Module 2 | Lesson 1 – Sentence Unity and Coherence

Writing had always been a form of communication and, as such, it shares the same
goal; being understood is always the end point. Misunderstanding is considered a
breakdown in the communication process. Thus, it is imperative for students to learn how
to properly write sentences in order for them to be clearly understood. This is where unity
and coherence comes in. Proficiency in these two skills would then be useful when writing
larger units such as paragraphs, compositions, or any type of discourse.

Pre-Assessment
Do you prefer writing shorter or longer sentences? Which do you think is better? Justify
your preference.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Familiarize with unity and coherence in the sentence level.
2. Write better sentences by using unity and appropriate transitional devices.

Core Content
Sentence Unity
 A sentence has unity if it expresses only one main idea.
 How to Achieve Sentence Unity
 Consistent Use of Tenses

*A verb in an adverbial clause generally agrees with the tense of the verb in
the main clause.
Example: We finished our work before we watched the game.

*The verb in the adjective clause doesn’t need to agree in the tense with the
verb in the main clause when the two actions are not necessarily related in time of
occurrence.
Example: Ms. Darcy, who was my teacher in elementary, is now in
Antarctica.
 *The verb takes the present tense of the verb if the idea being expressed is
a universal truth or a relatively permanent condition.
Example: The sun rises in the east.

*Use the tense form of the word that tells the time of action one wishes to
express.
Example: He was in Manila last week, but now he is in Baguio.

 Consistent Use of Number

*Avoid unnecessary shifting from first person to third person or vice

versa
Example: If the students pass their project on time, they will obtain a
good mark.

 Consistent Use of Persons of Pronouns

*Shifting persons of pronouns will destroy unity. The pronouns must

agree with their antecedents.
Example: The man was read his rights.
She is inviting us to attend her celebration.

 Consistent Use of Subject

*Do not shift subject in a sentence.

Example: Students stay up late at night but the projects are not usually
accomplished.
(wrong because of shift of subject from student to
project)

 Consistent Use of Voice

*Voice is the aspect of a verb that tells whether the subject performs or
receives the action.
Example: The department chair held a meeting and discussed some
important matters for the upcoming seminar. (Active)
 An inspirational message is given. (Passive)

 Consistent Use of Language

*Use the same language throughout the sentence. Avoid the use of foreign
terms and phrases which have not been incorporated into the language. As much as
possible, never resort to language mixing.
*Also, be consistent with the use of register (formal, informal, slang).
Example: Aren’t we going home yet? I am gutom na.
(wrong because of language mixing)

Sentence Coherence
 It means putting ideas in logical order showing their relationship with one another.
The sentence elements should be in proper word order.
 Coherence is achieved when sentences and ideas are connected and flow together
smoothly. An essay without coherence can inhibit a reader’s ability to understand the ideas
and main points of the essay. Coherence allows the reader to move easily throughout the
essay from one idea to the next, from one sentence to the next, and from one paragraph to
the next.
 How to Achieve Coherence
 Use Repetition to Link Ideas, Sentences, and Paragraphs
*Repeating key words or phrases helps connect and focus idea(s)
throughout the essay. Repetition also helps the reader remain focused and headed in the
right direction.
Example: Most students are intimidated by the works of William
Shakespeare. They believe Shakespeare’s sonnets and plays are
far too complicated to read and understand.

 Use Transitional Expressions to Link Ideas, Sentences, and Paragraphs

*Transitional expressions, such as however, because, therefore, and in
addition, are used to establish relationships between ideas, sentences, and paragraphs.
They serve as signals to let the reader know the previous idea, sentence, or paragraph is
connected to what follows.
Example: Many students believe they cannot write a good
essay because they are not writers. However, as they practice writing and work on
developing their writing skills, most students are able to gain the needed confidence to
start thinking of themselves writers.
 List of Transitional Devices and their Use

To Add: and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further,
furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in
addition, first (second, etc.)

To Compare: whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however,

nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where,
compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but,
although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast,
although this may be true

To Prove: because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously,

evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in
fact, in addition, in any case, that is

To Show Exception: yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of,

despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes

To Show Time: immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours,

finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first
(second, etc.), next, and then

To Repeat: in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been

noted

To Emphasize: definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in

any case, absolutely, positively, naturally,
surprisingly, always, forever, perennially,
eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably,
without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without
reservation

To Show Consequence: first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and

so forth. next, then, following this, at this
time, now, at this point, after, afterward,
subsequently, finally, consequently,
previously, before this, simultaneously,
concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next,
and then, soon

To Give an Example: for example, for instance, in this case, in another

case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the
case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an
illustration, to illustrate
 To Summarize or Conclude: in brief, on the whole, summing up, to
conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown,
as I have said, hence, therefore,
accordingly, thus, as a result,
consequently

 Use Pronouns to Link Sentences

*Pronouns are used to link or connect sentences by referring to preceding
nouns and pronouns. Pronouns can also help create paragraphs that are easy to read by
eliminating wordiness and unnecessary repetition.
Example: Mr. Thompson agreed to meet with members of the
worker’s union before he signed the contract. He was
interested in hearing their concerns about the new insurance
plan.

 Use Synonyms to Link Ideas and Create Variety

*Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly the same meaning as
another word. They provide alternative word choices that can add variety to an essay and
can help eliminate unnecessary repetition.
Example: Teenagers face an enormous amount of peer pressure
from friends and schoolmates. As a result, many young
adults are exhibiting signs of severe stress or depression at an
early age.

 Use Parallel Structures to Link Ideas, Sentences, and Paragraphs

*Parallelism is the use of matching words, phrases, clauses, or sentence
structures to express similar ideas. Parallel structures allow the reader to flow smoothly
from one idea, sentence, or paragraph to the next and to understand the relationships and
connections between ideas.
Examples: Usually, the children spend the summer
weekends playing ball in park, swimming in the
neighbor’s pool, eating ice cream under the tree,
or camping in the backyard.

At the museum, the class attended a lecture where the

speaker demonstrated how the Native Americans made
bows and arrows. They also attended a lecture where a
sword smith demonstrated how the Vikings crafted
swords.
Self- Assessment
 Note: This is for your practice only. You do not need to submit this to your professor. Open the
attached file below.
/files/5764726/self-assessment_for_module_lesson_1.doc

Module 2 | Lesson 2 – Rhetoric

As Aristotle defined the term, rhetoric is “the faculty of observing in any given case the
available means of persuasion.”
Today, people sometimes use the word “rhetoric” in a negative light. For example,
they might say that a politician is “all rhetoric and no substance,” meaning the politician
makes good speeches but doesn’t have good ideas. This is an important point – a person
can be good at rhetoric without actually having good ideas! To use an extreme example,
John C. Calhoun was an extremely talented rhetorician who used his skills to argue in
defense of slavery!

Although rhetoric is often connected with making speeches, it applies just as well to
writing.

Pre-Assessment

1. What are the different rhetorical appeals?

2. In today’s highly commercialized world, in what different contexts is rhetoric used?

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

1. Identify different rhetorical devices used in different popular mediums.

2. Apply rhetorical appeals to write more convincing arguments.

Core Content

Rhetoric

 Rhetoric is the ancient art of persuasion. It’s a way of presenting and making your views
convincing and attractive to your readers or audience. In the classical world, rhetoric was
considered one of the most important school subjects, and no gentleman was raised
without extensive formal training in the skill. That’s why the politicians of, say, the
19th century were so eloquent and well-spoken in comparison with modern politicians.
 Rhetoric matters because arguments matter. If you can persuade people to come around to
your point of view, you can be more successful in all sorts of subjects. And it’s not just an
academic skill! Think about the job process: when you write a cover letter, your job is to
convince the employer that you are the best person for the job. How will you do this? By
using effective rhetoric in the letter. Similarly, your success at the interview stage will
depend largely on the way you use rhetoric to present yourself.
 Examples of the Use of Rhetoric
Example 1: Rhetoric in Public Speaking

“The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never
forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the
unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is
rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us.”

 Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address is widely praised as one of

history’s greatest speeches. Though the speech took less than two
minutes to deliver, the country was deeply moved by it. In those two
minutes, Lincoln summarized all the pain and suffering that had been
brought by the Civil War and looked forward to the good that might
someday come from a Union victory. Although Lincoln wasn’t trying
to persuade his audience of anything in particular, he was presenting
an overall view or understanding of the war, which he wanted his
listeners to accept as their own.

Example 2: Rhetoric in Advertisement

 Source: https://bit.ly/32dKDKp
 Advertisements are a very subtle form of rhetoric. Every
advertisement you see is an attempt to persuade you that you should
take a certain action – usually buying a product or supporting a
political candidate. Knowing this, you can analyze the various
techniques that advertisements use. Are they stimulating your
appetites, such as your desire for food or companionship? Are they
using the emotions? Are they presenting logical arguments?

Example 3: Rhetoric in Literature and Scholarship

Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears;
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
The evil that men do lives after them;
The good is oft interred with their bones;
So let it be with Caesar.
(William
Shakespeare, Julius Caesar)

 Shakespeare’s plays, especially his histories, are full of high

rhetoric. The most famous example is probably Marc Antony’s funeral
oration from Julius Caesar. In the speech, Marc Antony faces a hostile
crowd, most of whom are celebrating Caesar’s death. But, through
careful rhetoric, Marc Antony convinces them that they should not be
too quick to celebrate, and that Caesar may not have been such a bad
man after all. The speech is a brilliant synthesis of pathos and logos,
since it appeals both to the audience’s logical minds and to their
emotional hearts.

Example 4: Rhetoric in Media and Pop Culture

“Clear eyes, full hearts…CAN’T LOSE!” (Friday Night Lights)
 Every sports movie has a scene, usually at the dramatic climax, of
stirring locker-room rhetoric. You know the scene: our heroes are
losing by twenty points at halftime. They can’t possibly come back
from this. But the coach stands in front of them and starts, quietly, to
persuade them not to give up. By the end, he’s yelling passionately
and the team is fired up to go back out and earn the win. These
speeches rarely use logic, but they’re very emotional – in Aristotle’s
terms, they’re based almost entirely on pathos.
Rhetorical Appeals
Rhetorical appeals refer to ethos, pathos, and logos. These are classical Greek terms,
dating back to Aristotle, who is traditionally seen as the father of rhetoric. To be
rhetorically effective (and thus persuasive), an author must engage the audience in a
variety of compelling ways, which involves carefully choosing how to craft his or her
argument so that the outcome, audience agreement with the argument or point, is
achieved. Aristotle defined these modes of engagement and gave them the terms that we
still use today: logos, pathos, and ethos.

LOGOS : Appeal to LOGIC

Logic. Reason. Rationality. Logos is brainy and intellectual, cool, calm, collected, objective.

When an author relies on logos, it means that he or she is using logic, careful
structure, and objective evidence to appeal to the audience. An author can appeal to an
audience’s intellect by using information that can be fact checked (using multiple sources)
and thorough explanations to support key points. Additionally, providing a solid and non-
biased explanation of one’s argument is a great way for an author to invoke logos.

For example, if I were trying to convince my students to complete their homework, I

might explain that I understand everyone is busy and they have other classes (non-biased),
but the homework will help them get a better grade on their test (explanation). I could add
to this explanation by providing statistics showing the number of students who failed and
didn’t complete their homework versus the number of students who passed and did
complete their homework (factual evidence).

Logical appeals rest on rational modes of thinking, such as

 Comparison – a comparison between one thing (with regard to your topic) and
another, similar thing to help support your claim. It is important that the comparison is
fair and valid – the things being compared must share significant traits of similarity.
 Cause/effect thinking – you argue that X has caused Y, or that X is likely to cause Y to
help support your claim. Be careful with the latter – it can be difficult to predict that
something “will” happen in the future.
 Deductive reasoning – starting with a broad, general claim/example and using it to
support a more specific point or claim.
 Inductive reasoning – using several specific examples or cases to make a broad
generalizatio
 Exemplification – use of many examples or a variety of evidence to support a single
point
 Elaboration – moving beyond just including a fact, but explaining the significance or
relevance of that fact
  Coherent thought – maintaining a well organized line of reasoning; not repeating
ideas or jumping around

PATHOS : Appeal to EMOTIONS

When an author relies on pathos, it means that he or she is trying to tap into the
audience’s emotions to get them to agree with the author’s claim. An author using pathetic
appeals wants the audience to feel something: anger, pride, joy, rage, or happiness. For
example, many of us have seen the ASPCA commercials that use photographs of injured
puppies, or sad-looking kittens, and slow, depressing music to emotionally persuade their
audience to donate money.

Pathos-based rhetorical strategies are any strategies that get the audience to “open
up” to the topic, the argument, or to the author. Emotions can make us vulnerable, and an
author can use this vulnerability to get the audience to believe that his or her argument is a
compelling one.

Pathetic appeals might include

 Expressive descriptions of people, places, or events that help the reader to feel or
experience those events
 Vivid imagery of people, places or events that help the reader to feel like he or she
is seeing those events
 Sharing personal stories that make the reader feel a connection to, or empathy for,
the person being described
 Using emotion-laden vocabulary as a way to put the reader into that specific
emotional mindset (what is the author trying to make the audience feel? and how is
he or she doing that?)
 Using any information that will evoke an emotional response from the audience.
This could involve making the audience feel empathy or disgust for the
person/group/event being discussed, or perhaps connection to or rejection of the
person/group/event being discussed.
When reading a text, try to locate when the author is trying to convince the reader
using emotions because, if used to excess, pathetic appeals can indicate a lack of substance
or emotional manipulation of the audience.

ETHOS: Appeal to VALUES /TRUST

Ethical appeals have two facets: audience values and authorial credibility/character.

On the one hand, when an author makes an ethical appeal, he or she is attempting
to tap into the values or ideologies that the audience holds, for example, patriotism,
tradition, justice, equality, dignity for all humankind, self preservation, or other specific
social, religious or philosophical values (Christian values, socialism, capitalism, feminism,
etc.). These values can sometimes feel very close to emotions, but they are felt on a social
level rather than only on a personal level. When an author evokes the values that the
audience cares about as a way to justify or support his or her argument, we classify that as
ethos. The audience will feel that the author is making an argument that is “right” (in the
sense of moral “right”-ness, i.e., “My argument rests upon that values that matter to you.
Therefore, you should accept my argument”). This first part of the definition of ethos, then,
is focused on the audience’s values.

On the other hand, this sense of referencing what is “right” in an ethical appeal
connects to the other sense of ethos: the author. Ethos that is centered on the author
revolves around two concepts: the credibility of the author and his or her character.

Credibility of the speaker/author is determined by his or her knowledge and

expertise in the subject at hand. For example, if you are learning about Einstein’s Theory of
Relativity, would you rather learn from a professor of physics or a cousin who took two
science classes in high school thirty years ago? It is fair to say that, in general, the professor
of physics would have more credibility to discuss the topic of physics. To establish his or
her credibility, an author may draw attention to who he or she is or what kinds of
experience he or she has with the topic being discussed as an ethical appeal (i.e., “Because I
have experience with this topic –and I know my stuff! – you should trust what I am saying
about this topic”). Some authors do not have to establish their credibility because the
audience already knows who they are and that they are credible.

Character is another aspect of ethos, and it is different from credibility because it

involves personal history and even personality traits. A person can be credible but lack
character or vice versa. For example, in politics, sometimes the most experienced
candidates – those who might be the most credible candidates – fail to win elections
because voters do not accept their character. Politicians take pains to shape their character
as leaders who have the interests of the voters at heart. The candidate who successfully
proves to the voters (the audience) that he or she has the type of character that they can
trust is more likely to win.

Thus, ethos comes down to trust. How can the author get the audience to trust him
or her so that they will accept his or her argument? How can the author make him or
herself appear as a credible speaker who embodies the character traits that the audience
values?
In building ethical appeals, we see authors
 Referring either directly or indirectly to the values that matter to the intended
audience (so that the audience will trust the speaker)
 Using language, phrasing, imagery, or other writing styles common to people who
hold those values, thereby “talking the talk” of people with those values (again, so that
the audience is inclined to trust the speaker)
 Referring to their experience and/or authority with the topic(and therefore
demonstrating their credibility)
  Referring to their own character, or making an effort to build their character in
the text
When reading, you should always think about the author’s credibility regarding the
subject as well as his or her character. Here is an example of a rhetorical move that
connects with ethos: when reading an article about abortion, the author mentions that she
has had an abortion. That is an example of an ethical move because the author is creating
credibility via anecdotal evidence and first person narrative. In a rhetorical analysis
project, it would be up to you, the analyzer, to point out this move and associate it with a
rhetorical strategy.