People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Higher school of commerce -Kolea-Tipaza-Algeria

Department of Preparatory Classes

Textbook Analysis 1

Kolea, September 2023

Contents

1 The real numbers 2

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 operations in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Algebraic Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 The absolute value of a Real Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.1 The simplest absolute value equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 The integer part of a real number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 The Order Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Upper Bound, lower Bound, supremum, infimum, maximum element and minimum
element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7.1 Proprieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8 Equations and inequations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1
Chapter 1
The real numbers

2
1. Introduction Chapter 1

1.1 Introduction
Because of the evolution of the number system, we can now perform complex calculations using
several categories of real numbers. In this chapter we will provide the structure of real numbers and
perform calculations with different kinds of numbers. We call:
1. Set of natural numbers N = {1, 2, 3...} .
2. The set of whole numbers denoted by W is the set of natural numbers plus zero. Thus W =
{0, 1, 2, 3...} .

In order to make subtraction possible, i.e., to solve equations of the form x + n = m, where
n, m ∈ N , we extend the set of natural numbers to the set of all integers Z. So we have:
3. Set of integers Z = {..., −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3...}.

Next to make division possible, i.e., to solve equations of the form nx = m, the set of rational
numbers is defined. 4. Set of rational numbers, denoted by Q the set Q = { pq , p ∈ Z, q ∈ Z, q ̸= 0}.
Then:N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q

A rational number may also appear in the form of a decimal. If a decimal number is repeating
or terminating, it can be written as a fraction, therefore, it must be a rational number.

Example 1.1.1 :Examples of terminating decimals:

1
8
= 0.125
57
125
= 0.456

Example 1.1.2 :Examples of repeating decimals:

1
3
= 0.333.....
7
11
= 0.6363....

Proposition 1.1.1 A fraction, pq , in reduced form where p and q are whole numbers with no common
factors, will have a terminating decimal representation if and only if q has no prime factors except 2
and 5.

Example 1.1.3
3 3
= 2 = 0.15
20 2 .5

3
1. Introduction Chapter 1

Proposition 1.1.2 A number is rational if and only if it admits repeating or terminating decimal
representation.

Example 1.1.4 : Convert Decimals to Fraction

The technique for converting decimals to fractions depends on whether the decimal is terminating or
repeating. A terminating decimal can be easily converted back to a fraction by using a denominator
which is a power of 10.
14 7 157
For example, 3.14 = 3 + 100
=3+ 50
= 50
.
The following examples demonstrates the method for converting repeating decimals to fractions

Example 1.1.5 Convert 0.123... to a fraction.

SOLUTION
Let x = 0.123123123......
We multiply by 103 as the repeating block has length 3.
Then 1000x = 123.123123..... = 123 + x
123 41
Hence 999x = 123 and so x = 999
= 333
41
Thus we obtain 0.123.... = 333

Example 1.1.6 Prove that x = 1.25141414.... is an rational number.

SOLUTION
x = 1.25141414....
Then 100x = 125 + 0.1414...
Let a = 0.1414.... Multiply by 100
100a = 14 + 0.1414...
100a = 14 + a
14
Then a = 99
14
So 100x = 125 + 99
12389
Thus we obtain x = 9900

√
Problem: let’s try to solve in Q the equation x2 = 2. i.e prove that 2 is irrational. Suppose
p
by contradiction that there exists x ∈ Q such that x2 = 2. We may write x = q
where p, q are the
integers i.e., p, q ∈ Z and co-primes, i.e., GCD(p, q) = 1 Now, since x = 2, then p2 = 2q 2 , and thus
2

p2 is an even number. This implies that p is also even. Since p is even, we may write p = 2k for
some k ∈ N and therefore (2k)2 = 2q 2 , from which it follows that q 2 = 2k. Hence, q 2 is even and
thus q is also even. Thus, both p and q are even, which contradicts the fact that p and q are relatively

4
2. operations in R Chapter 1

prime.
√
So, 2 is not a rational number. Therefore, the root of 2 is irrational.
However, this x of x2 = 2 is a real number that we can draw: it is the length of the diagonal of a
square with side 1! Q is missing something and that something is the set of real numbers.

The set of real numbers is made by combining the set of rational numbers and the set of irrational
numbers. The real numbers include natural numbers or counting numbers, whole numbers, integers,
rational numbers (fractions and repeating or terminating decimals), and irrational numbers. The set
of real numbers is all the numbers that have a location on the number line. The positive real numbers

correspond to points to the right of the origin, and the negative real numbers correspond to points to
the left of the origin. The set of all real numbers is denoted by the symbol R.

Remark 1.1.1 We can defined the real numbers as the limits of sequences of rational numbers.
√ √
For example: Let x, y ∈ R such that x = 2, y = 3
let’s put an and bn two sequences of rational numbers such that an → x and bn → y
14 141
a1 = 10
, a2 = 100
, a3 = 1414
103
, a4 = 14142
104
...
17 173 1732 17320
b1 = 10
,
b2 = 100
, b3 = 103 , b4 = 104 ...
√ √ √ √ √ √
Then an → 2, bn → 3, an + bn → 2 + 3 and an .bn → 2 3

1.2 operations in R
Real numbers are combined by two fundamental operations, namely, addition (+) and multiplication
(or). The addition operation satisfies the following axioms:

5
3. Algebraic Identities Chapter 1

- The closure law. x, y ∈ R =⇒ x + y ∈ R

- The associative law. x, y, z ∈ R =⇒ (x + y) + z = x + (y + z).
- The commutative law. x, y ∈ R =⇒ x + y = y + x.
- Identity for addition. There is a real number 0 (zero) such that x + 0 = x, ∀x ∈ R.
- Inverse for addition. For each x ∈ R there is a real number −x such that x + (−x) = 0.

The multiplication operation satisfies the following axioms:

- The closure law. x, y ∈ R =⇒ xy ∈ R.
- The associative law. x, y, z ∈ R =⇒ (xy)z = x(yz).
- The commutative law. x, y ∈ R =⇒ xy = yx.
- Identity for multiplication. There is a real number 1 (one) such that x1 = x, ∀x ∈ R.
1
- Inverse for multiplication. For each x ∈ R except x = 0 there is a real number x
such that x x1 = 1.
- The distributive law. x, y, z ∈ R =⇒ x(y + z) = (xy) + (xz).

In view of the above axioms the set of real numbers R is called a commutative field.

1.3 Algebraic Identities

The following proposition collects some important algebraic identities.

Proposition 1.3.1 For all a, b ∈ R, we have:

- (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
- (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2
- (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3
In the general case, when the exponents are bigger numbers we have then Newton’s binomial formula,
i.e., we shall explicitly write (a + b)n as a sum of monomials of the form ak bl .

Pn
(a+b)n = k=0 Cnk an−k bk where the Cnk are the binomial coefficients obtained in Pascal’s triangle.

Note that every entry can be obtained by taking the sum of the two numbers diagonally above it, e.g.
15 = 5 + 10. !
n
The binomial coefficients are usually written .The notation can be referred to as ”n choose k”
k
which is the number of different combinations of ordering k objects out of a total of n objects. Thus

6
4. The absolute value of a Real Number Chapter 1

!
n n!
= k!(n−k)!
k
where ”!” means factorial. ! ! !
n+1 n n
So Pascal’s triangle allows us to see easily that = +
k k k−1

For example (a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3 b + 6a2 b2 + 4ab3 + b4 .

We have also: - a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)
- a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
- a4 − b4 = (a − b)(a3 + a2 b + ab2 + b3 )
The general formula for difference of powers is:
For any positive integer n
Pn−1 n−1−k k

an − bn = (a − b) k=0 a b .

1.4 The absolute value of a Real Number

We start this section by recalling the definition of absolute value of a real number, a concept which
will be important in a number of places hereafter.

Definition 1.4.1 For x ∈ R, the absolute value of x, denoted |x|, is defined as

(
x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x if x < 0

7
4. The absolute value of a Real Number Chapter 1

√ √ √
As an example, since −5 < 0, we have | − 5| = −(−5) = 5; analogously, | − 3| = −(− 3) = 3.
For any real number x, the number |x| can be viewed as the distance, on the real line, from x to
the point 0.

The next theorem identifies the basic properties of the absolute value of a real number.

Theorem 1.4.1 For all a, x ∈ R, where a ≥ 0, the following hold:

1) |x| ≥ 0, | − x| = |x|.
2) |x|2 = x2
√
3) x2 = |x|
4) |xy| = |x||y|.
5) |x| ≤ a ⇔ a ≤ x ≤ a.
6) |x| > k ⇔ x < k or x > k
7) |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|.

Proof
Items 1)-6) follow directly from Definition 1.4.1. We shall now prove 7) as follows: Since |x + y|2 =
(x + y)2 by 2), we conclude from 1), 2), and 4) that
|x + y|2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2 ≤ x2 + |2xy| + y 2 = |x|2 + 2|x||y| + |y|2 = (|x| + |y|)2 .
Thus, |x + y|2 ≤ (|x| + |y|)2 .

8
4. The absolute value of a Real Number Chapter 1

Theorem 1.4.1 implies that |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|.

Item 7) of Theorem 1.4.1 is called the triangle inequality. If we view real numbers as points on the
real line, then |ab| is the distance between the points a and b.

1.4.1 The simplest absolute value equation

The simplest absolute value equation is the equation

|x − a| = b

; where a and b are given real numbers. Since |x − a| ≥ 0, such an equation does not admit roots
when b < 0. On the other hand, when b ≥ 0, it follows from the definition of absolute value that one
must have either x − a = b or x − a = −b, from where we get the roots

x = a − b or x = a + b

The coming example shows how to solve a more elaborate equation in a single variable, involving
the concept of absolute value of a real number.

Example 1.4.1 Solve equation x + 1| + |x − 2| + |x − 5| = 7.

Solution: First of all, note that:

(
x+1 if x ≥ −1
|x + 1| =
−x − 1 if x < −1

(
x−2 if x≥2
|x − 2| =
−x + 2 if x<2

and
(
x−5 if x≥5
|x − 5| =
−x + 5 if x<5

Now, the conjunction of the conditions x < −1 or x ≥ −1, x < 2 or x2, x < 5 or x ≥ 5 partitions
the real line into the intervals ] − ∞, −1[, [−1, 2], [2, 5[ and [5, +∞[. Hence, in order to simplify the

9
5. The integer part of a real number Chapter 1

left hand side of the given equation, we




 −3x + 6 if x < −1

 −x + 8 if −1 ≤ x < 2
|x + 1| + |x − 2| + |x − 5| =


 x+4 if 2≤x<5

 3x − 6 if x≥5

Finally, note that

• −3x + 6 = 7 ⇔ x = −1
3
however, since the condition −1
3
< −1 is not satisfied, there are no roots in
this case.
• −x + 8 = 7 ⇔ x = 1; since the condition −1 ≤ 1 < 2 is satisfied, x = 1 is a root of the equation.
• x + 4 = 7 ⇔ x = 3; since the condition 2 ≤ 3 < 5 is satisfied, x = 3 is also a root of the equation.
• 3x − 6 = 7 ⇔ x = 13
3
; since the condition 13
3
≥ 5 is not satisfied, there are no roots in this case.
Therefore, the solution set of the given equation is S = {1, 3}.

1.5 The integer part of a real number

Definition 1.5.1 The integer part of a number, denoted [x] or E(x), is the unique integer such
that E(x) ≤ x < E(x) + 1. This quantity is also called the greatest integer less than or equal to x.

Note: If [x] = n, where n is an integer, then n ≤ x < n + 1. Therefore, x belongs to the interval
[n, n + 1[.

10
6. The Order Relation Chapter 1

Example 1.5.1 - [2.3] = 2, we look for the largest integer less than or equal to 2.3. Note that
2 ≤ 2.3 < 3.
- [2.3] = 3, we look for the largest integer less than or equal to 2.3. Note that 3 ≤ 2.3 < 2. - [45] = 45,
we look for the largest integer less than or equal to 45. Note that 45 ≤ 45 < 46.

Theorem 1.5.1 (Basic Properties of Absolute Value).

There are different properties of of integer part of a real number some of them are as follows:
1) ∀x ∈ Z, E(x) = x.
2) ∀x, y ∈ R, E(x + y) ≥ E(x) + E(y).
3) ∀x, y ∈ R+ , E(x.y) ≥ E(x).E(y).
4) ∀x ∈ R, k ∈ Z, E(x + k) = E(x) + k.

Proof

1) ∀x ∈ Z, we have x ≤ x < x + 1, so by definition [x] = x.

(
[x] ≤ x
2) We have =⇒ [x] + [y] ≤ x + y =⇒ [[x] + [y]] ≤ [x + y].
[y] ≤ y
because the integer part function is increasing
Then [[x] + [y]] = [x] + [y] ≤ [x + y]
(
[x] ≤ x
3) We have =⇒ [x].[y] ≤ x.y =⇒ [[x].[y]] ≤ [x.y].
[y] ≤ y
because the integer part function is increasing
Then [[x].[y]] = [x].[y] ≤ [x.y]

4) Let x ∈ R and k ∈ Z
We have [x] ≤ x < [x] + 1
then [x] + k ≤ x + k < [x] + 1 + k and [x] + k ∈ Z
hence by definition [x + k] = [x] + k

1.6 The Order Relation

The real number system is ordered by the relation ≤ (less than or equal), which satisfies the following
axioms:

11
7. Upper Bound, lower Bound, supremum, infimum, maximum element and minimum element
Chapter 1

a) dichotomy law: For each pair of real numbers a and b, exactly one of the following is true:

a ≤ b or b ≤ a

b) Reflexivity: a ≤ a, for every a ∈ R c) Antisymmetry: if a, b ∈ R such that a ≤ bandb ≤ a, then

a = b. d)Transitivity: If a, b, c ∈ R such that a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c.

A field with an order relation satisfying a)–d) is an ordered field.

Because the real number system (R, +, ·, ¡) satisfies the commutative field and order axioms, it is
said to be an ordered commutative field.

1.7 Upper Bound, lower Bound, supremum, infimum, max-

imum element and minimum element
Definition 1.7.1 ( Upper Bound and lower Bound )
Let S ⊆ R be nonempty.
• Suppose there is a, b ∈ R such that every real number in S is less than or equal to b, that is, for all
x ∈ S, we have x ≤ b. Then we shall say that b is an upper bound for S and that S is bounded above.
• Suppose there is an a ∈ R such that a is less than or equal to every real number in S, that is, for
all x ∈ S, we have a ≤ x. Then we will say that a is a lower bound for S and that S is bounded
below. • If S has both a lower bound and an upper bound, then we say that S is bounded
2 2
Example 1.7.1 Let S = n
: n ∈ N (see Figure (1.1). Since n
≤ 3 for all nn ∈ N, we see that
2
the set S is bounded above. Furthermore, because 0 ≤ n
for all nn ∈ N, the set S is bounded below.

2
Figure 1.1: The set n
: n ∈ N plotted on the real line.

We present a few more examples. 1. Let a, b ∈ R be such that a < b. Then b is an upper
bound and a is a lower bound for each of the sets ]a, b[)], [a, b[, [a, b]. 2.Z+ and Q+ are not bounded
 x
above. 3. 2 is a lower bound for the setsZ+ and Q+ . 4. The set x+1 : x ∈ Q+ is bounded, because

12
7. Upper Bound, lower Bound, supremum, infimum, maximum element and minimum element
Chapter 1

x
0< x+1
< 1for all x ∈ Q+ . 5. The set {∈ R : x < 0} is bounded above, but it is not bounded.
The following result is often applied to show that a set of real numbers is bounded.

Definition 1.7.2 ( supremum and infimum )

Let S ⊆ R be nonempty. • Suppose that β is an upper bound for S. If β is the least upper bound
for S, then β is said to be the supremum of S and we write β = sup(S). • Suppose that α is a
lower bound for S. If α is the greatest lower bound for S, then α is called the infimum of S and we
writeα = inf (S).
2
Example 1.7.2 Consider the set S = n
: n ∈ N (see Figure (1.1). As we saw earlier, the set S
is bounded. We note that 0 is the greatest lower bound for S and that 2 is the least upper bound for
S. Thus, inf (S) = 0 and sup(S) = 2.

Let S ⊆ R be nonempty. The equation β = sup(S) means that the following two items hold: (a) β is
an upper bound for S and (b) β is the smallest upper bound for S. Similarly, the equation α = inf (S)
means that (a) α is a lower bound for S and (b) α is the largest lower bound for S. The next remark
repeats and clarifies these observations.

Remark 1.7.1 Let S ⊆ R be nonempty and let α, β ∈ R. Then we have the following (see Figure
1.1): 1. β = sup(S), if and only if the following two conditions hold: (a) For all x ∈ S,x ≤ β. (b)
For all real numbers b, if b is an upper bound for S, then ≤ b. 2. α = inf (S), if and only if the
following two conditions hold: (a) For all x ∈ S, ≤ x. (b) For all real numbers a, if a is a lower
bound for S, then aleqα.

Before we continue, we need to distinguish between the notions of a maximum element and the
supremum. Let S be an infinite set of real numbers. Suppose that there exists an m ∈ S such
thatx ≤ m for all x ∈ S. Thus,m is a maximum element of S. Also observe that m = sup(S).
It turns out that S has a maximum element if and only if sup(S)S. Thus, if sup(S) ∈
/ S, then S
does not have a maximum element. A similar observation can be made concerning the minimum and
infimum of S.

Definition 1.7.3 ( maximum element and minimum element)

Let S ⊆ R be nonempty. • Let β = sup(S). If β ∈ S, then β is the maximum element of S, denoted
by β = max(S). • Let α = inf (S). If α ∈ S, then α is the minimum element of S, denoted by
α = min(S).

Example 1.7.3 Let S = [2, 5]. Because sup(S) = 5 and 5 ∈ S, we observe that max(S) = 5. Since
inf (S) = 2 and 2 ∈ S, we see that min(S) = 2.

13
8. Equations and inequations Chapter 1

Example 1.7.4 Let T =]2, 5[. Because sup(T ) = 5 and 5 ∈

/ T , we have that max(T ) is undefined;
that is, T does not have a maximum element. Similarly, min(T ) is undefined.
2
Example 1.7.5 Let S = n
: n ∈ N , max(S) = 2 and min(S) is undefined.

1.7.1 Proprieties
Let A and B be two nonempty and bounded parts of R.

1. If −A = {−x, x ∈ A} then:
(
sup(−A) = −inf (A).
inf (−A) = −sup(A).

2. If A + B = {x + y, x ∈ A, y ∈ B} then:

sup(A + B) = sup(A) + sup(B)

3. (
inf (A) ≥ inf (B)
(A ⊂ B) ⇒
sup(A) ≤ sup(B)
sup(A ∪ B) = max {sup(A), sup(B)}

inf (A ∪ B) = min {inf (A), inf (B)}

Proof

1.8 Equations and inequations

14