Introduction to voting o Using the Plurality method which variety of

Voting Theory candy would win the taste of the 50 people.

o It is the mathematical description of the process by
which democratic societies resolve the different and
conflicting views of the group’s members into a
single choice for the group.
o Each vote is an expression of that voter’s preference
about the outcome of an election.
Voting
o Is a powerful tool in decision making.
o Is a method that uses votes to determine the
winner. Answer:
o Preference Schedule o TOFFE is the most preferred candy
 It is the matrix of summary of votes casted by o Solution:
the voters. o Caramel = not included because it does not
o Preference Ballot receive the least any highest preference rating.
 Is a ballot in which the voters ranks the choices o Vanilla = 17 highest preference votes
in order of preference. o Almond = 8 highest preference votes
How to make a preference schedule? o Toffee = 20 highest preference votes
o Ex: A vacation club trying to decide which o Solid = 5 highest preference votes
destination to visit this year. Hawaii (H), Orlando B. Borda Count Method
(O), or Anaheim (A). o If there are n candidates or issues in an election,
each voter ranks the candidates or issues by
giving n points to the voter’s first choice, n-1
points to the voter’s second choice and so on,
with the voter’s least favorite choice receiving 1
point.
o The candidate or issue that receives the most
total points is the winner.
Example:
o Fifty People were asked to rank their
preferences of five varieties of chocolate candy,
using 1 for their favorite and 5 for their least.
o Using the Plurality method which variety of
candy would win the taste of the 50 people.

Methods of Voting
A. Plurality Method of Voting
o Each voter votes for one candidate, and the
candidate with the most votes wins.
o The winning candidate does not have to have a
majority of the votes.
o In-case of ties, voting should be done using the
runoff election. Answer:
Considerations: o Almond is the most preferred candy by Borda
o Majority Vote: over 50 % of the people voting Count
must vote for the candidate o 196 scores of votes
o Limitation of Plurality Method: Alternative C. Plurality by Elimination
choices are not considered. o First, eliminate the candidate with the fewest
Example: number of first-place votes
o Fifty People were asked to rank their o If two or more of these alternatives have the
preferences of five varieties of chocolate candy, same number of first-place votes, all are
using 1 for their favorite and 5 for their least. eliminated unless that would eliminate all
 alternatives. In that case, a different method of o Beats every other candidate head-to-head
voting will be used. because voters prefer this candidate to every
o Adjust the voter’s ranking at the remaining other.
candidates. Majority Criterion
o Repeat the same process of elimination and o The candidates who receive a majority of the 1st –
adjustment until two candidates are left. place votes are the winner.
Example: o Violated by: Borda count and Pairwise
o Fifty People were asked to rank their Monotonicity Criterion
preferences of five varieties of chocolate candy, o If candidate A wins an election, then candidate A
using 1 for their favorite and 5 for their least. will also win the election if the only change in the
Using the Plurality method which variety of voters’ preference is that supporters of a different
candy would win the taste of the 50 people. candidate changes their votes to support candidate
A.
o Violated by: Plurality by Elimination (has the
greatest chance) and Pairwise
Condorcet Criterion
o A candidate who wins all possible head to head
matchups should win an election when all
candidates appear on the ballot.
o “Better is Better Principle”
o Violated by: Plurality by Elimination and Borda
D. Pairwise Comparison Voting Method Count
o The “head-to-head method” Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives
o Each candidate is compared one-on-one with o Independence of Irrelevant Criterion (IIR)
each of the other candidates o If a candidate who wins an election, the winner
o A candidate receives 1 point for a win, 0.5 should remain winner in any recount in which the
points for a tie and 0 points for a loss. losing candidates withdraw from the race.
o The candidate with the greatest number of o “Ignore the Irrelevant criteria”
points wins the election. o Violated by: Borda Count
Example: Weighted Voting System
o Fifty People were asked to rank their Weighted Voting
preferences of five varieties of chocolate candy, o Can exist in a legislative body in which each elected
using 1 for their favorite and 5 for their least. representative has a different voting power
o Using the Plurality method which variety of (weighted vote) as determined by the total number
candy would win the taste of the 50 people. of citizens who voted for them in the general
election.
Example:
o Evaluative Proportional Representation (EPR) in
Section 5.5.5 in Proportional Representation
 Asks each voting citizen to grade the suitability
for office of as many candidates as they wish to
become a member of their state's legislative
body.
o The merit of each candidate is graded as being
E. Majority Voting either
o Over 50 % of the people voting must vote for  Excellent
the candidate  Very Good
Fairness of Voting Criteria  Good
o “What’s the fairest way to hold an election?”  Acceptable
A. The Plurality Method  Poor
o When there are more two candidates may  Reject
produce a winner that is viewed as undesirable o Result
by the majority of voters.  Each elected candidate receives a different
B. A Condorcet Winner weighted vote in the legislature equal to the
 total number of highest available grades they o Provided for many Africans and a few
received from all the voters. Europeans, but not all the adult
 Each and every voting citizen is represented population.
proportionately. o Lack of support to sign up for
 No citizen's vote is "wasted". o Much lower turnout
Kinds of Voting Systems in the World Electoral System
A. Ancient Rome o Is a set of rules that determine how elections and
o The Roman assemblies provided for weighted referendums are conducted and how their results
voting after the person's tribal affiliation and are determined.
social class (i.e. wealth). o Consist of sets of rules that govern all aspects of the
o Rather than counting one vote per citizen, the voting process:
assemblies convened in blocs (tribes or  When elections occur?
centuries), with the plurality of voters in each  Who is allowed to vote?
bloc deciding the vote of the bloc as an entity  Who can stand as a candidate?
(which candidate to support or whether to favor  How ballots are marked and cast?
or reject a law, for instance).  How the ballots are counted (electoral
B. Sweden method)?
o In several Western democracies, such as  Limits on campaign spending
Sweden and pre-unitary Germany, weighted  Other factors that can affect the outcome.
voting preceded equal and universal suffrage, as o Political Electoral Systems
well as women's suffrage, to different extents.  Are organized by governments
o Universal and equal male suffrage to the lower  Defined by constitutions and electoral laws
house (Andra kammaren) was introduced by  Typically conducted by election commissions
Arvid Lindman's first cabinet  Can use multiple types of elections for different
o Voting for city and county councils, which offices.
indirectly decided the composition of the upper o Non-political Elections
house (Första kammaren), was graded along a  May take place in business, non-profit
40-degree scale organizations and informal organizations.
C. French Colonies
o After 1946 and the Brazzaville Conference of Types of Electoral System
1944, French colonial authorities set up a A. Plurality voting
system of double collège o A system in which the candidate(s) with the
o The local population would be divided in two highest number of votes wins, with no
electoral colleges, both returning the same requirement to get a majority of votes.
numbers of delegates o First-past-the-post
 First - composed by French citizens and  In cases where there is a single position to
évolués be filled
 Second - natives with indigenous status o Is the second most common electoral system
o This system was also used in French Algeria until for national legislatures
1958. o 58 countries using it to elect their legislatures
o This system was abolished on 1958 with the Loi  The vast majority of which are current or
Cadre Defferre. former British or American colonies or
D. Southern Rhodesia territories.
o Under its 1961 Constitution, the British colony o The second most common system used for
of Southern Rhodesia provided for a special presidential elections
form of weighted voting called cross-voting.  Being used in 19 countries.
o Voters were rounded up in two voters' rolls B. Majoritarian voting
1. The A roll o A system in which candidates have to receive a
o Bearing requirements generally reached majority of the votes to be elected
by the European-descended population o In some cases only a plurality is required in the
o In a few cases by Africans last round of counting if no candidate can
o Limited size in terms of voters achieve a majority.
o Played the major influence in electing o There are two main forms of majoritarian
the 65 members of parliament systems
2. The B roll 1. Using a single round of ranked voting
 2. Using two or more rounds. o Any integer is a possible choice for the
o Both are primarily used for single-member quota as long as
constituencies.  It is more than 50% of the total number
C. Proportional System of votes
o Proportional representation is the most widely  Is no more than 100% of the total
used electoral system for national legislatures, number of votes.
with the parliaments. o Each weighted voting system can be
o Party-list proportional representation described using the generic form [q : w1,
 Is the single most common electoral system w2, . . ., wN].
and is used by 80 countries Measuring a player's power
 Involves voters voting for a list of o A player's weight is not always an accurate
candidates proposed by a party. depiction of that player's power.
o In closed list systems o Sometimes, a player with several votes can have
 Voters do not have any influence over the little power.
candidates put forward by the party Example:
o In open list systems o Consider the weighted voting system [20: 10, 10, 9].
 Voters are able to both vote for the party o Although P3 has almost as many votes as the other
list and influence the order in which players, their votes will never affect the outcome.
candidates will be assigned seats. o A player with just a few votes may hold quite a bit
o In some countries of power.
 e.g. Israel and the Netherlands o Take the weighted voting system [7: 4, 2, 1]
 Elections are carried out using 'pure' o No motion can be passed without the unanimous
proportional representation support of all the players.
 The votes tallied on a national level before o Thus, P3 holds just as much power as P1.
assigning seats to parties. Introduction to Apportionment
D. Mixed System Apportionment
o Are used to elect the legislature. o Is the problem of dividing up a fixed number of
o Include parallel voting and mixed-member things among groups of different sizes
proportional representation. o In politics, this takes the form of allocating a limited
o Parallel voting systems number of representatives amongst voters
 Are used in 20 countries o Is older than the US
 Are two methods by which members of a o The best know ways to solve it have their origins in
legislature are elected the problem of assigning each state an appropriate
1. Part of the membership is elected by a number of representatives in Congress
plurality or majority vote in single- o State faces this apportionment problem in defining
member constituencies how to draw districts for state representatives
2. The other part by proportional o Comes up in a variety of non-political areas
representation. Apportionment:
o The results of the constituency vote has no A. Hamilton’s Method
effect on the outcome of the proportional vote. o Alexander Hamilton
The Mathematics of Weighted Voting o Approved by congress in 1791, vetoed by
o A weighted voting system is characterized by three President Washington
things o Adopted in 1852 and used through 1911
1. The players o Provides a procedure to determine how many
o Are the players (P1, P2, . . ., PN). representatives each state should receive
o N denotes the total number of players. o Used: 1850-1900
o A player's weight (w) is the number of votes Steps:
he controls. 1. Standard Divisor (D)
2. The weights o the number of voters represented by each
o Are always listed in numerical order, representative
starting with the highest.
3. The quota (q)
o Is the minimum number of votes required d=
to pass a motion. 2. Standard Quota (Q)
 o the whole number part of the quotient when Enrollment Quota Initial Final
the population of the sub-group is divided by Math 360 8.494 8 9
the standard divisor English 315 7.433 7 7
Chemistry 135 3.185 3 3
Biology 80 1.888 1 2
o In the case of the value of the Q is decimal, just Total 890 19 21
drop the decimal component of the value. 890
Standard Divisor: =42.3810
3. Round each state’s standard quota Q down to the 21
nearest integer. Each state will get at least this Modified divisor: 40
many seats, but must get at least one C. Webster’s Method
4. Give any additional seats one at a time (until no o Daniel Webster (1782 – 1852) proposed a
seats are left) to the states which the largest method similar to Jefferson’s Method in 1832
fractional parts of the their standard quotas o Adopted by the US Congress in 1842
Example: o Replaced by Hamilton’s method in 1852
o Consider a country with 4 states and 30 seats in o Adopted again in 1901
Congress and populations distributed as in the table o Round the quotas to the nearest whole number
Population Quota Initial Final rather than dropping the decimal parts
State A 27,500 4.3651 4 (+1) 5 o If that doesn’t produce the desired results at
State B 38,300 6.0794 6 6 the beginning, adjust the divisor until it does
State C 46,500 7.3016 7 7 o Used: 1840 – 1850, 1910 - 1940
State D 76,700 12.1746 12 12 Steps:
Total 189,00 = 30 29 30 1. Compute md, the modified divisor
189,000 2. Compute mQ, the modified quota for each state
Divisor = = 6,300 state population
30 mQ =
B. Jefferson’s Method md
o Thomas Jefferson proposed this method after 3. Round each stae’s modified quota mQ up to the
President Washington vetoed Hamilton’s nearest integer if it’s fractional part is greater than
method or equal to .5 and down to the nearest integer if its
o Used in congress from 1791 – 1842 fractional part is less than .5
o Used: (1790 – 1840) 4. Give each state this integer number of seats
Example:
o Tends to favor larger states
o The legislature in a state has 44 seats. Apportion
 Jefferson lived in Virginia, the largest state
these seats to the five countries below using
at that time
Webster’s method.
o Differs from Hamilton’s method on how to
Country Population Quota Initial Final
resolve the situation when the lower quota or
initial quota is less than the actual seats Addams 365,000 10.152 10 10
available Grant 491,000 13.656 14 14
o The first adjustment will always be to make the Colton 253,000 7.037 7 7
divisor smaller Davis 189,000 5.257 5 5
Steps: Hayes 284,000 7.899 8 8
1. Compute the md, the modified divisor Total 1,582,000 44 44
2. Compute the mQ, the modified quota for each state 1,582,000
Standard Divisor = = 35,954.5455
state population 44
mQ = Modified Divisor:
md
3. Round each state’s modified quota mQ down to the Example:
nearest integer o The number of sales people assigned to work during
4. Give each state this integer number of seats a shift is apportioned based on the average number
Example: of customers during that shift. Apportion 15 sales
o A college offers tutoring in Math, English, people using Webster’s method given the
Chemistry, and Biology. The number of students information below.
enrolled in each subject is listed below. If the Customer Quota Initial Final
college can only afford to hire 21 tutors, determine s
how many tutors should be assigned to each subject Morning 145 1.623 2 2
using Jefferson’s method. Midday 270 3.022 3 3
Afternoon 425 4.757 5 5 Total 780 22
Evening 500 5.597 6 5 780
Standard Divisor = = 35.4545
Total 1,340 16 15 22
1,340 Modified Divisor:
Standard Divisor = = 89.3333
15
Modified Divisor: 90 then becomes 92 Geometric Mean Formula:
D. Huntington-Hill Method Geometric Design: Recognizing and Analyzing Geometric
o In 1920, no new apportionment was done, Shapes
because Congress couldn’t agree on the method o GD
to be used. They appointed a committee of o Is a branch of computational geometry
mathematicians to investigate an o Deals with the construction and representation of
apportionment method. They recommended free-form curves, surfaces, or volumes
the Huntington-Hill method o Is closely related to geometric modeling
o They continued to use Webster’s method in Geometry
1931 o Is all about shapes and their properties
o It was adopted in 1941 o No matter where you look, almost everything is
 After a second report recommending made up of simpler geometry
Huntington-Hill Geometric Shape
o Used: 1940 - present o Is the geometric information
o Is similar to Webster’s method o Remains when location scale, orientation and
o Attempts to minimize the percent differences of reflection are removed from the description of a
how many people each representative will geometric object
represent o Is the result of moving a shape around, enlarging it,
Steps: rotating it, or reflecting it in a mirror is the same
1. Compute md, the modified divisor shape as the original, and not a distinct shape
2. Compute mQ, the modified quota for each state o Are practically everywhere
3. Take two integers, one is mQ rounded up, the other 2D Shapes
is mQ rounded down.
o Take geometric mean (square root of mQ1 x
mQ2)
o If mQ is less than geometric mean, round down
o If mQ is greater than it, round up
4. Give each state this integer number of seats
Example:
o A college offers tutoring in Math, English,
Chemistry, and Biology. The number of students
enrolled in each subject is listed below. The college
can only afford to hire 22 tutors. Using Huntington-
Hill’s method, determine the apportionment of the
tutors.
Enroll Quota Lower Geometric Initial
ment Quota Mean Allocation
Math 380 10.717 10 10.488 11
English 240 6.769 6 6.481 7
Chemistry 105 2.962 2 2.449 3
Biology 55 1.551 1 1.414 2
Total 780

Enroll Quota Lower Geometric Initial

ment Quota Mean Allocation
Math 380 10.270 10 10.488 10 3D Shapes
English 240 6.486 6 6.481 7
Chemistry 105 2.838 2 2.449 3
Biology 55 1.486 1 1.414 2
 Triangle
o Is a polygon with three edges and three vertices
o Is one of the basic shapes in geometry

Geometric Design Diagram

Geometric Design
o Is a branch of computational geometry.
o It deals with the construction and representation of
free-form curves, surfaces, or volumes and is closely Equilateral Triangle
related to geometric modeling. o A triangle where all three sides are equal
o Core problems are curve and surface modelling and o Are equiangular
representation. o All three internal angles are also congruent to each
o Studies the construction and manipulation of curves other and are each 60o
and surfaces given by a set of points using Isosceles Triangle
polynomial, rational, piecewise polynomial, or o Is a triangle that has two sides of equal length
piecewise rational methods. Scalene Triangle
o Application areas include o A triangle that has three unequal sides
 Shipbuilding Quadrilateral
 Aircraft o A polygon with four sides (or edges) and four
 Automotive industries vertices or corners
 Architectural design
Polygon
o Is a plane figure that is bound by a finite chain of
straight line segments closing in a loop to form a
closed chain or circuit.
o These segments (edges, sides) and the points where
two edges meet are the polygon’s vertices
 o Is the set of all points in a plane that are at a given
distance from a given point, the centre
o Equivalently it is the curve traced out by a point that
moves so that its distance form a given point is
constant
Ellipse
o A curve on a plane surrounding two focal points
o The sum of the distances to the two focal points is
constant for every point on the curve

Square
o Is a regular quadrilateral
o Has four equal sides and angles
o 90-degree angles or right angles
o A rectangle where two adjacent sides have equal
length
Rectangle
o Is any quadrilateral with four right angles
o An equiangular quadrilateral
o Equiangular
 All of its angles are equal
 360o/4 = 90o
o A parallelogram containing a right angle Pyramid
Parallelogram o A polyhedron formed by connecting a polygonal
o A quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel base and a point (apex)
o Opposite angles equal o Each base edge and apex form a triangle (lateral
Rhombus face)
o A flat shape with four equal straight sides o Is a conic solid with polygonal base
o Opposite sides are parallel
o Opposite angles are equal
o Is a parallelogram
Trapezium
o A quadrilateral with one pair of parallel sides
Pentagon Square Pyramid
o Is any five-sided polygon o A pyramid with a square base
Hexagon o Is a pentahedron
o A polygon with six edges and six vertices o If the four triangles of the square pyramid are
Heptagon equilateral
o A seven-sided polygon  So that all the edges of the square pyramid have
Octagon the same lengths
o A polygon that has eight sides o The right square pyramid
Nonagon  Is the polyhedron
o A nine-sided polygon  Johnson solid
Decagon
o Any polygon with ten sides and ten angles
Circle
  8 faces
 18 edges
 12 vertices

Hexagonal Pyramid
o Is a pyramid with a hexagonal base upon which are
erected six triangular faces that meet at a point
Sphere
o A perfectly round geometrical object in three-
dimensional space that is the surface of a
completely round ball

Cube
o Is a three-dimesional solid object bound by six
square faces, facets, or sides, with three meeting at
each vertex
Ellipsoid
o In geodesy, a reference ellipsoid is a mathematically
defined surface that approximates the geoid
o The truer figure of the earth or other planetary
body
Cuboid o A geometric surface
o A convex polyhedron bound by six quadrilateral o All of whose plane sections are either ellipses or
faces circles
o Rectangular cuboid Polyhedron
 All angles are right angles o A three-dimensional solid
 Opposite faces of a cuboid are equal o Consists of a collection of polygons
o Joined at their edges

Triangular Prism
o A three-sided prism
o A polyhedron made up of
 A triangular base
 A translated copy Tetrahedron
 3 faces joining corresponding sides o A polyhedron composed of four triangular faces,
three of which meet at each corner or vertex
o Has six edges and four vertices

Pentagonal Prism
o A prism with a pentagonal base
o A type of heptahedron with Octahedron
 7 faces o A polyhedron with eight faces
 15 edges o A regular octahedron
 10 vertices  Is a platonic solid composed of eight equilateral
triangles, four of which meet at each vertex
 Is the dual polyhedron of a cube
o Is a rectified tetrahedron

Hexagonal Prism
o A prism with a hexagonal base
o This polyhedron has Dodecahedron
 o Any polyhedron with twelve flat face
o Has 30 edges and 20 vertices

Icosahedron
o A polyhedron with 20 faces
o Has 30 edges and 12 vertices
Cone
o A three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers
smoothly from a flat base to a point (apex or vertex)
o Not necessarily circular

Modelling objects in 2D
Cylinder
o One of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes
o The surface formed by the points at a fixed distance
from a given straight line, the axis of the cylinder
o Has a flat base and a flat top
o The base is the same as the top, and also in-
between
o Has one curved side

Rotation 2D
o Rotating a point P=(x,y) through an angle θ about
the origin O(0,0) counterclockwise means to
determine another point Q=(x´,y´) on the circle
Geometric Design Transformation centred at O such that θ=∠POQ.
Transformation
o Moving points
o (x,y) moves to (x+t, y+t)
o Can be in any dimension
 2D – Image warps
 3D – 3D Graphics and Vision
o considered as a movement to the coordinate axes
Common Types of Transformation Reflection
o Any image in a plane could be altered by o Every point is the same distance from the central
o Using different operations, or transformations line.
o Has the same size as the original image.
Most common types:
o Rotation o Mirror Line – central line
o Reflection
o Translation
o Enlargement/Re-sizing

Translation
o Translating a point (x, y) means to move it by
(Δx,Δy).
 o Here’s a couple, starting and ending at vertex A:
ADEACEFCBA and AECABCFEDA. The second is
shown in arrows.

Enlargement/Resizing
o Dilation, contraction, compression, enlargement or
even expansion.
o The shape becomes bigger or smaller

Euler’s Path and Circuit Theorems

o A graph will contain an Euler path if it contains at
most two vertices of odd degree.
o A graph will contain an Euler circuit if all vertices
have even degree
Example:
Congruent or Similar o The graph on the next slide, vertices A and C have
o When one shape can become another using only degree 4, since there are 4 edges leading into each
Turns, Flips and/or Slides, then the two shapes vertex. B is degree 2, D is degree 3, and E is degree
are Congruent. 1.
o Two shapes are Similar when we need to Resize for o This graph contains two vertices with odd degree (D
one shape to become another and E) and three vertices with even degree (A, B,
o We may also Turn, Flip and/or Slide and C), so Euler’s theorems tell us this graph has an
Euler path, but not an Euler circuit.

Euler Path and Euler Circuit

Example:
Euler Path
o Is there an Euler circuit on the housing development
o Is a path that uses every edge in a graph with no
lawn inspector graph we created earlier in the
repeats.
chapter?
o Being a path, it does not have to return to the
o All the highlighted vertices have odd degree. Since
starting vertex.
there are more than two vertices with odd degree,
Example:
there are no Euler paths or Euler circuits on this
o In the graph shown below, there are several Euler
graph.
paths.
o Unfortunately our lawn inspector will need to do
o One such path is CABDCB.
some backtracking.
o The path is shown in arrows to the right, with the
order of edges numbered.

Example:
Euler Circuit o When it snows in the same housing development,
o Is a circuit that uses every edge in a graph with no the snowplow has to plow both sides of every
repeats. street.
o Being a circuit, it must start and end at the same o For simplicity, we’ll assume the plow is out early
vertex. enough that it can ignore traffic laws and drive
Example: down either side of the street in either direction.
o The graph below has several possible Euler circuits.
 o This can be visualized in the graph by drawing two  When two odd degree vertices are not directly
edges for each street, representing the two sides of connected, we can duplicate all edges in a path
the street. connecting the two.
o We can only duplicate edges, not create edges
where there wasn’t one before.
 Duplicating edges would mean walking or
driving down a road twice, while creating an
edge where there wasn’t one before is akin to
installing a new road!
Example:
o For the rectangular graph shown, three possible
o Notice that every vertex in this graph has even eulerizations are shown.
degree, so this graph does have an Euler circuit. o In each of these cases the vertices that started with
Fleury’s Algorithm odd degrees have even degrees after eulerization,
o While it usually is possible to find an Euler circuit allowing for an Euler circuit.
just by pulling out your pencil and trying to find one,
the more formal method is Fleury’s algorithm.
Steps:
1. Start at any vertex if finding an Euler circuit. If o The last eulerization required duplicating seven
finding an Euler path, start at one of the two edges, while the first two only required duplicating
vertices with odd degree. five edges.
2. Choose any edge leaving your current vertex, o If we were eulerizing the graph to find a walking
provided deleting that edge will not separate the path, we would want the eulerization with minimal
graph into two disconnected sets of edges. duplications.
3. Add that edge to your circuit, and delete it from the o If the edges had weights representing distances or
graph. costs, then we would want to select the eulerization
4. Continue until you’re done. with the minimal total added weight.
Example: Example:
o Find an Euler Circuit on this graph using Fleury’s o Looking again at the graph for our lawn inspector,
algorithm, starting at vertex A. the vertices with odd degree are shown highlighted.
o With eight vertices, we will always have to duplicate
at least four edges.
o In this case, we need to duplicate five edges since
two odd degree vertices are not directly connected.
o Without weights we can’t be certain this is the
eulerization that minimizes walking distance, but it
looks pretty good.

Eulerization and the Chinese Postman Problem

o Not every graph has an Euler path or circuit, yet our
lawn inspector still needs to do her inspections. The Chinese Postman Problem
o Her goal is to minimize the amount of walking she o The problem of finding the optimal eulerization
has to do. o A name given by an American in honor of the
o In order to do that, she will have to duplicate some
Chinese mathematician Mei-Ko Kwan who first
edges in the graph until an Euler circuit exists. studied the problem in 1962 while trying to find
Eulerization optimal delivery routes for postal carriers.
o Is the process of adding edges to a graph to create o This problem is important in determining efficient
an Euler circuit on a graph. routes for garbage trucks, school buses, parking
o To eulerize a graph, edges are duplicated to connect meter checkers, street sweepers, and more.
pairs of vertices with odd degree. Linear Programming
 Connecting two odd degree vertices increases o LP
the degree of each, giving them both even o Linear Optimization
degree.
 o Problem of maximizing a linear function (objective o Interior, boundary
function) in a presence of linear inequality and/or o Extreme point
equality constraints  Corner
o Is a method to achieve the best outcome Example:
 Such as maximum profit or lowest cost o A company makes two products (X and Y) using two
o In a mathematical model whose requirements are machines (A and B).
represented by linear relationships. o Each unit of X that is produced requires 50 minutes
o Is a special case of mathematical programming processing time on machine A and 30 minutes
 Mathematical Optimization processing time on machine B.
o Is a technique for the optimization of o Each unit of Y that is produced requires 24 minutes
a linear objective function processing time on machine A and 33 minutes
o Subject to linear equality and linear processing time on machine B.
inequality constraints. o At the start of the current week there are 30 units
o Its feasible region is a convex polytope of X and 90 units of Y in stock.
 Is a set defined as the intersection of finitely o Available processing time on machine A is forecast
many half spaces to be 40 hours and on machine B is forecast to be
 Each of which is defined by a linear inequality. 35 hours.
o Its objective function is a real-valued affine (linear) o The demand for X in the current week is forecast to
function defined on this polyhedron. be 75 units and for Y is forecast to be 95 units.
o A linear programming algorithm o Company policy is to maximise the combined sum
 Finds a point in the polytope where this of the units of X and the units of Y in stock at the
function has the smallest (or largest) value if end of the week.
such a point exists. o Formulate the problem of deciding how much of
o A mathematical tool for maximizing or minimizing a each product to make in the current week as a
quantity linear program.
 Usually profit or cost of production o Solve this linear program graphically.
 Subject to certain constraints of all Solution:
computations and decisions made by Let
management in business, 50-90 % of those o x be the number of units of X produced in the
involve linear programming. current week
LP Terminology o y be the number of units of Y produced in the
o Solution current week
 Decision, point Then the constraints are:
 Any specification of values for all decision o 50x + 24y <= 40(60) machine A time
variables, regardless of whether it is a desirable o 30x + 33y <= 35(60) machine B time
or even allowable choice o x >= 75 – 30
o Feasible solution o i.e. x >= 45 so production of X >= demand (75) -
 A solution for which all the constraints are initial stock (30)
satisfied. o Ensures we meet demand y >= 95 – 90
o Feasible region o i.e. y >= 5 so production of Y >= demand (95) - initial
 Constraint set, feasible set stock (90)
 The collection of all feasible solution o Ensures we meet demand
o Objective function contour o The objective is: maximise (x+30-75) + (y+90-95) =
 iso-profit, iso-cost line (x+y-50)
o Optimal solution o i.e. to maximise the number of units left in stock at
 Optimum the end of the week
 A feasible solution that has the most favorable o It is plain from the diagram below that the
value of the objective function maximum occurs at the intersection of x=45 and 50x
o Optimal (objective) value + 24y = 2400
 The value of the objective function evaluated at
an optimal solution
o Active constraint
 Binding constraint
o Inactive constraint
o Redundant constraint
 o The above problem can be formulated as follows:
find x and y that maximize subject to the
constraints:

Example:
o A candy manufacturer has 130 pounds of chocolate-
covered cherries and 170 pounds of chocolate-
covered mints in stock.
o He decides to sell them in the form of two different o To solve the problem, we will use the technique of
mixtures. linear programming described above. We start by
o One mixture will contain half cherries and half mints drawing the feasible region of the problem and
by weight and will sell for $2.00 per pound. locate our extreme points:
o The other mixture will contain one-third cherries
and two-thirds mints by weight and will sell for
$1.25 per pound.
o How many pounds of each mixture should the
candy manufacturer prepare in order to maximize
his sales revenue?
o For simplicity, let us call A the mixture of half
cherries and half mints, and B the mixture which is
one-third cherries and two-thirds mints.
o Let x be the number of pounds of A to be prepared
and y the number of pounds of B to be prepared.
Solution:
o The revenue function can then be written as

o Since the feasible region is bounded in this case, we

o Since each pound of A contains one-half pound of
are sure that the optimal solution is attained at one
cherries and each pound of B contains one-third
of the extreme points shown on the diagram above.
pound of cherries, the total number of pounds of
So we evaluate the objective function at each of
cherries used in both mixtures is
these points:
Extreme Point Value of z = 2x + 1.25y
(0,0) 0
o Similarly, the total number of pounds of mints used (0,255) 318.75
in both mixtures is: (180,120) 510.00
(260,0) 520.00
o The table shows that the largest value for z is
o Now, since the manufacturer can use at most 130 520.00 and the corresponding optimal solution is
pounds of cherries and 170 pounds of mints, we (260, 0). Thus the candy manufacturer attains
have the constraints: maximum sales of $520 when he produces 260
pounds of mixture A and none of mixture B.
Linear Inequalities
o A Linear Inequality involves a linear expression in
two variables by using any of the relational symbols
such as <,>, ≤ or ≥
 o Almost the same as a linear equation, except the
equals sign is replaced with an inequality symbol.
o <,>,etc.
o Divides a plane into two parts. Example: −x +5 ≥8
o If the boundary line is solid
 Then the linear inequality must be either ≥ or ≤. −x +5 ≥8
o If the boundary line is dotted −5−5
 Then the linear inequality must be either > or <> −x ≥ 3
o a<b −x 3
 Means that aa is some number that is strictly 1 −1
less that b. When multiplying / dividing
o a≥b a negative no. inequality
 Means that aa is some number that is either are going to flip sign
strictly bigger than b or is exactly equal to b. x≤3
The remaining two inequalities.
1. (greater than) Example: y > x−2
2. ≤ (less than or equal to)
aa is less than b
o Mean that a is to the left of b on a number line. y=mx+b (slope intercept
o Ex: −1000 < 0 is a true inequality form)
How to correctly interpret ≤ and ≥. m=1
o Both of the following are true inequalities: b=-2
o Be careful to not take this interpretation and
translate it to < and/or >.
1. 4≤4
o 4 is equal to 4 and so it is “less than or
equal” to 4.
o The most common mistake is to decide that Interval Notation
the first inequality is not a true inequality o A bracket
o 4<4 is not a true inequality since 4 is equal  “[” or “]”
to 4 and not strictly less than 4.  include the endpoint
2. -6 <4 o A parenthesis
o -6 is strictly less than 4 and so it is “less than  “(” or “)
or equal” to 4.  don’t include the endpoint
Double inequalities
o Both inequalities must be simultaneously true.
o Ex: −9<5≤6
 5 is definitely greater than -9
 5 is less than or equal to 6.
 This double inequality is a true inequality.
o Ex: 10≤5<20
 Is not a true inequality.
 It is true that 5 is less than 20 (so the second
inequality is true)
 It is not true that 5 is greater than or equal to 10
(so the first inequality is not true).
o If even one of the inequalities in a double inequality
is not true then the whole inequality is not true.
Example: x +5 ≥8

x +5 ≥8
−5−5
To get the x itself, subtract 5 from both sides
x≥3
Simplex Method and Minimizing
Simplex Method
o Is an approach to solving linear programming
models by hand using slack variables, tableaus, and
pivot variables as a means to finding the optimal
solution of an optimization problem.
o A linear program
 Is a method of achieving the best outcome
given a maximum or minimum equation with Spanning Tree
linear constraints. o A sub-graph tree of a graph that contains all the
 Most can be solved using an online solver such vertices of the graph.
as MatLab
o Is a technique for solving linear programs by hand.
Minimizing
o Finite math teaches you how to use basic
mathematic processes to solve problems in
business and finance.
o Ex: You can use linear programming to stay within a
budget.
o When you’re dealing with money, you want a
maximum value if you’re receiving cash.
o If you’re on a tight budget and have to watch those
pennies, then you’re concerned with minimizing
your expenses.
Standard Minimization Problem (using the dual)
Minimize subject to:
o w = 29y1 + 10y2
o 3y1 + 2y2 ≥ 2
o 5y1 + y2 ≥ 3
o y 1 , y2 ≥ 0
Weighted Graphs
o Is a graph on which each branch is given a numerical
weight.
o Is a special type of labeled graph in which the labels Minimal Spanning Tree
are numbers (usually positive). o The minimal spanning tree of a graph is a spanning
o A graph whose edges are assigned with weights. tree of the graph with a minimum total weights.
o Weight may represent mileage, time, cost, or some o A connected graph has always at least one minimal
other quantities. spanning tree.

Tree
o Is an acyclic connected graph (is a graph having no
graph cycles).
o Properties:
 Acyclic Graph
 No cycle path
 Connected graph