OSI Model Layers

 The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework to

implement protocols in seven layers.
 The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model defines a networking framework to
implement protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting
at the application layer in one station, and proceeding to the bottom layer, over the
channel to the next station and back up the hierarchy.
 There is really nothing to the OSI model. In fact, it's not even tangible. The OSI model
doesn't perform any functions in the networking process. It is a conceptual framework so
we can better understand complex interactions that are happening.
 The OSI model takes the task of internetworking and divides that up into what is referred
to as a vertical stack that consists of the following layers.

 OSI model layers are numbered seven through one. We often refer to the layers as layer
one or layer three, rather than saying the name of the layer.
 Application Layer - Layer 7
The application layer is responsible for integrating network services with the operating system.
The application layer really provides the interface between the applications and the rest of the
network.

Different protocols are associated with the application layer, such as HTTP, TELNET, FTP, TFTP,
SMTP and many others.

We talk about these protocols as being in the application layer, but in reality, most of these
protocols actually extend down through the session layer.

In reality, most services or protocols can span multiple layers, but we talk about these as being
application layer protocols because that is the highest layer that these protocols function at.

The application layer serves as the window for users and application processes to access network
services. This layer contains a variety of commonly needed functions:

 Resource sharing and device redirection

 Remote file access

 Remote printer access

 Inter-process communication

 Network management

 Directory services

 Electronic messaging (such as mail)

 Network virtual terminals

Presentation Layer - Layer 6

The sixth OSI model layer is the presentation layer. The presentation layer is a formatting layer. It
deals with things such as syntax, encryption and compression.

For example, when we visit a web page using the HTTP protocol, if we want to use encrypted
connection, the presentation layer will perform that encryption.

In this case HTTP uses another protocol, referred to as SSL, to provide that encryption.
The presentation layer formats the data to be presented to the application layer. It can be viewed
as the translator for the network
 This layer may translate data from a format used by the application layer into a common format at
the sending station, then translate the common format to a format known to the application layer
at the receiving station.
The presentation layer provides:

 Character code translation: for example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Data conversion: bit order, CR-CR/LF, integer-floating point, and so on.

 Data compression: reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

 Data encryption: encrypt data for security purposes. For example, password encryption.

 Makes sure that the information is delivered in a form that the receiving system can understand
and use.

Session Layer - Layer 5

The session layer is responsible for creating sessions between communicating devices. Each client
connection is referred to as a session.

For example, each client that connects to some server is identified as a session. It is also possible
that the same user creates multiple sessions on the same server, for example, if the user opens a
web page from different browsers.

The session layer uses a session ID to identify each unique session which keeps the data stream
from different clients separate.

The session layer is responsible for setting up communication sessions and terminating them.
Termination happens when a session is idle for some period of time.

The session layer allows session establishment between processes running on different stations. It
provides:

 Session establishment, maintenance and termination: allows two application processes on

different machines to establish, use and terminate a connection, called a session.

 Session support: performs the functions that allow these processes to communicate
 The session Layer must manage and synchronize conversations between two different
applications. Session can allow traffic to go in both direction at the same time, or in only
one direction at a time.
Transport Layer - Layer 4
The transport layer is concerned with how data is delivered through the network. The transport
layer receives information from the upper OSI model layers that's formatted as data.

The transport layer is responsible for segmentation of that data. With segmentation, larger pieces
of data are divided into smaller blocks. Each block is identified with a sequence number. As these
blocks are sent through the network, the sequence number helps the receiving device reassemble
those blocks into the correct order. It also helps the receiving device realize when one of those
segments is missing. Those units of data that are created at the transport layer are called
segments. Segmentation also requires sequencing and combination on the receiving device. We
often refer to this segmentation and the error correction that can be preformed as host-to-host
error correction..
TCP and UDP

Two specific protocols that are used at the transport layer are TCP and UDP. TCP is referred to as a
connection oriented protocol, because it takes advantage of sequencing, error correction and flow
control to ensure that data sent from upper layers is received at the receiving device. UDP is
referred to as a connectionless protocol, because it is more concerned with moving data through
the network, without necessarily ensuring that everything arrives at the destination device. When
using UDP, error correction can be preformed somewhere in the upper layers.
Port Numbers

Another thing that happens at the transport layer is the assignment of port numbers. A port is a
number which identifies an upper layer service running on a server. For example, our server can
be a web server, an email server, a DNS server or it can run any other supported service at the
same time. In this case, information received from lower levels, up to the transport layer, needs to
be routed to the appropriate service running on the server. This is done by the port number. Each
service is associated with a unique port number such as 80 for web server, or 53 for DNS. By using
port numbers the transport layer can identify the upper layer protocol that is used and then send
that data to the correct protocol.
The transport layer ensures that messages are delivered error-free, in sequence, and with no
losses or duplications. It relieves the higher layer protocols from any concern with the transfer of
data between them and their peers.

The size and complexity of a transport protocol depends on the type of service it can get from the
network layer. For a reliable network layer with virtual circuit capability, a minimal transport layer
is required. If the network layer is unreliable and/or only supports datagrams, the transport
protocol should include extensive error detection and recovery.
 The transport layer provides:

 Message segmentation: accepts a message from the (session) layer above it, splits the message
into smaller units (if not already small enough), and passes the smaller units down to the network
layer. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.

 Message acknowledgment: provides reliable end-to-end message delivery with acknowledgments.

 Message traffic control: tells the transmitting station to "back-off" when no message buffers are
available.

 Session multiplexing: multiplexes several message streams, or sessions onto one logical link and
keeps track of which messages belong to which sessions (see session layer).

 Typically, the transport layer can accept relatively large messages, but there are strict message
size limits imposed by the network (or lower) layer. Consequently, the transport layer must break
up the messages into smaller units, or frames, prepending a header to each frame.

 The transport layer header information must then include control information, such as message
start and message end flags, to enable the transport layer on the other end to recognize message
boundaries. In addition, if the lower layers do not maintain sequence, the transport header must
contain sequence information to enable the transport layer on the receiving end to get the pieces
back together in the right order before handing the received message up to the layer above.

End-to-end layers

Unlike the lower "subnet" layers whose protocol is between immediately adjacent nodes, the
transport layer and the layers above are true "source to destination" or end-to-end layers, and are
not concerned with the details of the underlying communications facility. Transport layer software
(and software above it) on the source station carries on a conversation with similar software on
the destination station by using message headers and control messages.

Network Layer - Layer 3

The network layer is responsible for moving data between systems throughout the internetwork.
This is where routing occurs. Routing takes a message sent from an end device to a router or
through many connected routers, to the final destination device. With routing, protocols specify
how each router identifies destination networks and the path that it should take to arrive at that
destination network. One of the important things in network layer is the assignment of the IP
address. The IP address is often referred to as a network layer address, or a layer three address.
It's also referred to as a logical address. Data at the transport layer is called a segment. As that
segment is passed off to the network layer, the source and destination IP addresses are appended
to the segment. Data at the network layer then becomes a packet.
 The network layer controls the operation of the subnet, deciding which physical path the data
should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It provides:

 Routing: routes frames among networks.

 Subnet traffic control: routers (network layer intermediate systems) can instruct a sending station
to "throttle back" its frame transmission when the router's buffer fills up.

 Frame fragmentation: if it determines that a downstream router's maximum transmission unit

(MTU) size is less than the frame size, a router can fragment a frame for transmission and re-
assembly at the destination station.

 Logical-physical address mapping: translates logical addresses, or names, into physical addresses.

 Subnet usage accounting: has accounting functions to keep track of frames forwarded by subnet
intermediate systems, to produce billing information.

Communications Subnet

The network layer software must build headers so that the network layer software residing in the
subnet intermediate systems can recognize them and use them to route data to the destination
address.

This layer relieves the upper layers of the need to know anything about the data transmission and
intermediate switching technologies used to connect systems. It establishes, maintains and
terminates connections across the intervening communications facility (one or several
intermediate systems in the communication subnet).

In the network layer and the layers below, peer protocols exist between a node and its immediate
neighbor, but the neighbor may be a node through which data is routed, not the destination
station. The source and destination stations may be separated by many intermediate systems.

Data Link Layer - Layer 2

The data link layer is an interface between the physical transmission media or the physical devices
and the network layer. It is divided into two sub layers. The top sub layer is referred to as the LLC,
or Logical Link Control layer. It provides the interface between the lower layers and the upper
layers. The bottom sub layer is referred to as the Media Access Control, or MAC sub layer. It is
responsible for identifying how devices can access the physical medium. Data Link layer is where
the MAC address is assigned. In this case, a packet coming from the network layer has the MAC
address appended to the packet. Data at the data link layer is called a frame. The frame includes
the network layer packet, with the MAC address of the source and destination devices. It also
includes a CRC or a Cyclic Redundancy Check. CRC is a mathematical value that helps the receiving
device identify when there are errors in transmission.
 The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node to another over the
physical layer, allowing layers above it to assume virtually error-free transmission over the link. To
do this, the data link layer provides:

 Link establishment and termination: establishes and terminates the logical link between two
nodes.

 Frame traffic control: tells the transmitting node to "back-off" when no frame buffers are
available.

 Frame sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially.

 Frame acknowledgment: provides/expects frame acknowledgments. Detects and recovers from

errors that occur in the physical layer by retransmitting non-acknowledged frames and handling
duplicate frame receipt.

 Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes frame boundaries.

 Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity.

 Media access management: determines when the node "has the right" to use the physical
medium.

Physical Layer - Layer 1

This is where we actually get into actual hardware. For example, here we'll have protocols that
identify how cables are put together such as CAT5, which applies to twisted pair cable. Another
protocol is RJ45, which specifies how this cable is connected within the connector, and the
connector that is used between two devices. Another example of a protocol at the physical layer
is V.35, which is the protocol used by modems for sending data across the network.

The data that comes down to the physical layer is just a series of bits. Those bits become electrical
impulses, or light pulses, or sound in the case of a modem, or some kind of a radio signal with
wireless devices.

The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the transmission and
reception of the unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium. It describes the
electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces to the physical medium, and carries the
signals for all of the higher layers. It provides:

 Data encoding: modifies the simple digital signal pattern (1s and 0s) used by the PC to better
accommodate the characteristics of the physical medium, and to aid in bit and frame
synchronization. It determines:
 What signal state represents a binary 1

 How the receiving station knows when a "bit-time" starts

 How the receiving station delimits a frame

 Physical medium attachment, accommodating various possibilities in the medium:

 Will an external transceiver (MAU) be used to connect to the medium?

 How many pins do the connectors have and what is each pin used for?

 Transmission technique: determines whether the encoded bits will be transmitted by baseband
(digital) or broadband (analog) signaling.

 Physical medium transmission: transmits bits as electrical or optical signals appropriate for the
physical medium, and determines:

 What physical medium options can be used

 How many volts/db should be used to represent a given signal state, using a given physical
medium

Layer Grouping
OSI layers are often grouped. One method of layer grouping is to separate the bottom two layers
from the upper five layers. The bottom layer is concerned with the network architecture, such as
Ethernet, and the top layer is the networking protocol suite, such as TCP/IP.
With the modularity of the OSI model layer we can substitute a different network architecture
while using the same upper protocol suites. For example, when we are connecting two devices
together in a WAN, we might use a protocol such as ATM, or Frame Relay. The lower layer
protocols dictate how devices are connected together and how the electrical, or other signals, are
sent between the two devices. Once we get to the upper layers, we are no longer concerned with
the hardware, but with the software, the applications and services that are running on the
computer.

Another way to divide the OSI model layers is to separate the two middle layers, or layers three
and four, from the upper layers. The upper layers are referred to as the application layers, and the
middle layers are referred to as the transport layers.
The upper layers represent protocols that are services, such as HTTP, DNS, and other protocols
that actually provide a service. The middle layers are concerned with how messages get from one
device to another through the network. It doesn't concern itself with signaling and the format of
the physical devices on the network, but rather it determines how a message is sent from one
device to another.
Remember

The application layer provides the interface between the applications and the rest of the network.
Different protocols are associated with the application layer, such as HTTP, TELNET, FTP, TFTP,
SMTP and many others.

The presentation layer is a formatting layer. It deals with things such as syntax, encryption and
compression.

The session layer is responsible for creating sessions between communicating devices. Each client
connection is referred to as a session. Session ID is used to identify each unique session which
keeps the data stream from different clients separate.

The transport layer is concerned with how data is delivered through the network. It is responsible
for segmentation of the data. Each block of data is identified with a sequence number. Those units
of data that are created at the transport layer are called segments. Two specific protocols that are
used at the transport layer are TCP and UDP. TCP is referred to as a connection oriented protocol
because it takes advantage of sequencing, error correction and flow control. UDP is referred to as
a connectionless protocol because it is more concerned with moving data through the network,
without necessarily ensuring that everything arrives at the destination device.
The network layer is responsible for moving data between systems throughout the internetwork.
This is where routing occurs. One of the important things in network layer is the assignment of the
IP address. The IP address is often referred to as a logical address. Data at the network layer is
called a packet.

The data link layer is an interface between the physical transmission media or the physical devices
and the network layer. It is divided into two sub layers: Logical Link Control layer and Media
Access Control layer. Data Link layer is where the MAC address is assigned. Data at the data link
layer is called a frame.

The data that comes down to the physical layer is just a series of bits. OSI model is modular which
means that we can combine different network architectures with different upper protocol suites.

Summary
Roles of each layer

Level Layer Primary functions Services provided to next layer

7 Application Support the end user, This is the highest layer and
LOGIN, password, file provides user oriented services
transfer
6 Presentation Code and format Freedom from compatibility
conversion problems.
5 Session Session management, Dialogue management
synchronization
4 Transport Optimum utilization of End-to-end transport connection
the network resources of the required quality in a cost-
effective manner

3 Network Interaction with the Network connection linking the

subnetwork; Routing and end systems
relaying
2 Data link Error control; Flow Reliable transfer of bits across
control the physical connection

1 Physical Conversion of bits into Transmission of bits

electrical signals of
suitable characteristics
and