidities such as erence, body composition, and comorbidities.5,8 A 5% weight loss
nonalcoholic fatty liver disease or obstructive sleep apnea (Table 1) may reduce systolic and diastolic blood pressure by 3 mm Hg and
is important to guide referrals and treatment.4,14 2 mm Hg among those with hypertension, respectively; 5% to
10% loss may decrease hemoglobin A1c by 0.6% to 1.0% among
those with type 2 diabetes and can increase high-density lipopro-
tein cholesterol level by 2 mg/dL [0.052 mmol/L].5,8 A 10% to 15%
Patient-Centered Approach to Obesity Care
loss may be required to improve other conditions (eg, hepatic ste-
Evidence-based counseling strategies can help initiate treatment dis- atosis, obstructive sleep apnea).8 Weight loss beyond 15% is asso-
cussions with patients. For example, the 5As6 (Assess, Advise, Agree, ciated with lower rates of all-cause mortality among those who un-
Assist, Arrange) can guide shared decision-making (Figure), and vis- dergo bariatric surgery and greater weight loss is associated with
its that use this approach are covered by Medicare for obesity. The improved quality of life.8
2002 JAMA November 28, 2023 Volume 330, Number 20 (Reprinted) jama.com

Figure. 5A Framework (Assess, Advise, Agree, Assist, Arrange)

Selecting Treatment Options for Obesity Counseling in the Outpatient Setting6,31-33
Evidence-based obesity treatment combines interventions that can Framework to guide shared decision-making for obesity management
be organized into 5 major categories: behavioral interventions, Assess patient’s risk factors and readiness to change
nutrition, physical activity, pharmacotherapy, and bariatric • Ask for permission (“Would it be alright if we discuss your weight?”)
procedures.4-6,9-13 Comprehensive obesity care plans should in- • Assess for obesity-related comorbidities (eg, type 2 diabetes, hypertension,
hyperlipidemia, and sleep apnea)
clude interventions from all appropriate categories, individualized • Screen for social determinants of health (eg, housing, food insecurity,
at the patient level (Table 2). education, and neighborhood built environment)
• Review anthropometric measurements and blood tests (eg, weight, height,
waist circumference, blood pressure, lipid panel, HbA1c) to classify obesity
Behavioral Interventions and cardiometabolic risk
All patients with obesity (or overweight with a cardiometabolic • Determine goals that matter to patient
abnormality) should be offered or referred to intensive, multicom-
ponent behavioral interventions within primary care, community Advise on health benefits of lifestyle change and weight reduction
settings or to evidence-based commercial programs (Table 3).4,6,13 • Discuss obesity as a chronic disease requiring long-term management
Moderate- to high-intensity programs include 12 or more sessions • Review personal health risks of obesity
• Share health benefits of weight loss personalized to patient
in the first year (ideally ⱖ14 sessions in 6 months), followed by a
maintenance phase for up to 24 months.5,11,13 The Diabetes Preven-
tion Program is covered by Medicare for eligible beneficiaries with Agree on quantifiable and achievable goals
prediabetes,63 while coverage by Medicaid varies by state; com- • Collaborate to develop specific, measurable, attainable, relevant,
and time-based weight loss and behavior change goals that may include
mercial health insurance plans may provide coverage for some changes to diet, physical activity, sleep, and stress management
weight-loss programs. Interventions include group, individual, or • Personalize approaches to healthy eating based on patient preferences
technology-based delivery for lifestyle changes, education, peer • Recommend ≥30 min of moderate physical activity on most days
support, coaching, self-monitoring, cognitive restructuring, and

goal setting.4,64 Interventions may also address insufficient sleep Assist in selecting treatment using a shared decision-making approach
and chronic stress, which can negatively affect appetite and • Offer intensive behavioral weight management counseling or refer to program
• Include additional treatments as appropriate
metabolism.65 Moderate- to high-intensity interventions often pro-
Antiobesity medications if BMI ≥30
duce 5% to 10% weight loss (mean, −2.39 kg; 95% CI, −2.86 kg to or BMI ≥27 with a weight-related comorbidity
−1.93 kg), 64 with maximal loss achieved between 6 and 12 Metabolic and bariatric surgery if BMI ≥35
or BMI ≥30 with metabolic disease (eg, type 2 diabetes, steatohepatitis)
months.5,13,64,66 Frequent self-weighing improves weight loss and or BMI ≥27.5 in patient of Asian ethnicity
weight loss maintenance.5,67,68
Weight regain is common after program cessation; in a study of Arrange follow-up to create accountability and enable feedback on progress
3739 participants, more than 25% of participants regained 2% or
• Referral to evidence-based, multicomponent weight-reduction programs,
more of weight at 2-year follow-up.46 Weight loss typically pla- obesity medicine clinic, or metabolic and bariatric surgical clinics as appropriate
teaus after 6 months due to metabolic adaption and hormonal • Adjust treatment plan as needed
• Assist the patient in obtaining adequate support and follow-up
changes contributing to decreased adherence, but metabolic ad-
aptation usually slows after 12 months.18,67
BMI indicates body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by
height in meters squared); HbA1c, hemoglobin A1c.
Nutritional Approaches
Reduced caloric intake (500- to 750-kcal/d deficit, adjusted for genic diet),70-72 clinical practice guidelines have not endorsed
individual body weight and activity) is advised for weight these strategies, and they may require dietitian support.
reduction.5 Specific strategies that can reduce energy intake and
promote weight-loss maintenance include portion control, reduc- Physical Activity
tion or elimination of ultraprocessed foods (eg, sugar-sweetened Given its modest effect on weight, physical activity is not used as a
beverages), and increased fruit and vegetable intake.67 Evidence- stand-alone obesity treatment but helps with weight maintenance
based healthy eating approaches can be selected based on indi- and cardiometabolic health.73 Moderate-intensity aerobic exercise
vidual preference, metabolic risk, and likelihood of long-term (defined as 50% to 70% of maximal heart rate) is associated with
adherence.4,5,11 Table 3 provides examples of evidence-based decreased visceral adiposity and modest weight loss (mean effect
dietary strategies associated with weight loss; additional plans such of −2 kg to −3 kg).73,74 Resistance training (muscle strengthening)
as DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension), when com- preserves lean/fat-free mass during weight loss.73,74 Clinical guide-
bined with caloric reduction, can also be considered.4 High-protein lines recommend that all patients participate in 150 to 300 min/wk
shakes or bars to replace 1 or 2 meals a day improves weight loss of moderate or 75 to 150 min/wk of vigorous physical activity, as well
compared with diet alone (mean difference, −1.44 kg; 95% CI, as resistance training 2 to 3 times a week.4,5,40 Clinicians can en-
−2.48 kg to −0.39 kg). 5,69 However, very low-calorie diets courage nonsedentary behaviors throughout the day, such as walk-
(ⱕ800 kcal/d) should be offered only under close medical ing for 2 minutes each hour or use of stairs.75 Additional tools such
supervision.5 While some evidence demonstrates weight loss and as wearable activity trackers can encourage increased physical ac-
improved CVD risk factors with other popular weight-loss tivity of an additional 1800 steps per day on average, or 0.5 to
approaches (eg, time-restricted eating, intermittent fasting, keto- 1.5 kg of weight loss.76

2004
Table 2. Components of Comprehensive, Evidence-Based Weight Management for Adults With Obesity4,5,9,13,14,40-47a
Mean weight loss at
Approach Eligible patientsb Description or examples 12-24 moc Other considerations
Multicomponent intensive • BMI ≥30 • Evidence-based approaches include goal setting, self-monitoring (eg, food 1%-9%4,5,13 Higher intensity of weight loss
behavioral lifestyle • BMI ≥25 with obesity-associated intake, physical activity, daily body weight), dietary change, stimulus instruction is associated with
interventions13 comorbidityd control, stress management, cognitive therapy13,14 greater weight loss vs low- and
• Multicomponent interventions combine these approaches and are delivered moderate-intensity interventions4
by trained facilitators, often referred from a primary care setting13
• Intensive programs are administered over 1-2 y with ≥12-14 sessions in 6 mo5
(see Table 3 for examples of programs)
Nutritional intervention • BMI ≥30 • Restricting/eliminating certain types of foods to create calorie deficit5 3%-8%; 10% with Specific dietary recommendations
• BMI ≥25 with obesity-associated • Generally 1200-1500 kcal/d for women and 1500-1800 kcal/d for men5; very low-calorie need to account for patient
Clinical Review & Education Review
comorbidityd very low-calorie diets (<800 kcal/d) require specialized medical supervision5 diets47 preference and potential for
• Clinicians can provide counseling or refer to dietician long-term
• See more details on 3 evidence-based diet patterns in Table 3 adherence
Physical activity All adults regardless of BMI40 • ≥150 min/wk moderate-intensity physical activity (30 min 5 times per wk), 1%-3%4 Exercise should be individualized
or 75-150 min/wk vigorous-intensity physical activity40 to patients’ health and physical
• Resistance exercise 2-3 times per wk4 limitations and increased as patient
• >200 min/wk is associated with better maintenance of weight loss5 is able to tolerate intensity to reach
goals4
Pharmacotherapye • BMI ≥30 Medications vary in terms of administration and dosage 5% (naltrexone- • See Table 4; adverse effects can
• BMI ≥27 with obesity-associated (minimum-maximum dose): bupropion, 32 mg/ often be avoided with slow dose
comorbidity5 • FDA approved for long-term use 360 mg daily)41 to titration or reducing dose to last
JAMA November 28, 2023 Volume 330, Number 20 (Reprinted)

• Consider with inadequate response • Semaglutide (0.25-2.4 mg/wk subcutaneously) 21% (tirzepatide, tolerated dose
to lifestyle therapy and/or presence • Phentermine-topiramate ER (3.75/23 mg/d to 15/92 mg/d orally) 15 mg once weekly)42f • Administer concurrent with

of mild to moderate obesity • Liraglutide (0.6-3 mg/d subcutaneously) lifestyle interventions
complications4 • Naltrexone-bupropion ER (8 mg/90 mg daily to 16 mg/180 mg twice
daily orally)
• Orlistat (60-120 mg 3 times daily orally)
• FDA approved for short-term use
• Diethylpropion (IR: 25 mg 3 times daily; ER: 75 mg/d orally)
• Phentermine (8 mg/d to 8 mg 3 times daily or 15-37.5 mg/d orally)
• Commonly used off label
• Tirzepatide (2.5-15 mg/wk subcutaneously)
• Semaglutide (3-50 mg/d orally) (50-mg/d oral dose not yet available)
• Topiramate (12.5-200 mg/d in 1 to 2 divided doses)
• Semaglutide (0.25-2.0 mg/wk subcutaneously)
• Liraglutide (0.6-1.8 mg/d subcutaneously)
• Bupropion (SR: 100-200 mg twice daily orally; ER: 150-450 mg/d orally)
• Metformin (500-2500 mg/d orally)
Metabolic and bariatric • BMI ≥35 • Laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy: approximately 85% of stomach removed 25%-35%5,44 • Major complications <5%44,45

surgery • BMI ≥30 with obesity-associated by separation along greater curvature43 • Long-term monitoring necessary
comorbidity9 • Roux-en-Y gastric bypass: small gastric pouch connected directly to jejunum43 for risks related to nutritional
• Consider with inadequate response deficiency and bone health45
to lifestyle therapy and/or presence of • Administer concurrent with
severe obesity complications4 lifestyle interventions
c
Abbreviations: BMI, body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared); Expected ranges are approximate based on meta-analysis and clinical guidelines, generally in a 12- to 24-month
ER, extended release; FDA, US Food and Drug Administration; IR, immediate release; SR, sustained release. time frame.
a d
Interventions should be used simultaneously or serially with long-term follow-up. Randomized trials cannot fully Obesity-related comorbidity is defined based on the presence of at least 1 risk factor, including abnormal blood
replicate clinical care, in which clinicians see patients over long periods and add or adjust weight-loss approaches glucose levels, hypertension, and dyslipidemia.
for individual patients. All patients undergoing weight-loss interventions should engage in nutrition, physical e
See Table 4 for detailed information.
activity, and/or behavioral interventions. f
Range is listed for antiobesity medications FDA approved for long-term use.
b
Lower thresholds in Asian populations.
Review of Obesity Management in Adults
jama.com
Table 3. Examples of Intensive Multicomponent Programs and Nutritional Approaches for Weight Reduction
Mean 12-mo weight loss Dietary Guidelines for
jama.com
Approach (95% CI) vs control, kg Overview Other benefits and considerations Americans recommended48
Intensive multicomponent programs
Weight Watchers49 5.9 (3.9-8.1)50 • Food tracking with points to reduce calorie intake • Decrease in hemoglobin A1c; appropriate No
• Activity tracking for patients with prediabetes6
• Self-monitoring • Low cost, cost-effective51
• Group sessions
• Optional online coaching
Diabetes Prevention 2.3 (1.1-3.4)53 • 16-Session curriculum delivered by a lifestyle • Decrease in incidence of type 2 diabetes at No
Program52 coach over 6 mo in groups 2.8 y vs placebo; appropriate for patients with
• Self-monitoring of weight at least weekly impaired fasting glucose or prediabetes54
• Food tracking, setting calorie goals • Decrease in blood pressure, lipids, markers
• ≥150 min/wk of moderate physical activity of inflammation4
• Covered for eligible Medicare beneficiaries; may
be covered by other insurers51
• Low cost, cost-effective55
Veterans Affairs MOVE! Not reporteda • Workbook with 16 lifestyle behavioral modules can be • Program designed for veterans and available at No
program56 delivered remotely or in person via group sessions or all Veterans Affairs hospitals
by one-on-one counseling by various clinicians, depending • Delivered by Veterans Health Administration for
on resources at local Veterans Affairs site patients with body mass index ≥25
• Curriculum includes goal setting, nutrition education, • Workbook and other materials (eg, food diaries
and self-monitoring, among other topics and mobile application) are publicly available;
written materials in English and Spanish

Nutritional approaches
Low-fat vegan- or 6.6 (3.4-9.8)50 • 10%-25% of calories from fat • Increase in insulin sensitivity57 Yes
vegetarian-style diet57 • Eliminate meat and fish; may include eggs/dairy • Potential reduced environmental impact58
• Often low in saturated fats, high in fiber
Low-carbohydrate diet59 6.4 (3.9-8.9)50 <40% of calories from carbohydrates • Decrease in SBP, DBP, glucose, insulin resistance, No
and triglycerides59,60
• Increase in HDL-C59,60
Mediterranean diet4 2.5 (1.9-3.1)61 • Focus on dark green vegetables, fruits, nuts, • Decrease in SBP, DBP, LDL-C,59 hemoglobin A1c, Yes
and and triglycerides61
legumes • Increase in HDL-C61
• Moderate to high intake of fish and seafood • Potential reduced environmental impact58
• Low intake of red meat and dairy fat
• Use of extra virgin olive oil as main source of dietary fat
Abbreviations: DBP, diastolic blood pressure; HDL-C, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C, low-density outcomes compared with usual care have not been completed. Data from a systematic review of comparative
lipoprotein cholesterol; SBP, systolic blood pressure. effectiveness of prospective and retrospective studies found a mean weight loss of 0.13-3.3 kg.62

a
Since this program was implemented at all Veterans Affairs sites, randomized clinical trials with 12-month
Review Clinical Review & Education
(Reprinted) JAMA November 28, 2023 Volume 330, Number 20

2005
Weight-Gain Effect of Common Medications for an additional 52 weeks after completing 68 weeks of semaglu-
Many commonly used medications are associated with weight gain.12 tide treatment, mean weight regain was 11.6% of lost weight.100 In
Medication classes promoting weight gain include antihyperglyce- the STEP 4 trial, participants completed 20 weeks of semaglutide
mics (eg, glyburide, insulin), antidepressants (eg, amitriptyline, treatment and were transitioned to placebo for an additional 48
mirtazapine), antipsychotics (eg, olanzapine, quetiapine), antiepi- weeks.96 Mean weight regain was 6.9% of lost weight during the
leptics (eg, gabapentin, carbamazepine), β-blockers, progesterone- placebo administration.96 These results suggest that long-term use
based contraceptives, corticosteroids, and antiretroviral therapy is necessary.96,100 In a clinical trial that randomized 667 adults with
(eg, protease inhibitors).12,77 Many weight gain–promoting medi- obesity without diabetes to either semaglutide or placebo for 68
cations increase the risk of weight-related complications, including weeks, mean weight loss with 50 mg/d oral semaglutide was 15.1%
CVD, diabetes, and hepatic steatosis.78 vs 2.4% for placebo.89 Oral semaglutide is not yet FDA approved for
When initiating medications, clinicians should select therapies obesity alone.89
least likely to cause weight gain among options with similar efficacy.12 Subcutaneous liraglutide was FDA approved to treat obesity in
When prescribing medications that promote weight gain, clinicians 2014.10 In an RCT of 3731 individuals with obesity, compared with
should counsel patients on the risk of weight gain, discuss lifestyle placebo, liraglutide achieved a mean weight loss of 8.0% at 56 weeks
modifications, and monitor weight trajectory (eg, unintentional (difference, 5.4%; 95% CI, 5.8%-5.0%).85 Although it is dosed daily,
weight gain >2 kg in a month, ⱖ7% increase from baseline body it is widely used and preferred for some patients due to cost and avail-
weight).77 Metformin (1000 mg total daily dose) and topiramate ability. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of GLP-1 receptor ago-
(100 mg/d) counteract the effects of some weight gain–promoting nists reported that subcutaneous semaglutide reduced weight and
agents, particularly antipsychotics and can be considered as ad- improved weight-related comorbidities significantly more than
junctive therapy (topiramate: mean difference, −3.76 kg; 95% CI, liraglutide and was associated with lower rates of gastrointestinal
−4.92 kg to −2.69 kg; metformin: mean difference, −3.27 kg; adverse events.101,102
95% CI, −4.66 kg to −1.89 kg).79,80 Both GLP-1 receptor agonists have been shown in a meta-
analysis to decrease risk of CVD events in adults with overweight or
Antiobesity Medications obesity without diabetes (at follow-up of 32-160 weeks, 8.7% of
Significant advances in pharmacotherapy for obesity treatment have participants receiving GLP-1 receptor agonists and 11.2% receiving
occurred with increasing numbers of medications approved by the US placebo had an event).82 The SELECT study showed that in 17 604
Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Among individuals with inad- participants with CVD, with a BMI of 27 or greater, and without dia-
equate response to lifestyle modifications, guidelines recommend ini- betes, those randomized to semaglutide, 2.4 mg, vs placebo had a
tiating an antiobesity medication in nonpregnant patients with obe- lower composite incidence of death due to cardiovascular events,
sity or with overweight (BMI ⱖ27) and weight-related complications nonfatal myocardial infarction, or nonfatal stroke at 39.8 months
(Table 4).4,10,11 When initiating therapy, clinicians should consider dual (hazard ratio, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.72-0.90).103 Among 529 patients with
health benefits of antiobesity medications. For example, in patients heart failure and preserved ejection fraction, compared with pla-
with diabetes, a GLP-1 receptor agonist can improve glycemic con- cebo, semaglutide reduced heart failure–related symptoms and im-
trol and promote weight loss. Patients should be counseled that an- proved physical limitations.104
tiobesity medications must be used in conjunction with lifestyle
changes and may need to be used lifelong since weight regain is com- Tirzepatide
mon on discontinuation.10,96 Use of weight-loss supplements, such Tirzepatide is a synthetic peptide with dual-hormone agonistic ac-
as green tea extract or herbs, is not recommended.6,97 tivity at the GLP-1 receptor, like semaglutide, and additionally at the
glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor. Tirzepa-
GLP-1 Receptor Agonists (Semaglutide and Liraglutide) tide is dosed subcutaneously once weekly.42 An RCT of 2539 adults
GLP-1 receptor agonists mimic the effects of GLP-1. After eating, GLP-1 with obesity and without diabetes randomized participants to 1 of
acts on the hypothalamus to suppress appetite, delay gastric emp- 4 groups: 15 mg, 10 mg, or 5 mg of tirzepatide or placebo; all par-
tying, increase glucose-dependent insulin release, decrease gluca- ticipants received lifestyle counseling sessions, a reduced-calorie diet,
gon secretion, and increase pancreatic β-cell growth.98 and physical activity for 72 weeks.42 At 72-week follow-up, mean
Subcutaneous semaglutide was FDA approved to treat obesity weight loss for tirzepatide was 20.9% for 15 mg of tirzepatide, 19.5%
in 2021 and is dosed once weekly.10 The STEP trials examined for 10 mg of tirzepatide, 15.0% for 5 mg of tirzepatide, and 3.1% for
the efficacy of semaglutide. The STEP 1 and STEP 3 trials included placebo.42 Tirzepatide was FDA approved for treatment of obesity
individuals with obesity without diabetes (mean BMI, 38).81,99 In in November 2023. A recent meta-analysis of RCTs that included
these clinical trials, mean weight loss at 68 weeks was 14.9% 12 371 adults with overweight or obesity without diabetes reported
(placebo, 2.4%; difference, 12.4%; 95% CI, 11.5%-13.4%) and that 15 mg weekly of tirzepatide was associated with greater weight
16.0% (placebo, 5.7%; difference, 10.3%; 95% CI, 8.6%-12.0%), loss compared with 2.4 mg weekly of subcutaneous semaglutide
respectively.81,99 In STEP 1, participants were encouraged to follow (mean difference, 5.1%; 95% CI, 0.6%-9.8%) and 3 mg daily of
a reduced-calorie diet and participate in 150 min/wk of physical subcutaneous liraglutide (mean difference, 13.0%; 95% CI,
activity.81 In STEP 3, participants started with low-calorie meal re- 8.8%-17.4%).105
placements for 8 weeks followed by a reduced-calorie diet, a goal
of 200 min/wk of physical activity, and 30 individual visits with a Phentermine-Topiramate
dietitian.99 After cessation of semaglutide, participants regained sig- Combined oral phentermine-topiramate was FDA approved in 2012
nificant amounts of weight.96,100 Among participants followed up for obesity.10 Phentermine, a noradrenergic drug, reduces appetite

Table 4. Antiobesity Medication Management, Ordered by Greatest Difference in Percentage Weight Loss
Most common Mean 30-d
jama.com
Medications Mechanism Mean weight loss adverse effects retail cost, $
b d d
(trial) of action from baselinea Dosing Additional benefits (placebo, treatment)c,d Monitoring Contraindications (dose)e
FDA approved for long-term use10
Tirzepatide Dual-hormone Treatment: • Starting dose: 2.5 mg/wk • Improved: waist Nausea (10%, 31%), • Glucose if taking • Personal or family 1022-1221
(SURMOUNT-142) agonistic activity 20.9%; placebo: subcutaneously circumference, blood diarrhea (7%, 23%), insulin or sulfonylurea history of medullary (15 mg)
at GLP-1 and 3.1%; difference, • Titration speed: not faster pressure, hemoglobin vomiting (2%, 12%), • Hydration if thyroid carcinoma
glucose-dependent 17.8% with than every 4 wk A1c, lipid profile42 constipation (6%, 12%), gastrointestinal • MEN type 2
insulinotropic 15 mg at 72 wk • Titration: by 2.5 mg • Consider use in patients alopecia (1%, 6%), adverse effects
polypeptide • Maximum dose: 15 mg/wk with impaired glucose abdominal pain (3%, 5%) • Signs/symptoms of
receptors, regulating subcutaneously tolerance pancreatitis or
energy balance by gallbladder disorders
signals in CNS and • Anticipatory guidance

adipose tissue42 about symptoms of
thyroid mass
Semaglutide, Activates GLP-1 Treatment: • Starting dose: 0.25 mg/wk • Improved: waist Nausea (17%, 44%), • Glucose if taking • Personal or family 1333-1648
subcutaneous receptor, with 14.9%; placebo: subcutaneously circumference, blood diarrhea (16%, 32%), insulin or sulfonylurea history of medullary (2.4 mg)
(STEP 181) metabolic 2.4%; difference, • Titration speed: not faster pressure, hemoglobin constipation (10%, 23%), • Hydration if thyroid carcinoma
effects on 12.5% with than every 4 wk A1c, CVD events, lipid dyspepsia (4%, 10%), gastrointestinal • MEN type 2
glucose-dependent 2.4 mg at 68 wk • Doses: 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, profile81,82 vomiting (7%, 25%) adverse effects • History of pancreatitis
stimulation of 1.7 mg/wk • Consider use in patients • Signs/symptoms of is a precaution but not
insulin secretion, • Maximum dose: 2.4 mg/wk with impaired glucose pancreatitis or a contraindication
delayed gastric subcutaneously tolerance gallbladder disorders
emptying10 • Diabetic retinopathy

Phentermine- Phentermine Treatment: 9.2%; • Starting dose: 3.75 mg/ • Improved: waist Paresthesia (4%, 23%), dry • Heart rate, blood • CVD 98-214
topiramate ER increases placebo: 1.7%; 23 mg daily circumference, systolic mouth (0%, 19%), pressure • Uncontrolled (15 mg/92 mg)
(EQUATE83) norepinephrine in difference, 7.5% • Next dose: 7.5 mg/46 mg blood pressure, constipation (8%, 16%), • Serum bicarbonate hypertension
CNS, topiramate with 15 mg/ daily for 12 wk hemoglobin A1c, lipid headache (13%, 16%), • Symptoms of acute • Untreated
modulates GABA 92 mg at 28 wk • Titration speed: not faster profile83,84 insomnia (5%, 10%), metabolic acidosis, hyperthyroidism
receptors in the than every 2 wk • Consider use in patients dizziness (2%, 8%) nephrolithiasis, • History of glaucoma,
CNS10,12 • Titration amount: by with comorbid suicidality, or calcium-phosphate
3.75 mg/23 mg migraines10 angle-closure nephrolithiasis
• Maximum dose: 15 mg/ glaucoma • Within 14 d of MAOI
92 mg daily • Potassium if taking use
potassium-sparing
diuretic
• Dermatologic reactions
Liraglutide Activates GLP-1 Treatment: 8.0%; • Starting dose: 0.6 mg/d • Improved: waist Nausea (15%, 40%), • Glucose if taking insulin • Personal or family 1333-1498
(SCALE85) receptor, with placebo: 2.6%; subcutaneously circumference, blood diarrhea (9%, 21%), or sulfonylurea history of medullary (3 mg)
metabolic effects on difference, 5.4% • Titration speed: not faster pressure, hemoglobin constipation (9%, 20%), • Signs/symptoms of thyroid cancer
glucose-dependent with 3 mg than weekly A1c, CVD events, lipid dyspepsia (5, 10%), pancreatitis or • MEN type 2

stimulation of at 56 wk • Titration: by 0.6 mg profile82,85 vomiting (4%, 16%) gallbladder disorders • Pancreatitis is a
insulin secretion, • Maximum dose: 3 mg/d • Consider use in patients • Worsening depression, precaution but not a
delayed gastric subcutaneously with impaired glucose suicidal thoughts, contraindication
emptying10 tolerance behavior change
• Heart rate
Naltrexone- Bupropion activates Treatment: 5.6%; • Starting dose: 8 mg/90 mg • Improved: waist Nausea (7%, 33%), • Heart rate, blood • Uncontrolled 99-698
bupropion ER proopiomelanocortin placebo: 1.2%; daily circumference, constipation (7%, 19%), pressure hypertension (8 mg/90 mg;
(COR-II41)f neurons in the difference, 4.4% • Titration speed: not faster hemoglobin A1c in type 2 headache (10%, 18%), • Kidney and liver • History of seizures 4 tablets/d)
hypothalamus, with 32 mg/ than weekly diabetes, lipid profile41 vomiting (3%, 11%), function • At risk of alcohol
naltrexone blocks 360 mg at 56 wk • Titration amount: by 8 mg/ • Consider use in patients dizziness (3%, 10%), • Depression, suicidal withdrawal
opioid-mediated 90 mg interested in reducing insomnia (6%, 9%), dry ideation, anxiety, • Bulimia or anorexia
proopiomelanocortin • Maximum dose: 32 mg/ tobacco or alcohol mouth (2%, 8%), diarrhea mania, panic attacks nervosa
autoinhibition 360 mg daily (dosed as use10,86 (5%, 7%) • Within 14 d
16 mg/180 mg twice daily) of MAOI use
• Long-term opioid use
(continued)

2007
2008
Table 4. Antiobesity Medication Management, Ordered by Greatest Difference in Percentage Weight Loss (continued)
b d d
Orlistat Gastric and Treatment: • 60 mg 3 times daily • Improved: blood Steatorrhea (5%, 31%), • Fat-soluble vitamin • Deficiency in • 49-67 (Over
(European pancreatic lipase 10.2%; placebo: • 120 mg 3 times daily pressure, glucose, increased defecation levels (A, D, E, K) fat-soluble vitamins the counter)
Multicenter inhibitor with 6.1%; difference, lipid profile87 (7%, 20%), oily spotting • Liver function if • Calcium oxalate • 280-597
Orlistat Study87) decreased 4.1% with • Consider if patient has (1%, 18%), liquid stool symptoms of hepatic nephrolithiasis (Prescription)
absorption of 120 mg 3 times chronic constipationg (10%, 13%), fecal urgency impairment • Chronic malabsorption
triglycerides10 daily at 52 wk (3%, 10%), flatus with • Administer • Cholestasis
discharge (0%, 7%), fecal multivitamin 2 h
incontinence (0%, 7%) apart from orlistat
Clinical Review & Education Review
FDA approved for short-term use (12 wk)10

Diethylpropion88 Increases Treatment: 9.8%; • IR: 25 mg 3 times daily Waist circumference • Dry mouth (41%, 69%), • Can cause direct cardiac • Sedative use 19-60
norepinephrine placebo: 3.2%; before meals improved88 insomnia (22%, 53%), myocyte toxicity • Susceptibility to (Generic;
release in CNS10 difference, 6.6% • ER: 75 mg/d constipation (14%, 39%), • Heart rate, blood amphetamines 75 mg ER)
with 50 mg twice headache (25%, 33%), pressure • CVD
daily at 24 wk dizziness (9%, 14%) • Mood • Avoid use with
• Incidence of all adverse ethanol
effects decreased at • Use within 1 y of
3-6 mo another anorectic
medication
Phentermine Increases Treatment: 6.1%; • Starting dose: 8 mg/d Nonsignificant reduction Paresthesia (4%, 5%), Heart rate, blood • CVD • 12-17
JAMA November 28, 2023 Volume 330, Number 20 (Reprinted)

(EQUATE83) norepinephrine placebo: 1.7%; (tablet) or 15 mg/d (capsule) in systolic and diastolic dry mouth (0%, 12%), pressure • Uncontrolled (Generic;
release in CNS10 difference, 4.4% • Titration speed: not faster blood pressure and headache (13%, 10%), hypertension 37.5 mg)

with 15 mg than every 2 wk waistline vs placebo for constipation (8%, 8%), • Untreated • 15-27
at 28 wk • Titration: can combine 8 mg 7.5 mg and 15 mg insomnia (6%, 11%), hyperthyroidism (Brand name;
+ 15 mg as 23 mg or increase phentermine83 dizziness (2%, 3%) • Within 14 d of MAOI 8 mg)
from 15 mg to 30 mg use
• Maximum dose: 37.5 mg/d
Commonly used off label
Semaglutide, Activates GLP-1 Treatment: • Starting dose: 3 mg/d • Improved: waist Nausea (15%, 52%), Not reported Not reported 926-1041
50 mg oral receptor, with 15.1%; placebo: • Titration speed: not faster circumference, blood constipation (15%, 28%), (7 mg)
(OASIS 189) metabolic effects on 2.4%; difference, than every 4 wk pressure, hemoglobin diarrhea (17%, 27%),
glucose-dependent 12.7% with • Titration: 7 mg, 14 mg, A1c, lipid profile89 vomiting (4%, 24%)
stimulation of insulin 50 mg at 68 wk 25 mg, 50 mg • Consider use in patients
secretion, delayed • Maximum dose: 50 mg/d with impaired glucose
gastric emptying10 tolerance
Topiramate Topiramate Treatment: 6.4%; • Starting dose (IR): 12.5 mg/d Consider use in patients Paresthesia (4%, 22%), dry • Symptoms of acute Use with care if history 9-37 (Generic)
(EQUATE83) modulates GABA placebo: 1.7%; to 25 mg/d with migraines, mouth (0%, 7%), angle-closure glaucoma of glaucoma, metabolic
receptors in CNS10 difference, 4.7% • Titration speed: not faster antipsychotic-induced constipation (8%, 6%), • Acute metabolic acidosis, calcium

with 92 mg than weekly weight gain, binge eating insomnia (6%, 5%), acidosis phosphate kidney stones
at 28 wk • Titration amount: by 25 mg disorder, alcohol use dizziness (2%, 4%) • Nephrolithiasis
• Maximum dose (IR): 200 mg disorder10,79,86 • Depression, anxiety,
twice daily suicidal ideation
Semaglutide Activates GLP-1 Treatment: 4.7%; • Starting dose: 0.25 mg/wk • Improved: waist Nausea (8%, 24%), • Glucose if taking insulin • Personal or family 926-1041
(SUSTAIN receptor, with placebo: 1.1%; subcutaneously circumference, blood diarrhea (2%, 11%), or sulfonylurea history of medullary (2 mg)
167,90)h metabolic effects on difference, 3.6% • Titration speed: not faster pressure, hemoglobin constipation (1%, 4%), • Signs/symptoms of thyroid carcinoma
glucose-dependent with 1.0 mg than every 4 wk A1c, CVD events, lipid vomiting (2%, 7%) pancreatitis or • MEN type 2
stimulation of at 30 wk in • Doses: 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, profile90 gallbladder disorders • Pancreatitis is a
insulin secretion, patients with 2.0 mg/wk • Consider use in patients • Diabetic retinopathy precaution but not a
delayed gastric type 2 diabetes • Maximum dose: 2 mg/wk with impaired glucose contraindication
emptying10 subcutaneously tolerance
(continued)
jama.com
Table 4. Antiobesity Medication Management, Ordered by Greatest Difference in Percentage Weight Loss (continued)
jama.com
b d d
Liraglutide Activates GLP-1 Treatment • Starting dose: 0.6 mg/d • Improved: waist Nausea (8%, 29%), • Glucose if taking insulin Pancreatitis is a 1104-1340
(LEAD-391)h receptor, with (1.8 mg): 2.6%; subcutaneously circumference, blood diarrhea (9%, 19%), or sulfonylurea precaution but not (3 mg)
metabolic effects on control • Titration speed: not faster pressure, hemoglobin constipation (5%, 11%), • Signs/symptoms of a contraindication
glucose-dependent (glimepiride, than weekly A1c91 vomiting (4%, 9%) pancreatitis or
stimulation of 8 mg): +1.2%; • Titration: by 0.6 mg • Consider use in patients (glimepiride; no placebo in gallbladder disorders
insulin secretion, difference, 3.8% • Maximum dose: 1.8 mg/d with impaired glucose this study) • Worsening depression,
delayed gastric at 52 wk in subcutaneously tolerance suicidal thoughts,
emptying10 patients with type behavior change
2 diabetes • Heart rate
Bupropion92 Bupropion activates Treatment: 4.9% • Starting dose (SR): 100 mg/d Consider use in patients Insomnia (4%, 20%), dry • Blood pressure • Uncontrolled 5-27 (Generic;
proopiomelanocortin (up to 12.9% with • Titration speed: not faster with depression, seasonal mouth (20%, 52%), rash • Depression, suicidal hypertension 300 mg ER)
neurons in the gradual increase than every 2 wk affective disorder, anxiety, (0%, 8%), nervousness ideation, anxiety, • Seizure disorder
hypothalamus41 to 200 mg twice • Maximum dose: 200 mg attention-deficit/ (4%, 16%) mania, panic attacks • Bulimia or anorexia
daily at 24 wk); twice daily hyperactivity disorder, • Because bupropion nervosa
placebo: 1.3%; • Starting dose (ER): 150 mg/d dysthymia if indicated lowers seizure • Within 14 d of MAOI
difference, 3.6% • Titration speed: every 1 to threshold, it should be use
with 200 mg SR 2 wk weaned slowly
twice daily at • Maximum dose: 450 mg/d
8 wk (n = 50)
Metformin Increased insulin and Treatment: 6.2%; • Both IR and ER can be taken • Hemoglobin A1c • Gastrointestinal adverse • Glucose if taking insulin • Advanced cirrhosis • 3-13 (Generic)
(Diabetes leptin sensitivity, placebo, 2.8%; once or twice daily improved94 effects in 10%-20% or sulfonylurea (class C) • IR is less
Prevention decreased hunger difference, 3.5% • For IR and ER: • Consider use in patients (treatment group) • Vitamin B12 after • Glomerular filtration expensive

Program and ghrelin levels94 with 1500 mg at • Starting dose: 500 mg/d with polycystic ovary • Some patients tolerate long-term use rate <30 mL/min than ER
Outcomes 15 y • Titration speed: not faster syndrome, one formulation but not • Reassess dose if • Heart failure with poor
Study93) than weekly antipsychotic-induced the other glomerular filtration perfusion
• Titration amount: by weight gain, impaired • Taking at the end of a meal rate decreases to
500 mg glucose tolerance, or can reduce risk of adverse <45 mL/min
• Dose: 2500 mg/d chronic constipation94g effects
Abbreviations: ER, extended release; CNS, central nervous system; CVD, cardiovascular disease; Gynecologists as a second-line medication for diabetes during pregnancy; it is safe during lactation.95 All other
GABA, γ-aminobutyric acid; GLP-1, glucagon-like peptide 1; IR, immediate release; MAOI, monoamine oxidase antiobesity medications should not be used during pregnancy or lactation. Women of reproductive age should
inhibitor; MEN, multiple endocrine neoplasia; SR, sustained release. be counseled on the use of effective contraception. GLP-1 receptor agonists: safety during pregnancy and
a lactation is not fully known. These medications can decrease the effectiveness of oral contraceptives because of
Rounded to the first decimal place, presented for maximum dose or as indicated.
b
delayed gastric emptying; addition of barrier method is recommended for 4 weeks after initiation of a GLP-1
Weight loss may vary by dose. Suggested titration by manufacturer is presented; titration should be
receptor agonist and after each dose increase. Phentermine-topiramate: topiramate can cause fetal
personalized to patients and based on weight loss. If a patient is losing ⱖ1 lb per week while taking a given dose,
malformations. The US Food and Drug Administration label for phentermine-topiramate recommends testing for
dose titration may not be needed unless that weight loss has slowed.
pregnancy at initiation and monthly thereafter; however, neither phentermine nor topiramate individually has a
c

Most common adverse effects are presented with frequencies in the placebo and treatment groups from the recommendation for monthly pregnancy testing.
primary clinical trial for the maximum dose reported. Most adverse effects are less frequent with lower doses. e
Prices are average retail price (without insurance) accessed at GoodRx.com on April 11, 2023, and July 15, 2023;
For all medications, slow dose titration may mitigate adverse effects. For GLP-1 receptor agonists and
lower prices are often available with coupons or by mail order.
glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide/GLP-1 receptor agonists, consider behavior modification,
f
including reduced portion size and increased fiber intake. For metformin, taking with meals can mitigate adverse Naltrexone is sometimes prescribed off label as a single agent without bupropion, but not as often as bupropion
effects. is prescribed off label.
g
d Expert opinion based on clinical experience.
For comprehensive information on adverse effects, monitoring, and contraindications, please refer to
h
prescribing information for each medication. Reproductive considerations and use during pregnancy and Percentage weight loss manually calculated from mean weight loss in kilograms and mean kilograms at baseline.
lactation: metformin is used to improve fertility and recommended by the American College of Obstetricians and

2009
and affects food intake via the enhancement of norepinephrine testinal adverse effects occurred in 38% of Gelesis100 participants
release and blockade of norepinephrine reuptake.106 Topiramate’s and 28% of placebo participants.112
exact weight-loss mechanism is unknown but is thought to alter
appetite and decrease energy intake.106 A clinical trial randomized Antiobesity Medications Approved by the FDA
1267 individuals with a BMI of 35 or greater to phentermine- for Short-Term Use
topiramate, 3.75/23 mg/d; phentermine-topiramate, 15/92 mg/d; Four sympathomimetic oral amines, phentermine, diethylpropion,
or placebo.107 At 56-week follow-up, weight loss was 5.1% with the benzphetamine, and phendimetrazine are currently FDA approved
lower dose of phentermine-topiramate, 10.9% with the higher for short-term use (12 weeks).10,113,114 These agents increase norepi-
dose of phentermine-topiramate, and 1.6% in the placebo nephrine, leading to appetite suppression.113 While use beyond 12
group.107 In systematic reviews, phentermine-topiramate was weeks is common, local laws and state medical boards should be
associated with greater weight loss compared with orlistat and consulted.12 Phentermine is the most commonly prescribed anti-
naltrexone-bupropion.108,109 Since topiramate is also used to pre- obesity medication115 and is an affordable alternative to other
vent migraines, phentermine-topiramate may be considered in therapies, but it has sympathomimetic effects.116 Therefore, clini-
patients with obesity and migraine headaches.10 cians should avoid these medications in patients with a history of
coronary artery disease, uncontrolled hypertension, glaucoma, and
Naltrexone-Bupropion history of substance use disorder.12,116 Phentermine and diethylpro-
The combination of oral naltrexone-bupropion was FDA approved pion are Schedule IV controlled substances but are associated with
for obesity in 2014.10 Bupropion stimulates hypothalamic proopi- low risk of dependency or abuse.113,114,116 A recent review found
omelanocortin neurons while naltrexone simultaneously blocks that phentermine was not associated with increased risk of major
opioid-mediated proopiomelanocortin autoinhibition, which adverse cardiac events compared with usual care.108
reduces reactivity to food cues and improves dysregulation of eat-
ing control in mesolimbic pathways.41 Both the Contrave Obesity Medications Commonly Used Off Label
Research I and II trials were conducted among individuals with a for Long-Term Treatment
BMI of 30 to 45 or a BMI of 27 to 45 with dyslipidemia or hyperten- Table 4 lists several medications that are commonly used off label
sion (1742 and 1496 participants, respectively).110,111 Groups receiv- to treat obesity. Medications commonly used off label for obesity
ing naltrexone-bupropion, 32/360 mg/d, achieved significant include Mounjaro (tirzepatide injection), Ozempic (semaglutide in-
56-week weight loss compared with placebo (approximately 6% jection), Rybelsus (oral semaglutide), and Victoza (liraglutide injec-
and 1%, respectively).110,111 Naltrexone-bupropion may be consid- tion). These brand names are approved by the FDA for diabetes only,
ered in patients with obesity and comorbid depression or desire for and health insurance coverage may be restricted to their FDA-
smoking cessation or alcohol use reduction.10 approved indication.
Orlistat Metformin
Orlistat is a pancreatic lipase inhibitor oral medication that pre- In RCTs and prospective studies, oral metformin was associated with
vents triglycerides from being hydrolyzed, thus deceasing the ab- approximately 3% weight loss, and approximately 25% to 50% of
sorption of free fatty acids. Orlistat was FDA approved for obesity participants achieve at least 5% weight loss. 94 The Diabetes
in 1999.10 Mean weight loss with orlistat is 2.8% to 4.8%, and Prevention Program randomized 3234 adults without diabetes to
gastrointestinal adverse effects are frequent, including flatulence, metformin, placebo, or intensive lifestyle intervention for the pri-
steatorrhea, and diarrhea.10,109 Orlistat may cause malabsorption mary outcome of preventing diabetes.93 The mean weight loss at
of fat-soluble vitamins; thus, patients should take a multivitamin 15-year follow-up was 6.2% (95% CI, 5.2%-7.2%) for metformin, 3.7%
containing vitamins A, D, E, and K 2 hours apart from orlistat daily.10 (95% CI, 3.1%-4.4%) for intensive lifestyle intervention, and 2.8%
Recent American Gastroenterological Association guidelines for placebo (95% CI, 1.3%-4.4%).93 Doses of metformin greater than
conditionally recommended against orlistat use given its modest 1500 mg are associated with the greatest weight loss.93,94 Metfor-
weight loss and gastrointestinal adverse effects.10 It is available over min’s pleiotropic effects include decreased inflammation, in-
the counter and may be appropriate for certain patients (eg, when creased insulin and leptin sensitivity, and decreased hunger and ghre-
other antiobesity medications are contraindicated, unavailable, lin levels, especially with twice-daily dosing.94 Metformin is widely
or unaffordable). available and inexpensive. Metformin is frequently offered to pa-
tients with prediabetes, polycystic ovary syndrome, and overweight/
Gelesis100 obesity and to mitigate weight gain due to antipsychotic medica-
Gelesis100 is a nonsurgical device that was FDA approved in 2019 tion, although it is not FDA approved for these diagnoses.94
to treat obesity. It is a superabsorbent orally administered hydro-
gel capsule that releases cellulose and citric acid particles, thereby Challenges to Prescribing Antiobesity Medications
increasing bulk in the stomach and creating a sensation of satiety.10 in Clinical Practice
An RCT of 436 participants showed a mean weight loss of 2.1% more Medicare currently excludes coverage of FDA-approved antiobe-
with Gelesis100 compared with placebo (P < .001), and 59% of those sity medications for a diagnosis of obesity alone. Often these medi-
receiving Gelesis100 attained 5% or greater weight loss compared cations are costly. Global shortages of some medications currently
with 42% of those receiving placebo (P < .001).112 It is indicated for exist, especially GLP-1 receptor agonists. More studies are needed
those with a BMI of 25 to 40; given limited knowledge due to its re- to determine dosing for weight loss vs weight maintenance and long-
cency, guidelines do not currently recommend its use.10 Gastroin- term use beyond studied time periods.

Bariatric Endoscopic Procedures tion for micronutrients (thiamin, vitamin B12, folate, iron, vitamin D,
Currently, 2 bariatric endoscopic procedures are FDA approved: calcium, vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin K, zinc, and copper) is rec-
intragastric balloons and endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty. ommended; typical doses vary based on surgical procedure.45
Intragastric balloons occupy space in the stomach, delay gas-
tric emptying, and increasing satiety.117 Patients with a BMI of 30 to
40 are eligible and typically require an upper endoscopy to place
Follow-Up
the balloon and fill it with saline. The devices are removed via
endoscopy after 6 to 8 months. In a clinical trial of 255 patients Arranging follow-up visits for patients can promote weight loss, po-
with a BMI of 30 to 40 randomized to lifestyle intervention plus tentially by influencing behavior change and accountability.122 In the
balloon (placed for 6 months) vs lifestyle intervention alone, life- outpatient setting, close follow-up, ideally every 4 to 6 weeks, en-
style intervention plus balloon reduced weight by 10.2% (range, ables clinicians and care teams to support lifestyle changes and ad-
9.6%-29.2%) compared with 3.3% (range, 5.4%-19%) for lifestyle dress adverse effects or complications of antiobesity medications.
intervention alone at 6 months. 117 Six months after balloon Procedural and surgical follow-up is determined by bariatric teams.
removal, patients regained some weight, with 7.6% vs 3.1% total
weight loss.117 Adverse effects include nausea/vomiting (20%) and
abdominal pain (7%).118
Weight-Loss Maintenance
Endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty is an organ-sparing, transoral
endoscopic procedure designed to reduce stomach volume. In an
and Long-Term Obesity Management
RCT of 209 patients with obesity randomized to endoscopic Maintaining weight loss is difficult and may be supported by con-
sleeve gastroplasty plus lifestyle modifications (reduced-calorie tinued clinical intervention.123 In longitudinal observational studies,
diet and physical activity counseling) vs lifestyle modifications people who successfully maintain weight often use behavioral
alone for 52 weeks,119 endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty achieved strategies, such as physical activity, regular self-weighing,67 a
13.6% weight loss compared with 0.8% with lifestyle modifica- reduced-calorie diet, and a consistent eating pattern.124,125 Patients
tions alone.119 may need to increase their physical activity (>200 min/wk is often
Both procedures should be considered based on patient pref- required).5 As pharmacotherapy produces greater weight-loss
erence, eligibility, benefits, risks, procedural contraindications maintenance than lifestyle alone (eg, STEP 3 Trial: difference,
(eg, hiatal hernia, gastric ulcers), and specialist availability.118 10.3%; 95% CI, 8.6%-12.0%),12,99 clinical guidelines support long-
term antiobesity medication use.4,10 Similar to other chronic dis-
eases, lifelong monitoring and treatment escalation may be
Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery required over time. For example, rapid weight regain after bariatric
While previously limited to persons with a BMI of 40 or greater or surgery may signal a need for additional intervention, such as anti-
patients with a BMI of 35 or greater with weight-related comorbid- obesity medications.9,126
ity, recent guidelines recommend that metabolic and bariatric sur-
gery should be considered for patients with a BMI of 35 or greater
and patients with a BMI of 30 to 34.9 who have concurrent meta-
bolic disease. Lower weight thresholds should be applied to Asian
Limitations
populations.9 For those with a BMI of less than 35, a trial of nonsur- This Review has several limitations. First, some relevant studies may
gical therapy is recommended prior to referral for metabolic and have been missed. Second, a formal quality assessment of the lit-
bariatric surgery.9 After referral to metabolic and bariatric surgery, erature was not performed. Third, many RCTs included relatively few
patients are often evaluated by the surgical clinic, and time to sur- people from racial and ethnic minority groups and relatively small
gery is determined by their preoperative evaluations and health proportions of men.81,99 Fourth, some RCTs had relatively poor
insurance requirements for evaluations. Presurgical nutrition and follow-up rates or short durations.13,64 Fifth, some medications used
mental health evaluations are recommended, with additional for obesity, such as lisdexamfetamine for binge eating disorder or
evaluations determined by the surgeon.9 setmelanotide for rare forms of obesity, were beyond the scope
Two metabolic and bariatric procedures comprise more than of this Review.
90% of all surgeries: (1) laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy (LSG), in
which approximately 85% of the stomach is removed by separa-
tion along the greater curvature, and (2) Roux-en-Y gastric bypass
Conclusions
(RYGB) surgery, in which a small gastric pouch is connected di-
rectly to the jejunum.43 Both are typically performed laparoscopi- Obesity affects approximately 42% of adults in the US. Behavioral
cally. Expected 12-month weight loss is approximately 25% after LSG interventions can attain approximately 5% to 10% weight loss,
and approximately 30% after RYGB, with sustained weight loss at GLP-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide/GLP-1
5 years.44,120 Early complications include anastomotic leaks (LSG: receptor agonists attain approximately 8% to 21% weight loss,
1%-7%; RYGB: 0.6%-4.4%), stenosis (LSG: 1%-9%; RYGB: 8%- and bariatric surgery attains approximately 25% to 30% weight
19%), postoperative bleeding (11%), and venous thromboembolic loss. Comprehensive, evidence-based obesity treatment com-
events (incidence not reported); late complications include inter- bines behavioral interventions, nutrition, physical activity, phar-
nal hernia and marginal ulceration (RYGB: 2.5%-5%).121 Pre– and macotherapy, and metabolic/bariatric procedures as appropriate
post–metabolic and bariatric surgery screening and supplementa- for individual patients.

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Clinical Review & Education

Obesity Management in Adults

OBSERVATIONS A body mass index (BMI) of 25 or greater is commonly used to define

2000 (Reprinted) jama.com

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Table 1. Evidence-Based Screening Recommendations for Weight-Related Comorbidities4,6,14

Comorbiditiesa Screening method/diagnostic criteria Abbreviations: HDL-C, high-density

clinician should begin by asking permission to talk to the patient about

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Figure. 5A Framework (Assess, Advise, Agree, Assist, Arrange)

support, coaching, self-monitoring, cognitive restructuring, and

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JAMA November 28, 2023 Volume 330, Number 20 (Reprinted)

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(Reprinted) JAMA November 28, 2023 Volume 330, Number 20

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signals in CNS and • Anticipatory guidance

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FDA approved for short-term use (12 wk)10

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(Reprinted) JAMA November 28, 2023 Volume 330, Number 20

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© 2023 American Medical Association. All rights reserved.

© 2023 American Medical Association. All rights reserved.

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