CHAPTER 2

MEASUREMENTS &
CALCULATIONS

2
 CHAPTER 2
MEASUREMENTS & CALCULATIONS

2 Types of Observations Measurements

• qualitative
• quantative MEASUREMENT = # + UNIT

The convention for a measurement is that the quantity reported

should be all known values and the first estimated value
Scientific Notation & The Larger/Smaller Protocol

93,000 =
The Larger/Smaller Protocol Illustrated
Scientific Notation In Mathematical Operations

Multiplication/Division Addition/Subtraction

8.99 x 10²
(5.8 x 10²) (4.3 x 10⁸)
– 1.8 x 10³
Metric System

MEASUREMENT = # + UNIT

UNIT = PREFIX + BASE UNIT

7 Prefixes 7 Fundamental Units

Accuracy vs. Precision

Accuracy — ability to hit the bullseye

Precision — tight grouping… ability to hit the same spot every time… to not
“spray” the data.
 Determining and Expressing Uncertainty

In this course, there are basically three levels of questions regarding

‘uncertainty’ calculations:

(1) SINGLE NUMBER: Det’n the Sig Figs and Places of a single number

(2) SINGLE OPERATION: Det’n the Sig Figs and Places of the answer
resulting from a (x/÷), or a (+/—), mathematical operation.

(3) MIXED OPERATION: Det’n the Sig Figs and Places of the answer resulting
from a problem involving both (x/÷) and (+/—) operations.

12.030 12.030
+ 0.40

CAVEAT!!!
Determining SigFigs and Places is a CORE CONCEPT in this class… it is highly probably that every test
will have at least one “SigFig” question on it… SigFig questions will also be on the final exam… and they
will be graded on every lab report submitted… in short, SigFigs is not “going away.”
Uncertainty: Single Number

The Box-and-Dot Method: How to count Sig Figs and Places

(1) Box from the first thur the last non-zero digits
(2) IF, and only if, you see a “dot”, draw a box around any TRAILING zeros
(3) all digits in the box(es) are significant, the others are not
… furthermore, the right-most boxed digit provides the “place” to which the number is precise

3040

3040.0

304.0

0.00304
3
3.01 x 10

100

100.
Sig Figs In Mathematical Operations: (x/÷) and (+/—)

45.60 45.60
x 1.4 + 1.4
–––––––– ––––––––

REMEMBER…
• Trust the calculator’s DIGITS, not it’s NUMBER
• When determining the correct number: “Choose one: either SF or PLACES
• Apply the “weakest link” rule
(EX) Sig Figs In Mathematical Operations: (x/÷) and (+/—)

44.56 44.56
x 0.140 + 0.140
–––––––– ––––––––
 For Mixed Operations problems, use the “3-Box approach”

(EX) Mixed Operations: single problem with both +/– AND (x/÷) operations

How NOT do get the correct answer: punch all the numbers out on you calculator in one step

How TO get the correct answer: use the 3-column approach

Remember the way to work mixed problems
Exact Numbers: Definitions and Examples

1. Conversions between units within the English System are exact.

~e.g. 12 in = 1 ft or 12 in/1 ft (In this conversion, 12 and 1 are both exact.)

2. Conversions between units within the Metric System are exact.

~e.g. 1 m = 100 cm or 1 m/100 cm (In this conversion, 1 and 100 are both exact.)

3. Conversions between English and Metric system are generally NOT exact.
Exceptions will be pointed out to you.
~e.g. 1 in = 2.54 cm exactly (1 and 2.54 are both exact.)
~e.g. 454 g = 1 lb or 454 g/1 lb (454 has 3 sig. fig., but 1 is exact.)

4. “Per” means out of exactly one.

~e.g. 45 miles per hour means 45 mi = 1 hr or 45 mi/1 hr. (45 has 2 sig. fig. but 1 is
exactly one.)

5. “Percent” means out of exactly one hundred.

~e.g. 25.9% means 25.9 out of exactly 100 or 25.9/100 (25.9 has 3 sig. fig., but
100 is exact.)

6. Counting numbers are exact. Sometimes it is hard to decide whether a number is a

“counting number” or not. In most cases it would be obvious. Ask when in doubt.
~e.g. There are 5 students in the room. (5 would be an exact number because you
cannot have a fraction of a student in the room.)
~e.g. subscripts in a formula, and coefficients in a balanced equation, are
considered “counting numbers” and are exact

7. Mathematical constants are exact. The symbol is exact; however, the number 3.14
has only three significant figures, while 3.1416 has five. In a mathematical formula,
such as V = (4/3)pr 3 , or P.E. = ½ mv 2 , the fractions are exact numbers.

8. The conversions between Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin temperatures are exact.
This means the fractions (5/9 or 9/5) and the number 32 are exact. The number 273.15,
in the Celsius to Kelvin temperature conversion, is also exact.

9. Speed of light in a vacuum is exact, and is equal to 299,792,458 m/s

Math Operations, Measured Numbers, and Exact Numbers

100 100 100

x 2 + 2 + 2
–––––– –––––– ––––––
Measured vs. Exact Numbers In Calculations

(x/÷, so count s.f.)

sf if 9 is measured sf if 9 is exact
47.2 47.2
x 9 x 9

REMEMBER…
• for purposes of SIG FIGS and PLACES, ignore Exact Numbers
• Exact Numbers are infinitely precise (“perfect”), so they can never be the least precise number
• often can NOT tell if an integer is Measured or Exact just by looking — must know situation.
 Dimensional Analysis (Factor Label Method)

It is extremely difficult to pass this class without being proficient — that is, being
practiced and able to use with ease — dimensional analysis. (You have now been
warned. Take heed.)

"Take heed of my instructions, little boy," said the old bearded man.
"My potion will only work for the one who wears the ring."

DA Basics: use of Conversion Factors

(EX) ¿If 2 loaves of bread cost $4.28, how much do 17 loaves cost?
DA Basics: 1-step (simple) unit conversions

(EX) ¿Convert 325 mL into L? (EX) ¿Convert 0.325 L into KL (kiloliters)?

DA Basics: the all-important multistep (complex) conversion

(EX) ¿Convert 325 µL into KL (kiloliters)?

DA Basics: conversions of both numerator (“top”) and denominator (“bottom”)

(EX) ¿Express 26.2 mi/hr in km/min?

(EX) Dimensional Analysis
¿Your Ford Mustang has a 5.00 L engine. What is the engine size in units of “in³”?
Density

algebraically dimensional analysis

(EX) ¿11.2 mL of a liquid was weighed by difference and found to have a mass of 9.5
g. What is the density?

algebraically

dimensional analysis
(EX) Dimensional Analysis… REDUX: Density Question Previous Page:
¿The density of 55.64 g of a material is 21.4 g/mL. What is its volume?

The Hard Way

algebraically

The Easy “No-algebra” Way

dimensional analysis

—— answer next page ——

(EX) Dimensional Analysis… REDUX: Density Question Previous Page:
¿The density of 55.64 g of a material is 21.4 g/mL. What is its volume?

The Hard Way

algebraically

The Easy “No-algebra” Way

dimensional analysis

GOOD NEWS: DA will work on equations that are all (x/÷) …

which probably turns out to be over 90%
of the equations you will use in this course.
Temperature Scales

BAD NEWS: can NOT use dimensional analysis for temperature conversions b/c of the presence of a
“+/−” mathematical operator … these must be solved algebraically.

GOOD NEWS: this is the only equation this semester for which dimensional analysis does not work; all
remaining equations are all “×/÷”.