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Economic Feasibility of Retrofitting an Ageing Ship to Improve the

Environmental Footprint

Article in Applied Sciences · January 2023

DOI: 10.3390/app13021199

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 applied
sciences
Article
Economic Feasibility of Retrofitting an Ageing Ship to Improve
the Environmental Footprint
Dimitar Yalamov 1 , Petar Georgiev 1 and Yordan Garbatov 2, *

1 Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering Department, Technical University of Varna, 1, Studentska Str.,
9010 Varna, Bulgaria
2 Centre for Marine Technology and Ocean Engineering (CENTEC), Instituto Superior Técnico,
Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Natural gas is cheaper than fuel on an energy basis, making it an alternative ship fuel which
leads to a reduced operating cost and clean gas environmental conditions. The current study analyses
the retrofit of an ageing multi-purpose ship to use liquefied natural gas as a primary ship fuel in the
context of a short-ship sea operation. The objective is to transform an existing commercial ageing
ship propulsion system into a green energy propulsion one and to analyse the economic feasibility
considering the high volatility and increased LNG price. Four scenarios were analysed based on the
net present value representing Denying, Disinterested, Good and Acceptable financial cash outflow.
It was concluded that in the present economic instability and price of LNG fuel and CO2 taxes, the
ship owner needs to rely on the long-term contract of buying LNG fuel to implement measures to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and keep good benefits in shipping.

Keywords: retrofitting; ship; ageing; decarbonisation; short sea shipping; green energy; net present value

1. Introduction
Citation: Yalamov, D.; Georgiev, P.; The recent estimates of the Fourth International Maritime Organisation (IMO) Green-
Garbatov, Y. Economic Feasibility of house Gas (GHG) Study 2020 [1] show a troubling message for shipping Greenhouse Gas
Retrofitting an Ageing Ship to emissions. There was a 9.6% increase in GHG emissions from 2012 to 2018, mainly due
Improve the Environmental to a continuous increase in global maritime trade. The share of shipping emissions also
Footprint. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199. increased from 2.76% in 2012 to 2.89% in 2018.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ The activities of IMO addressing climate change started more than ten years ago by
app13021199 signing a Cooperation Agreement between IMO and the Korea International Cooperation
Academic Editors: Yichao Liu and Agency (KOICA) on April 2011 for the implementation of a technical cooperation project on
Chenggeng Huang Building Capacities in East Asian countries to address Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHG)
from Ships [2]. In recent years, numerous resolutions and documents have been adopted [3]
Received: 6 December 2022 to achieve the ambitious goal of a 50% reduction in the total annual GHG emissions and
Revised: 10 January 2023
70% reduction in CO2 emissions per transport work compared to 2008 by 2050. For the
Accepted: 12 January 2023
implementation of these goals, several mandatory instruments for new and existing ships
Published: 16 January 2023
have been proposed, such as the MARPOL Annex VI, with the Energy Efficiency Design
Index (EEDI) introduced increasingly strict carbon intensity standards for new ships and
the Ship Energy Efficiency Management Plan (SEEMP) for operators to improve the energy
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
efficiency of all ships and, additionally, the Energy Efficiency Operational Indicator (EEOI),
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Energy Efficiency Existing Ship Index (EEXI) and Carbon Intensity Indicator (CII).
This article is an open access article Generalisations and guidelines for increasing the energy efficiency of ships have
distributed under the terms and appeared after the first approved requirements [4]. They were in several groups: Hull form
conditions of the Creative Commons optimisation; Energy-saving devices; Structural optimisation and light-weight construction;
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Machinery technology; and Fuel efficiency of ships in service. Several examples of structural
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ optimisation and light-weight construction can be seen in [5–9] and for control of ship
4.0/). operation due to the generated air pollution by ships in coastal water in [10–13].

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13021199 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 2 of 21

The development of machine technologies is also related to the introduction of alter-

native fuels. Even in the early years, special attention was paid to Liquified Natural Gas
(LNG) [14–16]. The LNG is cleaner than coal or oil and its use as fuel in shipping leads to a
reduction in NOx , SOx and CO2 emissions. This is of great importance for operations in the
Emission Control Area (ECA), where 18.5% of handy-size tankers and small and medium
size Ro-Ro spend 80% of their sailing time [15].
The use of LNG complies with ECA regulations as sulphur oxides emissions are
reduced to zero. The nitrogen-oxide emissions are below the Tier III regulation, applicable
in ECA from 2016, and it is very low in particles reducing at the same time the carbon
dioxide emissions in the range of 20–25% [16].
A comparison of LNG’s life cycle environmental performance, liquefied biogas (LBG),
methanol and bio-methanol are presented in [17], where four aspects are considered, i.e.,
technical, economic, environmental and other. The last group are safety and safe handling,
availability, public opinion, etc. Although liquefied natural gas or methanol produced from
natural gas significantly improves environmental performance, the impact on the climate is
of the same order as using heavy fuel. There will be a more significant effect when using
methane and methanol produced from biomass.
Alternative fuels, in combination with additional equipment, are an option to meet
the requirements of ECA [18]. A comparison of three alternatives: Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO)
combined with a scrubber and a Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR), Marine Gasol (MGO)
combined with an SCR and LNG shows that none of them leads to less impact on the
climate than heavy fuel. Reducing the methane slip to 2 wt.% (weight percentage) would
ensure that LNG has a lower impact on climate change.
Comparison employing the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of specific ships operating
in a particular area may show an advantage when using one or another fuel. This way, a
feeder container ship and a passenger ferry operating between Mainland China and Taiwan
are compared [19]. For both ships, two scenarios are considered with HFO and LNG as
fuel. The study indicated possible improvement in total fuel-life cycle GHG emissions
from using LNG. The reduction in the emissions of NOx is (38–39%) and CO (42–43%).
Remarkable reduction is obtained using LNG in SO2 (99.8%) and PM10 (97.5%), while
methane emissions increase significantly when LNG is used as an alternative fuel for
both ships.
Comparative studies also appear with the continuous improvement of technologies to
produce alternative fuels. A recently presented study [20] compares seven alternative ma-
rine fuels—LNG, liquefied biogas (LBG), methanol from natural gas, renewable methanol,
hydrogen for fuel cells produced from (1) natural gas or (2) electrolysis based on renewable
electricity, and Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO), and HFO. Ten performance criteria rank
the marine fuels and different stakeholder groups set their relative importance in Sweden.
The criteria include economic, environmental, technical and social aspects. Economic
criteria are the most important for ship owners, fuel producers and engine manufacturers,
while the Swedish government authorities prioritise environmental criteria, specifically
GHG emissions. Based on the views of the first group members, LNG is ranked the highest,
with HFO second, then the fossil methanol, followed by biofuels. For the second group of
stakeholders, hydrogen is ranked highest, followed by renewable methanol and HVO.
The Getting to Zero Coalition [21] is an alliance of more than 200 companies and
organisations from the maritime, energy, infrastructure and financial sectors, supported
by governments and international organisations. The goal of the coalition is to bring into
operation commercial alternative fuels with zero emissions by 2030, leading to the complete
decarbonisation of maritime transport by 2050. To achieve this goal, an S-curve has been
defined [22] according to which, by 2030, scalable zero-emission fuels (SZEF) as hydrogen
and hydrogen-derived fuels, such as ammonia, e-methanol and synthetic hydrocarbon,
should be 5% of all fuels used, 27% of all fuel used by 2036 and 93% of all fuel used by 2046.
Such a pace is needed to meet the goal of the 2016 Paris climate agreement to limit global
warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 3 of 21

levels [23]. A major obstacle to achieving these goals is the significant price gap between
fossil and zero-emission fuels. For example, the estimated production price (EUR/GJ) by
2025 of e-hydrogen, e-ammonia, e-methane and e-methanol is 6 to 7.3 times higher than
that of LNG [24].
A summary of the use of alternative fuels as of 2022 was made by Det Norske Veri-
tas [25]. Of the total gross tonnage of ships operating today, 5.5% use alternative fuels and
one-third (33%) are on order and can work with alternative fuels. The report evaluates
24 scenarios for the maritime energy mix in 2050 among five groups: fossil fuels, biofuels,
electro fuels, blue fuels and electricity. A preferred alternative fuel cannot be specified
due to uncertainty about the availability of sufficient amounts of biomass for biofuels
or sufficient renewable electricity for electric fuel production. In addition, considerable
investments in this direction are needed in the coming decades, which are estimated at
$8 billion (bn) USD to $28 bn USD annually in investment on ships in a transition phase
towards decarbonisation in 2050 and about $28 bn USD to $90 USD bn per year for onshore
to scale up production, fuel distribution and bunkering infrastructure to supply 100%
carbon-neutral fuels by 2050 [25].
There is considerable research on alternative marine fuels’ environmental and eco-
nomic aspects. A study investigated the cost-effectiveness of Net Present Value (NPV) for
the top 20 most frequently calling ships to Irish ports in 2019 [26]. The highest NPV is
obtained for LNG, followed by methanol and green hydrogen. Green hydrogen is the best
option concerning decarbonisation targets, although a further reduction in current fuel
price is required to improve its cost-competitiveness over LNG and methanol.
Comparative analysis is also based on in situ data [27]. The data are taken from a
Cape-size bulk carrier’s operation between Japan and Australia for 30 months. The findings
confirm that using LNG as a marine fuel is highly creditable compared with HFO and HFO
+Scrubber variants. Results from environmental assessment of alternative marine fuels,
including LNG, could be found in [28–31].
As a summary of these studies, the conclusion in [31] can be accepted, which reads,
LNG is the main alternative to marine diesel and heavy fuel oil (MDO and HFO) and
could provide a cost-effective reduction in CO2 emissions whilst meeting SOx and NOx
emissions regulations. However, the greenhouse gas (GHG) benefit is reduced by methane
slip, with an overall reduction of 8–20% compared to HFO and MDO’. This conclusion can
be confirmed by the number of retrofitted and new build ships using LNG as fuel in recent
years [32].
The first new-build ship using LNG as fuel was an Offshore supply vessel in 2003
and the first retrofitted ship is an Oil/Chemical Tanker in 2011. Both ships operate in the
North Sea.
The life-cycle cost assessment must be considered when evaluating the use of alter-
native fuels, along with the environmental aspects. Although based on one example of a
1500 TEU container ship, it is concluded in [33] that, in general, LNG-fuelled ships have
higher running Operational Expenses (OPEX) and lower Voyage Expenses (VOYEX). A
point must be considered the loss of cargo space due to installing LNG tanks onboard.
Recently conducted research [34] provides valuable information for retrofitting a 300 K
DWT VLCC trading from the Arabian Gulf to China. The CAPEX as $ USD per tonne
deadweight ($/t DW) of competing alternatives is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. CAPEX alternatives in retrofit LNG, retrofit open loop scrubber and reference VLSFO.

Two-Stroke LNG Two-Stroke HFO and Open Two-Stroke VLSFO

Items
Retrofit Loop Scrubber Conventional
Retrofit CAPEX, $/t DW 90.67 13.33 0
Opportunity Cost, $/t DW 10.33 2.33 0
CAPEX, $/t DW 101.00 15.66 0
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 4 of 21

The opportunity cost is a conservative estimation of the lost charter hire during the
91 day conversion to LNG. The analysis concludes that retrofitting LNG as a marine fuel
delivers strong investment returns over the remaining ten years of the VLCC, with returns
dependent on relative fuel prices of LNG, HFO and VLSFO. This study introduced the
so-called ‘Readers’ Choice’ plot, a drawing for which the reader can select own preferred
future fuel price forecasts.
The CII of IMO poses a threat to many VLCC vessels, becoming a stranded asset.
Conversion to LNG fuel gives good prospects for these ships. In this case, the LNG
alternative maintains a superior rating of B until it slides into C in mid-2027 before finally
slipping to D in 2032.
The danger of the vessel overturning in a stranded asset is also analysed in [35]. The
total stranded value depends on the size of the LNG fleet and the transition to SZEF. Getting
to Zero Coalition plans are for 5% set by 2030. LNG ships must be able to switch to these
alternative fuels; otherwise, they will lose their value and the total amount will be more
significant if the switch is delayed, for example, in 2034.
The investment decisions about the retrofitting an ageing ship to mitigate the air
pollution and transforming the ship into environmentally friendly are to be made based on
an informed judgment on the expected economic benefits and the associated risk. Whether
the economic benefit is modelled as net present value, return on capital, internal rate of
return or economic added value, the risk of a future project is usually represented by a
discount rate that reflects the time value of money, i.e., opportunity cost.
Traditionally, the ship is designed based on a selected economic measure of the
transported effectiveness using the Required Freight Rate (RFR) established over the years,
as seen in [36–39] accounting for direct and indirect costs. The quality of the designed ship
is measured by the minimal value of RFR [37], determining the economic efficiency of the
investment project which the ship owner has to get to arrive at the assumed profitability
rate of a given investment and operating costs, for the assumed ship service life, where the
inflation rate, tax rate and the discounted financial balance accounting for the net present
value (NPV) and the capital recovery rate are considered.
The use of NPV as a part of the decision support methods is a widespread practice in
engineering design which may be confirmed by the review of the state of the arts in [40]
and in a specific study in [41–45], among many others.
The feasibility of retrofitting analysis uses the same fundaments as RFR. It is made
through the discounted financial balance, based on the net present value, estimated as the
sum of expected future cash flows minus the initial investment. The future cash flow is the
difference between the expenditure associated with the VLSFO and LNG fuels.
The economic factors involved in the analysis may differ for different geographical
locations and economic and political conditions, which is not essential for the method
employed here but is needed for the example presented.
An existing ageing multi-purpose ship is used for the present analysis. The recent
economic and political instability showed the importance of LNG as an energy source,
especially as a marine fuel for the rapidly expanding fleet. The price of LNG as a ship fuel
is highly volatile and proper forecasting requires an adequate method. However, last year,
the current LNG fuel market showed a severe LNG price increase [46].
The price of LNG as fuel depends linearly on the TTF (Title Transfer Facility: The
Dutch natural gas market) [47] and the forecasts of Fitch Ratings for TTF for 2023 are an
average of USD$40/Mcf [48]. The price was estimated to be USD$10/Mcf in 2025 from
USD$20 in 2024 and stay at USD$5.0/Mcf in 2026 and beyond (1 mt LNG = 48,700 Mcf;
Mcf = 1000 cubic feet).
Along with the recent European changes regarding carbon trading in shipping, Japan’s
proposal at the 78th MEPC session in mid-2022 should also be considered. It applies to a
worldwide tax of CO2 of USD$56 per tonne in 2025, USD$135 per tonne in 2030, USD$324
per tonne in 2035 and a shocking USD$673 per tonne in 2040 [49].
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 5 of 21

The uncertainties originating from the economic conditions are accounted for by
employing the extreme value analysis, which can be seen as an approach to assess the cash
outflows peaks that can be generated due to unfavourable economic conditions.

2. Retrofitting the Propulsion System

The study performed by ‘Informal BG’ [50] showed that in the Black Sea region, the
countries of Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia and Georgia reached a container turnover
of 3.1 million TEU in 2021, where the Ukrainian annual volume was about 1.0 million TEU.
For 2022, the total regional container turnover in the Black Sea is expected to decrease by
about 35%. However, the analysis predicted a 10% increase in throughput.
The short sea shipping in the Black Sea region has been analysed in [51]. The study
highlighted the continued development of the transport corridors between Asia and Europe.
The strategic plan for the year 2030 of the Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation
(CAREC) Program is indicative that the Trans-Caspian International Transport Route, which
reaches the Georgian ports of Poti and Batumi, remains of interest to the neighbouring
countries, which is an essential link in the multimodal chain.
Improving efficiency and reducing emissions from exhaust gases makes the selected
ports of the present study the most representative for the Black Sea region. Additionally,
taking into account the recent trends of massive modernisation and construction of new
LNG-fuelled ships and despite the speculative rise in LNG fuel prices in recent months, the
current trend shows that the UP World LNG Shipping Index—a commodity index for LNG
shipping companies—continues to grow (https://seekingalpha.com/article/4559739-lng-
shipping-correction-likely-great-sector, accessed on 20 November 2022), confirming that
transforming an existing commercial ageing ship to an LNG-fuelled one is very relevant
and it will be of extreme priority.
However, some studies about the container traffic and new containership design for
the Black Sea region have been performed in [5,10,51–55] and LNG as an alternative for
retrofitting ageing ships in [56].
When choosing a ship for retrofitting, the fact of suitable size and age of a ship built
near the operating area for this study was initially emphasised, and, in this case, a6 9790
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 22
DWT multi-purpose ship (Figure 1) equipped for the carriage of containers was chosen
given the facts mentioned above.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Side
Side view
view of
of 9790
9790 DWT
DWT multi-purpose ships.
multi-purpose ships.

The
The ship
ship was
was delivered
delivered in
in 2009
2009 and
and intended
intended for
for various
various carriage
carriage general,
general, dry
dry bulk,
bulk,
heavy cargo, containers, 40 pcs refrigerating containers on deck, dangerous goods on the
heavy cargo, containers, 40 pcs refrigerating containers on deck, dangerous goods on the
main deck and grain. In the study, it is assumed that the navigation area is in the Black
main deck and grain. In the study, it is assumed that the navigation area is in the Black Sea.
Sea.

2.1. Limitations
The installation of a power plant with LNG as fuel makes it necessary to adapt the
ship’s design to a specific set of needs, installing equipment and arranging spaces that
would not be necessary in the case of conventional propulsion. At the same time, there
are limitations related to the construction and installation of different systems on board.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 6 of 21

2.1. Limitations
The installation of a power plant with LNG as fuel makes it necessary to adapt the
ship’s design to a specific set of needs, installing equipment and arranging spaces that
would not be necessary in the case of conventional propulsion. At the same time, there are
limitations related to the construction and installation of different systems on board. There is
also a specific requirement for the ship’s safety and people operating retrofitted equipment.
Implementing power plants based on dual engines is technically complex and must
comply with demanding requirements regarding their disposal on board, which are im-
posed by regulation. The versatility of the vessels under study greatly complicates this
work since the regular operation of the new equipment cannot interfere in any way with
the operations they develop. Limitations are related to a detailed analysis of each sys-
tem component’s location and the study of hazardous areas and escape routes per the
applicable regulations.
The preliminary feasibility study addressed in this section has resulted in the integra-
tion of LNG technology could become possible for the chosen vessel since it has a larger
space and, therefore, offers greater possibilities in terms of generating alternatives for the
integration of the necessary equipment for the consumption of LNG on board.
For the installation of the LNG system, the most important fact is to find a place with
enough capacity to contain the LNG tank. The selected storage tank is an independent
(type C) tank. This type of tank has many possibilities of installation on board due to its
portability, being only necessary for a space which fulfils the safety restrictions imposed by
the IGF code [57].
Finding sufficient space for storing the gas on board the vessel is a significant factor
for the success of the conversion. The LNG storage tank location can be freely selected on
board the vessel and either vertical or horizontal tanks, on the open deck or below deck, can
be selected. When the storage tank is above deck, the requirements set by the classification
societies are slightly lower. However, in our case, it is necessary to install the storage tank
above the deck because apart from the structural challenges, the difficulties in choosing the
location of the gas storage tanks are also related to the bunkering possibilities at the area of
selected routes.
The IMO Regulations [58] were used to locate LNG storage tanks and equipment.
According to them, gas storage tanks can be on an open deck or in enclosed spaces. In
installing LNG tanks on an open deck, a distance of at least one-fifth of the breadth of
the ship from the ship’s side and open decks should be used to ensure sufficient natural
ventilation and prevent the accumulation of leaking gas in the event of a leak.
Tanks should also be provided with drain pans which should be fitted under the tank
and should be of sufficient capacity to contain the volume that may leak out in the event of
pipe connection failure.
The bunkering method is essential for determining the location of the LNG tanks.
Unfortunately, there is no fully developed bunkering infrastructure in the ship operation
area, so only a tank on the deck is considered.
As seen in Figure 1, the ship’s superstructure is located as far back as possible so that
it does not allow the placement of the gas storage tanks in the stern. On the other hand,
the arrangement of such tanks in front of the superstructure is possible, especially since
there is an engine room and spaces for auxiliary equipment below the deck, and there
will be no requirement to provide space for loading and unloading operations below the
main deck. The C-type gas storage tanks are most appropriate for retrofitting the structural
arrangement of the multi-purpose ship analysed here.
After the retrofitting, sailing on the route Varna-Poti-Varna is considered and calcu-
lated. The maximum fuel consumed for one cycle is 132 m3 of LNG (with included 5%
autonomy for bad weather).
The smallest size, i.e., a 30 m3 , is selected and the tank is located on the poop deck,
in front of the superstructure, taking up space of four containers (TEU). The tank will
be isolated from the top side by a specially built metal platform located 4 m from the
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 7 of 21

deck and designed with a load capacity of 250 tons, sufficient to place four 40ft ISO LNG
containers fully loaded and secured by standard foundations and quick-release fittings
used on container ships. In addition to the main tank, this permit reaches a capacity of
132 m3 LNG. The volume of the mobile containers is 33 m3 [59].
Such an arrangement meets the requirements, and the length and width of the metal
platform are estimated to be 12.2 m and 4.92 m, respectively, while the vertical clearance
from the main deck is 4.00 m. The loading and unloading of the adjacent rows of containers
are not hindered.
All equipment and systems for regular operation and processing of LNG are installed
inside the TCS (tank connection space). It is a closed, gas-tight enclosure, with independent
ventilation from the other spaces, made of stainless steel, which acts as a second barrier
that prevents a possible LNG leak from affecting the ship’s hull.
All LNG storage tanks [59] are highly insulated, but gradual heating is inevitable,
leading to BOG (boil-over gas), which must be managed. The BOG can be controlled to a
certain point for vessels equipped with Type C tanks by allowing the pressure to build. The
IGF Code requires that the tank pressure be maintained below the set point of the pressure
relief valves without venting gas into the atmosphere. The IGF code proposes that the
minimum holding time for pressure vessels (type C vessels) is 15 days.
Another challenge during the retrofitting project is the selection and positioning of the
bunker station. LNG bunker operation used to be a critical situation due to the potential
risks this operation involved. Apart from the installation of the station, including all
necessary pipes, it is essential to consider that a drip tray must be installed. Drip trays
shall be fitted where leakage may occur, which can cause damage to the ship structure or
where limitation of the area which is affected by a spill is necessary. The drip tray shall
also be thermally insulated from the ship’s structure so that the surrounding hull or deck
structures are not exposed to unacceptable cooling in case of leakage of liquid fuel. Finally,
drip trays must be fitted with a drain valve for rainwater. All these facts are essential to
consider when installing on the deck.
A length of 3 m, a width of 1.5 m and a height of 2 m were chosen for the size and
dimensions of the bunker station. There are no specific size requirements for these stations
and it is sufficient to have room for piping and to provide space for air isolation. The
most suitable location is below the deck, where a 1.55 × 1.98 m hydraulic hatch will
be constructed to open the station during bunkering. This arrangement of the bunker
station will prevent obstructing the deck from passing from the accommodation to the
container bays. With this setup, the fuel pipelines will be brought directly to the deck
above the bunker station and the construction of additional insulation and casings will not
be necessary.
There is a need to install a module related to the use of diesel, such as the module
for initial gas ignition, which is also directly related to the gas combustion operation. The
module will be located next to the fuel separators in the ER, where the necessary space is
1500 × 800 mm.

2.2. Engine Modifications

The ship is equipped with one four-stroke medium-speed, non-reversible type diesel
engine with a gas turbine set for supercharging, intended to operate on heavy fuel oil of
viscosity 380 CST at 50 ◦ C. The cylinder jackets and covers are cooled with fresh water, and
LO cools the pistons.
Analysing the possibilities of retrofitting the ship’s power plant, it was found that the
model of the ship’s main engine—MAK-Caterpillar 6M43C is very suitable for retrofitting
into a dual-fuel engine, namely using the new modification of the MAK-Caterpillar 6M46DF,
which is essentially the same size as the 6M43C.
The 6M43C has the same footprint as the new M46DF engine. This makes conversion
of the existing M43C engines possible and easy to achieve such a conversion holding on to
significant components, such as the engine block, crankshaft, air cooler and turbocharger.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 8 of 21

These are the remaining parts and the rest are to be renewed for M46DF components. The
primary drive is increasing the cylinder bore from 430 mm to 460 mm. Therefore, the fol-
lowing parts will be renewed: cylinder liners, cooling water jackets, pistons, cylinder heads,
gas fuel line and engine electronics. Additionally, the following equipment is introduced:
big end bearing temperature monitoring, leading bearing temperature monitoring and
timing sensors to the camshaft gear wheel and flywheel.
Next to the engine itself, many components must be placed near and next to the engine
to make it possible to run the engine on gas. These are:
• The Gas Valve Unit (GVU) controls the pressure of the gaseous fuel towards the engine and
ensures safe operation with double block and bleed valves and ventilation possibilities.
• The Ignition Fuel Module (IFM) unit ensures enough filtered fuel oil is delivered to
the pilot fuel injection system. The pilot fuel injection system ignites the gaseous fuel.
• Vacuum pump unit. The fuel gas line on the engine and between the GVU outlet and
the engine is double walled. This unit creates pressure in the double wall barrier to
monitoring any leakage. The extracted air is monitored for gas leakage content and
blown off outside.
• Exhaust ventilation module services in the event of an emergency engine shutdown
in gas mode. The exhaust pipe after the turbocharger is to be flushed to prevent the
accumulation of an explosive mixture in the exhaust pipe.
• Slow turn the device is mounted on the cylinder heads due to the engine’s construction,
no indicator or over-pressure valves. To detect water on the piston, a slow turn device
is mounted to slowly turn the engine before starting.
Additionally, the ship is to be equipped with gas storage tanks, the master gas valve
on deck and transfer pumps suitable for LNG, safety devices according to the IGF Code,
such as ex-safety zones, double wall gas piping throughout enclosed spaces and inert gas
production, storage and deployment equipment.
The comparison of the dimensions of both engines is presented in Table 2, which
shows that they are practically the same.

Table 2. The primary dimension of both engines.

Dimensions
Weight
Engine Type [mm]
L1 L2 L3 L4 H1 H2 H3 W1 W2 [t]
6M43C 8251 1086 1255 1583 4258 1399 750 2878 215 94.0
6M46DF 8271 1086 1255 1638 4258 1396 750 2878 215 94.0

The dual-fuel engine has additional equipment, such as a ventilation module, pre-
ignition module, GVU gas supply module, glycol-GU module, BS bunker station, engine
slow rotation module, etc. Summing up the weight of the additional equipment, the
dual-combustion engine will be heavier by about 4 tonnes, which will not affect the
engine’s characteristics.

2.3. Ship Performance

The operating parameters of both engines are shown in Table 3. The output power of
the engines is the same. Additionally, of utmost importance is that the 500 rpm operating
speed has not changed, so there will be no need to change propeller shafts, gearboxes and
propellers to take power off.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 9 of 21

Table 3. Operating parameters of 6M43C and 6M46DF engines.

Performance Data Unit 6M43C 6M46DF

Maximum continuous rating acc. ISO
kW 5400 5400
3046/1
Speed 1/min 500/514 500/514
Minimum speed 1/min 300 300
Brake mean effective pressure bar 24.4/23.7 21.3/20.7
Charge air pressure bar 3.65 3.55
Firing pressure bar 208 150
Combustion air demand (ta = 20 ◦ C) m3 /h 33,100 32,050
Specific fuel oil consumption
n = 100% g/kWh 176 186
85% g/kWh 175 185
75% g/kWh 177 187
50% g/kWh 184 192
Lube oil consumption g/kWh 0.6 0.6
NOx emission g/kWh 10 10
Turbocharger type ABB TPL71 ABB TPL71
Fuel
Engine-driven booster pump m3 /h/bar — —
Stand-by booster pump m3 /h/bar 4.2/10 4.2/10
Mesh size MDO fine filter mm 0.025 0.025
Mesh size HFO automatic filter mm 0.01 0.01
Mesh size HFO fine filter mm 0.034 0.034

The specific fuel consumptions are indicated in Table 4, in which the values are given
separately depending on the mode of operation of diesel or gas and for the different
working loads of the engine, being converted into tons per hour for easy comparison.

Table 4. Fuel consumption of 6M43C and 6M46DF engines.

6M43C 6M46DF
Load, %
Diesel (g/kWh) Diesel (t/h) Diesel (g/kWh) Diesel (t/h) Gas (t/h)
100 177 0.708 188 0.752 0.619
85 176 0.598 187 0.636 0.534
75 177 0.531 189 0.567 0.480
50 185 0.370 195 0.390 0.335

It is important to note that the dual-fuel engine has a higher diesel consumption
than the currently installed engine. This is a negative point for the dual fuel, which,
when running on diesel, will consume more than the current engine, giving the ship less
autonomy. The big difference is mainly because the new engine has a pilot pre-ignition
system. The speed of a ship depends on the power generated and one can see from the
running characteristics of the considered ship in Table 5.
To obtain the gas consumption in tonnes or cubic meters per hour, it is necessary
to know the Lover Calorific Value (LCV) and the fuel gas density. Depending on the
composition of the gas, these properties may have different values. However, the variation
range is small that the average values of LCV = 49.5 (KJ/g) and density of 0.45 t/m3 can be
used. The gas consumption in tonnes or cubic meters per hour is presented in Table 6.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 10 of 21

Table 5. Performance of the ship.

Specific Consumption
Load, % Power, kW
Diesel, g/kWh Gas + Pilot, kJ/kWh
100 5400 186 7400
85 4590 185 7524
75 4050 187 7457
70 3780 188 7551
65 3510 189 7646
60 3240 190 7740
50 2700 192 7929
25 1350 213 9379
10 540 265
NOx -Emission, g/kWh 10.3 2.6

Table 6. LNG consumption at different loads.

Load, % Gas (t/h) Gas (m3 /h)

100 0.807 1.80
85 0.700 1.55
75 0.610 1.35
50 0.335 0.78

The natural gas consumption under standard ISO conditions corresponds to the
natural gas in the liquid state at 100%, 85%, 70% and 50% MCR, respectively. To convert
natural gas into an equivalent gaseous state, its consumption is multiplied by the ratio
between the liquid and gaseous state, which is 1/600, leading to a 75% load of 810 m3 /h
consumption in a gaseous state and a 50% load of 468 m3 /h consumption in a gaseous state.

3. Gas Emissions
3.1. Voyage Description
The Black Sea region is an important economic area with significant potential for
using LNG as an alternative fossil fuel for shipping, reducing exhaust gas emissions and
complying with the requirements of the IMO and EU regulations for reducing the carbon
footprint from transportation.
Around 35% of natural gas and oils imported to the EU are produced in onshore or
offshore facilities in the Black Sea region. The development of LNG facilities in this region
will soon have a significant environmental and economic impact.
Short sea shipping routes are ideal candidates for Dual fuel technology since LNG
supply is frequently available and there is no need for colossal LNG storage on board.
The route selection is based on the cycle’s length and selected ports between EU and
non-EU countries. The length of the cycle of Varna-Poti-Varna is 1234 nautical miles. The
parameters of the route are shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Voyage parameters.

Parameter Varna Quay-Pilot Station Sea Passage Pilot Station-Poti Quay

Distance, nm 10.0 600.0 7.0
Engine load, % 50% 75% 50%
Speed, kn 10.0 14.3 10.0
Time, h 1.0 42.0 42 min

For stopping and sailing from the ports of Varna and Poti, 30 min is provided separately,
which will always be conducted on diesel or heavy fuel and will not affect the analysis.
If it is assumed that the average loading and unloading in the port of Poti and Varna
takes 20 h, it is assumed that the ship will have the following cycle of operation:
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 11 of 21

• 21 h (loading, unloading/manoeuvring in Varna—30 min for mooring and unmooring

from the port),
• 1.00 h passage in manoeuvring mode—Varna Canal—at 50% load;
• 42 h passage Varna pilot station—Poti pilot station—a speed of 14.3 kn;
• 0.75 h passage in manoeuvring mode—50% load—Poti pilot station—Poti port;
• 21 h (loading, unloading/manoeuvring in Poti port);
• 0.75 h passage in manoeuvring mode—Poti port—Poti pilot station—a speed of 10 kn;
• 42 h passage Poti pilot station—Varna pilot station—a speed of 14.3 kn;
• 1.00 h passage in manoeuvring mode—Varna Canal—at 50% load—a speed of 10 kn;
In this context, the complete cycle is about 129.5 h and there will be a passage of 85.5 h
at sea using LNG as fuel. For one month of 30 days, 5.55 complete cycles will be performed
between Varna-Poti-Varna and each cycle is 87.5–84 h at a 75% load and 3.5 h at a 50% LNG
load. Therefore, it leads to 485.6 h on LNG or Diesel per month, 466.2 h at a 75% load and
19.42 h at a 50% load.
Within one month, the ship will consume 353 tonnes/month of diesel at 75% and
10.1 tonnes/month of diesel at a 50% load.
Natural gas consumption is estimated at 284.3 tonnes/month at a 75% load and
8.4 tonnes/month of gas at 50%. If the vessel uses only natural gas, it will consume
292.7 tonnes per month and 3512.4 tonnes per year.
For a complete cycle of Varna-Poti-Varna, the ship will need 51.2 tonnes/cycle gas at a
75% load leading to 113.78 m3 and 1.16 tonne/cycle gas at a 50% load of about 2.6 m3
The required amount of gas per cycle will be 52.36 tonnes or 116.38 m3 of gas, respec-
tively. Assuming autonomy of 5%, then 122.2 m3 is required in the Varna-Poti-Varna cycle
to be placed in the LNG tank.
A summary of the results for the route is presented in Table 8.

Table 8. Summary of the results for the two routes.

Characteristics Varna-Poti-Varna
Distance in miles for cycle, nm 1234
Consumption of VLSFO for cycle, tonne 66.0
Consumption of LNG per cycle, tonne 53.2
Consumption of LNG per cycle, m3 118.2
Consumption of VLSFO per month, tonne 363.1
Consumption of LNG per month, tonne 292.7
Consumption of VLSFO per year, tonne 4357.2
Consumption of LNG per year, tonne 3512.4

3.2. Energy Efficiency

The EEOI is used for continuous quantitative monitoring of the ship’s energy efficiency.
It is calculated according to the methodology developed by IMO in MEPC.1/Circ.684 [60].
The indicator is calculated for each voyage as follows:

∑ j FCj × CFj
EEOI = (1)
mcargo × D

where: j—fuel type; FCj —a mass of fuel used for the voyage, tonne; CFj —coefficient of
conversion of fuel mass into the mass of CO2 emissions for fuel j; mcargo —the transported
cargo, t; D—distance burned for transport of cargo, nm. The measurement unit of EEOI is
[tCO2 /(t. nm)].
An Average EEOI for a given period or the number of voyages is also determined as
follows (see Table 9):
∑i ∑ j FCij × CFj
Average EEOI = (2)
∑i mcargo,i × Di
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 12 of 21

Table 9. Summary for EEOI for the considered scenarios.

Characteristics Route Varna-Poti-Varna

Fuel type VLSFO LNG
CF 3.151 2.750
Cargo, tonne 7850
Distance, nm 1234
EEOI 2.12 × 10−5 1.51 × 10−5

3.3. CO2 Emissions

The European Union presented its “Fit for 55” package of energy and climate laws,
aimed at reducing carbon emissions by 55% compared to the levels from 1990 to 2030 and
achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. To achieve the latest EU target, transport emissions
need to be reduced by 90%.
This package of directives includes the introduction of the Fuel EU Maritime (FEM)
Initiative and the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) and amendments to the
Renewable Energy Directive (RED) and the Energy Efficiency Directive (EED). Being part
of this “Fit for 55” policy package, the European Commission announced the update of
Directive 2003/87/EU, which is based on the EU’s MRV system [52] (monitoring, reporting
and verification of carbon dioxide emissions from maritime transport) and includes the
maritime industry in ETS (Emissions Trading System). The EU states that their actions are
due to the slow and insufficient progress made by the IMO.
The ETS is a mandatory cap-and-trade system that sets a general limit on greenhouse
gas emissions over a specified period.
The Allowances, known as European Union Allowances (EUA), are auctioned between
the participants and the number of allowances available compared to the total number of
emissions creates a carbon price; the available allowances will decrease linearly about the
set emission reduction targets.
The MRV system will continue to apply to ships over 5000 GT regarding the CO2
emissions, being released during voyages to and from an EU port to a non-EU port, to
an EU port from a non-EU port, between EU ports and during the ship is moored in an
EU port.
Emission factors (EF) for marine fuels and LNG will remain constant between MRV
and ETS:
• Diesel/gas oil: 3206 tCO2 per tonne of fuel consumed;
• Liquid fuel: 3151 tCO2 per tonne of fuel consumed;
• Heavy fuel: 3141 tCO2 per tonne of fuel consumed;
• LNG: 2750 tCO2 per tonne of fuel consumed.

4. Economic Analysis
4.1. Current LNG Fuel Market
Simultaneously, with the increase in the number of orders for retrofitting and especially
the construction of new ships using LNG as fuel, a severe increase in the price of LNG
has been observed in the last year. Figure 2 shows the historical price in USD$/mt for
VLSFO and LNG and the difference between them in the port of Rotterdam for the last
three years [46].
The recent economic and political instability showed the importance of LNG as an
energy source, especially as a marine fuel for the rapidly expanding fleet. The price in the
week ending 6 March is 2512.25 USD$/mt (circled in Figure 2). According to the 29 April
report from S&P Global Commodity Insights [61], at least the supply balance is expected to
support a price above USD$15/MMBtu (ab. 781 $/mt) per year until 2025.
 4.1. Current LNG Fuel Market
Simultaneously, with the increase in the number of orders for retrofitting and
especially the construction of new ships using LNG as fuel, a severe increase in the price
of LNG has been observed in the last year. Figure 2 shows the historical price in USD$/mt
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 for VLSFO and LNG and the difference between them in the port of Rotterdam for the 13 last
of 21
three years [46].

Figure
Figure 2. Price
2. Price (USD$/mt)
(USD$/mt) of VLSFO,
of VLSFO, LNGLNG
andand
the the difference
difference (right
(right axis).
axis).

The price of LNG as a ship fuel is highly volatile and proper forecasting requires an
The recent economic and political instability showed the importance of LNG as an
adequate method. An analysis of possible algorithms is presented in [62].
energy source, especially as a marine fuel for the rapidly expanding fleet. The price in the
Standard & Poor claims that LNG is still a viable solution for maritime decarbonisation
week ending 6 March is 2512.25 USD$/mt (circled in Figure 2). According to the 29 April
despite hurdles. They presented in September a report [63] that by 2030, petroleum-based
report from S&P Global Commodity Insights [61], at least the supply balance is expected
fuels will be 90%, with 7.8% LNG and 2.2% alternative fuels. The optimistic scenario,
to support a price above USD$15/MMBtu (ab. 781 $/mt) per year until 2025.
considering higher CO2 reduction efforts, estimates alternative fuels at 39%, LNG at 32%,
The price of LNG as a ship fuel is highly volatile and proper forecasting requires an
LNG at 1% and petroleum-based fuels at 28% of total consumption in 2050. In practice,
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 22
adequate method.gives
LNG currently An analysis
the bestof possible in
reduction algorithms
CO2 emissionsis presented
of 23%in to[62].
28%.
Standard
In the last& days
Poorof claims
November that2022,
LNGthere is was
still also
a viable solution in
a development forthemaritime
Emissions
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Trading System. despite
The hurdles. They presented
EU institutions have agreed in September
on including a report [63] that
shipping andby ETS2030,
with
petroleum-based
expected changes [64]. Ship operators will have to pay taxes in 2025 for 40% of theirThe
expected changesfuels will
[64]. Shipbe 90%,
operatorswithwill7.8%
have LNG
to pay and 2.2%
taxes in alternative
2025 for 40% fuels.
of their 2024
2024
optimistic scenario,
emissions, in 2026considering
for 70% of higher
their 2025CO reduction
emissions
2 and efforts,
in 2027estimates
for all
emissions, in 2026 for 70% of their 2025 emissions and in 2027 for all their 2026 emissions, alternative
their 2026 fuels
emissions,
at with
39%, LNG
withthe
thefullatcoverage
full 32%, LNG
coverage at continue
will
will 1% and petroleum-based
continue afterthat.
after that. fuels at 28% of total consumption
in 2050.The
In practice,
The historicalLNG pricecurrently
of CO gives the
emissions best
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historical price of CO22 emissions for the last five reduction
the last in
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2are
COare shownin
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in prices for 2 CO
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98.198 EUR The
/mt
98.198 EUR/mt CO2 e in EU
CO institutions
e in August
2 August 2022. have
2022. agreed on including shipping and ETS with

Figure 3.3. Historical

Historical price
priceof of
COCO 2 emissions (EUR CO /mte) COfor2 e)
the for
last the last (https://
5 years
Figure 2 emissions (EUR/mt 2 5 years
(https://tradingeconomics.com/commodity/carbon (accessed on 20
tradingeconomics.com/commodity/carbon (accessed on 20 November 2022)).November 2022)).

IntroducingCO
Introducing charges,shipping
CO22charges, shippingoperators
operatorsareare expected
expected to to increase
increase freight
freight rates
rates to
to cover
cover these
these costs.
costs. If using
If using petroleum-based
petroleum-based fuelsfuels
and and
100%100% emissions
emissions coverage,
coverage, PlattsPlatts
[65]
[65] estimates
estimates show
show that, as that, as an Aframax
an example, example,freight
Aframax
ratesfreight rates would
would increase increase by
by USD$1.30/mt
USD$1.30/mt
for for and
the Baltic Sea the Baltic
the UK Seaand
andUSD$1.80/mt
the UK and USD$1.80/mt for Black Sea-Mediterranean
for Black Sea-Mediterranean if the new
if the new ETS rules were in force. Additionally, in this case, it seems natural to take
measures to reduce CO2 emissions charges to make the ship competitive.

4.2. Feasibility Assessment

The fuel used by ships is priced based on long-term contracts, which are somehow
different from the stock market and because of that, four different scenarios will be
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 14 of 21

ETS rules were in force. Additionally, in this case, it seems natural to take measures to
reduce CO2 emissions charges to make the ship competitive.

4.2. Feasibility Assessment

The fuel used by ships is priced based on long-term contracts, which are somehow
different from the stock market and because of that, four different scenarios will be anal-
ysed here.
The cash flow financial approach will be employed to analyse the economic feasibility
of retrofitting an ageing multi-purpose ship. Two measures of merit are employed to verify
the attractiveness of the LNG fuel compared to the VLSFO, such as NPV and Internal
Return Rate (IRR).
The NPV represents the difference between the present value of cash inflows and cash
outflows over a period, which was initially formulated by Fisher [66] and used in many
studies [67]:
n
Rt
NPV = ∑ o (3)
t =0 (1 + r )

where Rt is the net cash inflow-outflow, r is the discount rate and o is the number of periods.
It is used to analyse the feasibility of the investment related to the retrofitting here. It
also represents the current value of future payments, using the contracted discounted rate
and when NPV is positive, the investment is worth undertaking. If it is negative, it is not.
The IRR defines the rate of discount, which makes the present value of the sum of
annual nominal cash inflows equal to the initial net cash outflow for the investment. In
the present study, IRR is compared to evaluate the profitability of retrofitting an ageing
multi-purpose ship from VLSFO to LNG for different scenarios of the fuel market.
If the IRR of retrofitting is lower than the cost of capital, then the best course of action
may be to reject it [68]. The risk associated with the IRR is acceptable as a function of the
cost of capital and the opportunity cost.
The VLSFO and LNG propulsion systems could add value to the ship’s financial
performance and one will likely be the more logical decision as IRR prescribes. It was also
considered that the implementation of the LNG as a fuel needs to cover the investment
related to the retrofitting, which will be the difference between the expenses associated
with taxes of CO2 and the current price of the VLSFO and LNG fuels.
The feasibility of retrofitting is made through the standard discounted cash flow
approach, based on the net present value, estimated as the sum of expected future cash
flows minus the initial investment. The future cash flow is the difference between the
expenditure associated with the VLSFO and LNG fuels. The capital expenditure (CAPEX)
only related to retrofitting is 3,500,000 USD, an own capital of 500,000 USD is invested,
the required net profitability rate is r = 2% and the resting years of ship operation are
o = 15 years, the depreciation time is eight years and the time of retrofitting is four months.
The average annual inflation rate is assumed as in f l = 3%, income tax rate t x = 15%
resulting in a capital recovery factor, Cr f = 7.78% [55] calculated as:

r
Cr f = (4)
1 − (1 + r ) o

and the capital cost, Cr f t , is defined as:

r + in f l + r in f l
Cr f t =  −o (5)
1 − r + in f l + r in f l (1 − t x )

Table 10 summarises the input data for the feasibility analysis, where the assumed
parameters are necessary for the case of the particular study but not essential for the
methods employed. The original service life for the newly built ship was 25 years, but the
retrofitting was performed in the 10th year due to the pressure to reduce the GHG.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 15 of 21

Table 10. Feasibility input data.

Description Value
Total Cost of Retrofitting USD$ 3,500,000
Required net profitability rate, % 2.00%
Number of resting years of ship operation,
15
years
Average annual inflation rate, % 3.00%
Income tax rate, % 15.00%
Capital return factor, % 7.78%
Tax correction CRF, % 8.51%
Depreciation time, years 8
Contract assignment 1 January 2022
Ship delivery 5 January 2022
Time of retrofitting, months 4
Days of operation per year, day 340
Own investment, USD$ 500,000

The discounted annual average cost of the investment, C aaci , is defined as:

C aaci = CAPEX Cr f t (6)

A systematic variation of the cost associated with VLSFO, LNG fuels and CO2 taxes
are employed to analyse the feasibility of the retrofitting project. Four scenarios have been
analysed A-Denying, B-Disinterested, C-Good and D-Acceptable, where the first one after
ending the service life the NPV is −1,000,000 USD, the second one is with NPV = 0 USD,
the third is with 30,000,000 USD and the last one with NPV = 6,000,000 USD. Table 11 shows
NPV, IRR and Cash-outflow.

Table 11. NPV scenarios.

Cash-Outflow,
Scenarios Description $/Quarter, IRR, % NPV, $
at Fifth Year
A Denying 193,183 2.13 −1,000,000
B Disinterested 224,143 2.99 0
C Good 317,324 5.38 3,000,000
D Acceptable 410,504 7.68 6,000,000

The LNG fuel price overtook the cost of VLSFO, which recorded a lower price per tonne
yesterday. LNG has a lower calorific value than the VLSFO and the prices are not based on
the mass but on the gas needed to deliver the same amount of energy, then converted to
the oil prices. Additionally, VLSFO and LNG need to pay different CO2 taxes because the
analysis here is performed. At this stage, accurate fuel price predictions are challenging
since a global gas market does not exist and LNG price levels are highly uncertain.
The achieved NPV and IRR are estimated by defining the expenses difference for using
VLFSO and LNG, including the CO2 taxes. Table 11 shows that the Denying scenario gen-
erates lost monetary value, which the economic performance of the ship must compensate
for. The Disinterested scenario presents neither gain nor loss value and the retrofitting adds
no monetary value. The Good scenario adds value and the retrofitting added monetary
value equal to the initial investment, CAPEX. In the Acceptable scenario, the retrofitting
adds monetary value in a reasonable quantity.
The cost of interest, depreciation, cash-inflow and cash-outflow are also analysed in
the present study, reflecting the loss of performance due to age, as seen in Figure 4. The
cash-inflow is the sum of the depreciation and the interest rate and the profit will be the
difference between the cash-out-flow and the cash-inflow.
 retrofitting adds no monetary value. The Good scenario adds value and the retrofitting
added monetary value equal to the initial investment, CAPEX. In the Acceptable scenario,
the retrofitting adds monetary value in a reasonable quantity.
The cost of interest, depreciation, cash-inflow and cash-outflow are also analysed in
the present study, reflecting the loss of performance due to age, as seen in Figure 4. The
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 16 of 21
cash-inflow is the sum of the depreciation and the interest rate and the profit will be the
difference between the cash-out-flow and the cash-inflow.

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 22

The cash-outflow is estimated by multiplying the time spent with the total installed
propulsion, engine loading and the operational and consumption for propulsion and
summing taxes related to CO2 discounted for the same expenses related to LNG-fuelled
engines:
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 (𝑊𝑊𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝑊𝑊𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ) + (𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 𝑊𝑊𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑊𝑊𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 ) (7)
Figure4.4.Cash-flow,
Figure Cash-flow,IRR
IRR==7.68%,
7.68%,NPV
NPV==6,000,000
6,000,000USD$,
USD$,scenario
scenarioD.
D.
where 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 is load CO2 factor, 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 is the taxes for 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶2 emissions, 𝑊𝑊𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 weight
consumption
Thecash of VLSFO,𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶ℎ
cashoutflow,
outflow, 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 is is
thedefined
emission as factor for VLSFO,
a function 𝑊𝑊𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is propulsion
the weight
The Cashout𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
f low is defined
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 as a function of the of the installed
installed propulsion power,
consumption of LNG, 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 isprice the emission fuelfactor of LNG, 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 is . the price of the
power,
type typeand
of fuel of CO
fuel2 generated,
and CO 2 generated, price
of the of
and thetaxes
fuelrelated
and taxes to CO related
2 For to CO2 . For
calculating
VLSFO fuel and 𝐶𝐶 is the price of LNG fuel.
calculating
the the factors
cash-outflow, cash-outflow,
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 definingfactors propulsion defining
power,propulsion power,
the time of ship the time
operational of ship
activity in
The cash-outflow analysisanalysedrelates the heremagnitude of a given cash-outflow event with
operational
the voyage activity inThe
duration. theship
voyage duration. The ship analysed
originally used here originally
VLSFO and, afterused VLSFO
retrofitting,
the probability of that event’s exceedance. Several assumptions are imposed in analysing
and, LNG.
used after retrofitting, used LNG.
the The
cash-outflow
cash-outflow peaks, including
is estimated by data independence,
multiplying data with
the time spent sufficiency,
the totalfuel price
installed
description engine
propulsion, and CO 2 taxes
loading and forthe airoperational
pollution.and Theconsumption
uncertainty for propagation
propulsion inand
the sum-cash
outflow is generated by the stochastic input variables related
ming taxes related to CO2 discounted for the same expenses related to LNG-fuelled engines: to the fuel price and CO2
taxes. The cash outflow is estimated for three years, shown in Figure 5, left.
Cashout f low The(W
= LFCO2 CCO2 study
VLSFO uses
EFVLSFOextreme − Wvalue LNG EF analysis
LNG ) +to (Cestimate
VLSFO WVLSFOthe probability
− CLNG Wof LNG an) unacceptable (7)
low cash outflow that can cause serious financial problems. The extreme value analysis
where LFCO2 is load CO2 factor, CCO2 is the taxes for CCO2 emissions, WVLSFO weight
can also be seen
consumption as a statistical
of VLSFO, EFVLSFOapproach to assess
is the emission the cash
factor outflows
for VLSFO, WLNGpeaks thatweight
is the can be
generated due to unfavourable economic conditions.
consumption of LNG, EFLNG is the emission factor of LNG, CVLSFO is the price of the In the present study, the Weibull
distribution
VLSFO function
fuel and CLNG[45] is theforprice
describingof LNGextreme
fuel. values of the cash outflow is used due to
its simplicity and flexibility. Extreme
The cash-outflow analysis relates the magnitude events may be related to their
of a given return period,
cash-outflow event , and
𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟with
for any given return period, the probability of occurrence
the probability of that event’s exceedance. Several assumptions are imposed in analysing is estimated as 𝑄𝑄 = 1/𝑇𝑇 𝑟𝑟 The
.
information on return periods can benefit shipowners in
the cash-outflow peaks, including data independence, data sufficiency, fuel price descrip- making decisions based on the
expected return values. The return values of cash outflow
tion and CO2 taxes for air pollution. The uncertainty propagation in the cash outflow is and probability of exceedance
are shownbyinthe
generated Figure
stochastic5. They input will be usedrelated
variables to predict
to thethe
fuelcash
price outflow
and COgenerated
2 taxes. The
by
retrofitting, the probability of exceeding
cash outflow is estimated for three years, shown in Figure 5, left.it and the associated financial risk (see Figure 6).

Figure5.5.Cash-flow
Figure Cash-flowpeaks
peaks(left)
(left)and
andWeibull
Weibulldescriptors
descriptorsofofcash
cashflow
flow(right).
(right).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 17 of 21

The study uses extreme value analysis to estimate the probability of an unacceptable
low cash outflow that can cause serious financial problems. The extreme value analysis
can also be seen as a statistical approach to assess the cash outflows peaks that can be
generated due to unfavourable economic conditions. In the present study, the Weibull
distribution function [45] for describing extreme values of the cash outflow is used due to
its simplicity and flexibility. Extreme events may be related to their return period, Tr , and
for any given return period, the probability of occurrence is estimated as Q = 1/Tr . The
information on return periods can benefit shipowners in making decisions based on the
expected return values. The return values of cash outflow and probability of exceedance are
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 22
shown in Figure 5. They will be used to predict the cash outflow generated by retrofitting,
the probability of exceeding it and the associated financial risk (see Figure 6).

Figure 6.
Figure Cash-outflowreturn
6. Cash-outflow returnvalue
value(right)
(right)vs.vs. probability
probability of exceedance
of exceedance (left)
(left) andand return
return pe-
period
riod (right).
(right).

Additionally, the
Additionally, theanalysed
analysedcash-outflow
cash-outflow maymaybe employed
be employed to resolve different
to resolve prob-
different
lems, including defining the minimum cash-outflow needs to be an acceptable
problems, including defining the minimum cash-outflow needs to be an acceptable limit limit condi-
tional on theon
conditional probability of exceedance
the probability in a specific
of exceedance period
in a specific and what
period will be
and what IRR
will beand
IRRNPV
and
to guarantee acceptable benefits of the retrofitting. The analysed scenarios
NPV to guarantee acceptable benefits of the retrofitting. The analysed scenarios encountered the
probability of exceedance and return periods as A (0.39, 2.57 weeks), B
encountered the probability of exceedance and return periods as A (0.39, 2.57 weeks), B(0.38, 2.61 weeks),
C (0.37,
(0.38, 2.74
2.61 weeks)
weeks), and D2.74
C (0.37, (0.35, 2.87 weeks).
weeks) It seems
and D (0.35, the mostItprobable
2.87 weeks). seems thescenarios of the
most probable
analysed ones is A, followed by B, C and D.
scenarios of the analysed ones is A, followed by B, C and D.
Controlling the cash-outflow level estimates the financial risk of disinteresting in
Controlling the cash-outflow level estimates the financial risk of disinteresting in
implementing the retrofitting and using the LNG fuel is estimated as follows:
implementing the retrofitting and using the LNG fuel is estimated as follows:
 
R(𝑅Tr 𝑇
)=) =Pr𝑃 C𝐶cash−out f low T| r𝑇< CLower
𝐶 limit CCAPEX
𝐶 (8)
where 𝑅 𝑇 ) is the excess lifetime risk in a monetary term for a return period 𝑇 ,
where R( Tr ) is the excess lifetime risk in a monetary term for a return period Tr , Ccash−out f low
𝐶 is the cash outflow, 𝐶 = 224,143 USD$ is the lower limit that
is the cash outflow, CLower limit = 224,143 USD$ is the lower limit that produces zero NPV
produces zero NPV and 𝐶 = 3,500,000 USD$ is the consequence of not paying the
and C = 3,500,000 USD$ is the consequence of not paying the initial capital invest-
initial CAPEX
capital investment, which has to be compensated using the ship transportation
ment, which has to be compensated using the ship transportation performance income in
performance income in monetary terms.
monetary terms.
The financial risk for the four analysed scenarios estimated as a function of the cash
The financial risk for the four analysed scenarios estimated as a function of the cash
outflow is defined as A (1,360,219 USD$), B (1,339,762 USD$), C (1,278,634 USD$) and D
outflow is defined as A (1,360,219 USD$), B (1,339,762 USD$), C (1,278,634 USD$) and D
(121,826 USD$), as can be seen from Figure 7.
(121,826 USD$), as can be seen from Figure 7.
 𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐ℎ−𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 is the cash outflow, 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 224,143 USD$ is the lower limit that
produces zero NPV and 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 3,500,000 USD$ is the consequence of not paying the
initial capital investment, which has to be compensated using the ship transportation
performance income in monetary terms.
The financial risk for the four analysed scenarios estimated as a function of the cash
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 18 of 21
outflow is defined as A (1,360,219 USD$), B (1,339,762 USD$), C (1,278,634 USD$) and D
(121,826 USD$), as can be seen from Figure 7.

Figure7.7.Financial
Figure Financialrisk
riskas
asaafunction
functionof
ofcash-outflow.
cash-outflow.

5. Conclusions
The international maritime community, including the leading international institutions,
are actively looking to reduce greenhouse gas and carbon dioxide emissions from shipping.
Efforts are directed in several directions, such as the design of new ships optimised in size
and energy efficiency, innovations in marine engines, utilisation of residual heat, new hull
coatings, reducing water resistance and alternative fuels. Optimistic plans aim for 2050
when greenhouse gas emissions are at least 50% of 2008 levels and CO2 emissions will be
at 70% of 2008.
The last MEPC (79) started discussion on a revision of the Initial IMO Strategy that
is expected to be adopted at MEPC 80 (July 2023). The more important decision on that
session is the adoption of amendments to MARPOL Annex VI, acknowledging the whole
of the Mediterranean Sea as a designated SOx-ECA (SECA). The amendments will enter
into force on 1 May 2024 with the mandatory requirement to use fuel oil with a sulphur
content of 0.10% from 1 May 2025.
Recent studies show that the IMO goals can be achieved with alternative fuels that are
not petroleum based. However, for the time being, the best alternative fuel in this transition
is liquefied natural gas. Despite the high prices of the last year and their variability, the
number of refitted and newbuilt ships is constantly growing. Analysts predict that the
high prices of liquefied natural gas will not prevent this alternative fuel’s introduction
into operation.
Along with this, carbon trading in shipping should also be considered. The Council
and the European Parliament reached a provisional political agreement on important
legislative proposals of the ‘Fit for 55’ package to include maritime shipping emissions
within the scope of the EU ETS and gradually introduce obligations for shipping companies
to surrender allowances: 40% for verified emissions from 2024, 70% for 2025 and 100%
for 2026.
It is expected that this will also lead to an increase in freight rates and the issue of
refitting the ageing ships to improve their competitiveness in the new conditions comes to
the forefront.
To answer the question facing every shipowner whether to invest in retrofitting a ship
and switching to dual fuel use, a study was made on the economic feasibility of retrofitting
a multi-purpose ship operating on short sea routes. After retrofitting with LNG, the
economic effect of operating the ship in the Black Sea on the Varna-Poti-Varna line has been
analysed, evaluating the four NPV scenarios representing Denying, Disinterested, Good
and Acceptable financial cash outflow. It seems that in the present economic instability and
price of LNG fuel and CO2 taxes, the ship owner needs to rely on the long-term contract of
buying LNG fuel to implement measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and keep
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 1199 19 of 21

good benefits in shipping. The present study introduces a framework that can easily be
employed in analysing the economic feasibility of retrofitting ageing ships.
The conducted feasibility analysis and the technical measures related to the retrofitting
will be fundamental for the decision-making in implementing the retrofitting and using
the LNG fuel and could be used as a risk-based asset management tool regarding the
zero-pollution action for the new emission control areas that are planned to be developed
in the Black Sea.
However, the methodology used for the feasibility analysis demonstrates limitations
in terms of the use of the global and regional information related to the shipping and
retrofitting economic and financial factors, which may change suddenly depending on the
economic and political conditions and consequently impact the projected trend.

Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, D.Y., P.G. and Y.G.; methodology, D.Y., P.G. and Y.G.;
validation, D.Y., P.G. and Y.G.; formal analysis, D.Y., P.G. and Y.G.; resources, P.G.; data curation, D.Y.;
writing—original draft preparation, D.Y., P.G. and Y.G.; writing—review and editing, P.G. and Y.G.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was performed within the Research Plan of the Technical University of Varna,
funded by the State Budget under the contract NP13 for 2022.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available within the article.
Acknowledgments: The third author has been supported by the Strategic Research Plan of the Cen-
tre for Marine Technology and Ocean Engineering, financed by the Portuguese Foundation for Science
and Technology (Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia-FCT) under contract UIDB/UIDP/00134/2020.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study, in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data, in the writing of the manuscript, or
in the decision to publish the results.

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