Magnetism: Magnetic Materials

Ref. Book: Fundamentals and Applications of Magnetic Materials

by Kannan M. Krishnan
Magnetic Materials: Those materials which are attracted b a magnet are magnetic materials. Iron,
Nickel, and Cobalt are the magnetic substances as objects made up of these materials are attracted
by a magnet. Also, magnetic materials can be magnetized or we can say that magnetic materials
can be converted into magnets.
Non-magnetic materials: Those materials which are not attracted by a magnet are called non-
magnetic materials. All the substances other than iron, nickel, and Cobalt are non-magnetic
substances for example plastic, rubber, water, etc are nonmagnetic materials. Non-magnetic
substances cannot be magnetized.
Magnetic Properties of Materials:
i) Intensity of Magnetization: Electrons move around the nucleus, and these electrons possess
magnetic properties. magnetic dipole, generally a tiny magnet of microscopic to subatomic
dimensions, equivalent to a flow of electric charge around a loop. Electrons circulating around
atomic nuclei, electrons spinning on their axes, and rotating positively charged atomic nuclei all
are magnetic dipoles. The sum of these effects may cancel so that a given type of atom may not be
a magnetic dipole. If they do not fully cancel, the atom is a permanent magnetic dipole, as
are iron atoms. The external magnetic field creates an impact on the materials. A material held in
an external magnetic field will have its magnetic moments aligned in a specific direction. The result
is a non-zero dipole moment. Magnetic flux or intensity per unit volume is defined as net dipole
moment per unit volume.
 Properties of Magnetic Materials
ii) Magnetic Field (H) or Magnetic intensity: The intensity in the magnetic field is produced by
the electric current flowing through a solenoid. Magnetic property is caused as a result of the
external magnetic field.
iii) Magnetic susceptibility: An intensified magnetization of material occurs directly
proportional to the magnetic field intensity for a small magnetizing field. A material with a
small magnetizing field acquires a greater degree of magnetization as a direct result of the
intensity of the magnetic field. The intensity of magnetization is represented as (M), and
material directly proportional to the magnetic field is represented as (H) and it can be
represent as ,

M  H, M = m H where m is the magnetic susceptibility. A

dimensionless proportionality constant that indicates the degree of magnetization of a material in
response to an applied magnetic field.
iv) Retentivity: Magnetism can be retained or resisted by materials because of their
retentivity. It is known as retentivity when a material can retain or resist magnetization.
v) Coercivity: A material’s coercivity measures its ability to resist the external magnetic field
without becoming demagnetized. The increase or decrease of the resultant magnetic field
inside a metal compared to the magnetic field in which the metal is situated is magnetic
permeability.
 Magnetostatics
Magnetic Charges: Monopoles and Dipoles:
If one were to play around with bar magnets it can be seen that the magnetic effects are strongest
at the ends. These ends were called “poles” and they were always observed to occur in pairs of
equal strength and opposite polarity, i.e. dipoles. However, even though isolated magnetic poles or
“monopoles” have not been observed, it was found that the interaction between magnets may be
explained, in a manner similar to simple electrostatics, in terms of an inverse square law force
between the ends of a dipole taken singly, one at a time:
𝑝1 𝑝2
𝐹= 2
𝑟
The constant of proportionality has been set equal to 1 and the pole strength is defined as a
dependent unit. In SI unit, the above equation will be,
𝑝1 𝑝2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝑟 2
Continuing the analogy with electrostatics, the interaction between “poles” is divided into two
parts:
𝑝1
(1) a pole generates a magnetic field, 𝐻1 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
(2) the field interacts with a second pole, 𝐹 = 𝑝2 𝐻1
The magnitude of the field, |H| = H, can be defined quantitatively as the number of lines of force
per unit area; in C.G.S. unit, thus, 1 Oe = 1 line of force/cm2
 Magnetostatics
Intensity of Magnetization:
It is described earlier that for a magnetic materials it is common to define the effective contribution
of all the atomic magnetic moments or dipoles averaged over a given volume, or net magnetic
moment/unit volume. This quantity, known as the magnetization, M, is the vector sum of the
individual magnetic moments and hence is itself a vector quantity that is used to represent the
magnetization of an entire sample. Moreover, when all the atomic magnetic moments are aligned
parallel, the magnetization has a maximum value and is called the saturation magnetization (Ms).
It is easy to see from a simple inspection of two magnetic dipoles with well-defined physical
dimensions (poles, p, of opposite polarity separated by a distance, l, with a cross-section, A, and
volume, V = A · l), that even though the magnetic moments are additive, for the two different
arrangements shown in Fig. below, the magnetization remains unchanged. For such dipoles,
M = pl/V = pl/Al = p/A. In the SI system, the unit of pole strength is [p] = [A m]; then the magnetic
moment [m] = [A m2] and the magnetization has the units of [M] = [A m2/m3] or [A/m] which is the
same as the units of the magnetic field, [H].
 Relationship Between Magnetization, Field and Induction
In the SI system, starting with moving charges or currents, we have seen that the unit of
magnetic moment, m, is [A m2] and its volume average, the magnetization, M, is [A/m]. Thus,
the units of M are the same as the field, H, which is also [A/m]. Since the current carrying
wires, to be consistent with the current being an independent unit, we have introduced the
permeability of free space, μ0, to relate the field, H, to the induction, B. The general
relationship between the two vectors is

B = μ0 (H + M).

Susceptibility and Permeability: Magnetic materials are best classified according to their
temperature-dependent response to an applied field. To facilitate a quantitative comparison
of this response and to classify materials into distinct magnetic categories, two additional
variables are introduced. The magnetic susceptibility, χ, is defined as the ratio of the
magnetization of the sample to the applied field. In the special case of linear materials, the
magnetization, M, is linearly related to the applied field, H, and the susceptibility, χ, is given
by, χ = M/H.
 Relationship Between Magnetization, Field and Induction
Alternatively, the magnetic permeability, μ, of particular interest to engineers, is defined as the
ratio of the total induction of the sample to the applied field:
μ = B/H

So, in case of a linear magnetic material,

B = μ0(H + M) = μ0(1 + χ)H = μ0μrH = μH
where, μr = 1 + χ, is the relative permeability of the medium. Typical values of susceptibility and
permeability for some representative materials are shown below.
 Types of magnetic behavior in materials
So, the magnetic properties of the materials are totally determined by quantum mechanical nature
of their molecular structure.
Let us assume some basic properties of electrons and atoms.
Nucleus at the center, electrons rotating in orbits.
Electrons are negatively charged.
Electron has an intrinsic angular momentum (spin).

So, electrons in atoms produce magnetic field.

Electrons rotate around the nucleus in orbits
This is same as having a loop of current
Currents produce magnetic fields

This effect is small as there are lots of electrons and orbits

are randomly oriented hence the cancellation.

Now, what happens when we put the material in an external B?

The orbits rearrange so that the magnetic field created by the orbits opposes the external magnetic
field: Lenz’s law. So, the net effect: the total magnetic field will be weaker.

One can then find the magnetic moment () related to the angular
momentum 𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ of orbiting electrons.
 Types of magnetic behavior in materials
In addition to the standard angular momentum L, electrons have intrinsic angular momentum
(spin) which is the cause of intrinsic magnetic moment

The intrinsic magnetic moment behaves very differently from the standard magnetic moment
No Lentz’s law type behavior because this field is associated with the electron itself

So, what happens when we put the material in an external B?

A magnetic moment µ placed in an external filed B feels a torque () and
this torque tends to line up the electron magnetic moments with
external field. Hence the net effect magnetic field will be stronger

So, in summary:
• Lentz’s law on the orbit of the electrons opposes B fields from entering material
• Magnetic torque acting on individual electrons augments the B field in the material

So, who wins in the battle? It depends on the properties of the material i.e., structure and
how the free electrons are in it. Depending on these the materials are classified in the
following categories,
Diamagnetism, Paramagnetism, Ferromagnetism, Antiferromagentism, Ferrimagnetism
 Diamagnetism
Diamagnetic materials: Diamagnetic materials are those in which the electron motions are such
that they produce net zero magnetic moment in the absence of any magnetic field. Typically, these
are atoms with paired, closed or filled outer electron shells. Examples of such materials are
inert/noble gases, hydrogen, many metals (e.g. Ag, Au, Cu etc.), semiconductors with strong
covalent bonding and many organic compounds such as polymers. In all such materials, the
electrical charges have a tendency to partially shield the interior of the body from magnetic fields.
As a result, the susceptibility is small and is in the direction opposite to that of the magnetic field
and originates from the precession of the electronic orbits around the direction of the applied
magnetic field. The direction of precession is such that it opposes, the external field/induction
giving a very small negative susceptibility. Ideal superconducting materials are a special class of
diamagnets with χ = –1. As a result, in the superconducting state they expel the magnetic flux.

H=0 H>0
Zero Moment Opposing Induced Moment
 Diamagnetism continued
Figure shows the magnetization of diamagnet as a function applied field H. The normally
small negative susceptibility has been exaggerated for clarity

Properties of Diamagnetic Materials:

• There are no atomic dipoles in diamagnetic

materials because the resultant magnetic moment
of each atom is zero due to paired electrons.
• Diamagnetic substances will be expelled
from B field hence the diamagnetic materials are
repelled by a magnet. The substances are weakly
repelled by the field, so in a nonuniform field, these substances have a tendency to move from a
strong to a weak part of the external magnetic field.
• The intensity of magnetization (M) is very small, negative and proportional to the magnetizing
field.
• Magnetic susceptibility is small and negative.
• When material is immersed in external B field, magnetic field inside the material is weaker than
external B. Lenz’s law wins out on effect of spin.
 Paramagnetism
Paramagnetism: In paramagnetic materials, atoms have a permanent non-zero net magnetic
moment, m; due to sum of orbital and spin magnetic moments. However, at room temperature, in
paramagnetic materials, The atomic magnets are also free to point in any arbitrary direction and at
room temperature, thermal energy is sufficient to randomize their orientation. Hence, when no
field is applied the net magnetization, 𝑀 = σ 𝑚 = 0. However, when an external field is applied,
some of the atomic magnetic moments rotate and align themselves along the field direction,
resulting in a small net magnetization and positive susceptibility. As the applied field is increased,
more of the atomic moments are aligned along the external field with a linear increase in M
(constant χ). Now, if the applied field is kept constant and the temperature is increased, due to
increased thermal agitation, we expect a reduction in M (and in χ). The susceptibilities of these
materials are usually very small, 10-3 to 10-6 .

H=0 H>0

Randomly oriented magnetic dipoles Aligned magnetic moments

hence zero moment with nonzero magnetic moment
 Paramagnetism continued
In most solids, only spin paramagnetism is observed, since the electron orbits are considered
as coupled to the lattice (‘the orbital moments are quenched’) and hence do not contribute
significantly to the magnetic moment. Qualitatively, it is due to electric field generated by
surrounding ions in the solid. Because of these electric fields, the orbitals are strongly
coupled to the lattice and hence cannot reorient themselves along the field and therefore, do
not contribute towards the magnetic moment. On the other hand, electron spins are weakly
coupled and hence form a major part of the magnetic moment.

So, paramagnetic materials are defined as materials in which the magnetization augments
the external magnetic field .
• When material is immersed in B field, magnetic field inside the material is stronger than
outside
• Effect of spin wins out on Lenz’s law
• Paramagnetic materials are pulled into magnetic fields
• If paramagnetic behavior is “extra strong” then it is Ferromagnetic material

Examples of paramagnetic Materials: Typically have several electron orbits that contain
unpaired electrons i.e., orbit has a net magnetic moment. Na, Al, NiSO4, etc. are examples.
 Paramagnetism continued
As shown in the Fig. below, if the applied field is kept constant and the temperature is
increased, due to increased thermal agitation, we expect a reduction in M (and in χ). It
is not too difficult to understand that the susceptibility is inversely proportional to the
temperature. This is known as the Curie law of paramagnetism.

Fig. (a) Magnetization, M, as a function of the applied field, H, for a paramagnet. The temperature
dependence of M is also shown. (b) χ versus T, illustrates the Curie law of paramagnetism.