Functions of the Integumentary System

The functions of the integumentary system are:

1. Protection. The skin protects deeper tissues from mechanical damage

(bumps), chemical damage (acids and bases), ultraviolet radiation (damaging
effects of sunlight), bacterial damage, thermal damage (heat or cold), and
desiccation (drying out).
2. Temperature regulation. The skin aids in body heat loss or heat retention as
controlled by the nervous system.
3. Elimination. The skin aids in the secretion of urea and uric acid through
perspiration produced by the sweat glands.
4. Synthesizer. Synthesizes vitamin D through modified cholesterol molecules
in the skin by sunlight.
5. Sensation. The integumentary system has sensory receptors that can
distinguish heat, cold, touch, pressure, and pain.

Anatomy of the Integumentary System

The skin and its derivatives (sweat and oil glands, hair and nails) serve a number of
functions, mostly protective; together, these organs are called the integumentary
system.
Structure of the Skin

The skin is composed of two kinds of tissue: the outer epidermis and the
underlying dermis.

Epidermis

The outer epidermis composed of stratified squamous epithelium that is capable of

keratinizing or becoming hard and tough.

 Composition. The epidermis is composed of up to five layers or strata; from

the inside out these are the: stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum,
and corneum.
 Epithelial tissue. Like all other epithelial tissues, the epidermis is avascular;
that is, it has no blood supply of its own.
 Keratinocytes. Most cells of the epidermis are keratinocytes (keratin cells),
which produce keratin, the fibrous protein that makes the epidermis a tough
protective layer.
 Stratum basale. The deepest layer of the epidermis, the stratum basale, lies
closest to the dermis and is connected to it along a wavy a borderline that
resembles corrugated cardboard; this basal layer contains epidermal cells that
receive the most adequate nourishment via diffusion of nutrients from the
dermis.
 Stratum spinosum. As the epidermal layers move away from the dermis and
become part of the more superficial layers, the stratum spinosum.
 Stratum granulosum. Upon reaching the stratum granulosum, the layers
become flatter and increasingly full of keratin.
 Stratum lucidum. Finally, they die, forming the clear stratum lucidum; this
latter epidermal layer is not present in all skin regions, it occurs only where the
skin is hairless and extra thick, that is, on the palms of the hands and soles of
the feet.
 Stratum corneum. The outermost layer, the stratum corneum, is 20 to 30
cells layers thick but it accounts for about three-quarters of epidermal
thickness; it rubs and flakes off slowly and steadily as the dandruff familiar to
everyone; then, this layer is replaced by cells produced by the division of the
deeper stratum basale cells.
 Cornified cells. The shinglelike dead cell remnants, completely filled with
keratin, are referred to as cornified or horny cells.
  Keratin. Keratin is an exceptionally tough protein; its abundance in the
stratum corneum allows that layer to provide a durable “overcoat” for the
body, which protects deeper cells from the hostile external environment.
 Melanin. Melanin, a pigment that ranges in color from yellow to brown to
black, is produced by special spider-shaped cells called melanocytes, found
chiefly in the stratum basale.
 Melanosomes. As the melanocytes produce melanin, it accumulates within
them in membrane-bound granules called melanosomes; these granules then
move to the ends of the spidery arms of the melanocytes, where they are
taken up by nearby keratinocytes.

Dermis

The underlying dermis is mostly made up of dense connective tissue.

 Major regions. The dense (fibrous) connective tissue making up the dermis
consists of two major regions- the papillary and reticular regions.
 Papillary layer. The papillary layer is the upper dermal region; it is uneven
and has peglike projections from its superior surface called dermal papillae,
which indent the epidermis above and contain capillary loops which furnish
nutrients to the epidermis; it also has papillary patterns that form looped and
 whorled ridges on the epidermal surface that increase friction and enhance
the gripping ability of the fingers and feet.
 Reticular layer. The reticular layer is the deepest skin layer; it contains blood
vessels, sweat and oil glands, and deep pressure receptors called Pacinian
corpuscles.
 Collagen. Collagen fibers are responsible for the toughness of the dermis;
they also attract and bind water and thus help to keep the skin hydrated.
 Elastic fibers. Elastic fibers give the skin its elasticity when we are young,
and as we age, the number of collagen and elastic fibers decreases and the
subcutaneous tissue loses fat.
 Blood vessels. The dermis is abundantly supplied with blood vessels that
play a role in maintaining body temperature homeostasis; when body
temperature is high, the capillaries of the dermis becomes engorged, or
swollen, with heated blood, and the skin becomes reddened and warm; if the
environment is cool, blood bypasses the dermis capillaries temporarily,
allowing internal body temperature to stay high.
 Nerve supply. The dermis also has a rich nerve supply; many of the nerve
endings have specialized receptor end-organs that send messages to the
central nervous system for interpretation when they are stimulated by
environmental factors.

Appendages of the Skin

The skin appendages include cutaneous glands, hair and hair follicle, and nails.

Cutaneous Glands

As these glands are formed by the cells of the stratum basale, they push into deeper
skin regions and ultimately reside almost entirely in the dermis.

 Exocrine glands. The cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands that release
their secretions to the skin surface via ducts and they fall into two groups:
sebaceous glands and sweat glands.
 Sebaceous (oil) glands. The sebaceous, or oil, glands are found all over the
skin, except on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet; their ducts
usually empty into a hair follicle; the product of the sebaceous glands, sebum,
is a mixture of oily substances and fragmented cells, and it is a lubricant that
keeps the skin soft and moist and prevents the hair from becoming brittle.
 Sweat glands. Sweat glands, also called sudoriferous glands, are widely
distributed in the skin, and there are two types: eccrine and apocrine.
  Eccrine glands. The eccrine glands are far more numerous and are found all
over the body; they produce sweat, a clear secretion that is primarily water
plus some salts, vitamin C, trace of metabolic wastes, and lactic acid; the
eccrine glands are also a part of the body’s heat regulating equipment.
 Apocrine glands. Apocrine glands are largely confined to the axillary and
genital areas of the body; they are usually larger than eccrine glands and their
ducts empty into hair follicles; their secretion contain fatty acids and proteins,
as well as all substances present in eccrine secretion; they begin to function
during puberty under the influence of androgens, and they also play a minimal
role in thermoregulation.

Hair and Hair Follicles

There are millions of hair scattered all over the body, but other than serving a few minor
protective functions, our body hair has lost much of its usefulness.

 Hairs. A hair, produced by a hair follicle, is a flexible epithelial structure.

 Root. The part of the hair enclosed in the follicle is the root.
 Shaft. The part projecting from the surface of the scalp or skin is called shaft.
 Formation. The hair is formed by division of a well-nourished stratum basale
epithelial cells in the matrix (growth zone) of the hair bulb at the inferior end
of the follicle.
 Composition. Each hair is made up of a central core called
the medulla surrounded by a bulky cortex layer.
  Cuticle. The cortex is enclosed by an outermost cuticle formed by a single
layer of cells that overlap one another like shingles on the roof; this
arrangement helps to keep the hairs apart and keeps them from matting; the
cuticle is the most heavily keratinized region; it provides strength and helps
keep the inner hair layers tightly compacted.
 Hair pigment. Hair pigment is made by melanocytes in the hair bulb, and
varying amounts of different types of melanin combine to produce all varieties
of hair color from pale blond to pitch black.
 Hair follicles. Hair follicles are actually compound structures.
 Epidermal sheath. The inner epidermal sheath is composed of epithelial
tissue and forms the hair.
 Dermal sheath. The outer dermal sheath is actually dermal connective tissue;
this dermal region supplies blood vessels to the epidermal portion and
reinforces it.
 Papilla. Its nipplelike papilla provides the blood supply to the matrix in the hair
bulb.
 Arrector pili. Small bands of smooth muscle cells -arrector pili- connect each
side of the hair follicle to the dermal tissue; when these muscles contract, the
hair is pulled upright, dimpling the skin surface with “goosebumps”.

Nails

A nail is a scalelike modification of the epidermis that corresponds to the hoof or claw of
other animals.
  Parts. Each nail has a free edge, a body (visible attached portion), and
a root (embedded in the skin).
 Nail folds. The borders of the nail are overlapped by skin folds, called nail
folds.
 Cuticle. The thick proximal nail fold is commonly called the cuticle.
 Nail bed. The stratum basale of the epidermis extends beneath the nail as the
nail bed.
 Nail matrix. Its thickened proximal area, the nail matrix, is responsible for nail
growth.
 Color. Nails are transparent and nearly colorless, but they look pink because
of the rich blood supply in the underlying dermis.
 Lunula. The exception to the pinkish color of the nails is the region over the
thickened nail matrix that appears as a white crescent and is called the
lunula.”

Physiology of the Integumentary System

The normal processes that occur in the integumentary system are:

Development of Skin Color

Three pigments and even emotions contribute to skin color:

 Melanin. The amount and kind (yellow, reddish brown, or black) of melanin in
the epidermis.
 Carotene. The amount of carotene deposited in the stratum corneum and
subcutaneous tissue; carotene is an orange-yellow pigment abundant in
carrots and other orange, deep yellow, or leafy green vegetables; the skin
tends to take on a yellow-orange cast when the person eats large amounts of
carotene-rich foods.
 Hemoglobin. The amount of oxygen-rich hemoglobin in the dermal blood
vessels.
 Emotions. Emotions also influence skin color, and many alterations in skin
color signal certain disease states.
 Redness or erythema. Reddened skin may indicate
embarrassment, fever, hypertension, inflammation, or allergy.
  Pallor or blanching. Under certain types of emotional stress, some people
become pale; pale skin may also signify anemia, low blood pressure, or
impaired blood flow into the area.
 Jaundice or a yellow cast. An abnormal yellow skin tone usually signifies
a liver disorder in which excess bile pigments are absorbed into the blood,
circulated throughout the body, and deposited in body tissues.
 Bruises or black-and-blue marks. Black-and-blue marks reveal sites where
blood has escaped from circulation and has clotted in tissue spaces; such
clotted blood masses are called hematomas.

Hair Growth Cycle

At any given time, a random number of hairs will be in one of three stages of growth and
shedding: anagen, catagen, and telogen.

 Anagen. Anagen is the active phase of hair; the cells in the root of the hair
are dividing rapidly; a new hair is formed and pushes the club hair (a hair that
has stopped growing or is no longer in the anagen phase) up the follicle and
eventually out.
 Catagen. The catagen phase is a transitional stage; growth stops and the
outer root sheath shrinks and attaches to the root of the hair.
 Telogen. Telogen is the resting phase; during this phase, the hair follicle is
completely at rest and the club hair is completely formed.

Nail Growth

Nail growth is separated into 3 areas: (1) germinal matrix, (2) sterile matrix, and (3)
dorsal roof of the nail fold.

 Germinal matrix. It is found on the ventral floor of the nail fold; the nail is
produced by gradient parakeratosis , then cells near the periosteum of the
phalanx duplicate and enlarge (macrocytosis); newly formed cells migrate
distally and dorsally in a column toward the nail; cells meet resistance at
established nail, causing them to flatten and elongate as they are incorporated
into the nail; it initially retains nuclei (lunula); more distal cells become
nonviable and lose nuclei.
 Sterile matrix. The area of the sterile matrix is distal to the lunula and it has a
variable amount of nail growth; it contributes squamous cells, aiding in nail
strength and thickness and it has a role in nail plate adherence by linear
ridges in the sterile matrix epithelium.
 Dorsal roof of the nail fold. The nail is produced in a similar manner as the
germinal matrix, but the cells lose nuclei more rapidly and it imparts shine to
the nail plate.