Ethereum Smart contracts

development
With Javascript (2022)

Andrea Lisi, [email protected]

Part 1
Solidity overview
A brief summary of a Solidity smart contract
Smart contracts: structure
contract MyContract {
A smart contract is similar to a Java
// State
class uint public value;

// Functions
It is composed by: constructor() public {
● Declaration value = 1;
}
● A State (attributes) function increase() public {
● A list of functions (methods) value = value+1;
}
}

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Smart contracts: state
State variables determine the state of that smart contract

Solidity supports various data types:

● Fixed length
○ bool, (u)int, bytes32, address
● Variable length
○ bytes, string
● array, mapping(key_type => value_type)
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Smart contracts: state
Array
● Fixed length or dynamic length, can be iterated over
● Removing an element requires a decision
○ Leaving a blank hole, replacing with last element (breaks
ordering), shifting elements (costly)
Mapping(key => value)
● All non-assigned values are Zero (false for bool, 0 for uint, etc)
● Support random access, it is not possible to iterate over the keys
unless you keep a separate list of all the keys with significant value
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Smart contracts: functions
Functions compose the code of the smart contract

Functions have labels that declare how they interact with the state:
● A view function only reads the state;
● A pure function does not read or write the state
● Otherwise, the function writes (and reads) the state
○ The state modification will be placed in a transaction
○ It will be written on the blockchain
○ Therefore, it costs a fee to the user
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Smart contracts: functions
uint public counter;

function increment() public {

counter = counter + 1;
}

function getSquare() public view returns(uint) {

return counter**2;
}

function computeSquareOf(uint _a) public pure returns(uint) {

return _a**2;
}
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Smart contracts: visibility
State variables and functions can have different visibilities
● Private
○ A private state variable or function is exposed only to the
contract itself
● Public
○ A public function is exposed to other contracts; a public state is
a shortcut that creates a getter function with the name of the
variable
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Smart contracts: visibility
State variables and functions can have different visibilities
● Internal
○ An internal state variable or function is exposed to child
contracts and the contract itself
● External
○ (Only functions) An external function is exposed only to other
contracts. They are more efficient with large inputs
■ Warning: foo() does not work; this.foo() does
■ https://ethereum.stackexchange.com/questions/19380/external-vs-public-best-practices
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Smart contracts: functions
Private does not mean “hidden” or “secret”
● It means a function cannot be called by other smart contracts
○ Only by the contract itself

Remember a Solidity smart contract lives on the Ethereum blockchain,

that is visible by anyone
● Can be explored online with explorers
○ Etherscan is one example
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Smart contracts: functions
Signature of invoked
function

Input sent (1847883)

See? Input is visible

(econded in bytes)

https://etherscan.io/tx/0xdbc5b21b0e67731b07dde8fe882975f7d24bd62a76c766d99c414626c189ac4e
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Accounts
In Ethereum any entity (account) has associated
● An address: e.g 0x5B38Da6a701c568545dCfcB03FcB875f56beddC4
● A balance in Ether greater or equal than 0

The two types of accounts are:

● Contract Accounts: are controlled by code, and a transaction
activates its code
● Externally Owned Accounts (EOA): are controlled by private keys
and sign transactions
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Global variables
Solidity defines various global variables and functions
● Ether units: wei, gwei, szabo, …
● Time units: seconds, minutes, …
● Functions: keccak256, abi.encode, abi.decode, …
● Transaction data: msg
○ msg.sender: the transaction sender (address)
○ msg.value: the transaction associated ETH (uint)
● ...
https://docs.soliditylang.org/en/v0.8.3/units-and-global-variables.html
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Fees and gas
A function modifying the state writes data on the
blockchain
● It requires a transaction

Each transaction costs a fee to the user

● The fee is proportional to the required amount
of computation (EVM OPCODES)
● Each OPCODE has a costs named gas
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Fees and gas
Each transaction costs a fee to the user
● Before each transaction, a user can set in their
wallet:
○ The gas price: i.e. how much Ether they are
willing to pay for each unit of gas
○ The gas limit: i.e. how many units of gas
they are willing to consume for that
transaction
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Smart contracts: receive Ether
A function can be labelled as payable if it *expects* to receive Ether
● Once received the Ether the contract’s balance is automatically
increased, unless the transaction does not revert
● msg.value stores the received Ether (uint)

function foo() public payable {

address payer = msg.sender; // Who sent the Ether
uint received = msg.value; // How much *in wei*
uint current = address(this).balance; // The current balance of the contract
}
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Smart contracts: receive Ether
If a smart contract receives plain Ether, i.e. a transaction to the contract
does not invoke a function:
● Trigger the receive function (>= Solidity 0.6.*)
If a transaction invokes a function that does not match any of the
functions exposed by the contract, or as before but receive is not
implemented:
● Trigger the fallback function
As before, but neither receive nor fallback are implemented
● Throws exception
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Smart contracts: receive Ether
contract Example {
// “address payable” labels an address meant to receive ETH from this contract
address payable known_receiver;
function forward() public payable {
known_receiver.transfer(msg.value);
}

// All of them have in their body at most 2300 units of gas of computation available if
called by send() or transfer() (see next slide)
receive() external payable {} // receive function
fallback() external payable {} // fallback function Solidity >= 0.6.*
function() public payable {} // fallback function Solidity < 0.6.*
}
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Smart contracts: send Ether
If the contract has balance > 0, then it can send Ether as well
● Solutions that gives the receiver a gas limit of only 2300 units
○ address.send(amount) Send amount to address, returns True if
everything goes well, False Otherwise
○ address.transfer(amount) Throws exception if it fails
● Solution with customizable gas limit
○ address.call{options}(data bytes) Returns True or False
○ (bool result, ) = address.call{gas: 123123, value: msg.value}("");
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Smart contracts: send Ether
Send/transfer: pros & cons
● A fixed gas limit prevents the receiver to execute too much code
○ It may consume too much gas to the original transaction sender
○ The receiver can execute malicious code, attempting an attack
(e.g. reentrancy attack)
● Future updates to the gas associated to OPCODES (e.g. Istanbul
fork) may break contracts already deployed working with limits of
2300 units of gas
https://consensys.net/diligence/blog/2019/09/stop-using-soliditys-transfer-now/
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Smart contracts: events
It is possible to declare an event in Solidity similarly to a function, and it
can be fired with the emit keyword
● Events are placed in the transaction log, useful for client apps
contract Example {
event click();
event executed(address sender);

function press_click() public {

emit click();
emit executed(msg.sender);
} }
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References
Solidity documentation V 0.8.13: https://docs.soliditylang.org/en/v0.8.13/index.html
Accounts: https://ethereum.org/en/whitepaper/#ethereum-accounts
Sending Ether:
https://medium.com/daox/three-methods-to-transfer-funds-in-ethereum-by-means-of-solidity-5719944ed6e9
https://vomtom.at/solidity-0-6-4-and-call-value-curly-brackets/

Best practices: https://consensys.github.io/smart-contract-best-practices/

Data management: https://blog.openzeppelin.com/ethereum-in-depth-part-2-6339cf6bddb9/ 22
Smart contracts: development
It is possible to implement Ethereum smart contracts with the Solidity
programming language

Smart contracts can be developed and executed within:

● The browser IDE Remix, https://remix.ethereum.org/
● The CLI tool Truffle, https://www.trufflesuite.com/truffle

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Extra
Advanced Solidity functionalities
Abi functions
The contract Abi (Application Binary Interface) is the standard
contract-to-contract communication in Ethereum, to encode and decode
functions, parameters, etc in known data, in bytes, to:
● Call a function of an external contract;
● Pass input arguments;
● And more.

https://docs.soliditylang.org/en/v0.8.4/abi-spec.html
https://docs.soliditylang.org/en/v0.8.4/units-and-global-variables.html#abi-encoding-and-de
coding-functions 25
Abi functions
contract Decoder {

function encodeArgs(uint _a, bool _b) public pure returns(bytes memory) {

bytes memory data = abi.encode(_a, _b);
return data;
}

function decodeArgs(bytes memory data) public pure returns(uint, bool) {

(uint _a, bool _b) = abi.decode(data, (uint, bool));
return (_a, _b);
}

}
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Abi functions
contract HashContract {

function encodeArgs(uint _a, bool _b) public pure returns(bytes memory) {

bytes memory data = abi.encode(_a, _b);
return data;
}
// The hash of arbitrary data can be computed with bytes32 hash =
kekkack256(abi.encode(param1, param2, ...));
function computeHash(bytes memory data) public pure returns(bytes32) {
bytes32 hash = keccak256(data);
return hash;
}
}
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Calling contract functions
How to call a function of another smart contract?
● If you have the source code, you can import it on your Solidity file.
Therefore, you have visibility of the contract’s type and functions,
and the compiler understands them
● If you DO NOT have the source code, you can use a low-level call to
a function of a smart contract with the function’s selector as input
○ The selector are the first 4 bytes of the hash of the function
signature, i.e. functionName(param1, param2, ...)
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Calling contract functions: import
contract External { import "External.sol"
contract Caller {
uint public c; External contractExternal;
constructor(address _c) public {
function increment() public { contractExternal = External(_c);
c = c + 1; }
} function increment() public {
contractExternal.increment();
function increment(uint _a) public { }
c = c + _a; function increment(uint _a) public {
} contractExternal.increment(_a);
}
} } 29
Calling contract functions: .call()
contract External { contract Caller {
address contractExternal;
uint public c; constructor(address _c) public {
contractExternal = _c;
function increment() public { }
c = c + 1; function increment() public {
} bytes4 selector =
bytes4(keccak256("increment()"));
function increment(uint _a) public { bytes memory data =
c = c + _a; abi.encodeWithSelector(selector);
} (bool outcome, ) =
contractExternal.call(data);
} if(!outcome) revert(); } } 30
Calling contract functions: .call()
contract External { contract Caller {
address contractExternal;
uint public c; constructor(address _c) public {
contractExternal = _c;
function increment() public { }
c = c + 1; function increment(uint _a) public {
} bytes4 selector =
bytes4(keccak256("increment(uint)"));
function increment(uint _a) public { bytes memory data =
c = c + _a; abi.encodeWithSelector(selector, _a);
} (bool outcome, ) =
contractExternal.call(data);
} if(!outcome) revert(); } } 31
Part 2
The Web3 library
An interface to interact with smart contracts
Web3
Web3 is a library to interact with the Ethereum network nodes with the
RPC protocol, Remote Procedure Call
● Communications are asynchronous

Software importing Web3 are able to communicate with smart contracts

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Web3 Src: http://www.dappuniversity.com/articles/web3-js-intro

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Web3
x = f();
contract.foo(x); Async RPC
contract.foo(x);
wait for transaction
Process function
receipt

Wait for it to be
return
return mined
receipt
receipt

User Software EVM Node

with Web3
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Web3 implementations
[W1] web3Js: JavaScript

[W2] web3J: Java

[W3] web3py: Python

[W4] web3.php: Php

[W5] hs-web3: Haskell

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NodeJs and Npm
In this tutorial we are going to use an environment based on Javascript
We need NodeJs and Npm (Node Package Manager)

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Requirements: NodeJs
NodeJs is an environment to execute Javascript code on your machine
instead on the browser:
● Write server-side Javascript code
● Modern frameworks for web development (ReactJs, AngularJs etc…)
● And Javascript desktop applications (ElectronJs)
● Install NodeJs
○ https://nodejs.org/en/docs/

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Requirements: Npm
Npm (Node Package Manager) is the tool to install NodeJs packages
● Local packages are installed in the ./node_modules/ directory
○ Libraries and utilities for a single project
● Global packages are all installed in a single folder in your system
○ CLI tools to be reused among many projects
● It is installed with NodeJs
○ https://www.npmjs.com/get-npm
○ https://docs.npmjs.com/

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References, Web3
[W1] Web3Js: https://github.com/ethereum/web3.js

[W2] Web3J: https://github.com/web3j/web3j

[W3] Web3Py: https://github.com/ethereum/web3.py

[W4] Web3.php: https://github.com/sc0Vu/web3.php

[W5] hs-Web3: https://github.com/airalab/hs-web3

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