Creative Teachers

Cognitive Science and Technology
Dennis Sale
Creative
Teachers
Self-directed Learners
Series Editor
David M. W. Powers, Adelaide, SA, Australia
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Dennis Sale
Creative Teachers
Self-directed Learners
123
Dennis Sale
Singapore Polytechnic
Singapore, Singapore
ISSN 2195-3988 ISSN 2195-3996 (electronic)

ISBN 978-981-15-3468-3 ISBN 978-981-15-3469-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3469-0
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To my wife, Jane and daughters,
Adele & Lydia
Preface
In my previous book, Creative Teaching: An Evidence-Based Approach, I applied

current research on human learning from the cognitive sciences to demystify the
underpinning syntax of creative teaching, specifically identifying what creative
teachers do and how they do it. This enables any motivated teaching professional to
develop expertise through acquiring the necessary knowledge, understanding and
skills through deliberate practice. That work established the basis for an
Evidence-Based Creative Teaching (EBCT) framework, which provides the means
for designing and facilitating effective, efficient and engaging learning experience
for students, irrespective of delivery mode (e.g., face-to-face, blended or fully
online).
This book applies the EBCT framework to major educational challenges that
teachers face now, especially that of developing students’ capability to be
self-directed lifelong learners, equipped with twenty-first-century competencies.
Students must be able to survive these turbulent times—euphemistically referred to
as the VUCA world—as well as have opportunities to prosper, contribute to work
and the community, and find purpose and meaning—experience well-being—in
life. That is a tough challenge.
The book contains an extensive synthesis of the research literature across all
fields of applied psychology, as well as related works in biology, philosophy and
futurism. It provides a current evidence-based resource for helping teaching and
training professionals to tackle today’s curriculum and professional development
challenges—as best as we can frame them and as best as we might thoughtfully
address them.
It has also been written for persons who are interested in understanding how
learning really works in terms of psychological processes and brain functioning in
an easier to read format than is typically the case in this genre. Hence, I use a more
informal narrative style, with many stories and some humour to illustrate key facts
about human learning, specifically identifying factors that enhance—as well as
inhibit—our competence for this essential capability. Such understandings and
practices will help one’s personal learning, self-regulation and well-being.
vii
viii Preface
Chapter 1 frames the context for what follows in subsequent chapters, which is
the systematic analysis and evaluation of the pedagogic issues and necessary core
competencies for facilitating both teaching expertise and self-directed learning for
students.
Chapter 2 provides a comprehensive synthesis of the extensive research relating
to human learning, captured in terms of universal cognitive scientific principles,
which I frame as the Core Principles of Learning. These constitute an
evidence-based pedagogic framework—the essential knowledge bases underpin-
ning teaching expertise—what I refer to as Pedagogic Literacy.
Chapter 3 argues that Metacognitive Capability is the superordinate twenty-first-
century competence, essential for both creative teachers and self-directed learners.
I extensively analyse the components of metacognition—how they work as a
dynamic system in human psychological functioning—and, most importantly, how
this unique human capability can be used to maximize learning, self-regulation and
personal well-being.
Chapter 4 addresses the challenge of enhancing students’ intrinsic motivation in
school-based learning and, in essence, human motivation generically. Motivation
underpins learning, in that without motivation, people do not bother to learn—or
think—too much.
Chapter 5 tackles the psychological capability for creative thinking and how this
is contextualized to everyday practical teaching and learning contexts—what I refer
to as Creative Teaching Competence.
Chapter 6, using an evidence-based approach, demonstrates how the affordances
of EdTech can be used to positively impact specific aspects of the learning process,
hence providing better student attainment and engagement opportunities.
Chapter 7 critically analyses and evaluates what constitutes twenty-first-century
competencies, how these are best derived from an evidence-based approach and the
implications for framing educational aims and outcomes. I take as a core valuation
that while curriculum must support industry requirements and employability, there
is also a need to accommodate competencies for wider issues of well-being and
citizenship.
Chapter 8 focuses on assessing twenty-first-century competencies. Different
competencies, as well as different aspects of a competence, require different
assessment methods. Assessing complex competencies such as metacognition in
valid and reliable ways, in real application contexts, will be a big challenge for
curriculum planners and teachers.
Chapter 9 provides an evidence-based framework for implementing professional
development that is both practically viable in the real world of educational insti-
tutions and most likely to be perceived as such by teaching professionals them-
selves. While we increasingly know what to do and how to do it, high-quality
professional learning comes at a cost in terms of time and resources.
Singapore Dennis Sale

Acknowledgements
I have been privileged to have worked and lived in Singapore for the past 24 years.
Now acknowledged as the best educational system in the world, and much is to do
with the approaches taken, not least placing great value on teachers and their
professional development. I have been part of Singapore’s educational develop-
ment, both in terms of unlimited opportunities for personal learning and profes-
sional growth, as well as a contributor to many of its educational innovations—so
thank you Singapore.
Writing books on the realities of teaching is challenging, as it requires a wide
range of participating professionals to open up their classrooms for me to experience
their practice and engage in much mediation relating to its impact on learning.
Acknowledgement and thanks go to the thousands of teaching professionals, from
many educational/training sectors, countries and cultural contexts, who have shared
their experiences, thoughts and feelings with me. It has been enriching and enjoyable.
Special appreciation goes to my excellent Research Team (Ngoh Shwu Lan,
Cheah Sin Moh, Mark Wan, M. Fikret Ercan, M. Thiyagarajan, Roland Soh, Zhou
Shang Ping, Ng-Soo Geok Ling and Wong Yunyi) who allowed me full access to
observe their lessons, talk extensively to their students, as well as conducting their
own Evidence-Based Reflective Practice.
I would also like to specifically acknowledge the following individuals who have
made significant contributions to my thinking, research work and writing:
Geoff Petty, one of Britain’s leading experts on teaching methods and author of
Teaching Today and Evidence-Based Teaching: A Practical Approach. Apart from
being inspired by Geoff’s pioneering work in this area, I am especially grateful to
him for his feedback on my work.
Ochan Kusuma-Powell and Bill Powell, veteran global international educators,
and authors of numerous books on teaching and educational leadership. Their
feedback and friendship over the years were invaluable in framing the style and
direction of my writing.
ix
x Acknowledgements
Helene Leong (director of Educational Development at Singapore Polytechnic)

and Mark Niven Singh (deputy director of Educational Development at Singapore
Polytechnic) for their exceptional leadership and full support over the many years
of research and professional development that has underpinned this work.
Johnmarshall Reeve, professor in the Institute of Positive Psychology and
Education at the Australian Catholic University, for his input and support on
research design in the field of intrinsic motivation.
My two research associates (Melissa Ng and Yiren Chua) and assistant in putting
the book together (Vanessa Lee) for doing both good work and being such fun to
work with.
Contents
1 Making Sense of Teaching: From Mystery to Heuristics ......... 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 1
1.2 What I Learned About Teachers: The Good,
the Bad and the Ugly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 A Short Tour into Educational Jurassic Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Moving Out of Educational Jurassic Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Moving Teaching from Mystery to Heuristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Towards an Evidence-Based Pedagogic Literacy:
The Core Principles of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 17
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 17
2.2 Core Principle 1: Learning Goals, Objectives and Proficiency
Expectations Are Visible to Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 21
2.3 Core Principle 2: Learners Prior Knowledge Is Activated
and Connected to New Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 24
2.4 Core Principle 3: Content Is Organized Around
Key Concepts and Principles that Are Fundamental
to Understanding the Structure of a Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 27
2.5 Core Principle 4: Good Thinking Promotes the Building
of Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 34
2.6 Core Principle 5: Instructional Methods and Presentation
Mediums Engage the Range of Human Senses . . . . . . . . . . . ... 40
2.7 Core Principle 6: Learning Design Takes into Account
the Working of Memory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 45
2.8 Core Principle 7: The Development of Expertise Requires
Deliberate Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 51
2.9 Core Principle 8: Assessment Practices Are Integrated
into the Learning Design to Promote Desired Learning
Outcomes and Provide Quality Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 58
xi
xii Contents
2.10 Core Principle 9: A Psychological Climate Is Created

Which Is Both Success-Orientated and Fun . . . . . . . . . . ...... 63
2.11 Using the Core Principles Thoughtfully: The Fly-Fishing
Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.12 Instructional Design from an Evidence-Based Approach . . . . . . . 71
2.13 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3 Metacognitive Capability: The Superordinate Competence
for the Twenty-First Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77
3.2 Making Sense of Metacognition: Unpacking the Metacognition
Monster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 78
3.3 Metacognition and Motivation: Two Bedfellows
for Effective Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85
3.4 What Is the Difference Between Cognition
and Metacognition? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89
3.5 Metacognition, Cognition, and Other Types of Thinking . . . . . .. 92
3.6 The Self-regulation Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94
3.7 A Curriculum Model for Developing Metacognitive Capability:
The ‘Thinking Curriculum’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 105
3.8 Developing Metacognitive Capability: Evidence-Based
Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.9 The Need for Explicit Teaching of Metacognition . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4 Motivation and Well-Being: An Evidence-Based Frame .......... 131
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... 131
4.2 The Components of Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......... 134
4.3 Evidence-Based Heuristics on Human Motivation
and Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.4 Perception, Thinking, and Meaning Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5 Creative Teaching Competence: The SHAPE of Creative
Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 155
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 155
5.2 Teaching as a Systematic Approach with Rules Based
on Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 157
5.3 Teaching as a Set of Contextualized Practices Constantly
Adapting to Circumstances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 158
Contents xiii
5.4 Teaching as Skillful Creative Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

5.5 Competency-Based Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.6 Expertise and Creativity in Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.7 The Syntax of Creative Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.7.1 Stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.7.2 Humour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.7.3 Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.7.4 Presentation Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.7.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.8 Creative Activity and Resource Blending: The Art of
Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.9 The Magic of Expertise: Getting into Great Shape . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.10 Teaching Can Be Improved with Reflection and Scholarship . . . . 203
5.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6 Creative Teaching Competence and EdTech: Total Pedagogy . . . . . 207
6.1 My Early Scepticism Was Not Unfounded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.2 Framing EdTech Genres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
6.3 The What, the Why and How of Blended Learning . . . . . . . . . . 211
6.4 Designing and Facilitating Blended Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.4.1 Good Learning Design Is Always Grounded
on Evidence-Based Practice, Incorporating
Core Principles of Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 214
6.4.2 EdTech Is Used to Strategically and Creatively Enhance
Aspects of the Learning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 215
6.4.3 The Completed Blended Learning Design Maximizes
the Affordances of a Range of Learning Modes
and Mediums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 217
6.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 238
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 239
7 Framing a Curriculum for the Twenty-First Century
Competencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 243
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 243
7.2 Human Learning and Curriculum Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 244
7.3 Framing Twenty-First Century Competencies
from an Evidence-Based Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 247
7.4 What’s Our Best Package of Competencies
in a VUCA World? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7.5 The Competency-Based Approach to Education and Training . . . 253
7.6 Evaluating the Worth of Twenty-First Century Competencies . . . 256
7.7 Learning for What Purpose for the Many . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
7.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
xiv Contents
8 Assessing Twenty-First Century Competencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
8.2 The Need for Good Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
8.3 Assessment from an Evidence-Based Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
8.4 Assessment Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
8.5 Assessment Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
8.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9 Framing Professional Development Now . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 291
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 291
9.2 Organizational Intelligence and Professional Capital:
Two Desirable Bedfellows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 292
9.3 The Pedagogy—Andragogy Debate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 294
9.4 Professional Development that Does Not Work Well . . . . . .... 297
9.5 Unpacking the Components of Effective Professional
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 301
9.5.1 The Goals and Content of Professional Learning . . . .... 302
9.5.2 The Process of Effective Professional Development . .... 306
9.6 Key Structures Supporting Professional Development
that Does Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
9.7 Reflective Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
9.8 How to Do Evidence-Based Reflective Practice (EBRP) . . . . . . . 316
9.9 An Evidence-Based Frame on EBRP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
9.10 EBRP, Lesson Study and Active Schemes of Work . . . . . . . . . . 328
9.11 Coaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
9.12 The Structure of Subjective Experience: A Neurolinguistic-
Programming (NLP) Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 334
9.13 The Stages of Coaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 338
9.14 Supported Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 346
9.15 Institutional and Societal Features that Facilitate
Good Professional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 349
9.16 Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 354
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 355
About the Author
Dennis Sale has taught across all sectors of the British educational system, and for
the past 24 years trained and coached over 10,000 teaching/training professionals in
Singapore and most countries in the Asian region. He has invented curriculum and
pedagogic models in the areas of metacognitive capability, creative teaching, and
blended learning. His most recent books include Creative Teaching: An
Evidence-Based Approach (Springer, 2015) and The Challenge of Reframing
Engineering Education (Springer, 2013). While in Singapore, Dennis worked as
Senior Education Advisor at Singapore Polytechnic for over 15 years, conducted
research for the Ministry of Education, and provided consultancy and training for
both private and public institutions across Asia. His work focuses on how humans
learn best, translating evidence-based findings from cognitive science and related
fields into professional development programs that offer high impact learning
outcomes for both teachers and students. Dennis has set himself the personal goal of
enhancing teacher expertise and learner capability globally.
xv
Chapter 1
Making Sense of Teaching: From
Mystery to Heuristics
Abstract This introductory chapter frames the context for establishing an evidence-
based pedagogic framework for developing Creative Teachers and Self-Directed
Learners. Self-directed learning is now considered an educational priority for stu-
dents who will need new skills and attributes to successfully navigate the challenges
and uncertainties of today’s rapidly changing technological society. Equally, teach-
ers will need heightened expertise, most notably in pedagogy and technology related
skills, as many teaching roles will be challenged in an educational landscape where
expectations of value are rising, but financial resources are decreasing. The chapter
summarizes both the reasons why teaching has lacked the evidence-based approaches
to practice that are the norm in other professions such as medicine and engineering
and how it is now, from extensive research in the cognitive sciences and on what
teaching methods work best, in a learning revolution.
1.1 Introduction
Teaching is the only major occupation of man for which we have not yet developed tools
that make an average person capable of competence and performance. In teaching, we rely
on the ‘naturals’, the ones who somehow know how to teach.
(Peter Drucker)
The title of the book ‘Fifteen Thousand Hours’ by Rutter (1982) is based on the
approximate number of hours pupils spend in school. So, what did I learn in my
15,000 h? Well, I certainly acquired two useful skill-sets, football and boxing. What
makes football such a good learning experience and a useful skill set to learn? Travel
practically anywhere in the world and you will easily find soccer-players, who play
in teams either in organized leagues or social set-ups. They love the game and the
‘crack’ (I think this term has Irish origins, ‘craic’—loosely means fun; apologies
if I’m wrong). The essential point is that this offers the opportunity for immediate
membership and friendship in the local community.
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

D. Sale, Creative Teachers, Cognitive Science and Technology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3469-0_1
2 1 Making Sense of Teaching: From Mystery to Heuristics
To play football, at whatever level, requires the ability to function as a team-

player (i.e. collaboration), which is a much muted so-called twenty-first-century
competency in the educational and business literature. It’s a necessary skill of human
survival per se—didn’t the cave-dwellers need it? It may have been more useful in
their world to keep dangerous creatures and hostile human tribes from killing them,
as compared to us soccer-players kicking a leather ball (it was made of leather in
the 1960s) between wooden posts into a net. I would argue the same logic for good
communication skills, which are important in soccer and essential in all aspects of
human life. It may have been less complex and sophisticated in the caves than in
the modern context, but it has been and will remain a key factor in our survival and
progress as a species.
You may ask, can the same argument be made for the educational value of boxing?
At the secondary school I attended in Hoxton, East London, boxing was a compulsory
subject for boys and, as I had learned to box earlier, I was quite competent in the
boxing ring by then. This meant that I was not a target for bullies and was able to keep
my school lunchbox and eat its contents—which figures highly in terms of any notion
or hierarchy of human needs, for me anyway. There were many of my peers who were
not so privileged at school. Apart from my daily nutritional needs being met, I feel—
even now—that I did learn to be resilient, self-disciplined and respecting of others
from my boxing experience. The boxing instructor, a Second World War veteran was
a tough man but had core values of honesty, integrity and fairness. Apart from the
rigorous training for physical skill development, strong ethical components relating
to human conduct were also emphasized. To be frank, and with no conceit, life at
university was easy. In contrast to the experience of getting up at 5 am, doing what
seemed an eternity of a run, often swimming across a freezing cold lake, followed by
100+ sits-ups—and how I hated that relentless skipping—a 9 am start at university,
4–5 h of lectures a day, and studying something I was actually interested in, was
nothing compared to facing the ‘tough boys’ in the boxing ring and on the streets of
Hoxton. Could I deal with exam stress and put in a hard shift at university and now
at work? No sweat.
Sadly, the formal curriculum at school was a pretty tedious experience. Weeks
were spent learning about a plethora of irrelevances; I can still recall in the biology
class learning about spirogyra, a hermaphroditic pondweed. As an East London
youth in the 1960s, was I interested in or see any practical use for such knowledge?
Similarly, in music, I was occasionally caned for messing about while being taught
(but failing to learn) scales in music and how to play the flute. On Top of the Pops
(a weekly music show in Britain in the 1960s), the Beatles, the Rolling Stones and
other favourite bands played the guitar, and sang pop music. There was no connection
between the music I enjoyed out of school and what we did in music class. This was
the typical learning experience in school. We never really thought about what we
were learning or why; it was just school and we went there from Monday until Friday.
1.2 What I Learned About Teachers: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly 3
1.2 What I Learned About Teachers: The Good, the Bad

and the Ugly
Certainly, there were things I learned about teaching and teachers. Most significantly,
the teachers were not alike, far from it. The 1966 film “The Good, the Bad and the
Ugly”, which starred one of my favourite actors, Clint Eastwood, comes readily to
mind when thinking about my teachers. Let’s lump the “bad and the ugly” together
and this was my maths teacher for ‘O’ level. Unintelligible on all counts, the lesson
may just as well have been taught in a Malagasy dialect. I sat the ‘O’ level mathematics
exam in June 1968 and achieved the undistinguished grade of 9 (6 being the lowest
passing grade at that time). You may be wondering what a grade 9 means in the
context of mathematical competence? Well, if my Jack Russell would have sat the
same exam, he could not have fared worse. Jack (what else would you call a Jack
Russell) is a clever dog but still hasn’t worked out how to open the fridge door and
get to his chicken meal autonomously.
Fortunately, in the following academic year, I had a change in maths teacher, Mr.
Edrich, and he represented an example of ‘the good’. We could understand what
he was saying, and he recognized that we were far from confident or competent
in maths, which was not rocket science to ascertain. However, most importantly,
instead of communicating negative and pessimistic views, he communicated to us
that with effort and some hard work we could learn this stuff. In terms of his teaching,
as I remember it, he slowed down the pace and kept providing examples and non-
examples (I did not recognize this strategy then) and we gradually began to understand
and eventually do those basic factorization procedures. I was able to make some sense
of how simultaneous and quadratic equations worked, and I could increasingly solve
the questions set. However, it was not a deep understanding as I re-sat the maths ‘O’
level in the November series and still failed it—but only just, a grade 7. The happy
ending was that in the following June exam series in 1969, I passed with a grade
3, which was very credible in context. If I am honest, I don’t think I ever achieved
a deep understanding of maths at that time, but passing it was crucial as it was a
high stakes exam; without it, I could not have got a place at university on a B.Sc.
Programme. Mr. Edrich will never know his specific and positive impact on my life,
and this is the norm for many teachers. Unfortunately, I did not consider thanking
him at that time, as it’s only retrospectively, and much later, as I came to fully realize
how important such teachers are.
In my 40 plus years as a teaching professional of various genres, similar experi-
ences emerge and play out in terms of different perceptions of teacher’s abilities. For
example, as a classroom teacher, there were many instances of parents asking me
something akin to, “Is there any way I can avoid my daughter Linda being taught by
Mr. Lee next term? Everybody knows he’s dead boring and students can’t understand
what he’s on about.” Parents certainly know that teachers vary greatly in competency
(however defined) and that their children’s performance is not just a reflection of a
fixed innate capability in the subject, but varies considerably depending on who
teaches them. Similarly, as a parent, it was very apparent that both my daughters’
enjoyment and grades reflected, in no small part, the experiences that certain teachers
created for them throughout the course programme. In one situation, for my youngest
daughter, I ended up paying for private tuition, on top of the already expensive expa-
triate private school fees. In the previous year, she was meeting the attainment targets
comfortably and enjoyed the subject. However, in this particular year, she found the
teacher less friendly, not easy to follow and the experience generally dull. Her inter-
est waned and her grades fell significantly. Whatever one’s views on educational
equity, and I favour providing as much equality of opportunity as possible for all, by
not paying for this extra tuition from a different (maybe better) teacher could have
resulted in an outcome similar to my first two attempts at the ‘O’ level maths exam,
back in the 1960s. I was lucky I had Mr. Edrich to teach me that darn math, and he
was not on extra salary.
It is not surprising, therefore, that an increasing body of research shows the massive
impact that teachers have on student attainment. Izumi and Evers (2002), from an
overview of research on the impact of teachers on student achievement, summarized:
…nothing is as important to learning as the quality of a student’s teacher. The difference
between a good teacher and a bad teacher is so great that fifth-grade students who have poor
teachers in grades three to five score roughly 50 percentile points below similar groups of
students who are fortunate enough to have effective teachers. (ix)
Hargreaves and Fullan (2012), which is even more damning, documented that:
… the Los Angeles Times reporters gained access to 7 years of value-added test performance
data for 6,000 third through fifth-grade teachers in English and Mathematics in the Los
Angeles Unified Public-school District – one of the poorest districts in the United States.
They passed the data to expert economists, who came up with an even more remarkable
finding. There were differences of up to 41% in value-added performance between teachers
of the same kind of children in the very same school. (p. 15)
At the school level, Rowe and Rowe (1993) argued:

Based on our findings to date it could be argued that effective schools are only effective to
the extent that they have effective teachers. (p. 15)
Petty (2009) fully contextualized the importance of good teachers in real-life

terms when he wrote:
Good teachers touch people’s lives forever. If you teach well, some of your students will only
succeed because of your excellent teaching. They then might go on to get more advanced
qualifications and skills, again just because of your expert teaching. Then they might get
a career, indeed a whole life, built on your excellent teaching. No other profession is that
consequential and enabling. (v)
As a pupil at school, a practising teacher, a parent, and a teacher educator in

many educational sectors and contexts, I have experienced the good, the bad and
the ugly, and I don’t particularly feel good about the bad and the ugly. Most impor-
tantly, as there is now a solid evidence base to validate the high impact of teachers
on attainment and that’s without the impacts on socio-psychological aspects such as
self-efficacy, self-esteem and well-being, we should not shirk the responsibility of
1.2 What I Learned About Teachers: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly 5
enhancing teaching expertise as a priority goal in educational policy. It is shocking,

though perhaps not that surprising, that there has been a lack of clarity on what
constitutes highly effective creative teaching and how this can be systematically
incorporated into professional development programmes. The basis of highly effec-
tive teaching, let alone creative teaching, has long been debated in the educational
literature. For example, Ornstein (1995) from reviewing the literature, suggested that
“…few facts concerning teacher effectiveness have been established” (p. 77). In the
following sections, I will make the case that while much has changed in terms of our
understanding of teaching effectiveness since such reviews, much of actual practice
still seems rooted in confusion over what constitutes effective teaching. To under-
stand this better, let’s take a short tour into the nether regions of Educational Jurassic
Park.
1.3 A Short Tour into Educational Jurassic Park
Much of the confusion about what is or should be good teaching can be explained in
large part by Sallis and Hingley’s (1991) assertion that “…education is a creature of
fashion” (p. 9). I like this analogy as it is so grounded in my experience of fashion.
While I have relatively little interest in fashion now, my teenage years were spent in
the 1960s, the era of great musical bands, full employment, a real sense of optimism
about the future and, of course, the famous fashion icon, the mini-skirt. This was the
world as I knew it, and this was ladies fashion as I experienced it, and it seemed an
objective reality of what was natural. I was, of course, unaware of such notions as
‘socially constructed realities’ (Berger and Luckman 1967). The reality was exactly
as I perceived it, what else could it be? Equally, I never considered what it might
have been like for the ladies wearing such attire in the winter months. However, one
evening, my mother was showing me pictures of herself when she was young, and
the thing I noticed was the long skirts she wore. I vividly remember commenting
that this seemed strange and I was glad that evolution had moved on from then. It
never dawned on me that fashion was the product of a deliberate industry ploy that
systematically creates, manages and periodically changes images of desirable attire.
After all, it must do this once the marketed item is saturated—how many pairs of
flair bottom trousers can you fit in a typical male wardrobe? In defence of my lack
of understanding on such matters, I don’t think many 14-year-olds at that time were
well versed in such sociological imagination either. It’s no big deal that fashion in
clothes is manipulated to ensure new revenue is generated and novelty is added to an
aspect of human experience. However, I am far less comfortable when this is applied
to professions, especially where human well-being is concerned, and teaching meets
that criteria full on. It is inevitable that any profession, indeed any aspect of human
activity, can only be as good as the most current knowledge bases—conventional
wisdom—of the time. Let’s not blame Ptolemy for thinking that the Earth was the
centre of the universe, it would have made perfect sense at his time. Similarly, before
we could have known otherwise, the simple notion of gravity, it makes perfect sense
to believe that the Earth is flat. In the case of teaching, I take the stand that much
professional activity has not sufficiently and consistently reflected knowledge bases
that could have improved practice at the level of student learning opportunities and
outcomes (e.g., attainment, engagement, well-being). For example, for those of us
who have been in, or around, the profession over the past 30–40 years, one could
not have failed to notice such major shifts in teaching focus from ‘traditional’ to
‘progressive’ education and then ‘back to basics’, as well as, more recently, the
teacher’s role allegedly changing from ‘sage on the stage’ to ‘guide on the side.’
A negative consequence of this contested nature and periodic radical reframing of
what constitutes good teaching is that it does little to convince anybody that teaching
is truly a profession with well-constituted bases of professional knowledge, as is
the case for medicine or engineering. This is not to say that the medical profession,
or other well-established professions, have not gone through similar epochs of fads
masquerading as practice, as Thomas’ (1979) depiction of the medical profession
before the drive towards evidence-based practice portrayed:
It is hard to conceive of a less scientific enterprise among human endeavours. Virtually
anything that could be thought up for treatment was tried out at one time or another, and,
once tried, lasted decades or even centuries before being given up. It was, in retrospect, the
most frivolous and irresponsible kind of experimentation, based on nothing but trial and
error, and usually resulting in precisely that sequence. (p. 159)
One would probably be both shocked and frightened if, on a visit to a modern
medical centre, the doctor produced a saw, some leeches and asked you to drink a
large dose of alcohol. We now see increasing sophistication of practice through a
whole range of complex technology infrastructure. This is not to argue that all is
well in the medical profession and there are probably still some ‘dodgy’ practices.
However, it feels like the profession, in most modern societies anyway, is now largely
driven by established and rigorous standards of research and validation, which seems
to be relatively lacking in the context of education. Indeed, one may argue that this is
visibly apparent as many classrooms look pretty similar to what they were decades or
even centuries past. However, the major reason for the slower acceleration towards
accepted high professionalism in teaching is that much of practice is still largely
driven by dominant paradigms or perspectives in psychology and pedagogy, rather
than a solid empirical base. Paradigms are ways of looking at things in the world
(e.g. the meaning of life, human conduct, educational aims and practice) and contain
certain premises and methodologies relating to those particular domains of reality.
These, in turn, shape how we perceive and orientate ourselves to such realities. Kuhn
(1996) famously noted that when socialized into a paradigm, it becomes a prerequisite
to perception itself:
What a man sees depends both upon what he looks at and also upon what his previous
visual-conceptual experience has taught him to see. (p. 113)
World religions are other notable examples of a paradigm in that they typically
contain explicit assumptions about the nature of reality (e.g., a belief in a metaphys-
ical being, absolute codes of conduct, building a relationship with that being) which
1.3 A Short Tour into Educational Jurassic Park 7
shape the thinking and behavioural aspects of adherents to specific faiths. In educa-
tion, much has been similar, though lacking adherence to a metaphysical being, only
the occasional psychological guru, which may have had similar impacts in terms of
practice. Prominent paradigms in education have included ‘behaviourism’, ‘cogni-
tivism’ and, probably the most dominant one in terms of ‘current vogue’, ‘construc-
tivism’. These paradigms do offer insights relating to aspects of the learning process
and provide some useful overall framing for approaching teaching. However, they
are far from constituting a comprehensive evidence-based framework that has strong
predictive value in terms of enhancing student attainment. The danger of limiting
practice to one paradigm is well captured by Pratt (2002):
Perspectives are neither good nor bad. They are simply philosophical orientations to knowl-
edge, learning and the role and responsibility of being a teacher. Therefore, it is important
to remember that each of these perspectives represents a legitimate view of teaching when
enacted appropriately. Conversely, each holds the potential for poor teaching. (p. 14)
Anderson et al. (1998) are more explicit in identifying the problem when they
argued that:
What is needed more than a philosophy of education is a science of education. Modern
attempts at educational improvement point back to theorists (Piaget, Vygotsky, and Dewey)
whose theories are vague by current psychological standards and lack the strong connection
to empirical evidence that has become standard in the field. (p. 237)
Mayer (2004) is even most blunt in advocating the necessity of making the kind
of changes in approach to practice that have occurred in other more established
professions. He argued that we must:
...move educational reform efforts from the fuzzy and unproductive world of ideology - which
sometimes hides under the various banners of constructivism – to the sharp and productive
world of theory-based research on how people learn. (p. 18)
Finally, the problem appears systemic, both in terms of policy and practices, and
shapes the socialization of recruits into the profession, which is the hallmark of a
paradigm. Stone’s (2000) criticism of some teacher education programmes further
illustrates the continuation of paradigms rather than evidence-based practice in the
training of teachers:
What teachers are told, however, is that student differences are important and if their teaching
is truly creative, energetic and engaging, they will succeed in individualising and bringing
forth the best from all students. In effect, teachers are being taught to make diagnoses that
heighten their awareness of differences without advancing their ability to teach. (p. 43)
In consequence, this has created much confusion for many teaching professionals
as to what is good pedagogy (indeed, what is pedagogy) and what are truly useful
knowledge bases from which we can design and facilitate instructional strategies with
high predictive value in terms of meeting desired learning outcomes. It is unlikely
that many in the teaching profession believe that this is the result of limited available
literature on teaching and how to teach , just as there is no shortage of writings on
other topics of educational relevance, such as parenting. However, the confusion does
not seem to abate. Hattie (1999), for example, stated:
A glance at the journals on most shelves of most libraries, my colleagues’ shelves, and
on web pages would indicate that the state of knowledge in the discipline is healthy. The
worldwide picture is certainly one of plenty. (p. 1)
However, in the same address, he argued that:

1. Teachers/researchers have models of learning that are rarely externally elaborated
or asked for
2. Teachers/researchers seek evidence to buttress their models of learning and thus
rarely seek to refute them or introduce major changes.
We all seek positive evidence in that which we love. Teachers/researchers, like lovers, are
often blind. (p. 2)
As a result, to quote Hattie again in this context, this results in:

…a school community peopled with teachers with self-fulfilling prophecies, all believing
they are doing a good job, and with models of learning rarely based on any other evidence
than that “it works for me”. As well, we have an educational research community peopled
with academics chasing their pet theory, promoting their methodology while passing each
other in corridors, and rarely asking for negative evidence, and pushing with a passion that “if
only the teachers would do this, or know that”. Both educational communities work behind
closed doors, coming out to discuss kids, curricula, accountability, and each other, but rarely
discussing the fundamental tenets about their teaching that leads to positive impacts on
student learning. (p. 2)
A particularly notable example, that fully illustrates the above analysis, is that
of Learning Styles which has shaped the thinking and practices of many teachers
worldwide. Over the years, I have had many heated debates on this topic and always
refused to conduct workshops or seminars on it, as I felt it was, at best, an ephemeral
entity in the learning and attainment stakes. From an evidence-based point of view,
it now seems little more than ‘folk psychology’, and I can take some solace in that.
As Hattie (2009) summarized:
One of the more fruitless pursuits is labelling students with ‘learning styles’. This modern fad
for learning styles, not to be confused with the more worthwhile notion of multiple learning
strategies, assumes that different students have differing preferences for particular ways of
learning.
Often, the claim is that when teaching is aligned with the preferred or dominant learning style
(for example, auditory, visual, tactile, or kinesthetic) then achievement is enhanced. While
there can be many advantages by teaching content using many different methods (visual,
spoken, movement), this must not be confused with thinking that students have differential
strengths in thinking in these styles. (p. 89)
1.4 Moving Out of Educational Jurassic Park 9
1.4 Moving Out of Educational Jurassic Park
Much is changing as far as teaching is concerned and it may, as Petty (2009) argued,
be ready to:
…embark on a revolution, and like medicine, abandon both custom and practice and fashions
and fads, to become evidence-based (cover page).
In terms of paradigms, there is a significant shift towards a more evidence-based

approach to learning and teaching—what Petty framed as ‘Evidence-Based Teach-
ing’. One may argue that this is simply another paradigm shift and may not constitute
a more valid or verifiable base of knowledge from which to design and enact the prac-
tices we call teaching. Indeed, this is very much the standpoint of more radical forms
of constructivism. For example, Lincoln (1990) pointed out:
The constructivist paradigm…has as its central focus, not the abstraction (reduction) or
the approximation (modelling) of a single reality but the presentation of multiple, holistic,
competing, and often conflicting realities of multiple stakeholders and research participants
(including the inquirers). (p. 73)
Invariably, one cannot escape the essential subjectivity of experience, and sugges-
tions of a value-free science are untenable. However, I feel it is necessary to retain
at least a critical operational notion of objectivity as a ‘regulatory ideal’; otherwise,
there is little point in conducting an inquiry, whether it be about good teaching or
good soccer, or whatever. As Phillips (1990) argued:
If we abandon such notions, it is not sensible to make inquiries at all. For if a sloppy inquiry
is as acceptable as a careful one, and if an inquiry that is careless about evidence is as
acceptable as an inquiry that has taken pains to be precise and unbiased, then there is no
need to inquire… (p. 43)
In this context, to argue that there are no better nor worse ways in which to design
student learning experiences is both absurd and dangerous. As Ramsden (1992)
wrote:
It is a folly to suggest that there are no better or worse ways of teaching, no general attributes
that distinguish good teaching from the bad. (p. 87)
It is now firmly established that there is a strong evidence base relating to how best
to design and facilitate the various practices we call teaching that can significantly
enhance student learning opportunities, attainment levels and the experience of learn-
ing (e.g. intrinsic motivation). This change is an inevitable result of our increasing
knowledge relating to how humans learn, what teaching methods and practices work
best and why, and the unpacking of what the best teaching practitioners do and how.
Much of this significant research on learning has already been documented in the
literature (e.g., Bransford 1999; Marzano 2007; Mayer and Alexander 2010; Hat-
tie and Yates 2014). Collectively, the research evidence is now providing us with a
heightened pedagogic understanding of the various facets of highly effective teaching
and, when this is used creatively in context, it will optimize attainment and engage-
ment for a wider range of student groups. In most basic terms we can now engage
in useful dialogue about professional knowledge and practices in teaching from a

validated empirical base, much as is the norm for the more established professions
(e.g., medicine and engineering). Indeed, even two decades ago, Marzano (1992)
argued:
…over the past 3 decades, we have amassed enough research and theory about learning to
derive a truly research based-model of Instruction. (p. 2)
More recently, Darling-Hammond and Bransford (2005), from surveying the

research findings, concluded that:
There are systematic and principled aspects of effective teaching, and there is a base of
verifiable evidence of knowledge that supports that work in the sense that it is like engineering
or medicine. (p. 12)
There is no doubt that our understanding of how humans learn is rapidly increas-
ing, especially as the fields of cognitive and social neuroscience provide further
insights into brain functioning at the neurological level, and how this plays out in
terms of human cognition and behaviour relating to learning. Equally, and fully
consonant with this heightened understanding of human learning, is the accumula-
tion of extensive and rigorous research activity, which is uncovering from a strong
empirical base what teaching methods tend to work best and on what basis. Perhaps
most publicized in this area is the work of Hattie (e.g., 2009, 2012), though many
others have been providing significant contributions over recent years (e.g., Brans-
ford 1999; Marzano 2007; Mayer and Alexander 2010; Petty 2009). Mansell (2008)
referred to Hattie’s seminal work on the effectiveness of different teaching methods
and strategies as:
… perhaps education’s equivalent to the search for the Holy Grail - or the answer to life, the
universe and everything.
Also, Hattie’s work was a definitive landmark in educational research, providing

a key push towards evidence-based practice in teaching. Hattie synthesized over 800
meta-analyses of the influences on learning and, most significantly, he was interested
not just in what factors impacted learning, but the extent of their impact—referred to
as Effect-Size. Effect size is a way to measure the effectiveness of a particular inter-
vention to ascertain a measure of both the improvement (gain) in learner achievement
for a group of learners and the variation of learner performances expressed on a stan-
dardised scale. By taking into account both improvement and variation it provides
information on which interventions are most worth implementing.
Hattie firstly identified the typical effect sizes of schooling without specific inter-
ventions, for example, what gains in attainment are we likely to expect over a one-year
academic cycle? Typically, for students moving from one year to the next, the average
effect size across all students is 0.40. Hence, for Hattie, effect sizes above 0.40 are
of particular interest. As a baseline an effect size of 1.0 is massive and is typically
associated with:
1.4 Moving Out of Educational Jurassic Park 11
Table 1.1 Examples of effect sizes in learner attainment from Hattie’s Meta-analysis
Influence Mean effect size
Whole-class interactive teaching (direct instruction) 0.81
A specific approach to active learning in class, which is highly teacher led,
but very active for students. This involves summaries reviews and a range of
active learning methods, including questioning
Feedback 0.73
Students getting feedback on their work from the teacher or from
themselves (self-assessment or from peers or some other sources
Metacognitive strategies 0.69
Explicit teaching and use of metacognitive strategies (e.g., conscious
planning, monitoring, and evaluating of thinking and learning
Challenging goals for students 0.59
Goals that students can meet through effort on their part—they should be a
specific as possible, and meaningful to the students involved
Advance organizers 0.41
Giving students a summary in advance and a purposes for the learning
• Advancing the learner’s achievement by one year

• Improving the rate of learning by 50%
• A two-grade leap in GCSE grades.
Selected examples of high effect size methods are presented in Table 1.1.
However, as Hattie notes, it is important to balance effect size with the level of
difficulty of interventions. For example, providing advance organizers (summaries
in advance of the teaching) have an effect size of 0.41 which is pretty average, but
they only take up a few minutes at the beginning of the lesson, and potentially offer
the equivalent of moving up a year in terms of a student’s achievement.
He goes on to make relative comparisons of intervention use, which enables us
to go beyond identifying the effect sizes for particular innovations (e.g., deliberative
intervention involving a strategy/method, used for a group of students), and ascertain
whether the effects of a particular innovation were better for students than what they
would achieve if they had received alternative innovations.
Of particular significance is the fact that it is not just the effect size of one inter-
vention that is important, but how several effective methods can be strategically and
creatively combined to produce powerful instructional strategies that significantly
impact student attainment. As Hattie (2009) pointed out:
…some effect sizes are ‘Russian dolls’ containing more than one strategy. For example,
‘feedback’ requires that the student has been given a goal, and completed an activity for
which the feedback is to be given; ‘whole-class interactive teaching’ is a strategy that includes
‘advance organisers’ and feedback and reviews. (p. 62)
For readers not familiar with ‘Russian Dolls’, they are a set of different sized dolls,
usually around 5, and they fit one inside another from the smallest to the biggest.
Figure 1.1 provides a visual example of high effect method combination.
Fig. 1.1 Illustration of Hattie’s Russian Doll analogy
The Russian Doll analogy provides an easy to remember generic advance orga-
nizer for planning lessons as it should easily evoke the key question of what strategy
or method combination is likely to be most effective for the particular student group.
However, as will be explored in subsequent chapters, some methods may have a bet-
ter overall impact on student attainment but in learning, as in all aspects of life, too
much of a good thing often leads to habituation and boredom and subsequently loses
its impact. Also, in designing the overall instructional strategy, we must take into
account the learner profile (especially prior competence and motivational status), the
learning outcomes to be attained, and the available resource facilities that can be
accessed.
The interested reader can refer to Hattie’s original works (e.g., Hattie 2009, 2012)
for the extensive detailed coverage of the research methodology employed and the
full range of effect sizes for different instructional methods and learning strategies.
1.5 Moving Teaching from Mystery to Heuristics
In summary to this introductory chapter, I offer an analogy between recent devel-

opments in knowledge bases relating to how humans learn and the effectiveness of
different teaching methods with Martin’s (2009) depiction of the Knowledge funnel
(Fig. 1.2). In developing our understanding of the nature and working of things in
the world, he depicts a process in which phenomena can move from being a Mys-
tery (experienced in some way but not understood) to a Heuristic (understandable
in good part) and finally to Algorithmic (fully understood, predictable and control-
lable). A highly significant global example of moving down the knowledge funnel
can be seen in terms of our understanding and subsequent response to the discovery
of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). AIDS was only formally
identified as a new disease in 1981 and remained a mystery until 1983 when the
1.5 Moving Teaching from Mystery to Heuristics 13
Fig. 1.2 Martin’s

knowledge funnel
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), the virus that causes AIDS, was discov-
ered. As is well documented, the origins of the virus, as well as the specific means
and rates of transmission, evoked much controversy and debate at that time. Also,
treatments, despite the initial optimistic hype of azidothymidine (AZT), were con-
troversial and driven more by desperation rather than hard science which, in context,
was understandable. Today, HIV is clearly in the realm of heuristics, in that we
have a comprehensive understanding of the behaviour of the virus and its impact on
the immune system, as well as how to mitigate its most deleterious effects—in an
increasing number of cases—to the progression into full-blown AIDS. At present,
our knowledge is not Algorithmic, as this level of knowledge would require both a
sterilizing cure (where the virus is completely eradicated from the body), as well as
an effective vaccine. However, as Avert (2019), which provides global information
on HIV and Aids, summarizes:
There is no cure for HIV, although antiretroviral treatment can control the virus, meaning that
people with HIV can live long and healthy lives. Most research is looking for a functional
cure where HIV is reduced to undetectable and harmless levels in the body permanently, but
some residual virus may remain.
In terms of Martin’s knowledge funnel, I am suggesting that, as far as teaching

is concerned, we have moved a long away from it constituting a Mystery to one of
clearly identifiable and understandable Heuristics. Will teaching ever be heuristic?
A decade or so ago, I would probably have said ‘never’. However, with the growth
of knowledge bases in the fields of biology and artificial intelligence, and notions of
‘Radical Evolution’ (e.g., Garreau 2005), which will be explored in context later—
who knows? Presently, we may see some powerful learning environments being
produced by what is referred to as ‘mixed reality’ technologies (e.g. (merging of real
and virtual worlds to produce new environments and visualizations where physical
and digital objects co-exist and interact in real-time), but I would suggest that this is
far from algorithmic, working with the human brain as it is.
For now, we are firmly working in the realm of heuristics, which provides an
optimistic frame in terms of better understanding the present educational landscape,
the challenges we need to address, and ways to enhance the practices of teaching.
As Martin (2009) notes, heuristics:
…represent an incomplete yet distinctly advanced understanding of what was previously a
mystery. But that understanding is unequally distributed. Some people remain stuck in the
world of mystery, while others master its heuristics. The beauty of heuristics is that they
guide us toward a solution by way of organized exploration of possibilities. (p. 12)
It is to be noted that heuristics in this context retains the more generic notion of
‘rules of thumb’ that enables people to solve problems and make judgments quickly
and efficiently, but extends the concept to include existing (but as-to-yet, incomplete)
knowledge about phenomena in the world. In this way, good heuristics will enable
teaching professionals to design and facilitate learning experiences effectively and
efficiently from a sound pedagogic base but, as the term denotes, not with the certainty
of outcomes in all situations. How this works in practice will be explained and
illustrated in the forthcoming chapters. It certainly constitutes a significant shift
towards a more substantive evidence-based profession, and reflects very strikingly the
description by Perkins (1992) of the ‘unequal distribution of knowledge’ concerning
what we know about learning and teaching and what happens in many classrooms:
...we do not have a knowledge gap – we have a monumental use-of-knowledge gap. (p. 2)
1.6 Summary
In many ways, this book represents a convergence on differing conceptions of teach-

ing as ‘art’, ‘craft’ or ‘science’ in the research literature (e.g., Eisner 1995). We may
be finally moving towards a situation in which there is both increasing understanding
and capability to develop the practices and tools of effective—even creative teaching,
which Drucker suggested were only previously known by “the naturals, the ones who
somehow know how to teach”.
References
Anderson JR et al (1998) Radical constructivism and cognitive psychology. In: Ravitch D (ed)
Brookings papers on education policy: 1998. Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C., pp 227–
255
Avert (2019) Global information on HIV and Aids. https://www.avert.org/. Last accessed 30 Nov
2019
Berger PL, Luckmann T (1967) The social construction of reality: a treatise in the sociology of
knowledge. Anchor Books, New York
Bransford J et al (1999) Brain, mind, experience & school. National Academy Press, Washington,
D.C.
Darling-Hammond L, Bransford J (2005) Preparing teachers for a changing world: what teachers
should learn and be able to do. Jossey-Bass, San-Francisco
Eisner EW (1995) The art and craft of teaching. In: Ornstein AC, Behar LS (eds) Contemporary
issues in curriculum. Allyn & Bacon, Massachusetts
Garreau J (2005) Radical evolution: the promise and peril of enhancing our minds, our bodies—and
what is means to be human. Doubleday, New York
References 15
Hargreaves A, Fullan M (2012) Professional capital: transforming teaching in every school. Teachers
College Press, New York
Hattie J (1999) Influences on student learning. Inaugural lecture. University of Auckland
Hattie J (2009) Visible learning. Routledge, New York
Hattie J (2012) Visible learning for teachers: maximizing impact on learning. Routledge, London
Hattie J, Yates GCR (2014) Visible learning and the science of how we learn. Routledge, New York
Izumi TL, Evers WM (2002) Teacher quality. Hoover Institutional Press, San Francisco
Kuhn TS (1996) The structure of scientific revolutions. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago
Lincoln YS (1990) The making of a constructivist: a remembrance of transformations past. In: Guba
EG (ed) The paradigm dialogue. Sage, London
Mansell W (2008) Research reveals teaching’s Holy Grail. TES Newspaper on 21 November
Martin R (2009) The design of business. Harvard Business Press, Massachusetts
Marzano RJ (1992) A different kind of classroom. ASCD, Alexandria, VA
Marzano RJ (2007) The art and science of teaching: a comprehensive framework for effective
instruction. ASCD, Alexandria, VA
Mayer RE (2004) Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning?. Am Psychol
59(1):14–19
Mayer RE, Alexander PA (2010) Handbook of research on learning and instruction. Routledge,
London
Ornstein AC (1995) Teaching: theory into practice. Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights, Mas-
sachusetts
Perkins DN (1992) Smart schools. The Free Press, London
Petty G (2009) Evidence-based teaching: a practical approach. Nelson Thornes, Cheltenham
Phillips DC (1990) Postpositivistic science: myths and realities. In: Guba EG (ed) The paradigm
dialogue. Sage, London
Pratt DD (2002) Good teaching: one size fits all? In: Ross-Gordon JM (ed) Contemporary viewpoints
on teaching adults effectively, no 93. Spring 2002. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, pp 5–15
Ramsden P (1992) Learning to teach in higher education. Routledge, London
Rowe KJ, Rowe KS (1993) Assessing student behavior: the utility and measurement properties of a
simple parent and teacher-administered behavioural rating instrument for use in educational and
epidemiological research. Paper presented at the annual conference of the Australian association
for research in education. Fremantle, WA
Rutter M (1982) Fifteen thousand hours: secondary schools and their effects on children. Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, MA
Sallis E, Hingley P (1991) College quality assurance systems in Mendip Paper D20. Coombe Lodge,
Bristol
Stone JE (2000) Teacher training and pedagogical methods. In: Teacher quality conference. Hoover
Institution/Pacific Research Institute, May 12
Thomas L (1979) The Medusa and the Snail: more notes of a biology watcher. Viking Press, New
York
Chapter 2
Towards an Evidence-Based Pedagogic
Literacy: The Core Principles
of Learning
Abstract This chapter provides a comprehensive synthesis of the extensive research

relating to human learning and its practical implications for designing and facilitating
learning events that have high predictive capability for enhancing students’ learn-
ing and well-being. It documents the key research areas that have led to a greater
understanding of what teaching methods and strategies work best and why, as well
as the underlying cognitive scientific principles that facilitate effective and efficient
learning. Such understandings constitute an evidence-based pedagogic framework—
the essential knowledge bases underpinning teaching expertise—what I refer to as
Pedagogic Literacy. This forms the basis for a professional development approach
that is grounded in what we know about human learning and, based on this, can be
translated into high impact instructional strategies.
2.1 Introduction
Chapter 1 took you on a short tour into Educational Jurassic Park, and how EBT
(Petty 2009) can close its gates forever, keeping teachers safely on the outside. I
used Martin’s depiction of the ‘knowledge funnel’ as a conceptual frame to position
effective teaching as moving away from being a Mystery to one of potentially useful
Heuristics. Underpinning such heuristics are increasing knowledge bases on how
humans learn and extensive research on what teaching methods work best and on
what basis—enabling teaching to adopt evidence-based approaches to practice as in
the case of other professions. The pioneering work of Hattie (2009) outlined in that
chapter opened up the possibility of a more comprehensive evidence-based approach
to all aspects of pedagogy.
Pedagogy is a much-used term by educationalists and other personnel in the
learning industry when talking about matters of curriculum, teaching and learning. In
many curriculum-related meetings, I am still amused by the plethora of terminology
that surface in this area (e.g., pedagogical approach, pedagogic practices, pedagogical
content knowledge and, more recently, signature pedagogies). However, what is
equally apparent is that for many there is still a high level of conceptual confusion,
as I still get asked questions such as, “Is there one pedagogy or many”? This can

18 2 Towards an Evidence-Based Pedagogic Literacy …
be explained as just another consequence of the periodic radical reframing of what

constitutes good teaching, so it is not surprising that people are confused, because
there is confusion. This chapter will reduce such confusion and, more importantly,
offer a pedagogical framework that is firmly grounded in the increasing evidence-
bases relating to how humans learn and what teaching methods work best and why.
Historically the term pedagogy seems to have been derived from the Greek words
‘paid’, meaning “child” and ‘agogos’ meaning “leader of”. This essentially frames
pedagogy as referring primarily to the teaching of children. Mortimore (1999), in
a comprehensive review of the literature on pedagogy, noted that approaches to
pedagogy have gone through various phases, focusing on such aspects as ‘teaching
styles’, ‘paradigms of learning’, ‘models and methods of teaching’ and ‘the context
of teaching’. He, not surprisingly, concluded that:
Pedagogy has been seen by many within and outside the teaching profession as a somewhat
vague concept. (p. 228)
More recent definitions (e.g., The Free Dictionary 2019) have dropped the ref-
erence to the child and applied it more generically to “the principles, practice, or
profession of teaching” or “the activities of educating or instructing”. Pedagogy has
also been contrasted with the term Andragogy (Knowles 1973), which focuses on the
teaching of adult learners. This has invariably led to further confusion, and questions
being asked as to whether or not adults learn differently from children and should
they be taught differently, and in what ways and how. The issue of differential learn-
ing between adults and children is addressed in some detail in Chap. 9, but key points
are summarized here for purposes of context in this chapter.
Certainly, there are significant differences in the level of prior experience of adults,
as compared to children. Adults also choose what they want to learn, and this is
typically consciously directed to meet work or personal learning goals. Kids at school
are largely told what to learn, at least in the earlier years. However, whilst there are
important motivational and life experience differences for adults, it is questionable
whether the underlying learning process is structurally different from that of children
who have attained the stage of formal operational thought (Piaget 2001), typically
around 12–15 years of age. At this stage of brain maturation, children can reason
logically and use a range of thinking skills (e.g., analyze, compare & contrast, make
inferences and interpretations, and evaluate). In some ways, this has similarities with
the notion of different learning styles, which was popular in the educational literature
for a couple of decades. As outlined prior, research has far from validated such
theories, especially their usefulness in terms of pedagogically beneficial applications.
I agree with Schank (1997) who argued that:
Contrary to common belief, people don’t have different learning styles. They do, however,
have different personalities. The distinction is important because we need to be clear that
everybody learns in the same way. (p. 48)
A similar frame is made by Goulston (2009), who argued that:

While our lives and our problems are very different, our brains work in similar ways. (p. 3)
2.1 Introduction 19
While philosophical discussions on how best to frame pedagogy will inevitably

continue and this is pertinent to critical educational discourse, it has limited use-
fulness for busy teaching professionals seeking practical guidance on how best to
design effective learning experiences and conduct their teaching practices skilfully.
The present scenario is analogous to completing a large complicated jig-saw puzzle,
and we don’t have all the pieces (some are missing). However, we have enough pieces
and the intelligence to construct a sufficiently useful picture of what evidence-based
creative teaching entails, and what is required for successful enactment in practice. It
is useful to have strong empirical evidence that teachers do make the most significant
difference (positive or otherwise) in terms of student attainment levels and, possibly,
well-being—at least in the school context. However, we must go further to frame an
evidence-based pedagogic framework, based on what the most effective teachers do,
and how this enhances student learning (e.g., the psychological processes involved)
in specific ways. It is only from such an evidence-based approach can we produce
professional development programmes which have high predictability in terms of
improving teaching practices and student attainment and engagement levels. Sim-
ilarly, Hattie’s (2009) summary of differential teacher proficiency is salient in this
context:
Not all teachers are effective, not all teachers are experts, and not all teachers have powerful
effects on students. The important consideration is the extent to which they do influence
student achievements, and what it is that makes the most difference. (p. 34)
In summary, much has been learned about the effectiveness of different methods
and strategies of teaching and their impact on student attainment. The big questions
now centre on what makes such methods and strategies work better and how they
operate in terms of productively structuring the subjective experience of learners. To
put it in simpler terms, what specifically goes on inside students’ heads and how does
this enhance their learning processes, resulting in better attainment, engagement and
well-being? The more we frame better evidence-based answers to these questions,
the more we move towards a pedagogy that is practically useful in terms of how we
teach, and all that this entails.
In the following sections, through an extensive synthesis of a wide range of knowl-
edge bases relating to human learning, I outline and illustrate certain key heuristics,
what I have referred to as Core Principles of Learning (Sale 2015) that underpin effec-
tive teaching. Together they constitute a pedagogic framework from which teaching
professionals can thoughtfully plan and facilitate learning experiences from a more
evidence-based perspective. The framework does not claim to be exhaustive or sum-
mative, as new knowledge and insights will continually enhance our understanding
of human learning and the implications for how we teach. However, from much val-
idation in practice across a wide range of educational sectors and cultural contexts,
I see them as contributing to a much-needed Pedagogic Literacy.
Furthermore, while each Core Principle of Learning focuses attention on a key area
or process relating to how humans learn and the specific implications for planning
instruction, they are not discrete or separate in that they should be considered indepen-
dently of each other. They are mutually supporting, interdependent and potentially
highly synergistic. As Stigler and Hiebert (1999) highlighted:
Teaching is a system. It is not a loose mixture of individual features thrown together by the
teacher. It works more like a machine, with the parts operating together and reinforcing one
another, driving the vehicle forward. (p. 75)
These core principles of learning are essential parts of this system, the underpin-
ning knowledge of how people learn and how to use this in the planning and delivery
of what we call teaching. Willingham (2009) used the term Cognitive Scientific
Principles to describe such principles of learning and illustrates their implications
for practice through an analogy with engineering:
Principles of physics do not prescribe for a civil engineer exactly how to build a bridge,
but they do let him predict how it is likely to perform if he builds it. Similarly, cognitive
scientific principles do not prescribe how to teach, but they can help you predict how much
your students are likely to learn. If you follow these principles, you maximize the chances
that your students will flourish. (p. 165)
In explaining and illustrating each of these core principles of learning, calibrations

will be made to Hattie’s Effect Sizes of different strategies/methods, subjecting them
to pedagogic analysis in the process. If certain methods have high effect sizes, there
must be correlations with underpinning brain activity and the psychological func-
tioning of the mind. While the field of cognitive neuroscience is uncovering how
certain parts of the brain responds to external stimuli and how this can impact peo-
ple’s feelings and behaviour, the more significant insights are those from cognitive
psychology. In broad terms, Cognitive Psychology is the scientific study of mental
processes such as attention, language development and use, perception and belief
formation, memory process and how they work, thinking and problem-solving. It
can also legitimately cover other aspects of psychological functions such as emo-
tions and volition as cognition, motivation and other aspects of the mind work as a
dynamic system. However, as we are increasingly discovering, this is both a complex
dynamic system and one that is far from integrated in terms of the various compo-
nents working in unison. We could argue the contrary as Pinker (2003), perhaps the
leading writer in the field, points out:
Behaviour…comes from an internal struggle among mental modules with differing agendas
and goals. (p. 40)
Similarly (Apter 2001) describes the mind in these terms:

…everyday life, as it is experienced, is a tangled web of changing desires, perceptions,
feelings, and emotions that filter in and out of awareness in a perceptual swirl. (p. 33)
Bandler and Grinder (1990) make the summative point:

It’s really important to understand that most people are very chaotically organised on the
inside. (p. 71)
2.1 Introduction 21
The purpose of the above emphasis on how the brain works at the level of mind
is to emphasize that as teachers we are not able to simply transmit information into
students brains, like we can download information on our computers. Instead, we
must navigate many aspects—foibles—of human psychological functioning, much
of which is systemically not functioning as we would like it in terms of facilitating
desired learning outcomes in educational contexts.
However, it is through understanding how the mind works (and often doesn’t
work well) that can best arm us with useful knowledge for developing skills and
tools to teach in ways that are both brain compatible, as well as mitigating many of
its less helpful features. This is the territory that we must navigate if we are to be
expert teachers and, in navigation, it helps if we know the territory well and have
a half-decent map for getting from one location to another. Yes, it’s Heuristics, but
this is much better than Mystery.
The key message of the chapter is quite clear and simply captured by Hart (1983):
…designing educational experiences without knowledge about how human brains learn
naturally and most efficiently can be compared to designing a glove without any knowledge
of the human hand. (p. 4)
2.2 Core Principle 1: Learning Goals, Objectives

and Proficiency Expectations Are Visible to Learners
I fail to recall much by the way of consciously ever considering any learning goals
over my 15,000 h at school, beyond getting a regular place in the school soccer
team. Even for this desirable goal, I had little idea of what I specifically needed to
do to achieve it—except to be good at soccer. The physical education teacher never
helped me to understand my limitations as a soccer player and what I might do to
enhance specific skill areas. Indeed, my school life lacked an explicit structure for
learning beyond the fact that I was supposed to be there. In terms of the subjects I
studied (the word does not fit well), I had little notion of what I should be learning
in terms of specific outcomes and to what level of proficiency. For the exams I took,
I tried to memorize what I had written down in class. I had no benchmarks for my
performance, so it was a surprise, and delight, when I passed those ‘O’ and ‘A’ levels.
On leaving school, I had little direction on what I wanted to do. After all, my
school-friends had long since left school and were going out to local pubs and clubs
with money in their pockets. And there was a real motivational base to this—girls. For
my first 6 months or so, I worked as a labourer on a building site for the scaffolding
crew. Scaffolders were a tough bunch of guys, and they had to be able to carry those
22-foot poles—which were cast iron in those days. Anyway, the money was good,
and my boxing background meant I could match the scaffolders in the practices of
pole carrying.
However, somewhere around this time, my father, obviously concerned about
where his only son (in fact only child) was going in life, called me in for a ‘father
and son conversation’. These were not frequent, so I still can recall the main content
of this conversation. Most significant was him pointing out that while scaffolding
paid well now, I would be earning similar amounts, in real terms, some 20 years in
the future, and will not find it such a physically relishing challenge as the years pass.
Also, he pointed out that with my ‘O’ and ‘A’ levels, I should have plenty of choices.
The problem was, I did not know what I wanted—well not in occupational terms
anyway.
In response, I went to the local career office, where I must say, personnel were
helpful. I had many interviews, including at accountancy and legal firms, so my
options were good. Not sure which way to go, I was eventually introduced to the
possibility of going to university, something I had no meaningful frame on whatever.
I had never met anyone who had gone to university and my only prior knowledge
in this area was a weekly TV quiz show ‘University Challenge’ in which different
universities competed for some prize or other. It soon became apparent, however,
that there were some attractive aspects in going to university, not least government
grants, long holiday periods and opportunities to develop my soccer playing skills.
The only missing piece of this jigsaw was that one had to study a subject. Nothing
came to mind for me. Motivated to some extent to pursue this option, I browsed
through the university prospectuses and—hey presto, ‘psychology’. In all honesty, I
did not know much about psychology, but I guessed it was a bit like sociology, which
was one of my ‘A’ level subjects. Sociology was also my favourite school subject,
again made interesting by the teacher.
In summary, serendipity rather than any thoughtful sense of direction shaped my
learning and career to this point. However, studying psychology was a life-changing
experience as I realized that one’s learning is within a persons’ locus of control.
Invariably, the constraints of finance, time and commitments may significantly impact
the timing of career choices, but successful learning is very much in one’s own hands.
However, successful learning involves in no small part knowing what it is that you
want to learn and for what life goals. It also requires a strategy, and not least a fair bit
of effort, which in turn is aided by a belief system that sees attainment as a product
of these processes, not a predestined neurological state. There is a saying in soccer
circles that, “You are only as good as your last game.” That makes perfect sense.
I have noticed, over many years of watching professional soccer, how fickle soccer
fans are. When a player has had a few poor games, there are often sounds of derision
when his name is read out on the team sheet. Three weeks prior, the same player was
greeted with great applause. A similar frame plays out in life. I was once a grade 9
‘O’ level student in maths. I could still have been that, but I am not, and I know what
changed that reality and how it works. Hopefully, that has made me a better teacher.
Poor thinking, limiting beliefs and lack of competence are not existentially fixed for
the mainstream population of learners, but if no change in perception occurs, they
can become stable realities—even identities—for the people concerned. Learning
is about change, and productive change can be greatly helped by others, but these
others need to be good models. For example, in the case of thinking, as Dilts et al.
(1980) illustrates:
2.2 Core Principle 1: Learning Goals, Objectives and Proficiency … 23
Effective thinking strategies can be modelled and utilized by any individual who wishes to
do so. (p. 193)
The key point to this heuristic for effective teaching and enhancing learner attain-
ment is that students require structure for their learning, and this starts with having a
meaningful goal. While students are ultimately responsible for their learning, helping
them to frame clear and meaningful goals, as well as what is involved in meeting them,
is fundamental to providing structure, direction and motivation to their learning. As
Ramsden (1992) pointed out:
It is indisputable that, from the students’ perspective, clear standards and goals are a
vitally important element of the effective educational experience. Lack of clarity on these
points is almost always associated with negative evaluations, learning difficulties and poor
performance. (p. 127)
There is a strong evidence base supporting the importance of establishing clear,

meaningful and challenging goals for learners, For example, Marzano (2007) found
an effect size of 0.97 for Specifying Goals, and Hattie (2009) found an effect size of
0.56 for Challenging Goals. The more we can articulate learning goals, be specific
about what is to be learned—make it visible (what it looks like, sounds like and feels
like)—the more likely learners are to achieve these outcomes. Of course, it helps
even more if the learners themselves are motivated and committed to achieving such
outcomes. As Hattie (2009) highlighted:
…effective teachers set appropriately challenging goals and then structure situations so that
students can reach these goals. If teachers can encourage students to share a commitment to
these challenging goals, and if they provide feedback on how to be successful in learning as
one is working to achieve the goals, then goals are more likely to be attained. (p. 165)
Similarly, Schank (2011) reinforces the important outcome of student buy-in:

Teaching works best when you teach students who agree that they want to learn whatever it
is you have to teach. (p. 43)
There is often a need for creative teaching to facilitate such high-level student
buy-in across divergent student groups, as this involves a major perceptual shift for
many students in terms of motivation and learning approaches. However, if this can be
attained, the focus can then be largely on the how of learning effectively, rather than
frequently revisiting the why. What constitutes challenging is, of course, subjective
in part, but most importantly, we are seeking the best contextualization to the learner
profile. Providing goals that are easy to attain results in little value in the learning
stakes. The idea of giving students such goals to ensure they get plenty of positive
feedback regarding their successful attainment, to promote self-esteem, is naïve at
best. Students know that they are being ‘dumbed down’ and will not be duped by
such token positive self-regard. Similarly, if the goals are not realistically achievable
in terms of student’s prior knowledge (e.g., level of conceptual understanding; skill
sets), and in the time frames defined, this creates frustration and stress which is
detrimental to learning and attainment. While it is sometimes challenging for the
teacher to establish meaningful and challenging goals for students, it is time well
spent, as Hattie (2009) concluded:
Educating students to have high, challenging, appropriate expectations is among the most
powerful influence in enhancing student achievement. (p. 60)
It is important therefore to be able to, as far as is possible, ascertain their prior

learning before setting goals. This is covered in some detail in Core Principle 2:
Learners’ prior knowledge is activated and connected to new learning. Once the stu-
dent profile is ascertained in terms of prior knowledge, always recognizing that there
will be variation in almost any student group (and this should be accommodated for
whenever possible), there are many ways to represent appropriate goals to learners.
What is most important is that students are provided with as clear as possible a defini-
tion of what the goal entails, the level of proficiency of the performance activities and
the products that are required to be produced in meeting the goal, and any other key
information that provides essential structure to make it as tangible as possible. This
can involve showing examples of what good performance and product outcomes look
like, sound like and feel like. For example, in working with teaching professionals
who are seeking to attain a goal that involves being able to use specific instructional
techniques (e.g., questioning techniques to promote critical thinking in a facilitation
session), I often initially provide them with a range of video exemplars of what this
looks like in real teaching contexts related to their field of practice. It is much easier
to work towards goals when you have a clear sense of what goal attainment looks
like, and what’s involved in achieving it.
A noted effective way of supporting this in the context of a lesson is through the
provision of an advance organizer, which is a summary of what is to be learned
in the coming lesson—as identified in Chap. 1. Advance organizers are used at the
beginning of a lesson and serve to provide an organizing frame for the content that
is to follow, as well as a means for students to monitor personal learning in meeting
the stated learning objectives related to the overall learning goal. The more these
organizers connect to the desired goal, the better is the guide for learning. It’s a bit
like using a road map. A very accurate one can make the journey easy; the converse is
also true. Apart from providing clarity and structure to the learning process, advance
organizers help students to see a purpose in the learning and further reinforce the
meaningfulness and motivation for successful goal attainment.
2.3 Core Principle 2: Learners Prior Knowledge Is

Activated and Connected to New Learning
On the first day of my appointment at Singapore Polytechnic in 1985, I was asked

by a colleague if I had been able to access my email. Immediately, a sense of anxiety
became apparent as I posed the question to myself, “How do I do this?” I had never
used email before or even accessed the internet. The internet was at best a very fuzzy
concept in my head. It became no less fuzzy after a few days when I was a participant
in a one-day training programme on using the internet. At the end of the workshop, I
was even more confused and could not even recognize or open the internet browser,
2.3 Core Principle 2: Learners Prior Knowledge Is Activated … 25
Netscape. Yes, I started to feel a bit silly, but this was not a concern, as I knew exactly
where I was in the learning stakes—a complete novice. In this learning situation, I
was very aware of my limited prior knowledge of email and the internet. Furthermore,
as a novice, it’s natural to experience feelings of uncertainty, even dependency, and
performance will be erratic at best. That’s the profile of a novice in any unfamiliar
learning situation, irrespective of whether one has great expertise in other fields.
Aside, I am also very much a novice as a guitar player and on the one occasion I
did a public performance, fortunately in a minor venue, even my basic chord playing
went out of synchronization. I have never played publicly since.
Looking back on that one-day internet training programme highlights the diffi-
culties faced by any learner who is confronted with a learning situation in which
there is little prior knowledge to connect to, and where the instruction is far too
fast to build any useful understanding of what is being taught. I went back to my
office tired, confused, and with no useful understanding or competence to use the
internet. However, what I did know was that this was a typical and almost inevitable
result given the learning context and, most importantly, I knew how to deal with it
effectively.
Learners come to any new learning situation (whether it be the classroom or
elsewhere) with preconceptions about how the world works based on their life expe-
riences. Within this framing, they may have developed some generalized beliefs
about themselves as learners (which may or may not have been favourable) in terms
of their capability for learning. As described prior, post my grade 9 math ‘O’ level
result and the preceding learning experience, I did not feel competent or confident
in learning mathematics. The problem is that prior learning can create a whole host
of misconceptions and motivational dispositions that lead people to avoid any fur-
ther attempts at learning in a specific area. This takes on an added significance in
that all learning, whether accurate or otherwise, exists as a relatively permanent
structure in our neural architecture. I was fortunate in that my final ‘O’ level math
teacher, Mr. Edrich, was able to challenge and disrupt my existing knowledge and
beliefs relating to learning mathematics. For many, they become stuck in an abyss
of misconceptions and perceived limited capability. The important point is that new
learning cannot avoid being connected to prior learning. As Shulman (1991) pointed
out:
All new knowledge gains its form and meaning through its connection with pre-existing
knowledge and its influence on the organization and reorganization of prior knowledge.
(p. 10)
Our prior knowledge is stored in our long-term memory in organized mental

models (often referred to as schemata). These schemata exist as connected neural
networks in our brain architecture and this is what makes possible our understanding
(or lack of it) of phenomena in the real world that they represent. The more complete
and better integrated these schemata are—in terms of the phenomena they represent—
the more useful they are in terms of the application of that learning. For example,
an expert motor mechanic should easily be able to diagnose what is wrong with my
car when it breaks down and knows how to fix it. I am only able to know that it isn’t
working—as I have no useful prior knowledge on what causes cars to break down,
and even less on how to fix them.
Prior knowledge then is the lens through which students will perceive and react
to new information provided in a learning event. If prior learning is inaccurate,
incongruent or limited, it is likely to interfere with the meaningful integration of
the new knowledge presented. This provides real challenges for teachers. Ausubel
(1978) went as far as arguing that:
If I had to reduce all of educational psychology to just one principle, I would say this: the most
important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this
and teach him(sic) accordingly. (p. 163)
Making student’s prior knowledge explicit helps not only to deal with misconcep-
tions and facilitate better linking of new knowledge to existing knowledge structures
but also saves an enormous amount of time in terms of duplicated learning (e.g.,
Nuthall 2005), boredom for students, as well as frustration for teachers. Finding out
what students already know, understand and can do is fundamental to teaching in
any context. Hattie (2012) argued that:
…we must know what students already know, know how they think, and then aim to progress
all students towards the success criteria of the lesson. (p. 44)
There is then the challenge of designing ways to connect new knowledge to the level of
knowledge and understanding that learners already have. This requires both a good under-
standing of the subject matter content and the students being taught, as well as some creativity
in order to design the most appropriate instructional strategy to best facilitate such connec-
tivity. Wlodkowski (2008), using the language of cognitive neuroscience, suggests that this
involves the following:
…begin with what they already know and biologically assemble them with the new
knowledge or skill by connecting the established networks and the new networks. (p. 13)
This heuristic has an effect size of 0.41 (Hattie 2009) and in combination with
clear goals and advance organizers, provides a strong foundation for subsequent
learning, and can be seen as significant components of an impactful “Russian Doll”
instructional strategy—to reiterate this metaphor introduced in Chap. 1. Once stu-
dents have clarity of purpose in the learning goals, a sense of direction for meeting
them, appraised their existing knowledge and dealt with any restrictive misconcep-
tions, they are in a much better position to tackle new concepts effectively. Of course,
this is an ideal scenario and it is unlikely to happen so easily for all students in all
situations. However, it is a much better strategy than going straight into the new
content delivery, for all the reasons outlined above.
Activation of students’ prior knowledge can be done in many ways, but all involve
eliciting specific feedback concerning what they already know, understand and can
do (and to what level of proficiency) in relation to new learning goals and specific
outcomes. This can be done through written and oral pre-tests, and by way of open
discussion with students to explore more fully their mental models and ways they
are thinking about the topic area to be covered. It is important to recognize that
many students are unlikely to be clear on specific things they don’t know and may
not even be able to effectively make this explicit. For this reason, it is important
2.3 Core Principle 2: Learners Prior Knowledge Is Activated … 27
to create a psychological climate in which students feel comfortable sharing their

learning concerns and are not afraid of admitting to not knowing. This is explored
in some detail in Core Principle 9: A psychological climate is created which is both
success-orientated and fun.
2.4 Core Principle 3: Content Is Organized Around Key

Concepts and Principles that Are Fundamental
to Understanding the Structure of a Subject
Understanding is about making personal meaning of knowledge and seeing how it is

used in real-world applications and problem-solving. When learners have developed
a good understanding of a topic, they will have acquired an organized and accurate
mental representation (schemata) of the key concepts in their minds. Once attained,
understanding will facilitate effective and efficient retrieval of the relevant knowledge
of the topic from long-term memory, easy explanation of what the topic is about,
its key components, areas of contention, as well as its thoughtful application in
real-world problem-solving. Furthermore, with a good understanding of something,
whether it’s the working of mechanical systems or, in the context of this book,
pedagogy, it’s then possible to use this knowledge effectively across the domain
field, what is referred to as transfer of learning. Transfer facilitates accurate diagnosis
of problem situations and the capability to create solutions with a high degree of
outcome prediction because it means that the person fully understands the knowledge
bases involved. For myself, I have little understanding of mechanical systems; hence
I am unable to fix anything mechanical. My Jack Russell dog occasionally sits on the
remote-control devices that operate the television and related systems, often resulting
in picture loss on the television. It typically ends up with me ringing the technical
support helpline. I don’t know what most of the various buttons on the different
remote-control devices mean, what aspect of the system behaviour they control, or
their relationships to each other (buttons and the different remote-control devices).
In a situation of picture loss, unless it is patently obvious what has happened (e.g.,
the on button is now off), my understanding is so limited I am effectively taking part
in a lottery where there is a low probability of success; my chances of hitting the
appropriate buttons on the relevant remote control devices in the correct sequences
are not good.
In the literature, much is written about the nature of knowledge, types of knowl-
edge and how knowledge and cognitive processes interact to build understanding by
philosophers, educationalists, and cognitive scientists. The study of the nature, form
and structure of knowledge is a recognized discipline, typically referred to as epis-
temology. We will avoid an extensive coverage of this area as much of the different
terminology conflates and may, in this context, add more confusion rather than insight
into how core concepts and principles help students to understand the key structure
of a topic, and what makes this particularly important to learning and attainment.
One area of general agreement among writers on the types of knowledge, which
provides a useful understanding of what knowledge entails, is the categorization of
knowledge into Declarative Knowledge and Procedural Knowledge, as summarized
below:
Declarative Knowledge: As the term implies, it refers to knowledge that can
be clearly stated as facts, concepts, generalizations or principles within a content
knowledge field. For example, once acquired, we might be able to clearly assess that
a learner knows or understands:
• the concept of democracy
• the defining attributes of a dog
• the conventions of punctuation
• Cristiano Ronaldo plays football for Juventus (at the time of writing).
Procedural Knowledge: This refers to knowing how to do something, typically
involving performing a process or demonstrating a skill. For example, once acquired,
we might be able to clearly assess that a learner is able to:
• Add and subtract
• Write a paragraph
• Juggle
• Set up an experiment
• Read music
• Search for a database.
In many practical tasks both types of knowledge are involved, as to do something
typically involves knowing something about it. For example, while the amount of
declarative knowledge involved in being able to play soccer is not extensive, no
amount of skill in procedural terms would be useful if one did not know what goal
to score into. Invariably, there is much variation in terms of both the number of
knowledge components and level of complexity involved in knowledge acquisition
and deployment when procedural. For example, to acquire a single piece of factual
knowledge such as England won the soccer world cup in 1966 is very straightfor-
ward. Around 5 repetitions should put it firmly into long-term memory. How memory
works and its crucial role in effective learning is outlined in detail in Core Principle
7: Learning design takes into account the working of memory systems. In excep-
tional circumstances, a little idiosyncratic knowledge may be amazingly useful to
an individual, as was powerfully illustrated in the 2008 film ‘Slumdog Millionaire’.
The film featured a young man (Jamal) from the slums of Mumbai who appears on
the Indian version of ‘Who wants to be a millionaire?’ and answers all the ques-
tions correctly, though arouses suspicions that he must have cheated. However, in
the film, Jamal recounts in a flashback how he knows the answer to each question,
each one linked to a key event in his life. His learning of these specific bits of fac-
tual knowledge happened idiosyncratically, but through great serendipity resulted
in the illusion of him being highly knowledgeable, which ran counter to his slum
living existence. In most real-world contexts, we are very unlikely to get such highly
favourable results from limited knowledge bases. The building of accurate organized
2.4 Core Principle 3: Content Is Organized Around Key Concepts … 29
mental models (deep understanding) of complex phenomena in the world requires

much internal cognitive work on the part of the learner to negotiate and assimilate the
vast knowledge bases involved. One does not need much knowledge (declarative or
procedural) to ascertain why one’s pencil is not working and how to fix it. However,
this is unlikely to be the case in a situation of aeroplane failure, unless of course,
you happen to be an expert aeroplane engineer. What this cognitive work is and how
it works is the focus of Core Principle 4: Good thinking promotes the building of
understanding.
Understanding is something students can achieve themselves only through the
acquisition of relevant knowledge, actively making appropriate connections between
the knowledge components (e.g., declarative and procedural) to build an accurate
mental picture—schemata of the intended learning goal. The rote memorization of
knowledge, while fundamentally important in effective learning, will not in itself
result in understanding as this requires the learner to actively make the mental con-
nections and create accurate internal representations. This involves what we refer
to as ‘thinking’. However, thinking without knowledge is of no value—try thinking
about nothing. As Lang (2016) emphasizes:
One of the first and most important tasks as a teacher is to help students develop a rich body
of knowledge in our content areas—without doing so we handicap considerably their ability
to engage in cognitive activities like thinking and evaluating and creating.
…such cognitive skills require extensive factual knowledge. We have to know things, in
other words, to think critically about them. Facts are related to other facts, and the more
of those relationships we can see, the more we will prove capable of critical analysis and
creative thinking. Students who don’t bother to memorize anything will never get much
beyond skating over the surface of a topic. (p. 15)
Notions that today, all we need to do to get content is to search the internet and
find it, and ‘hey presto’ we have knowledge and understanding—even expertise—
is highly dubious, as Keen (2007) exposed in his book, ‘The cult of the Amateur:
How Today’s Internet is Killing our Culture’. In the days when we used physical
encyclopaedias and went to the library and read books, information was there, but it
did not mean that we could understand it. Good teachers get good results for a reason
and, amongst other important aspects, they can identify the key concepts essential to
understanding the structure of a topic area in the context of learners’ prior knowledge
and experience, and then work with this for extending their learning. Willingham
(2009) makes an interesting point in relation to the importance of key knowledge in
the learning process:
The very processes that teachers care about most – critical thinking processes such as reason-
ing and problem-solving – are intimately intertwined with factual knowledge that is stored
in long-term memory (not just found in the environment). (p. 22)
First, you should know that much of the time when we see someone apparently thinking,
he or she is actually engaged in memory retrieval…memory is the cognitive process of first
resort. (pp. 28–29)
In terms of our everyday learning, such cognitive science explains why we can
read, understand and easily apply new knowledge in areas that we have the expertise,
and do this quickly. In contrast, when our knowledge is limited and idiosyncratic,
we struggle to make sense of what we are reading and feel that we are not so bright
(in those situated moments). For example, I can breeze through research papers in
the field of psychology and education but always struggle with any instructional
booklet on how to assemble any do-it-yourself (DIY) equipment such as furniture
or a mechanical device—much to my wife’s annoyance. Quite simply, I have such
limited knowledge or interest in this area. The same applies to gardening, which I
once thought I should do, as we had a garden, and other folk often said how relaxing
and enjoyable such activity was. Well, I tried to grow lettuce, and guess what, the
slugs ate them; I tried to grow strawberries, which the birds ate, and my attempt at
growing runner beans, as I did not secure their structures against a strong wind, was
destroyed. Basically, I lacked too much basic necessary gardening knowledge. Was
it relaxing and enjoyable? Well, you can infer the answer—I had the whole garden
ripped up and concretized.
So, what are the pedagogic implications of this? In Willingham’s words:
Factual knowledge must precede skill. Critical thinking is not a set of procedures that can
be practised and perfected while divorced from background knowledge. Cognitive science
leads to the rather obvious conclusion that students must learn the concepts that come up
again and again – the unifying ideas of each discipline. (p. 33)
In summary, as Resnick (1989) summarized:

Study after study shows that people who know more about a topic reason more profoundly
about that topic than people who know little about it. (p. 4)
There should be a little surprise here, after all, “knowledge is power”—right?

Essentially what this means in practice is that the acquisition, organization and inte-
gration of relevant knowledge bases in one’s long-term memory system are foun-
dational to better understanding—hence learning and attainment. Berliner’s (1987)
description of the benefits of comprehensive and well-organized schemata (the basis
of good understanding) in a specific or domain is fundamentally informative in this
context:
Individuals possessing rich, relatively complete schemas about certain phenomena need very
little personal experience to learn easily, quickly and retain well information pertaining to
those phenomena. A well-developed schema allows very efficient learning from a verbal and
written discourse on a topic about which much is known. (p. 61)
Similarly, as Pugh and Bergin (2006) point out:

…for students to access and apply their learning they need to possess a deep level, connected
knowledge structures. That is, their knowledge needs to be conceptually deep, cohesive,
and connected to other key ideas, relevant prior knowledge, multiple representations, and
everyday experiences. (p. 148)
There is much we can do as teaching professionals to facilitate understanding. You

will note that the two preceding core principles of learning (clear goals and activating
prior knowledge) all contribute in some significant way to facilitating the process of
building understanding. Through a careful analysis of the learning goals, the specific
outcomes and proficiency standards that we seek to achieve with our students, it
is possible to identify the key declarative and procedural knowledge (especially
core concepts and principles) that underpin an understanding of the key structure
of the topic areas we are teaching. Bruner (1966) identified what are essentially
key evidence-based principles underpinning the importance of good structure in
enhancing learning:
The first is that understanding fundamentals makes a subject more comprehensible. (p. 23)
The second point relates to human memory. Perhaps the most basic thing that can be said
about human memory, after a century of extensive research, is that unless detail is placed in
a structured pattern, it is rapidly forgotten. (p. 24)
Third, understanding of fundamental principles and ideas…appears to be the main road to
adequate “transfer of training.” To understand something like a specific instance of a more
general case – which is what understanding of a more fundamental principle of structure
means – is to have learned not only a specific thing but also a model for understanding other
things like it one may encounter. (p. 25)
Basically, understanding is a difficult learning goal, as it involves much cognitive

work—which we typically refer to as thinking. As Willingham (2009) succinctly
noted:
Understanding is hard for students. After all, if understanding were easy for students, teaching
would be easy for you. (p. 78)
Bruner advocated a Spiral Curriculum in which the key concepts and principles are revisited
over time to further clarify and extend the knowledge base in terms of adding new related
knowledge, enhancing integration and further refining until the students mental schemata
has the most accurate and appropriate mental representation, what he refers to as “the full
formal apparatus that goes with them”, (p. 13)
He is famously noted for asserting that:

We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually
honest form to any child at any age of development. (p. 33)
For example, in this chapter, the Core Principles of Learning constitute key con-
cepts and principles fundamental to understanding the structure of what constitutes
Good Teaching (e.g., effective, efficient, creative teaching). Once these are under-
stood, the more specific factual content relating to how they enhance aspects of
the learning process will become increasingly easier to accommodate into a solid
and meaningful mental model in long-term memory. Over time, with a thoughtful
application, the knowledge base becomes more refined, elaborated and practically
useful. In the wider context of this book, as the key structure becomes increasingly
understandable in terms of how to enhance the practice of teaching from an evidence-
based approach, the more abstract notion of ‘Pedagogic Literacy’ starts to become a
meaningful and useful proposition (he says, hopefully). Just as clear and meaningful
learning goals and advance organizers provide structure to what is to be learned,
this heuristic focuses our attention to the most appropriate selection of knowledge
components and their best organizational structuring and sequencing for facilitating
the learning experience to maximize attainment opportunities for learners. While the
mind has a natural tendency to organize information into meaning wholes, as Gestalt
psychology established in the early twentieth century (e.g., Koffka 1915; Köhler
1929), this is greatly aided and enhanced when there is a clear and logical structure
in the presentation of knowledge in the first place. Hattie and Yates (2014) pointed
out:
The mind does not relate well to unstructured data. We find it extremely taxing to learn
random lists or when coping with unrelated materials. We need to learn the organization,
structure, and meaning in whatever we learn. Meaningfulness, or relatedness, stems directly
from prior knowledge. We benefit enormously from being shown how to group information,
how to locate patterns, how to use order, and how to schematise and summarise. (p. 115)
Furthermore, it has long been recognized that different subject areas, by their very
nature, lend themselves to different teaching and learning approaches in terms of
effective student learning. For example, Shulman (1991) argues that teachers require
‘pedagogic content knowledge’, which is the ability to fully understand how their
specific disciplines are most effectively taught. This involves not only the identifi-
cation of core concepts and principles essential for building understanding but also
key areas where misconceptions and areas of difficulty are likely to be encountered
by students. In this way, the instructional strategy can be systematically tailored to
incorporate effective methods that are specifically contextualized to the nature of
the discipline and how practitioners in the field conduct their practices in real-world
contexts. The importance of applying not just pedagogical knowledge to the ways we
teach but also supplementing this with pedagogical content knowledge is captured
by Shulman when he argued:
When was the last time you saw a problem set in the study of Hamlet? Or in Asian History?
Can you have guided practice in a poem? Or for evolutionary theory? I would argue that we
have reflected in the differences among the disciples, different ways of knowing that are tied
to different ways of teaching. (p. 5)
It is essential, therefore, that teachers know their subjects especially well in order
to be able to identify the most appropriate method combinations to effectively teach
the key concepts and principles that are fundamental to understanding in the specific
context of their subject topic areas. In a similar vein, McTighe and Wiggins (1998)
refer to the importance of focusing content on the ‘big ideas’ and the ‘essential-
questions’ in making sense of the content knowledge and its importance within the
wider subject context. The big ideas relate to the more fundamental and enduring
understandings relating to a topic area, as they:
• Provide a conceptual “lens” for any student
• Provide a breadth of meaning by connecting and organizing many facts, concepts
and skills; serving as a lynchpin for understanding
• Point to key knowledge at the heart of the expert understanding of the subject
• Require “uncoverage” because its meaning or value is rarely obvious to the learner,
is counterintuitive or prone to misunderstanding
• Have great transfer value; applying to many other inquiries and issues over time—
“horizontally (across subjects) and “vertically” (through the years in later courses)
in the curriculum and out of school. (p. 69)
Big ideas provide an excellent vehicle for helping students to understand both
the key structure of a topic area as well as its relevance to real-life contexts. As the
authors argue, they provide:
…a conceptual tool for sharpening thinking, connecting discrepant pieces of knowledge,
and equipping learners for transferable applications. (p. 70)
Essential questions are core to the subject and will stimulate thought, provoke
enquiry, and spark more questions relating to the essential core structure of the topic
area, further enhancing understanding. As the authors summarized:
The best questions point to and highlight the big ideas. They serve as doorways through
which learners explore the key concepts, themes, theories, issues, and problems that reside
within the content, perhaps as yet unseen: it is through the process of actively “interrogating”
the content through provocative questions that students deepen their understanding. (p. 106)
McTighe and Wiggins argue that a question is ‘essential’ if it can:

1. Cause genuine and relevant enquiry into the big ideas and core content
2. Provoke deep thought, lively discussion, new understandings and more questions
3. Require learners to consider alternatives, weigh evidence, support ideas, etc.
4. Help make connections with prior learning and personal experiences
5. Naturally reoccur, creating opportunities for transfer to other situations and
subjects.
Furthermore, as knowledge is increasing almost exponentially, and it is not pos-
sible to keep adding more and more subject content in the curriculum, the selection
of the most relevant content knowledge for developing key understandings that are
fundamental to the structure of topic areas becomes a pedagogic prerequisite to teach-
ing. Willingham (2009) cleverly framed this essential question in terms of, “What
knowledge yields the greatest cognitive benefit” (p. 36). In more lay terms, as the
maxim goes, “More is not better, better is better” and this applies particularly well to
the selection of subject content in preparing to teach. Equally, research (e.g., Hattie
and Yates 2014, p. 7) argues that we will invest effort more strongly when we have
already built some useful foundation of knowledge (e.g., understanding), in contrast
to when there is nothing to build on. Being able to quickly help students achieve a
basic understanding of what a topic entails and its relevance to their learning goals
not only helps the cognitive aspects of the learning process, but also the affective
domain of emotions and feelings in that this is more likely to generate and maintain
a better motivational base for a more sustained learning experience.
This explains why we are often reluctant to take on tasks in which we feel we have
very little understanding of the competence and perceive a big gap between where
we are and where we need to be in the learning stakes. Sadly, this often results in a
person giving up in an area of learning that they had an initial interest in pursuing. I
nearly did this with math but was fortunate to have a good teacher ‘to pull me out of
the pit’—so to speak, which made the difference.
There are some old sayings in this context, which provide easy to remember
analogies. We need to be able to:
“See the wood from the trees” and “Separate the wheat from the chaff”.
In summary, being able to identify the key concepts and principles of a subject
from the mass of tertiary information flying around is surely a core principle of
learning and must be a key heuristic in planning and facilitating instruction. Equally,
students need to be well informed and taught how to do this effectively. Brown’s
et al. (2014) reflection is worth ‘reflecting upon’:
Each of us has a large basket of resources in the form of aptitudes, prior knowledge, intel-
ligence, interests, and sense of personal empowerment that shape how we learn and how
we overcome our shortcomings, some of these differences matter a lot – for example, our
ability to extract underlying principles from new experiences and to convert new knowledge
into mental structures. Other differences we may think count for a lot, for example, having
a verbal or visual learning style, actually don’t. (p. 141)
2.5 Core Principle 4: Good Thinking Promotes

the Building of Understanding
In Chap. 1, I mentioned that thinking was not something I learned from my 15,000 h
at school. Well, my teachers can be easily forgiven, if Wagner’s (2010) conclusion
is correct:
In schools, critical thinking has long been a buzz phrase. Educators pay lip service to its
importance, but few can tell me what they mean by the phrase or how they teach and test
it… (p. 16)
For the most part, teachers haven’t been trained to teach students how to think. (xxiv)
There is often an assumption that thinking is simply common sense. Well, even if
it is, and I don’t think it is, it’s not that common. In most basic terms thinking is goal-
directed cognitive activity, which seems to occur not just at a conscious level (e.g., “I
just think this through”), but also subconsciously and unconsciously. The outcome
of good thinking is typically a heightened, or at least improved, understanding of
something. Certainly, thinking is essential to building understanding as it involves
the making of connections in the brain, and this is learning at the neural level.
However, thinking does not occur in isolation, but rather through connecting
and making sense of information, which ultimately (if successful) is retained as
neurologically useful mental models in long-term memory. As Willingham (2009)
summarized:
Thinking occurs when you combine information (from the environment and long-term
memory) in new ways…That combining happens in working memory. (p. 11)
2.5 Core Principle 4: Good Thinking Promotes the Building … 35
Hence, …we must ensure that students acquire background knowledge parallel with
practising critical thinking skills. (p. 22)
There is, despite differences in perspective and terminology in the literature, strong
agreement that thinking is crucial to the quality of human learning. As Paul (1993)
summarized:
The thought is the key to knowledge. Knowledge is discovered by thinking, analyzed by
thinking, organized by thinking, transformed by thinking, assessed by thinking, and, most
importantly, acquired by thinking. (vii)
Petty (2009) puts this into a very practical context when he argued that:
It is no exaggeration to say that almost every aspect of private and public life is driven by our
ability (or inability) to use these thinking skills effectively, and to ‘think straight’. (p. 325)
However, while good thinking may be beneficial in the learning stakes, there are
those who do not see the human mind as particularly well developed for such activity,
as Willingham (2009) concluded:
Humans don’t think very often because our brains are designed not for thought but for the
avoidance of thought. (p. 4)
Hattie and Yates (2014) offer the following analysis:

The ability to think well, to learn efficiently, and solve problems successfully are attributes
that do not figure in most descriptions of natural human adroitness. While a few of us seem
to want to develop good thinking skills (however defined) – it does not seem to be typical
– …humans naturally assimilate the vast bulk of their knowledge through direct social
influence processes that do not make great demands on thinking capabilities. (p. 7)
There is indeed an interesting paradox as far as thinking is concerned. On the one

hand, as Jensen (1996) argued:
The best thing we can do, from the point of view of the brain, is to teach our learners how
to think. (p. 163)
On the other hand, the human brain for a significant proportion of the population
does not seem to want to do this too willingly. Kahneman (2012) provides a powerful
insight here, which has extensive implications in educational contexts and how we
teach. He argues that thinking can be conceptualized in terms of two systems; System
1 and System 2. These are, of course, metaphors, but they convey something that
instantly has strong face validity:
System 1 is a fast reflexive system that identifies the familiar, especially threaten-
ing elements in a situation and quickly activates automatic response patterns. This
system is the most essential for survival and is the default system. It typically works
well in familiar everyday life where most situations and problems are familiar, and
we have long-established patterned responses to them. However, this system also
results in rapid stereotypical/prejudicial judgements and action. It is the price we

pay for this powerful survival system.
System 2 is a slow, analytic, reflective system that explores the more objective
factual elements of a situation, compares them with previously learned elements,
and then responds. However, this requires self-control, effort and time, which is
essentially tiring. As Kahneman summarizes:
System 1 is impulsive and intuitive; System 2 is capable of reasoning, and it is cautious, but
at least for some people, it is also lazy. (p. 48)
The development of good thinking, then, has much in terms of similarity with
other desirable outcomes sought by people. For example, few people enjoy going
on a diet or working long hours of overtime. However, there is a benefit to weight
loss when obese and extra money is useful and often essential for some. The same
can be said for developing good thinking, as far as effective learning is concerned.
We clearly recognize the longer-term benefits, but the shorter-term cognitive strain
is often likely to short cut our perseverance to do this well in many situations.
If good thinking is hampered by it being a tiring activity and some of us have
‘lazy’ brains, this is further compounded by the impact of beliefs and emotions on
our capability for rational cognitive activity. Marcus (2009), from a cognitive neu-
roscience perspective, highlights how our belief systems further provide challenges
to the brain functioning as a good ‘thinking machine’:
Our beliefs are contaminated by the tricks of memory, by emotion, and by the vagaries of a
perceptual system that really ought to be fully separate – not to mention a logic and inference
system that is as yet, in the early twenty-first century, far from fully hatched. (p. 67)
Indeed, as Brown et al. (2014) summarized, and this is worrying:

The truth is that we’re all hardwired to make errors in judgement. Good judgement is a skill
one must acquire, becoming an astute observer of one’s own thinking and performance. We
start at a disadvantage for several reasons. One is that when we’re incompetent, we tend to
overestimate our competence and see little reason for the change. Another is that as humans,
we are readily misled by illusions, cognitive biases, and the stories we construct to explain
the world around us and our place within it. (pp. 104–105)
It is therefore not that surprising that good thinking is more than just common
sense, or we may need to accept that common sense is a much rarer capability than
is typically assumed. However, despite the many barriers to good thinking, it can
be effectively modelled, understood, and improved. As Perkins (1995) pointed out,
“People can learn to think and act intelligently” (p. 18). In consequence, there is
little point in asking students to engage in good thinking if they have no accurate
and useful prior knowledge of what this means. In the absence of useful knowledge
in this area, as for any area of new learning, a whole host of misconceptions are
likely to come into play, and we know what this eventually leads to—a confused and
frustrated learner.
There are many models of thinking in the literature (e.g., Marzano 1988; Swartz
and Parks 1994; Perkins 1985) and the keen reader can find much of interest here.
However, it is also full of different terms (e.g., ‘critical thinking’, ‘creative think-
ing’, ‘lateral thinking’, ‘analytical thinking’, ‘dialogical thinking’, ‘parallel think-
ing’, ‘design thinking’—even ‘thinking out of the box’) relating to thinking, that often
confuses rather than aids the development of good thinking in curriculum design and
practical teaching. Having spent many years researching this elusive human quality,
I have evolved a model of thinking (Sale 2014) based on extensive modelling of
how professionals, across a wide range of fields, actually solve problems in their
work contexts. It must be recognized at the outset that accurate conceptualization
of internal cognitive processes is inherently problematic and invariably unreliable,
especially across subject domains. However, without some valid practical frame on
what these elusive but desirable skills are, and how they work in terms of the wider
context of internal mental activity, there is little chance of the effective teaching and
assessment of them.
What this means, for example, is that while psychologists may solve problems in
some qualitatively different ways from engineers, both at the individual and collective
level, there is similarity in the types of cognitive activity involved. For example, they
will need to analyse situations (e.g., cases), make comparison and contrast with
similar past cases, build up inferences and interpretations from ongoing perceptions
and data accumulation, generate possible solutions and decide action based on chosen
criteria. Around this swirl of cognitive activity, there will be overall monitoring
of what is going on, typically referred to as metacognition. The summary model
is depicted in Fig. 2.1, and the typical cognitive heuristics involved are outlined
in Table 2.1. Note that the cognitive heuristics for each type of thinking are the
essential framing questions that are to be negotiated in making sense of information
and building understanding.
In this model, analysis, compare & contrast, inference & interpretation and evalua-
tion are typically employed during critical thinking; whereas generating possibilities,
as the term implies, is predominantly employed in creative thinking. However, it is
Fig. 2.1 Sale model of types

of thinking
Table 2.1 Cognitive heuristics of types of thinking

Cognitive heuristics of types of thinking
Generating: possibilities
• Generate many possibilities
• Generate different types of possibilities
• Generate novel possibilities
Compare & contrast
• Identify what is similar between things (e.g.. objects/options/ideas)
• Identify what is different between things
• Identify and consider what is important about both the similarities and differences
• Identify a range of situations when the different features are applicable
Analysis
• Identify relationship or the parts to a whole in system/structure/model
• Identify functions of each part
• Identify consequences to the whole, if a part was missing or malfunctioning
• Identify what collections of parts from important sub-systems of the whole
• Identify if and how certain parts have a synergistic effect (for open systems)
Inference & interpretation
• Identify intentions and assumptions in data
• Separate fact from opinion in data
• Identify key points, connections, and contradictions in data
• Make meaning of the data/information available
• Establish a best picture to make predictions
Evaluation
• Decide on what is to be evaluated
• Identify appropriate criteria from which evaluation can be made
• Prioritize the importance of the criteria
• Apply the criteria and make decision
Meta-cognition
• Recognize the ability and usefulness of thinking in an organized manner
• Actively think about the ways in which we are thinking
• Monitor and evaluate how effective we are thinking
• Identify and manage beliefs and emotions which may hinder the quality of thinking
• Identify and utilize strategies to improve the quality and thinking
metacognition that is the higher executive capability and, as Flavell (1979) and Mar-
tinez (2006) maintain, critical thinking is subsumed under metacognition. Similarly,
Halpern (1998) argued that when people are engaged in critical thinking, they need to
use metacognitive skills to monitor the thinking process (e.g., checking the progress
being made towards a personal goal, ensuring accuracy, and making decisions relat-
ing to time and mental effort). Brown et al. (2014) is even more direct in this analysis
and argues that without metacognition, critical thinking is impossible to achieve.
Also, creative thinking is not simply a question of clicking on a creativity switch
in one’s brain. Such notions are both naïve and dangerous. While creative thinking
works along with different heuristics, it is closely linked to both critical thinking
and metacognition’s executive control. Without significant content knowledge in a
field (and preferably more than one field) and if metacognition and critical thinking
are poor, little by way of creativity is likely to manifest itself in terms of real-world
usefulness.
Furthermore, and in the context of the above framing of how the mind works
(or doesn’t work), some writers see ‘good thinking’ not just in terms of cognitive
processes and heuristics’ but also in terms of the development of intellectual traits and
standards. However, while definitions of critical thinking vary in the literature, most
share a consensus that it involves certain dispositional factors as well as the cognitive
heuristics outlined above. For example, Paul et al. (2006) identify the following traits
as central to acquiring a high level of expertise in critical thinking:
• Intellectual humility—sensitivity to one’s own biases and the limitations of
knowing
• Intellectual courage—prepared to question own beliefs and those of others, even
if unpopular with dominant perspectives and people
• Intellectual empathy—awareness of the need to actively entertain different views
from one’s own
• Intellectual integrity—holding oneself to the same intellectual standards of others
(no double standards)
• Intellectual perseverance—working through intellectual complexities despite
frustration
• Confidence in reason—recognizing that humankind’s interests are best served by
giving free play to reason
• Intellectual autonomy—thinking for oneself in relation to standards of rationality
and not uncritically accepting the judgements of others
• Fair-mindedness—conscious of the need to treat all viewpoints alike and not be
influenced by vested interests.
Such dispositions are certainly desirable, but the extent to which they are inte-
gral to deep-seated personality traits and trainable by pedagogic interventions is
questionable and will be explored further in the following chapters.
In summary, these types of thinking run as overlapping and intertwined neural
programmes, moving from foreground to background as the focus of framing a
problem changes and new questions emerge. Certainly, when creativity is sought,
generating possibilities is at the mind’s forefront, but other types of thinking will
weave in and out of consciousness and, typically run continuously in the subconscious
mind. However, the good thinker will periodically take a conscious metacognitive
view and attempt to make sense of (understand) what is actually going on in his/her
mind, check various aspects of cognitive and affective processes (e.g., the types of
thinking; impact of beliefs and emotions) and adjust when necessary. Good thinking
can, therefore, be framed as the ability to navigate this ‘perpetual cognitive and
affective swirl’, and to be able to employ the various heuristics of these types of
thinking in a fluid, effective, efficient and highly synergistic manner. This is perhaps
the reason that good thinking is quite rare in many situations, and why we really need
to teach it to our students.
The development of Good Thinking is so central to learning and well-being, that

Chap. 3: Metacognitive Capability The Superordinate Competence for the Twenty-
First Century) extensively focuses on these essential though elusive skill sets. For
now, just remember it is a Core Principle of Learning.
2.6 Core Principle 5: Instructional Methods

and Presentation Mediums Engage the Range
of Human Senses
Against boredom even gods struggle in vain.

(Friedrich Nietzsche)
When I first arrived in Singapore, I took an instant liking for a local delicacy, ‘chilli
crab’—you must try it if you come to Singapore. In fact, I had this, and other local
dishes, almost every night. Indeed, on one occasion, I remember an elderly Chinese
lady at the local hawker centre (that’s a Singaporean term for food court) saying to
me, “Why you always have chilli crab, lah, why not spring roll.”—or something like
that. Well, the answer at that point in time was easy, “I like chilli crab.” However, one
night, and it was inevitable in retrospect, the chilli crab was served up in its typical
form, but my response was not the usual positive one. Suddenly, its appeal seemed
to have vanished completely. The chilli crab was no different, but my perception had
somehow changed and with this, my whole orientation to it was different. Invariably,
based on my East London values, I ate it; after all, it’s not right to leave good food—
a punishable offence by parents in my younger years, if caught. Quite simply, in
psychological terms, I had become habituated to chilli crab and its appeal had greatly
diminished. In most basic terms, I had become bored with it. Sadly, as humans, we
have an inherent tendency for this to happen, even for things we really like.
When asked what is the best teaching method to use and why, I tend to recite
a variant of the chilli crab story as an advance organizer. Yes, some methods are
more effective than others, but the overuse of any one method will create habituation
and students will get bored. I can recall academic faculty at a previous educational
institution attending a workshop on Project-based Learning. Many came back excited
and wanting to use it in their teaching. Well, imagine the students on a Monday
morning, when for the first time they get to choose aspects of their learning and
be more actively involved in the learning process, it was a novelty. However, after
2–3 weeks of such activity, when they have amassed several projects, the enthusiasm
for such pedagogy had long receded. Too much of the same thing gets boring, and
as Willingham (2009) concluded, “Change grabs attention, as you no doubt know”
(p. 17). This is often why we go on holiday—even though it often ends up stressful,
especially when taking young children who keep saying, “I wish we could go home”.
If the Gods struggle in vain, what chance for us mere mortals with this existential
nemesis?
2.6 Core Principle 5: Instructional Methods and Presentation … 41
Hence, in terms of learning and teaching, the creation of appropriate variation in

the modes and mediums of delivery, which stimulate the range of senses, is highly
significant for enhancing the learning experience for students. Attentional processes
play a major role in what enters our consciousness and influences, at the subjective
level of experience, what we see and hear. The environment at any given time can
present multiple sources of stimuli impacting our senses, but most of it will be
selectively (mainly unconsciously) ignored. We typically pay attention to what we are
motivated/interested in, as we will then be looking out for it. My wife at social events,
for example, will notice what other women are wearing and make comparisons. I
never notice what other men are wearing, as I have no interest in fashion. I simply
wear what my wife suggests, though often insists on. As it doesn’t matter much to
me, I always (ok, mostly) concur. Of course, if someone was wearing something so
different, or wearing nothing at all, I would almost certainly notice, as our dominant
visual sense and brain’s natural intuition to respond to novelty, would largely ensure
this happens without my volition. As Sylwester (1998) pointed out:
It’s biologically impossible to learn anything that you’re not paying attention to; the
attentional mechanism drives the whole learning and memory process. (p. 6)
In a similar vein, Csikszentmihalyi (1990) argued:

The shape and content of life depend on how attention has been used …Attention is the most
important tool in the task of improving the quality of experience. (p. 33)
Getting attention is of key importance for learning and, as teachers, we need to

tackle this difficult existential task as best we can. We know that human attention,
unless the stimulus is very striking, either in terms of strong interest (e.g., pleasurable)
or necessity to avoid pain (e.g., in a perceived crisis situation), will typically drift
off and/or be distracted by some other feature or activity in the environment. How
long is a typical attention span? There probably is not one, as it is variable from
person to person and situation to situation. In a classroom, if students expect the
teacher to be boring, there may not be any attention given. I have observed classes
where some students come to class with a pillow and are nicely ‘tucked in’ for a nap
before the teacher has commenced the lesson. Over the years, I have asked students
why they have done this; it’s, in fact, a silly question. They have made the decision,
from previous lessons with this teacher that there is no reason to give any attention
whatsoever. Getting some rest, for a long day at school, is more important than being
bored. Hence, the importance of a good first impression—often referred to, in the
psychological literature, as a Primacy effect (the tendency of the brain to take in more
information when presented with a new stimulus)—when teaching a new class. As
in the world of dating, if a first date goes badly, you are unlikely to get a second
one—with that person anyway. Similarly, if your first class finds your lesson boring,
you are likely to struggle for attention in the second session, and that’s if students
turn up—which in voluntary contexts, many may not.
Hence, as Miller (2016), in terms of a pedagogic frame, but with big practical
teaching implications, states:
Optimizing your learning experiences for attention is the first step towards optimizing it for
long-term memory and higher thought processes. (p. 87)
Mental activity is stimulated through our five senses, with the visual sense prob-
ably the most dominant. The relative dominance of our vision system may well be
the result of our evolution, as Mlodinow (2012) captures so interestingly:
…an animal that sees better eats better and avoids danger better, and hence lives longer. As
a result, evolution has arranged it so that about a third of your brain is devoted to processing
vision. (p. 35)
In many situations the greater the combination of our senses that are appropriately
stimulated in a planned learning event, the more potentially effective the experience
is likely to be in terms of gaining better attention and facilitating the desired learn-
ing outcomes. For example, it is estimated that when we see and hear something,
this doubles the sensory impact as compared to just hearing it. Direct experience
will increase the impact further and, teaching it, will enhance it further still. This
should not be surprising as the act of teaching, if conducted properly, will involve
much by way of preparation. Most specifically, it will involve developing a strong
understanding of the key content areas, especially those concepts and principles that
are fundamental to understanding the key structure of the topic area. It will also
involve identifying areas of potential difficulty and where the main misconceptions
are likely to be experienced by learners. Finally, there will a systematic structuring
and sequencing of how best to present this content in the most effective and effi-
cient method combination. In my experience, by assessing how well someone has
learned takes this process even further. When assessing students, one must firstly be
able to validly ascertain what they have learned and to what extent the key learning
components (e.g., the desired learning outcomes) have been met in the performance
evidence to ensure accurate judgement of performance. In making assessment deci-
sions, especially of a summative nature (e.g., when one is making a final assessment
decision or ascribing a grade), the assessor is claiming to know learners in some fun-
damental way that often has a significant impact on their access to future educational
channels and employment opportunities. Secondly, as assessment (formative) is a
key aspect of the learning processes, this requires assessors to accurately diagnose
students specific areas of weakness and then provide tailored feedback to help them
strategize effective future learning strategies.
Pedagogically there is logic in providing or enabling students to engage in real-
world tasks that they find meaningful and interesting, that gets them highly engaged
(i.e., behaviourally, emotionally, cognitively and agentically), proactively thinking
and asking questions—and assessing their learning collaboratively. This is a good
instructional approach. However, its rarely the reality in many classrooms, and cer-
tainly not for all students. The foibles of the human condition make this so. Many
teachers often bemoan the lack of student engagement and interest and feel it’s often
their fault. In the case of some teachers, this may be true, to varying degrees, but
teaching is not easy, and expecting full attention and engagement is wishful thinking.
One can only do one’s professional best. Remember teaching is heuristic not algo-
rithmic. Water always boils at 100 °C—correct? Well, not exactly, your elevation
relative to sea level can affect the temperature at which water boils, due to differ-
ences in air pressure. Hence, even algorithms don’t always behave 100% and don’t
worry, we won’t go on to discuss string theory. What we can say is that on a bad
day, students may not give much attention, no matter how well you teach. So many
factors can affect student behaviour, such as personal circumstances, moods, time of
day, etc., and if these negatives conflate, the best-planned and delivered lesson may
go nowhere useful. Just as many patients do not take ‘good’ medical advice, so many
students may not see the point in learning what is being taught—despite your best
attention and good teaching.
In terms of ascertaining the various ways in which teaching and learning arrange-
ments impact the senses, Edgar Dales’ famous ‘Cone of Learning’ (Fig. 2.2) is often
shown to illustrate how different senses and activities affect the learning process.
The percentages have a limited empirical base and are quite arbitrary; however, it
provides a generalized illustration of how different combinations of sensory input
may affect the type and quality of learning.
The use of audio-visual aids is common practice in seeking to enhance student
learning through different sensory modalities, and it is certainly the case that the
human mind responds positively to multimedia (Hattie and Yates 2014). The cinema,
of course, exploits this to its fullest impact. Our brain is set up well to integrate
information from different source inputs, especially from different modalities. Strong
learning occurs when words and images are combined, and these effects become
especially strong when the words and images are made meaningful through accessing
prior knowledge. Good visual representations work because:
• Recall is almost always visually triggered; hence visual representation acts as a
cue triggering the full memory system
Fig. 2.2 Edgar Dales’ cone of learning

Table 2.2 Key principles of good instructional design for audio-visual presentations
Key principles of good instructional design for audio-visual presentations
Five principles for reducing extraneous process
• Coherence (reduce extraneous words and pictures)
• Signalling (highlight essential words and pictures)
• Redundancy (do not add onscreen text to narrated graphics)
• Spatial contiguity (present printed words near corresponding graphics)
• Temporal contiguity (present corresponding words and graphics simultaneously)
Three principles for managing essential processing
• Segmenting (break down instruction into learner-paced segments)
• Pre-training (Provide pre-training in names and characteristics of each main concept)
• Modality (use spoken words for visualization rather than text)
Two principles for fostering generative processing
• Personalization (put words in conversational style)
• Voice (use friendly human voice for speaking words)
• Only structured information can go into Long-Term Memory, so this helps the
transmission from Working Memory into Long Term Memory and subsequent
recall
• They facilitate the ability of learners to see the relationship of a whole to its various
parts, which fosters understanding.
However, it is important not to over-use audio-visual aids or to create too much
variation in modes and mediums of presentation. I have seen many teachers using
audio-visual aids and varied presentation format, all with good intentions to enhance
the learning experience, but only to create confusion for students. There is now
much evidence-based research on how best to present visual material to facilitate
effective learning. For example, Mayer and Alexander (2011) summarized essential
key principles that specifically impact the effectiveness of multimedia on learning
(see Table 2.2).
As Mayer makes clear:
These practical implications are examples of evidence-based practice – basing instructional
methods on research evidence rather than on conventional wisdom, opinion, speculation,
fads, or doctrine. (p. 441)
This heuristic is not difficult to understand in terms of how it can enhance student
attention and attainment as it has strong face validity. For example, we have all
both experienced boredom and how it affects our attention and disrupts learning,
as well as being stimulated by high impact multi-media movies. I remember being
amazed by the film ‘Avatar’ because of the multi-media effects, even though the
story had some ridiculous concepts such as helicopter gunships, resembling what
are used today, on a planet in another solar system many light years away—really?
However, today’s multi-media and internet-rich resource pool is a double-edged
sword. On the one hand, it offers the creative teacher much in the way of capability
for building networks of integrated resources, differentiating the learning experience
and creating instructional strategies that provide better attentional, engaging and
attainment opportunities for an increasingly wider cohort of learners. On the other

hand, we must bear in mind that today’s learners, so familiar with the internet and
its diverse entertainment and communication options, will not simply give attention
to ‘bells and whistles’ multi-media.
The ability to design creative content and effective instructional strategies may be
even more necessary today than in yesteryear.
2.7 Core Principle 6: Learning Design Takes into Account

the Working of Memory Systems
Human memory is a little bit like having a Maserati sports car, but only being allowed
to use the first gear, except on special occasions. A Maserati will hit a top speed of 185
miles per hour, but certainly not in first gear. Our memory has two main systems, long-
term memory (LTM) and working memory (WM). These are depicted in Fig. 2.3. Our
LTM seems to have unlimited storage capability. It’s not that our brain gets bigger
as we learn more; rather it becomes denser in terms of neural connectedness, though
we can never live long enough to test its full capability. However, before information
can be stored in LTM, it must first pass through WM, which has limited immediate
capability when processing new information. The ‘magic’ 7 (able to process around
7 plus or minus 2 bits of information at one go) was originally documented by
Miller (1956), for what was then referred to as short term memory. However, more
recent research (e.g., Van Merrienboer and Sweller 2005) suggests that in everyday
situational use, this tends to be only 2–4 elements at a time. WM also needs quick
rehearsal for information to be effectively captured and processed, otherwise it is
Fig. 2.3 Summary of memory systems

typically lost (forgotten) after only a few seconds. The limited capacity of working
memory poses problems for learning, as Clark and Lyons (2005) point out:
…it is in working memory that active mental work, including learning, takes place. Working
memory is the site of conscious thought and processing. (p. 48)
Similarly, Ormrod (2011) summarizes the importance of this key memory system:
Working memory is the component of our memory system in which we hold attended-to
information for a short time while we try to make sense of it. More generally, it’s where
our thinking occurs. For example, working memory is where we think about the content of
a lecture, try to decipher a confusing textbook passage, or solve a problem. Whatever our
consciousness is, this is probably where it is housed. (p. 55)
Willingham (2009) further emphasizes that what we do with the information when
in WM, has implications for what we end up with in LTM—for better or for worse:
For material to be learned (that is, to end up in long-term memory) it must reside for some
period in working memory – that is, a student must pay attention to it. Further, how the student
thinks of the experience completely determines what will end up in long-term memory. (p. 49)
His descriptions of the internal mental processing involved demonstrate the cru-
cial dynamic relationship of thinking and knowledge in building understanding, If
knowledge is limited and thinking is poor, what we end up with in LTM will be of lit-
tle or no value. Hence, to develop well-structured, comprehensive, and useful mental
models of what we are learning, neurologically well-wired and cemented in LTM,
there is a need for the right knowledge (e.g., key concepts and principles) and good
thinking to be occurring in WM, and ongoing checking of what’s ‘building up’ in
LTM. To reinforce this process, Brown’s et al. (2014) summary is spot-on:
To be useful, learning requires memory, so what we have learned is still there when we need
it. (p. 2)
Practice at retrieving new knowledge or skill from memory is a potent tool for learning and
durable retention. (p. 43)
That is why retrieval practice, as will be explored in more detail later, is so

important in the learning process. Willingham (2009) is insightful in his framing
that:
Memory is the residue of thought. (p. 4)
You may also remember from Core Principle 4 that the human mind is, for many
of us, inherently lazy in that System 2 thinking typically is draining on our cognitive
resources and results in what is often referred to as ‘ego-depletion’ (Kahneman 2012).
Quite simply, excessive cognitive activity, like excessive physical activity, is not the
norm for most people—one must choose to develop these capabilities. It is also the
case that, at a conscious processing level, the brain is relatively slow as a processing
system, especially when compared to computer technology. If you have any doubt,
do this simple exercise:
2.7 Core Principle 6: Learning Design Takes into Account … 47
How many capital letters in the English alphabet are curved?
If you already know the answer, it would be immediate; otherwise, it would

probably have taken you some 25–30 s to get the correct answer (11). However, type
in Jack Russell terrier on your PC and you will get around 99,400,000 hits (Well, at
4.40 p.m., Singapore-time, November 2019). Given the limitations of WM, a largely
lazy thinking system and slow processing speed, we start to get a somewhat limiting
picture of human learning capability. Hattie and Yates (2014) make the point that
many of us don’t want to face up to when they highlighted:
Notions such as instant experts, superfast learning, speed reading, and other magic-like
programs, amount to faddish quackery in violation of known and validated principles of
human learning. If only it was that simple. (p. 113)
However, the picture is not as bleak as it seems, as there are ways in which we
can use our memory akin to driving the Maserati in 4th gear. This becomes possible,
even easy, once we have acquired vast knowledge, understanding and expertise in a
specific field. Such capability is fully encoded as highly integrated neural networks
(e.g., cognitive schemata) in LTM. WM has no limitations when dealing with such
information retrieved from LTM, as it dramatically alters the functionality of what is
taking place within the memory systems. The two systems effectively merge into one
fluent dynamic entity working towards meeting the conscious goal of desired infor-
mation retrieval and solving the problem in hand. Furthermore, over time, this process
becomes increasingly automated, and as Hattie and Yates (2014) summarized:
When your knowledge becomes so automatic that you can access it quickly, with virtually
no effort, then the WM system is said to be bypassed through the automaticity stage – a most
desirable place to be. (p. 147)
This enhanced memory capability explains why a person very fluent in a language
can always find the words they want to use and assemble them in complex sentences
instantaneously. Contrast this with the novice trying to learn the days of the week in
a new language. It took me more than an hour to learn (as in encoding sufficiently
in LTM for later effective retrieval) the days of the week in Mandarin, and that was
quite good.
It has been popular in educational circles to downplay the importance of rote
learning and memorization. After all, we want flexible adaptive and creative thinkers
today—right? Yes, but such high-level human capability is largely based on what
we have already acquired in our LTM system. Quite simply, if there is not much
information there, and it’s not particularly well organized and connected, there is little
chance of creative or even useful outcomes. This could not have been levelled at the
neural arrangements of Einstein or Da Vinci, and it may have been a definitive factor
in their genius capabilities. It is not surprising that Kircher et al (2006) concluded
that:
…long term memory is now viewed as the central dominant structure of human cognition.
Everything we see, hear and think about is critically dependent on and influenced by our
long-term memory. (pp. 3–4)
Research clearly shows that a major factor that differentiates experts from novices
is that expert problem-solvers can draw on the vast knowledge bases in their LTM
and quickly select the best approach and procedures for solving a given problem. As
Kircher et al. further point out:
We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of informa-
tion concerning that area. That information permits us to quickly recognize the characteristics
of a situation and indicates to us, often unconsciously, what to do and how to do it. (p. 4)
This essentially means that the more you have effectively learned and appropri-
ately organized in LTM makes subsequent learning in that area or field more effective.
As Willingham (2009) noted:
…having factual knowledge in long term memory makes it easier to acquire still more factual
knowledge. (p. 34)
One of the main factors that contribute to successful thought is the amount and quality of
the information in long term memory. (p. 17)
This goes very much against the prevalent view among many educationalists that
we should not be encouraging rote learning but instead focusing on building under-
standing through the development of thinking. As documented earlier, understanding
is important, and the development of good thinking is essential to achieving this.
However, this is a bit like having a Maserati, knowing how to drive it, but not having
any petrol to put in the tank. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) was correct in arguing that, “it
is a mistake to assume that creativity and rote learning are incompatible” (p. 123).
Memory and thinking are equally important in the development of understanding,
share interdependent functionality in the learning stakes and there may be little point
in viewing them as distinctly different processes. It is the construction of elaborate
mental schemas in LTM that provides the conscious mind, operating in working
memory, with room to think when solving problems. Repetition and review are vehi-
cles enabling knowledge to be stored in reliable retrievable units which, over time,
accelerate mental growth through conceptual mastery and deeper understanding. As
Willingham (2009) argued:
As far as anybody knows, the only way to develop mental facility is to repeat the target
process, again, again. (p. 87)
There is an elegant simplicity here; mastery of knowledge bases, good neural

interconnectedness and plenty of varied retrievals of such knowledge, reduces the
need to activate slow deliberate thinking processes—System 2 thinking. Hence, when
solving known problems, the solutions are readily retrievable as memory algorithms
or at least solid heuristics from LTM. That’s the beauty of top-level expertise, and why
persons possessing such capability typically get paid so much more than mainstream
professional folk. I like the story about the expert chemical engineer who was called
into a plant emergency where the on-site engineers could not identify why a reactor
was not starting up, and where losses could run into many thousands of dollars a day
if not rectified. The expert engineer walked around the plant, looked at various parts
of the system, made certain adjustments to various parameters in the units, and within
a couple of hours had the reactor working as it should. Later she billed the company
$20,000. The company, not challenging the cost, given the alternative scenario, did
ask the consultant engineer for a breakdown of the bill. The reply went something
like this, “$1000 for the call out, $19,000 for what’s in my head”.
This heuristic has many implications for how we teach. Perhaps most apparent
is the need to chunk up information into manageable learning structures to prevent
cognitive overload on WM. Also, to take account of students’ prior knowledge, as
its level of completeness, integration and ease of access for retrieval will impact our
pace and focus when teaching. For example, students with limited prior knowledge,
when presented with new information in that area, may be especially vulnerable to
cognitive overload. In this situation, they will struggle to process it meaningfully,
feel confused, and fail to assimilate it meaningfully in LTM. Cognitive load has been
distinguished in terms of two main interrelated components: intrinsic cognitive load
and extraneous cognitive load (e.g., Van Merrienboer and Sweller 2005). Essentially
intrinsic cognitive load is related to the task complexity itself and the ability of
WM to deal with it. For the novice, a complex learning task will create cognitive
overload, simply trying to make sense of it. Extraneous cognitive load refers to
introducing information into the learning situation that is not relevant to the learning
(e.g., unnecessary text, graphic or colour change) or being poorly organized. This
can be significantly reduced by good instruction design. As the authors emphasize,
“There is no substitute for evidence-based instructional design” (p. 173). In contrast
to the novice learner, when teaching students who have a high level of knowledge
and expertise in an area, we can present information much quicker and in more
elaborated forms, as they already have highly developed mental schemata in that
knowledge field. In terms of analogy, therefore, I can read (and usually make good
sense of) several psychology journals in a day but cannot retrieve the television
picture when my dog sits on the remote-control device and scrambles the channels.
Students need time to rehearse new information in their minds and consolidate
to existing mental schemata, which is facilitated through application activities that
generate appropriate types of thinking (e.g., analysis, comparison, inference & inter-
pretation, and evaluation), as this facilitates understanding. The wise teacher will
provide this structure for students and adjust the pace of instruction accordingly.
Consolidation of learned material in LTM is further reinforced through providing
systematic reviews stimulating the retrieval of key information from LTM and bring-
ing it to conscious attention in WM, as illustrated in Fig. 2.4. Students and the teacher
can then do a quality check on what has been learned, remediate lost elements, clar-
ify overall understanding, as well as reinforce desired learning. This very act of
conscious retrieval from LTM to WM fires related neural structures, which result in
the secretion of myelin, an enzyme-based substance that forms an insulating sheath
around the axon in a neuron. In basic terms, this further strengthens the learning
bond in LTM. Talking to oneself, when memorizing for an exam, if it is about the
‘right stuff’, is far from madness; it is a good learning strategy.
Another aspect of how memory systems work, which has important implica-
tions for the design of learning and teaching practices, concerns how information
is selected when presented to learners. It is well documented that apart from the
Fig. 2.4 Retention of information with and without reviews
limited capability of WM to deal with incoming information, the attentional and

information processing is not uniform. The Serial Position Curve (Murdock 1962)
demonstrated that when presented with a list of 16 items to memorize, people typi-
cally memorize more at the beginning and the end, tending to forget what was in the
middle. These information acquisition biases have been labelled the Primacy effect
(the tendency for the first items presented in a series to be remembered more easily
as compared to most other items) and the Recency effect (the tendency for the most
recently presented items to be remembered more easily as compared to most other
items). Another important effect is what is referred to as the Von Restorff effect (the
tendency to remember distinct or novel items more easily as compared to most other
items), named after the psychologist who discovered it (See Fig. 2.5, incorporating
the Von Restorff effect). Even a quick break in a session can represent a change in the
stimulus situation and has benefits in attentional and memory processing—“a change
is as good as a rest”; another of those old folk sayings that has acquired validity from
cognitive neuroscience. Hence, from a practical teaching point of view, the early part
of the lesson is where a key impact can be made, both in terms of teaching the main
concepts and building rapport. The best motivational speakers know this well and
exploit it to the limit. Similarly, the end of the lesson is also important as it facilitates
retention of the key points in summary, as well as linkages with other resources and
possibly a short advance organizer for the following lesson. Also, irrespective of
what has happened in the lesson earlier (e.g., students did not do particularly well
on a test), it can be used to finish on an upbeat and positive note, lifting the psycho-
logical state of the students. This is like ending an interview with a firm handshake
and positive eye contact. Such non-verbal behaviours can significantly influence the
perception, and subsequent behaviour, of others, albeit largely unconsciously. In this
context, the creative teacher, through well designed changes in method and activity,
Fig. 2.5 Serial position curve, incorporating the Von Restorff effect
can trick the brain into paying much more attention than it would customarily give
over a given time duration. Finally, the creative application of a Von Restorff effect,
will put the ‘icing on the cake’, metaphorically speaking.
Many teachers have long recognized the importance of presenting information in
manageable chunks and then structuring activities that give students time to make
sense (digesting) of it through discussion and/or other forms of application. Over
time they do periodic recap and review to increase the chances of effective transfer
and retention in LTM, as well as remediate gaps in learning. We are developing a
more precise science that underpins how this works and can now confidently predict
that when utilized thoughtfully in practice, there is likely to be significant gains in
student attainment, as well as better engagement. We can all remember the teachers
who bored us. Several behaviours can contribute to boredom in the classroom; many
are violations of memory processing. Teachers who consistently use practices that
conflict with the workings of the human memory system will experience frustration
with the gaps in many students learning, lack of attention and engagement, and
possibly acts of indiscipline. The frustration and consequences will invariably be
greater for the students themselves.
2.8 Core Principle 7: The Development of Expertise

Requires Deliberate Practice
Most Saturday mornings I usually go into the gym at my apartment block and do
around 30 min of weight training; apparently, this is a good exercise regime. Whilst
doing my exercise programme, I occasionally look out of the window at people
playing tennis. I have noted that several players never seem to get any better even
after a few years. They play the same novice game every week. They are unable to
serve with any consistency, do not adopt proper body positions when striking the
ball and don’t even seem to focus attention on the ball when they hit it, and I’m not
a professional tennis coach.
The notion that learning inevitably improves over time and that experience is
central to improvement is highly questionable. Yes, time on task is important and
so is experience. However, it is more about what is done when on a task that really
makes a big difference in the experience. For example, why is it that some people, who
have many years of experience, still display limited competence, whereas relative
newcomers achieve good competence in a comparatively short time? The conclusion
of Berliner (1987) offers insight into such questions:
…experience will probably only instruct those who have the motivation to excel in what they
do and the metacognitive skills to learn from their experience…we believe that individuals
with that kind of motivation to learn and in possession of a set of strategies for learning from
experience are literally transformed by their experience. (p. 61)
It is certainly the case that motivation is a key factor in effective learning. However,
it’s also about being clear about learning goals and having the strategies and resources
to achieve them. Furthermore, in skill development, one must put in a lot of actual
doing, and much of this is what is typically called the practice. It seems obvious to
assume that practice is important. I like the quote from the legendary golfer Gary
Player, who once said, “The more I practice, the luckier I get.” However, from
research, we are becoming aware that it is not just practice per se that facilities
improvement but, more importantly, how it is structured, and the way feedback is
utilized. Colvin (2008) noted that exceptional performers were not necessarily the
most talented in terms of their earlier biographies but had certain attributes and
practices that distinguished their expertise over time. Of most importance was what
is now referred to as Deliberate Practice. According to Colvin, Deliberate Practice
is characterized by many interrelated key elements, which include:
• The activity (practice) is carefully designed to improve specific aspects of the
performance, often with a teacher’s help
• It requires much repetition
• Feedback on results is continually available
• It is highly demanding mentally (whether a physical or mental task)
• It isn’t much fun (in the main; but maybe for some).
If we analyse these components of deliberate practice it becomes apparent what
makes Deliberate Practice so important in the development of competence and
eventually expertise.
Firstly, deliberate practice fully utilizes the learning affordances of Core Prin-
ciple 1: Learning goals, objectives and proficiency expectations are clearly visible
to learners. Hence, there needs to be a desired goal that is both challenging and
achievable, with clear expectations of what is involved. It must also be highly con-
textualized to the individual who is to invest the necessary effort required to meeting
2.8 Core Principle 7: The Development of Expertise … 53
the goal. If learners take on unrealistic goals, this invites unnecessary failure, frus-
tration, and this can undermine confidence and belief in one’s potential. Equally, if
it is too easy to achieve, then we are dumbing down a person’s potential and creating
false confidence, who when faced with challenging tasks, as will inevitably happen
at some future time, will not well prepared for this. Hence, this process takes both
openness and good two-way feedback to frame the right goals for the right person at
the right time.
Secondly, it requires repetition, and this is often where perhaps the difficult bit
part of practice comes into play. Repetition is so important for building both clarity
of understanding and skill acquisition at the neural level. To build a strong mental
model in the brain at the neural level requires much rehearsal and retrieval activity in
and out of LTM to WM. This is generally referred to as Retrieval Practice. In most
basic terms learning at the level of the brain, involves the development of integrated
neural structures. As Lang (2016) describes:
Neurons form new connections with one another with every new experience we have: new
sensations, new thoughts, new actions. As the neurons are connecting to one another in
novel ways, growing and strengthening new connections, they are forming networks. The
first-time neurons link up in a new way, that connection is a temporary or fleeting one; if
that connection is used again (because we repeat the thought, or recreate an experience), the
link strengthens. The more times the pathway is used, the stronger the connection. The more
times the pathway is used, the stronger the connection. Neurons that fire together, goes the
saying in this corner of the biological world, wire together.
…we learn when our brains form new neural networks or modify existing ones as a result
of our experiences; this means that quite literally, learning requires the continual formation
of new connections between our neurons. (p. 95)
Retrieval practice then facilities this process of building stronger and better neural
networks, which results in a deeper and deeper understanding of that area of learning.
Hence, if you are doing plenty of retrieval practice as you read through the various
sectors of this book, you will be linking together the content knowledge in the various
areas, as well as the key concepts and principles, (hopefully in multiple ways) and, as
a result, will be building understanding. This will be growing neurologically in your
brain, and as you continue the retrieval practice, maintain interest and thinking about
how this applies in different contexts and situations, the conceptual understanding
will grow, getting deeper, until you have that total ‘aha’ feeling—often referred to
as the Eureka Effect. Every time you do a retrieval practice activity from LTM into
WM, these neural pathways will fire and when they go back to LTM the connections
get stronger. There are biochemical processes involved in such activity, which the
interested reader can research. From a pedagogical perspective, we don’t need to
know the neuroscience—but we do need to understand the cognitive behaviour and
ensure that our teaching practice includes the necessary opportunities for retrieval
practice. Hence, Brown et al. (2014), in summarizing this process concludes:
…while the brain is not a muscle that gets stronger with exercise, the neural pathways that
make up a body of learning do get stronger when the memory is retrieved, and the learning
practised. Periodic practice arrests forgetting, strengthens retrieval routes, and is essential
for hanging on to the knowledge you want to gain. (pp. 3–4)
I explicitly teach students how this works and why they should do it. In fact, I teach
students all the core principles of learning, of course, customized to their context. If
we want students to learn well, we should teach them how learning occurs and how
they can make this part of their own self-regulation. If we are seeking to develop self-
directed learners and we want them to become increasing agentic in their learning
(e.g., be proactive, seek out resources and develop their own personalized learning
strategies) this is surely a no-brainer—no pun intended. In practical terms, the more
students do retrieval practice, the better they learn and retain that knowledge gained.
Furthermore, as Brown et al. (2014) points out:
Testing doesn’t need to be initiated by the instructor. Students can practice retrieval anywhere;
no quizzes in the classroom are necessary. (p. 44)
Another consideration in doing practice concerns how often you do it and for how
long. For example, we may do our practice every hour, every-day, every week—or
whatever; this is typically referred to as Spaced Practice. Also, there is the question
of how long should we do our practice sessions? For example, we may do it for a
designated amount of time or until we are exhausted or fed up—or both. Doing long
practice sessions is usually referred to as Massed Practice. We can, of course, do
both. In the movie Desperado, the main male actor, Antonio Banderas, who apart
from other things, was a guitarist who in one scene was asked by a young boy in the
street how to get good at playing this instrument. The actor replied with the statement
“practice all day, every day”. Well, that combines spaced practice and massed practice
into continuous practice—is this the best option? The answer is, of course, no, it’s
not possible to do that—there is a limit physiologically and psychologically to the
amount of massed practice one could put in, though this would vary depending on
the activity and person.
However, research shows that both types of practice, when done effectively in con-
text, can enhance learning, but Spaced Practice has been shown to be most beneficial
for learning. As Lang (2016) summarized:
Research has demonstrated the power of spaced learning. Carey wrote, “nothing in learn-
ing science comes close in terms of immediate, significant, and reliable improvements to
learning”. (p. 76)
Brown et al. (2014) explains how this works:

It appears that embedding new learning in long-term memory requires a process of consoli-
dation, in which memory traces (the brains representations of new learning) are strengthened,
given meaning, and connected to prior knowledge – a process that unfolds over hours and
may take several days. Rapid-fire practise leans on short term memory. Durable learning,
however, requires time for mental rehearsal and other processes of consolidation. Hence,
spaced practice works better. (p. 49)
In addition, when done effectively and is ongoing (as and when needed) is another
core principle of learning and will be examined in some detail in the next section. For
now, let’s see feedback as a two-way communication process between the learner
and others who can contribute to his/her learning in some useful way. This would
certainly include the teacher/coach, but also peers and any other persons who can
contribute input for an individual learner. In the feedback process, irrespective of who
the others are, the learner must go through the retrieval practice process, whether
it is pulling out knowledge from LTM or displaying skill and engaging in dialogue
as to its development in terms of the desired goal. Essentially, this is a process
of testing (not summative assessment), but formative assessment (assessment for
learning). The purpose of retrieving knowledge from memory (or displaying one’s
skill in a visible performance) is that the learning becomes visible to both learner and
others (especially for the expert teacher/coach). This has two important benefits for
future learning. Firstly, it provides direct performance evidence on what the learner
knows, doesn’t know, and any fuzzy areas or misconceptions. It is then possible,
through mediation between the teacher (or other), to identify where the learner is
now in terms of meeting designated goal(s), what is needed to move the learner
progressively forward, and how best to do this (e.g., enhance the learning strategy in
specific ways). Remember, every time students do these retrieval practice activities,
they are not only going through the testing processes with feedback but also further
cementing the learning neurologically in the brain, which makes it easier and easier
to recall in future testing activities.
The pedagogic implications of this are significant. For the purposes of teaching,
the use of performance tasks that directly test the key concepts and skills involved
will facilitate the learning process, especially with supportive feedback. Hence, in
terms of the core principles covered so far, clear goals, knowing what students already
know, focusing on key concepts, getting students to think, managing cognitive load,
and doing deliberate practice is offering a potentially high impact instructional design
framework. There’s more to come, so we’ll stay with the retrieval practice concept,
and re-fire those neurons in spaced practice—seems like a well-reasoned approach.
Research also strongly supports the use of what is referred to as Mastery Learn-
ing. For example, Bloom (1985) in evaluating optimal conditions for learning,
summarized its impact on learning:
One example of such conditions is mastery learning where the students are helped to master
each learning unit before proceeding to a more advanced learning task. In general, the
average student taught under mastery-learning procedures achieves at a level of above 85%
of students taught under conventional instructional conditions. (p. 4)
From an evidence-based approach, this makes perfect sense. In terms of my math

learning (or not learning) experience, once I got lost, which was almost immediately,
nothing else made sense. When taught differently (better), with step by step learning,
in manageable chunks, with practice and feedback, and patience on the teacher’s part,
my grade went from 9 (highest failing grade) to 3 (average passing grade). I did not
achieve expert mastery for ‘0’ level, but it was good enough for university entry at
that time. As Brown et al. (2014) points out:
Mastery in any field, from cooking to chess to brain surgery, is a gradual accretion of
knowledge, conceptual understanding, judgement, and skill. (p. 18)
It is important that there are clear and realistic improvement targets for the partic-
ular learner. This involves stretching the individual beyond an existing performance
level to a recognizably improved level in some aspect but a level that is achiev-
able with effort and coaching from a teacher. As outlined in Core Principle 1, it is
important to have as much clarity—visibility—of the learning goal, objectives and
proficiency level as possible. In this way, motivation is maintained as the learner
will have a perceived experience of a higher mastery in at least some aspect of the
performance, which further reinforces the belief and sustains effort in continuing this
learning strategy. To reiterate the point, “nothing breeds success like success”. It is
often noted in professional sport that when a player finally wins that elusive major
tournament, more seem to quickly follow. Andy Murray winning the men’s tennis
tournament at the Olympics, the US Open and Wimbledon, is perhaps an illustrative
recent example. Prior to that, he had failed to win a major tournament, losing in 4
finals.
Of key importance is the role played by expert teachers in helping the learner
identify what specific aspects of the performance to improve, structure the practice
programme accordingly and provide ongoing quality feedback to maintain focus on
the skill development. Again, to use the Andy Murray example, the appointment
of Ivan Lendl in this role may have been more than coincidental in his attainment
of two major titles within one year. Lendl himself had gone through the experience
of losing his first 4 finals in major tournaments but eventually went on to win 8
singles titles in such events. Certainly, he had learned something important and this
may have helped in coaching Andy Murray. It seems that even the very best in the
world still desire and need an expert teacher. It is necessary to emphasize that while
the deliberate practice is fundamental to effective and efficient learning, it is not a
shortcut to expertise or even competence (however defined).
What is particularly interesting is that in the process of developing expertise, not
only is there an enhancement in understanding and skill, but significant changes in
neurology and sensory acuity relating to the field of expertise. Many years of inten-
sive deliberate practice changes the body and the brain, enabling great performers
to perceive more, to know more and to remember more than most people. Colvin
particularly noted the following key attributes of great performers:
They all possess large, highly developed, intricate mental models of their domains. (p. 122)
…observe themselves closely… monitor what is happening in their own minds and ask how
it’s going. Researchers call this metacognition …top performers do this more systematically
than others do; it’s an established part of their routine. (p. 118)
This enables them to:

• add and make sense of new knowledge more quickly and in more qualitatively
useful ways
• to distinguish relevant information from irrelevant information
• predict what will happen next in a domain-specific situation.
Perhaps, what is most significant is the relative ease in terms of cognitive load and
strain that they must expand in doing most tasks in their field. As Kahneman (2012)
explained:
As you become skilled in a task, its demands for energy diminishes. Studies of the brain
have shown that the pattern of activity associated with action changes as skill increases, with
fewer brain regions involved. (p. 35)
Expertise then enables a better understanding of a situation and facilitates a height-

ened perception of what is most relevant for the task at hand. This allows the expert
to do many things quickly and automatically, releasing time to be more situationally
responsive and potentially creative. In the context of teaching, Turner-Bisset (2001)
identified such capabilities in expert teachers:
Expert teachers are able to read and process the complex mass of information which any
classroom provides, much more rapidly and meaningfully.
…expert teachers use a repertoire of strategies, selecting the most appropriate for use in a
particular context and adapting it if necessary for a group of learners. (p. 69)
Hattie (2012) from extensive research supports this heightened capability of expert
teachers as well as providing insight into how they are likely to be more creative:
Experts possess knowledge that is more integrated, in that they combine the introduction
of new subject knowledge with students’ prior knowledge; they can relate current lesson
content to other subjects in the curriculum; and make lessons uniquely their own by chang-
ing, combining, and adding to the lessons according to their students’ needs and their own
teaching goals. (p. 28)
This heuristic focuses attention on the important role of deliberate practice in skill
development and attainment. From an evidence-based perspective, we are now able to
be much more precise and specific in terms of what types of practice and how best to
structure and manage practice to enhance attainment. The saying that “practice makes
perfect” is not quite right, though well-intended. Simply getting students to practice
and spend more time on task may have limited value in optimizing competence and
expertise without the systematic structuring of the practice activity, calibrated to the
learner’s proficiency level, and with expert feedback. Practice on its own may simply
lead to consistent proficiency at not doing an activity well, as Berliner noted above,
and I observe from the gym window. It is through deliberate practice over time that
is most likely to lead to higher proficiency levels and eventually expertise. However,
deliberate practice is very much intertwined with the building of dense and well-
integrated mental schemata in LTM and the ability to use metacognitive capabilities
at heightened levels. As emphasized earlier, each Core Principle of Learning, while
focusing on a specific aspect of the learning process, is ultimately part of a dynamic
and synergistic system in which specific areas of learning capability become mutually
supporting in enhancing human learning (e.g., attainment, engagement and well-
being).
In applying this core principle of learning in practical teaching it is important to
ensure that the process of using deliberate practice is adhered to as best as is practi-
cally feasible. Invariably, in working with large classes it is harder to be as precise
in diagnosis, task structuring and providing the time for ongoing feedback, as in the
case of purely individualized coaching. However, by making the process of deliber-
ate practise visible and meaningful to students, it is possible with some thoughtful
application of collaborative learning and peer coaching—creative teaching—provide

better opportunities for enhancing learning and attainment in this area.
2.9 Core Principle 8: Assessment Practices Are Integrated

into the Learning Design to Promote Desired Learning
Outcomes and Provide Quality Feedback
At school, I don’t recall the word ‘assessment’ being used, and certainly not ‘learn-
ing outcomes’ or ‘feedback’. We had to sit end of year exams and we were given
homework each week, which was marked by teachers. On receiving homework back,
we got a graded mark often with a ‘+’ or ‘−’ sign next to it, and a short comment
such as, “fairly good”, “could do better”, etc. I also never recall giving this much
thought in terms of what I might have done well and what I had not done well, and
certainly not what I needed to do in order to improve and how. It was done and
out of the way and that was that. I attach no blame to the teachers as that was the
assessment practice in that context. The assessment was largely seen in terms of
summative grading and not as a key facilitating aspect of the learning process. The
question, in the present context, is what do we now know about assessment practices
that are evidence-based in terms of providing an important heuristic for significantly
improving student learning and attainment?
Firstly, it is now clearly recognized that assessment is not simply a means to
measure learning that has already occurred but a major facilitator in the learning
process itself. As Boud (1988) illustrated:
There have been a number of notable studies over the years which have demonstrated that
assessment methods and requirements probably have a greater influence on how and what
students learn than any other single factor. This influence may well be of greater significance
than the impact of teaching or learning materials. (p. 35)
In my experience, whether teaching pupils in the mainstream school context, or on

Masters’ degree courses, learners typically focus on what is assessed. I have taught
many students on such degree programmes who have been very explicit about what
their main priority is, and that was passing and getting a good grade. To do this they
want to know what to learn and how to apply it to meet these goals. I am not saying
there is no intrinsic motivation in their overall approach, but assessment largely
drives the learning process. For higher education programmes, there is an emphasis
on complex understanding and application, which inevitably pushes students towards
engaging in more complex levels of thinking and problem-solving. However, this is
not always seen as a pleasurable activity, even for Masters’ degree students. Many
like it when you model the answers for them, and why would they not, as many
do the programme after a long day’s work and are already suffering from cognitive
strain. Similarly, in school, if an assessment is mainly focused on memorizing large
bodies of factual content knowledge, then that’s what most motivated students will
do. Teachers talking about learning for passion and the importance of becoming
2.9 Core Principle 8: Assessment Practices Are Integrated into … 59
self-directed lifelong learners will mean little when the marks on test papers suggest
otherwise.
Assessment serves many purposes for different stakeholders (e.g., selection, main-
taining standards, identifying and diagnosing learning difficulties, and enhancing
teaching). Most significant, in this context, is the important role that formative assess-
ment (e.g. where learning is focused on supporting the learning process) plays in
influencing student attainment and engagement, especially through the process of
ongoing two-way feedback. This contrasts with summative assessment (e.g., where
a terminal assessment decision is made and the learner either passes or fails or is
graded accordingly). The high impact of feedback on attainment (e.g., the average
effect size of 0.79, which is twice the average effect of all other schooling effects)
is well documented by Hattie (2009). However, it is only relatively recently that this
has been subjected to detailed scrutiny in terms of its impact and how it works on
specific aspects of the learning process.
There are many interrelated aspects that contribute to the high impact potential
of feedback on learning. Nicol and MacFarlane-Dick (2006), in synthesizing the
research literature suggest the following seven principles:
Good feedback practice:
1. helps clarify what good performance is (goals, criteria, expected standards);
2. facilitates the development of self-assessment (reflection) in learning;
3. delivers high-quality information to students about their learning;
4. encourages teacher and peer dialogue around learning;
5. encourages positive motivational beliefs and self-esteem;
6. provides opportunities to close the gap between current and desired performance;
7. provides information to teachers that can be used to shape teaching. (p. 203)
As prior learning (Core Principle 2: Learners’ prior knowledge is activated and
connected to new learning) is always the entry point for new learning (and feedback is
new learning) it must find some anchor point in prior learning to connect meaningfully
to it, in order to result in some enhancement of understanding in that given area of
knowledge/ skill-building. For example, if students are unclear about what they are
supposed to be learning (e.g., the goals, criteria, expectations) even good feedback
may not make much sense. Indeed, research (e.g., Hounsell 1997) has found that
teachers and students often have quite different conceptions about what is involved
in meeting the goals and what the criteria mean in specific terms. The significance
of this is, as Nicol and MacFarlane-Dick (2006) explain:
Weak and incorrect conception of goals not only influence what students do but also the value
of external feedback information. If students do not share (at least in part) their teacher’s
conceptions of assessment goals (and criteria and standards), then the feedback information
they receive is unlikely to ‘connect’. (p. 206)
Hence, good feedback is very much an ongoing dialogue between teacher and
learners (as well as between learners) to identify gaps in knowledge, understanding
and skills, as well as directing the necessary action to resolve these gaps. As Hattie
(2009) states, effective feedback must:
…reduce discrepancies between current understandings and performance and a learning

intention or goal. (p. 175)
It’s not surprising that quality feedback has such high impact in terms of effect
size on student attainment, as it connects to so many aspects of the learning process.
However, to maximize the positive impact of feedback on attainment a few conditions
need to be effectively met. Sadler (1989) summarized these as follows:
• What good performance is (i.e. the learner must possess a concept for the goal or
standard being aimed for)
• How current performance relates to good performance (for this, students must be
able to compare current and good performance)
• How to act to close the gap between current and good performance.
A useful approach for helping students to identify what good performance is in
relation to a goal, what assessment criteria are and how they work, and to make com-
parisons between present competence and the competence needed (e.g., knowledge
bases, skills and levels of performance) is to provide various exemplars of perfor-
mance at these different levels. As we know, providing students with examples (and
non-examples) is an effective instructional method. With deliberate practice, includ-
ing plenty of testing, such capability with emerge—given student motivation and
volition. In the most basic terms, students must understand the nature and qualities
of good work if they are to create it themselves. Specifically, they need to know:
• The meaning of key tasks language (e.g., what does ‘describe’ and ‘evaluate’
mean)?
• The meaning of assessment criteria (e.g., “what does give evidence”, “show your
working” mean)?
• How actual tasks and criteria can be demonstrated in practice (e.g., what are
acceptable evidence formats)?
The manner and types of questions asked during feedback sessions are also impor-
tant. A friendly supportive mediating approach is essential to create a level of rapport
in which learners feel comfortable in providing feedback to the teacher. Once estab-
lished, teachers can then ask students focused questions in order to ascertain what
they know and understand, identify specific gaps in knowledge and understanding,
as well as misconceptions, thus enabling learning to become more visible to both.
Furthermore, effective teachers, just as they adjust their communication style to
different student personalities, also adjust their provision of feedback accordingly
based on students’ need in different contexts. For example, Hattie and Yates (2014)
suggest that novices require more specific task-related corrective feedback, to be
gradually replaced with more process feedback as they become increasingly profi-
cient and self-regulated in their learning. What this means is that initially, feedback
will focus on detecting errors in what students are doing on a task and help to reduce
and eventually eliminate these errors. Such feedback will include showing students
what went wrong, examples of correct performance and ways to improve on these
types of learning tasks. Process feedback is more focused on how the students are
tackling the tasks given, such as their thinking (e.g., analysing, comparing, making
inferences & interpretations, evaluating) and the learning strategies they are using.
In providing feedback it is often the case that both aspects are needed, and this is
where the teacher’s judgement and skilful action are most impactful. As students
become increasingly proficient, feedback is usually more focused on their abilities
to monitor and evaluate their own learning, both at cognitive and affective levels
(e.g., metacognition). Questions of how much feedback and the frequency of feed-
back, as with all aspects of differentiated instruction, will depend on the situation
and learners’ readiness. As Hattie (2012) summarized:
The key is the focus on decisions that teachers and students make during the lesson, so most
of all the aim is to inform the teacher of student judgements about the key decisions: ‘Should
I relearn…Practice again…To what?’ and so on. (p. 143)
The strategic use of ongoing formative assessment is an essential part of the overall
assessment strategy and, as Perkins (1992) suggests, once considered thoughtfully:
Teaching, learning, and assessment merge into one seamless enterprise. (p. 176)
Furthermore, feedback is not something that occurs only between the teacher and
individual students but can, and should be, an ongoing collaborative process with
students as active participants. Hence, any activity that tests what students know/dont
know, etc., is retrieval practice which, as detailed prior, is essential for memory
consolidation and building understanding—with good thinking of course. This can
be done through quizzes, conversations, or any performance task that authentically
enables students to elicit/display the knowledge and skills involved.
A method that I have found particularly useful is that of peer assessment. As Petty
(2009) summarizes the procedure:
1. Students come to understand the nature of good work more deeply, as they must
use this understanding to judge peers’ work. This helps them understand their
goals as learners, for example how marks are gained and lost. These goals are
learned from concrete to abstract; this is the most powerful way to learn.
2. They learn other ways of approaching a task than the approach they used.
3. They become more reflective about their own learning and gain understand-
ing by discussing disagreements. For example, if students realize they did one
calculation wrong because they confused a sine with a tangent that is very helpful.
4. Students can do more work than you can mark.
5. Students tend to take pride in work that will be peer-assessed: they are more
likely to complete it and to write more neatly than if you assess it.
6. Students accept criticism from each other that they would ignore if given by you!
For example, ‘Your writing is really hard to read.’
7. Students greatly enjoy this method, and both ‘helpers’ and ‘helped’ learn if
they support each other constructively. (The standard of discussion is commonly
higher than you expect!)
8. It helps to develop the skills required for self-assessment. (p. 263)
Feedback from students is invaluable in helping teachers appraise the effectiveness

of their own teaching strategies. Unfortunately, many fail to take advantage of this
easy-to-use approach for monitoring the effectiveness of their teaching on an ongoing
basis and are often dismayed and surprised when they receive negative feedback at the
end of a course programme. Teachers who are in regular dialogue with their students
concerning learning and collaboratively finding ways to enhance attainment and
engagement are rarely surprised by the findings of programme evaluation exercises,
and their feedback is likely to be very positive. The very act of seeking feedback from
students concerning what aspects of the instructional process are most useful (and
least useful) in supporting their learning, is positively impactful in two main ways.
Firstly, from a technical point of view, it will enable the teacher to identify what is
working well, what is not working well, etc., and subsequently, make appropriate
modifications in instructional strategy. Secondly, this is likely to subconsciously
impact affective aspects of the relationship, in terms of communicating care and
concern for their learning. When positive feelings are communicated in this area,
students are more likely to be motivated and maintain the necessary volition and
belief that, with the teacher’s help, they will be successful in meeting the learning
goals. The likely outcome of this scenario is that students will experience both self-
efficacy and mastery in their learning, which are mutually positively reinforcing in
the learning stakes.
Obtaining feedback on one’s teaching is not difficult or time-consuming. It can be
done very informally as part of the everyday dialogue of instruction. For me, it is a
routine practice to make explicit and remind students (yes, they need reminding) that
they must let me know if they are finding learning difficult or not understanding key
concepts, etc. With new groups, I usually initiate this with some humour by referring
to my East London accent, which does not use the letter H, and they may need to
check what I’m saying occasionally and ‘pull me in a bit’ if I am drifting into local
East London diction. Equally useful and a more structured easy to use method for
obtaining key student feedback is what is often referred to as a ‘One-Minute Paper’
(see Table 2.3). This is a simple feedback questionnaire of only two question areas,
one identifying a key positive aspect of the lesson and the other one identifying a key
negative aspect of the lesson. It can be framed in various ways, as well as modified
in terms of focus or terminology. Essentially it provides a quick communication tool
to get across your intention to consider their experience and identify what seems to
be working well and not working well, from their perspective. This enables a better
diagnosis of what the areas of difficulty are and how best to situate the instructional
Table 2.3 Example of a

Example of questions for a one-minute paper
one-minute paper
What was the most important learning point for you from
this lesson?
• Can also use concept, idea, etc.
What is still not clear to you from this lesson?
• Can also use “muddy”, confusing, etc.
approach for addressing them. Good feedback, when used effectively is another of
those “Russian Dolls” (Hattie 2009) and it supports learning, both for students and
the teacher.
The importance of this heuristic is fundamental to the whole instructional process
as our goal is to help develop in our students the capability to more agentic in how
they learn so that they can increasingly (and this does take considerable time) to
become self-directed learners; that is to be able to plan, monitor and evaluate their
learning—and do this well. As Hattie (2012) concluded:
…all students should be educated in ways that develop their capability to assess their learning.
(p. 141)
2.10 Core Principle 9: A Psychological Climate Is Created

Which Is Both Success-Orientated and Fun
In Visible Learning (Hattie 2009), the importance of the climate of the classroom
was noted as among the more critical factors in promoting learning, emphasizing that
teacher-student relationships were the major determiner of such climates—having
an effect size of 0.73.
We are all very clear on what constitutes a physical climate, and its various fea-
tures. It was a typical everyday conversation in England, especially when in a lift with
a stranger. How many times have I heard the comment, “Looks like rain shortly”?
One of my reasons for leaving the UK was quite simply the climate. I did not like
the long winter months, which seemed to last forever. I prefer the perpetual summer
weather in Singapore, and what an easy job weather forecasting is here: “26–33
centigrade with some chance of rain in the afternoon” is a 90% correct call on most
days. In the UK, as I remember it some 20 years back, weather forecasting was a
combination of thoughtful roulette and serendipity, at best.
Now defining a psychological climate is a bit like defining thinking, as we can’t
see, touch or smell it. However, when it is very good or very bad, we can certainly feel
it. People typically use terms like, “The atmosphere is terrible in there”, or “Every-
thing’s cool here”. Essentially, it’s about the nature and types of interactions that are
going on—or not going on—between people in each social and geographical context
(in educational contexts it’s typically a classroom) and their impact on perception,
feeling and subsequent behaviour. The ability to create and facilitate a positive psy-
chological climate in a range of informal interpersonal situations is a great skill set
to have. If you have such capability, it’s likely that you will always be high on the
invite list for socially orientated parties, as you have the skill of creating lively con-
versational content which helps folks to relax and feel comfortable. As classrooms
are not fundamentally different from other social interaction situations in that there
are human actors (teachers and students) involved in interpersonal communication
over time for a purpose (e.g., teaching and learning), a psychological climate will
inevitably result. Furthermore, there is no doubt that certain types of psychological
climates are much more conducive to attainment, engagement and well-being than
others, which may have adverse effects. Research suggests that several key factors are
very important for promoting a positive psychological climate. First and foremost,
as Hattie and Yates (2014) summarized, this entails the teacher exhibiting attributes
that:
…promote positive and open human communication. Students value being treated with
(a) fairness, (b) dignity, and (c) individual respect. These threefold aspects have emerged
strongly in all studies in which students are interviewed and surveyed as to what they expect
of their teachers. (p. 26)
Similarly, Ornstein and Behar (1995), from research, concluded that:

. …the most effective teachers endow their students with a “you can do it” attitude, with
good feelings about themselves, which are indirectly and eventually related to cognitive
achievement. (p. 86)
Very much in the context of this Core Principle, Jensen (1996) found that:
Learners in positive, joyful environments are likely to experience better learning, memory
and feelings of self-esteem. (p. 98)
Finally, in this context, Sullo (2007) argues:

Every time we learn something new, we are having fun…It is our playfulness and our sense
of discovery that allows us to learn as much as we can…A joyless classroom never inspires
students to do high-quality academic work on a regular basis. (p. 9)
However the really important questions concern what are the specific things that
teachers can do, and how best to do this, in order to create and sustain a psychological
climate that results in the students perceiving and feeling that they are being treated
with ‘fairness’, ‘dignity’ ‘individual respect’, developing a ‘you can do it attitude’ and
experiencing some sense of joy in participating in the classroom learning activities?
It is easy, though somewhat limited, to address these questions in terms of intent
or generalizations. For example, we might say, “show respect”, “Be enthusiastic in
how you teach” or “Display passion about learning”. This is in many ways like going
on a first date and having little idea on what to say or do and being told by a friend
to “Be interesting”. Such statements are, in both the above contexts, valid and will
make sense to both the cognitive neuroscientist and the layperson alike—but there is
something significantly missing. It is interestingly and annoyingly (for me anyway)
captured in the saying “Everything is easy when you can do it.” Being interesting
certainly was not the case for me on my first ever proper date with a girl as a seventeen-
year-old. Getting ready to meet Geraldine (that was her real name—it will give her a
chuckle if she ever reads this book) at a local cinema on a Saturday night, I suddenly
posed myself the essential question, “What do I talk to her about?” Instantaneously,
I became anxious, which quickly escalated to panic (we have all been there, and we
know what this does for good thinking and confidence). In delving into my LTM
system it was not long before I realized that all I ever talked about was football,
boxing and fishing with my friends, who were all boys. I had no idea at all on what
to talk to a girl about, a real lack of prior knowledge containing, in retrospect, only
2.10 Core Principle 9: A Psychological Climate Is Created … 65
misconceptions. The inevitable happened and the date was a disaster. I had nothing
to say, was visibly uncomfortable all night, and this clearly contributed to her feeling
equally uncomfortable. At the end of the film, the encounter quickly ended with a
statement from me like, “How do you get home?” I had a reply something like, “I
get the bus from over there.” Geraldine never contacted me again, and that’s not
too difficult to explain. That was my first date and my last for a while; I was afraid
to go through that again. If there was an ‘O’ level in conversational literacy with
females, another grade 9 was an absolute certainty for yours truly, at that time. My
Jack Russell dog would have fared better, and you will know why shortly. Despite
my intention to be interesting and build rapport, I had no knowledge in LTM on how
to do this. As Molden (2001) makes clear:
It is our behaviour that directly connects to results, even though our thinking may be
responsible for generating behaviour. (p. 59)
As we have explored in detail in previous core principles of learning, limited

prior knowledge (in my case at that time, very limited) resulted in poor thinking, and
the evitable happened—poor results. Did that in any way enhance my self-efficacy
in terms of my ability to talk to girls? Not in the least, especially when Geraldine’s
friend later told me that she thought I was a ‘moron’—a word not used much now, but
prevalent in the 1960s, as a negative term for someone who appears stupid. Mastery
learning for talking to girls?—not me, sadly, at that time. How did I learn to improve
my skills in talking to girls—read on?
At university, in the first year of my psychology undergraduate programme, I
learned something useful from a fellow student. I noted that he had an attractive
girlfriend and he wasn’t Chris Hemsworth. I once asked him about this, a kind of
“How do you do this?” type of question. His reply was initially strange, “You need
a nice-looking friendly dog and walk around the local park.” This made no sense to
me, until he explained further, “If you do this, girls will notice the dog and want to
pet it.” I was still no clearer at the time, but you will have probably worked this out by
now. As my fellow classmate pointed out, you talk about the dog, mention that you
are going for a coffee and ask her if she would like to have a drink with you. It’s just
then a matter of generating mutually interesting content for conversation. You might
be ready to ask, “How do you do this?”, and that was my immediate question to him.
Summarizing his response in more technical terms, which all seems so easy now,
it’s about generating content that the other person is interested in talking about, then
showing that you are interested in the responses made (whatever this entails), which
is done initially by asking the person what is of interest to him or her. Invariably,
as we know, highly impactful interpersonal communication is not just about the
verbal content, but also (and probably more importantly) the tone and pitch of voice
and the accompanying body language components (e.g., posture, eye contact, and
gestures). Furthermore, these all need to be appropriately calibrated to create a total
communication experience.
When one is confident, and this typically comes from one’s own self-efficacy and
perceived mastery, the communication package comes nicely into place and flows.
We should not be surprised as this is simply the result of good learning for these
skill sets. Good understanding plus deliberate practice over time will get one to this
desirable state. The converse is equally true. In most basic terms, to be effective at
something, having intent is only an initial motivator, you must know how to do it well,
and be able to do it at the behavioural level. Ultimately perception and judgements
about other people, accurate or otherwise, is the product of their behaviour, and of
course, our pre-existing beliefs.
In several teaching situations, I have seen novice teachers tremble at the front of
a classroom, even run out in fear and despair when faced with challenging students
or sometimes from forgetting the details of their teaching plan. Quite simply, they
don’t know what to do next and lack the strategies in their long-term memories
that might be effective in such situations. In contrast, highly competent and creative
professionals when confronted with a challenging group of students or even noticing
boredom developing on some of the students’ faces, while never complacent, can
typically and smoothly change the teaching strategy in situ (re-create the pedagogy
situationally). In most cases, such action results in regaining attention, settling the
group down and changing the psychological climate to one that is more positive,
and task-focused. To a novice teacher or outsider, this may seem almost like magic,
as creativity in any domain often feels a bit like that. However, as for most things
(including magic), once things are made explicit at the behavioural and cognitive
level, it all seems rather obvious and logical.
Of course, understanding is not competence, and deliberate practice is needed in
skill acquisition, but it certainly helps if one knows very clearly what is involved in the
learning process. What I have been describing may seem somewhat behaviouristic
and contrived, and that is partly true. However, customer service professionals don’t
learn how to speak, smile and use their voice in certain specific ways just to fill up
training hours on their staff development plans. As Mlodinow (2012) summarized:
The gestures we make, the position in which we hold our bodies, the expressions we wear
on our faces, and the nonverbal qualities of our speech, all contribute to how others see us.
(p. 110)
He goes as far as to argue that:

The pitch, timbre, volume of your voice, the speed with which you speak, and even the ways
you modulate pitch and volume, are highly influential factors in how convincing you are,
and how people judge your state of mind and your character. (p. 132)
It’s therefore not surprising that politicians and other high-profile media peo-
ple employ communication specialists and psychologists to create certain positive
appearances to influence the public at large. They do this because it works in large
part with many people, and there is an underlying set of reasons why it works. For
many years, I mentored and coached ‘underperforming’ teachers. These were aca-
demic faculty who received below 3.25 on a rating scale (where a score of 5 was ‘very
good’ and a score of 1 was ‘very poor’) from student feedback for 2 semesters on the
formal end of semester online questionnaire. Over the years this highlighted how, in a
communication encounter, the relationship between a communicator’s intention and
the perception and meaning by others can be so incongruent. Many of these teachers
also had very negative qualitative comments relating to such things as “shows little
interest”, “no care and concern” etc. In conversation with them, some were very dis-
turbed by such student responses, and could not explain on what basis and how they
might have been perceived in such negative light. They seemed unaware that such
perceptions originate from specific behavioural aspects of personal presentation.
Essentially, the psychological climate is largely shaped based on how the teacher
behaves on an everyday basis with the student group. Hattie and Yates (2014) sum-
marized the specific behaviours that are positive in this respect; they are noteworthy,
but obvious when made explicit:
The key aspects, as described by a significant body of research involve the teacher’s positive
open gestures when dealing with the class, physically moving around the room, relaxed body
orientation, frequent use of smiles, direct eye contact, and using a variety of friendly and
encouraging vocal tones, especially when dealing with an individual student. (p. 28)
They go on to point out:

The human brain is hard-wired to instantly apprehend emotional states in other people
…while some cultural differences are found …The notion that humans everywhere share a
common basis in being able to recognize emotions in others embodies considerable truth.
(p. 266)
Mlodinow (2012, p. 118) quotes research by Ekman and Friesen (1971) who
showed people in an isolated Neolithic culture in New Guinea pictures of Ameri-
can faces displaying a range of typical emotions. These primitive people had never
been exposed to outside cultures, used no written language, were still using stone
implements, and very few had seen a photograph let alone television or films. How-
ever, when they were shown American faces of basic emotions, they were as able, as
people from the twenty-one literature countries who participated in the research, at
recognizing happiness, fear, anger, disgust, sadness and surprise in the faces of the
emoting Americans.
Certainly, from my experience of facilitating many workshops in a wide range of
cultural contexts, I would also make the case for there being much similarity in terms
of people’s perception and comprehension of what constitutes good human conduct,
a positive psychological climate, as well as the way they learn. Several years ago, I
was attending a conference in which one of the keynote speakers was emphasizing
how people from different cultures learned very differently, and that we should be
thinking of culturally relative pedagogies. In listening, I was reflecting on my own
experiences and feeling a bit confused and somewhat annoyed. Yes, of course, there
are cultural differences, and pedagogy must consider relevant culturally determined
situated factors for obvious reasons. However, in large part, the main specific cultural
factors relate more to specific social norms and custom, rather than pedagogic or
fundamental interpersonal communication practices. For example, I am mindful of
touch, even handshakes in certain cultural contexts, as well as the humour I use. I
also notice that in different cultural and ethnic contexts, one must modify the level
of informality accordingly. For example, I tend to be more informal quicker in the
Philippines than other countries, as participants seem to respond well to this. In
certain countries, I tend to retain formality longer as I feel that the early display of
humour may be detrimental to a perception of high professional credibility.
However, my experience is that irrespective of cultural context, learners will
become more informal and appreciate some humour, once they feel comfortable
and perceive high credibility in terms of what is on offer in the learning stakes. Cul-
ture is impactful, but it may be less so than personality configurations. In terms of
how people learn, I find little difference, and that’s because we share the same brain
structure and we learn structurally in the same way. In most basic terms, learners must
acquire knowledge through memory processing, make meaning of it (build under-
standing) through thinking, and acquiring skills by doing. In this context, there is
motivation and beliefs that will come into play, but the essential principles of human
conduct and learning seem largely universal, based on my experience.
I am convinced that highly competent and creative teachers will be positively
impactful anywhere, but not with everyone all the time—that’s impossible. Equally,
very poor teachers will be similarly experienced in negative ways, wherever, in most
cases. What is often of noticeable difference is how learners across cultures and
contexts respond to the variety of teachers they experience. The best are generally
always appreciated. However, how the worse teachers fare may vary significantly
depending on cultural contexts. In some cultures, it seems that few learners will
disrupt or react negatively even in the face of poor teaching, as there is a deep respect
for the profession of teaching. They probably remain just internally bored or upset,
depending on whether the teacher is just incompetent technically or socially, or both.
The latter is a sorry state to experience. In summary, Sale and Mukerji (2006) were
delighted to report:
…in our experiences of co-facilitation over several years, we were initially surprised but
ultimately delighted to find that there appears to be several generic principles and practices
that facilitate rapport and effective learning irrespective of cultural and ethnic contexts,
(abstract)
There is little doubt that students in a success-orientated psychological climate are

more likely to develop a mindset that with effort on their part and with good teaching,
they can be successful in their learning and in a sense ‘grow their intelligence’—so
to speak. The work of Dweck (2006) has been extensive in this area and will be
explained and applied further in later chapters. Most significant is the impact of prior
knowledge and beliefs on learning, self-efficacy and the ability to frame and enact the
appropriate behaviours in real-life contexts—as my dating story above aptly (though
sadly for me at the time) illustrates.
Fun or humour was certainly not a significant feature of my school experience,
well not in classroom time. It seemed that learning was a very serious business and
anything resembling a joke was a prelude to classroom disruption. As a Cockney from
East London, I have always felt that humour was one of the most important aspects of
human experience, and this is now supported through a wide range of research (e.g.,
Garner 2006; Lei et al. 2010). Most significantly, the world-famous psychologist, De
Bono (2003), frequently refers to humour as “…by far the most significant activity
of the human brain” (p. 12). Humour for de Bono is very much related to creativity
as it involves the disruption of the brain’s natural tendency to self-organize based on

already existing neural pathways, which will typically restricts creative thinking or
Lateral Thinking in his terminology. As he points out:
Humour not only indicates the nature of the system but also shows how perceptions set up
in one way can suddenly be reconfigured in another way. This is the essence of creativity.
(p. 12)
Humour makes us feel better, and this has a positive effect on our psychological
state. Of course, humour must be used thoughtfully and in context. However, far
from limiting the learning experience, humour is now seen to have a wide range of
positive impacts on aspects of the learning process, such as:
• Refreshing the brain
• Creating mental images that retain learning
• Reinforcing the desired behaviour and making classroom management easier
• Developing positive attitudes
• Promoting creativity
• Contributing to the enjoyment of teaching.
Furthermore, humour seems to have a role in learning more generally. Earleywine
(2011) summarized:
Funny instructors get higher ratings perhaps because humour affects immediacy – the sense
that an instructor is present and attentive with students…
…a full semester of instruction that includes relevant jokes that illustrate key concepts lead
to better scores in final exams. (p. 138)
The use of humour in terms of creatively enhancing the learning experience,

student attainment and well-being is explored in detail in Chap. 5.
This core principle of learning is both fundamental to and generic across all aspects
of teaching, and in all interpersonal communication contexts. It is truly a generic
existential competence that should be cultivated as it not only enhances learning,
in all the ways outlined here, but also well-being. It is fundamental to building
good relationships and positive feelings. Gregory and Kaufeldt (2015) referring to
O’Doherty’s work (2004) points out that the brain naturally seeks dopamine releasing
activities that we feel good in, and positive relationships, humour and feelings of
mastery certainly do this. The pedagogic implications are that:
If students receive a dopamine release, accompanied by positive enthusiastic feeling, they
are more likely to persevere through the next challenge and continue to be engaged. (p. 40)
When I first arrived in Singapore some 24 years prior, there was a Smile Cam-
paign, and since then there have been campaigns for Graciousness and, more recently,
Kindness. Cynics may say this is ‘social engineering’. Well, any act of socialization
is social engineering, and my response to such folk is that it’s much nicer to have
smiling, gracious and kind people, than the opposite. In terms of moral values, there
is much that can be learned from neuroscience as Harris (2010) Suggests. People
generally feel better in a psychological climate that encourages kindness and gra-
ciousness, and smiling is both uplifting and builds rapport. In the context of education,
the teacher’s interactions with students will largely shape the psychological climate
of the classroom, and as Rogers (1998) described:
…the facilitation of significant learning rests upon certain attitudinal qualities that exist in
the personal relationship between the facilitator and the learner. (p. 121)
Many of the important components that underpin the shaping of this relation-
ship have been outlined and illustrated in this chapter and some key areas will be
developed further in subsequent chapters. Most significantly as a teacher, shaping the
psychological climate is in large part your responsibility, though it can be challenging
in many situations. However, as Hattie and Yates (2014) argued:
As their teacher, you are an inevitable coach in interpersonal mannerisms. Hence a deep
understanding of how these social processes operate will prove of inherent value in your
professional work. (p. 269)
2.11 Using the Core Principles Thoughtfully: The

Fly-Fishing Analogy
For the uninitiated, fly fishing involves a sophisticated fishing technique in which
an artificial fly is cast to catch trout. However, whether the fisherperson catches
trout, involves much more than this. Choosing the strategy, type of fly, identifying
the species of trout in the location, interpreting the impact of weather conditions
are some of the critical considerations in catching trout. The expert fisherperson
negotiates these almost intuitively and catches fish regularly. Suffice to say, as a
novice fly-fisherman, I did not catch many trout and never reached any great heights
of expertise.
Fly fishing is a useful analogy when applying the core principles of learning to the
context of teaching in that both involve a solid knowledge base relating to the design
and conduct of the respective activities. Similarly, they are also mediated by the situ-
ated context in which they are enacted in that both the fly fisherperson and the teacher
must deal with the here and now environmental situation. For the fly-fisherperson,
there is a need to carefully consider such factors as the nature of the water locality
(e.g., river, lake or sea), type of trout inhabitants in the locality, the season of the
year and prevailing weather conditions. For the teacher, key considerations include
the nature and composition of the student group (e.g., prior knowledge and compe-
tence levels, motivational status), classroom resources and time of the day. Based
on their knowledge and framing of the situated context, both fly fisher-persons and
teachers select methods and resources, and create strategies to try to produce good
results—whether defined in terms of ‘trout caught’ or ‘students taught’.
In teaching, while the core principles of learning are enduring heuristics in the
design of the learning experience and the conduct of teaching, their relative impor-
tance as focal points in the design and teaching process is typically mediated by such
situated factors. For example, if I am aware that a learning group has many students
2.11 Using the Core Principles Thoughtfully: The Fly-Fishing Analogy 71
who have a generally low intrinsic motivational level for the subject, I will give more
thought concerning how best to incorporate appropriate motivational strategies and
work on creating a positive psychological climate as the central consideration. In
this situation, I may ‘sacrifice’ cognitive considerations for better motivational or
affective outcomes, at least in the short term. However, I would maintain a strong
focus on avoiding cognitive overload and developing some mastery of key skills as
priority pedagogic features. In contrast, when teaching fee-paying students on higher
degree programmes motivating them may not be such a central concern, though they
typically appreciate it anyway. This thoughtful and situated application of the core
principles of learning has been well captured by Darling-Hammond and Bransford
(2005):
…teachers not only need to understand the basic principles of learning but must also know
how to use them judiciously to meet diverse learning goals in contexts where students differ
in their needs. (p. 78)
2.12 Instructional Design from an Evidence-Based

Approach
The cognitive scientific principles (Core Principles of Learning) presented and illus-
trated in this chapter are not meant to be exhaustive or summative—as noted in the
introduction. However, they do constitute powerful universal heuristics in the design
and facilitation of learning in all contexts (e.g., face-to-face teaching, blended learn-
ing, fully online). What this means is that teaching can be designed, conducted, and
evaluated from a sound pedagogic base. In other words, teaching can be subjected to
a systematic evidence-based pedagogic analysis which will increase both diagnoses
of learning events in terms of their effectiveness and efficiency, and well as designing
learning events with a high probability of successful outcomes. This will significantly
enhance all teaching and training professional’s ability to conduct a more rigorous
and useful process of reflective practice; whereby they can not only identify what
has worked well, or not so well, but also the underlying psychological principles that
have led to such outcomes. Evidence-Based Reflective Practice is fully explained
and illustrated in Chap. 9.
Whatever frameworks or models of teaching are used, teachers must inevitably
design learning events, and it makes better sense to be as evidence-based as possible
in relation to the situated context as documented above. Kilbane and Milman (2014)
argued that teachers should be educational designers, and define this in these terms:
An educational designer is a teacher who approaches instructional planning with purpose,
uses knowledge of specialized systematic processes to identify and frame instructional chal-
lenges related to learners and content, and competently addresses these challenges through
the skillful application of a broad repertoire of instructional models, strategies, and technolo-
gies. Educational designers approach the work of teaching with a new mindset, a broadened
skill set, and a high-quality tool set – all of which assist them in developing instruction that
responds to their learner’s needs. The new mindset enables teachers to approach their work
as empowered problem solvers who are aware of their ability to direct important dimen-
sions of practice. The expanded skill set allows them mastery over systematic approaches
to instructional planning and assessment processes. The high-quality toolset consists of a
collection of models, strategies, and technologies for teaching that can make learning more
efficient, effective, and engaging. (xxi)
Evidence-Based Teaching provides the framework for teachers to become experts

in instructional design, as well as how best to facilitate the learning process in the
situated contexts of practice. Different teaching models, strategies and tools (e.g.,
signature pedagogies, high effect methods, e-tools) can be creatively blended to
produce effective, efficient and engaging instructional approaches.
The educational literature is awash with books, journals, internet resources on
teaching and learning, just as there are on childrearing and other significant life-
related activities. While there is much of merit in many sources, there is probably as
much that abets rather than informs understanding and practice. Also, how does one
find the time to extract what is most useful as time and cognition are both limited?
For example, while I follow new research from neuroscience, and have an interest
in how the brain behaves in response to various environmental stimuli (especially in
the context of teaching) there is, for practising teachers anyway, little need to plough
through the complex literature on neuroscience for validation of good instructional
design. As Dougherty and Robey (2018), from an extensive review of the literature,
concluded:
…the gap between neuroscience and education cannot be bridged without the intermediary
stepping-stone of cognitive theory. But more to the point, neuroscience is not even needed…
(p. 403)
What is needed is whether training leads to changes in core cognitive processes (e.g., WM or
IQ) necessary for education success and whether improvements in these abilities generalize
to authentic education settings. The theory of change requires specification at the cognitive
level but not at the neurological level (p. 3).
Similarly, Brown et al. (2014) pointed out that while neuroscience is enhancing our under-
standing of the brain mechanisms that underlie learning it is still a long way from being able
to tell us, in specific empirical terms “about how to improve education”. (p. 8)
2.13 Summary
This chapter has outlined and illustrated key heuristics—Core Principles of Learn-
ing—for planning and conducting the practices of teaching. They are underpinned
by current and established knowledge relating to human learning and research on
what methods are most effective. The extent to which cognitive scientific principles
(e.g., Core Principles of Learning) can be said to constitute an essential Pedagogy
Literacy for the planning and facilitation of learning may rest on how other literacies
are framed and on what basis. The term literacy has been typically used in the con-
text of language acquisition and use. For example, persons who cannot read, speak
2.13 Summary 73
or write effectively are sometimes referred to as ‘lacking in literacy’. When such

competencies are severely lacking, the term illiteracy is often used. How lacking
one must be in these areas to meet the criteria of illiterate is a value judgement to
some extent and reflects the proficiency standards used. Whatever the standard, I
certainly meet such labelling in terms of my fluency in foreign languages. As a Brit
I am somewhat ashamed, in my travels, to have to explain that the only language I
have any acceptable literacy in is English. More recently, the term literacy has been
applied to a wide range of domain areas (e.g. computer literacy, media literacy, and
political literacy). This is similar in many ways to the proliferation of different bits
of intelligence (e.g., emotional intelligence, social intelligence, and cultural intel-
ligence). Whether different literacies or intelligences merit such grand description
is open to debate, but there are clearly valued areas of human capability implicit
in these designations. In the present context, Pedagogic Literacy would meet such
criteria.
Indeed, once teachers have strong pedagogic literacy as well as the technical
knowledge and skills to use a range of instructional methods thoughtfully and skil-
fully, they can evaluate the impact of their teaching on student learning and attainment
from an evidence-based approach. It is then possible to achieve what Hattie (2009)
emphasized as fundamental to improvement:
The ultimate requirement is for teachers to develop the skill of evaluating the effect that they
have on their students. (p. 36)
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Chapter 3
Metacognitive Capability: The
Superordinate Competence
for the Twenty-First Century
Abstract This chapter argues that Metacognitive Capability is the Superordinate

twenty-first century competency. While there is much reference to the 4 C’s of critical
thinking, creativity/creative thinking, communication and collaboration, these are
essentially no more than extended versions of first century skills. However, in a
world of exponential knowledge, but with a brain perfectly equipped for the world of
primitive life in centuries past, we are increasingly suffering from cognitive overload
and strain. No matter what we do pedagogically, we cannot solve the knowledge
explosion with a stone-age brain. We must develop the capability to think, learn
and self-regulate better. Metacognitive Capability—as framed here—is the unique
human quality that can best help us deal with the challenges of modern life, as well
as maintain positive well-being. The chapter extensively unpacks the components
of metacognition, how they work in terms of psychological functioning and, most
importantly, how to use pedagogic strategies that can develop this capability to
optimal levels.
3.1 Introduction
Akturk and Sahin (2011), in reviewing the literature on metacognition, argued that:
Metacognition is a structure that is referred to as fuzzy by many scholars and has very diverse
meanings. Much research has been conducted for more than 30 years to access the inner side
of this structure, which is hard to grasp. (p. 3731)
Having conducted numerous workshops with adults, I am still surprised that many
people have little or no knowledge relating to metacognition; some are even totally
unfamiliar with the term. Just using the word metacognition often results in glazed
eyes as the initial hearing of this unfamiliar term seems to evoke feelings akin to
‘not more psychobabble’. Brown’s (1987) framing of metacognition, while making
sense to me having surveyed the literature extensively, may also do little to enthuse
the lay reader to explore it further:
Metacognition is not only a monster of obscure parentage but a many-headed monster at
that. (p. 105)

78 3 Metacognitive Capability: The Superordinate Competence …
However, at the same time, metacognition is being heralded as one of the main
twenty-first century competencies. For example, Lai (2012) noted that while many
frameworks mapping such skills have been developed, underpinning these frame-
works, and related to student attainment, positive learning and career development, 5
key research-based competencies have been identified: Critical Thinking; Creativity;
Collaboration; Motivation; Metacognition.
Certainly, voices advocating the importance of metacognitive activity within edu-
cational contexts have resulted in placing metacognition high on educational research
agendas. For example, Martinez (2006) argues:
Metacognitive ability is central to conceptions of what it means to be educated. The world
is becoming more complex, more information-rich, more-full of options, and more demand-
ing of fresh thinking. With these changes, the importance of metacognitive ability as an
educational outcome can only grow. (p. 699)
Similarly, Noushad (2008) concluded:

…metacognitive strategies are essential for the twenty-first century because they will enable
students to successfully cope with new situations and the challenges of lifelong learning.
(p. 16)
In this chapter, I will get to grips with this ‘many-headed monster of obscure
parentage’, as it is an issue of pedagogic necessity. While accepting that there is much
by way of conceptual confusion in the literature—yep, it’s fuzzy—metacognition is
not just a twenty-first century competence, it is the superordinate competence of the
twenty-first century. The ability to be highly effective in this competence, I frame as
Metacognitive Capability (MC). While this focus on MC is in the field of education
and training, it is of relevance to all professional and human activity, as it is central
to how humans can learn better, be more self-directed in their learning and careers
as well as experience higher levels of personal well-being.
Learning to be competent in any area of human performance always requires a
combination of knowledge, skills, and attitudes (however defined). Also, there are
universal principles of learning that underpin such processes, and MC is no exception.
To develop competence and expertise in MC, it is necessary to fully understand what it
is, the benefits for learning, well-being and, over time, self-directed lifelong learning.
Invariably, one must then invest the motivational and volitional strategies, as well as
the spaced and deliberate practice, to achieve such competence.
3.2 Making Sense of Metacognition: Unpacking

the Metacognition Monster
Let’s start with direct experience as an anchor point. Whether we like it or not, we
inevitably reflect on our experiences and actions in living in the world. We also
typically do this in relation to the actions of others, making judgements of worth,
often of right or wrong, based on our beliefs and perception. There is variation in
3.2 Making Sense of Metacognition: Unpacking… 79
terms of the extent, form and nature of how humans do this, and it is influenced
both by hereditary and experiential factors. As you are reading this text you may
choose or simply drift into reflecting on what you already know, or don’t know about
metacognition. Hence, you are thinking about it and you’ll probably be doing some
analysis, comparing and contrasting, making inferences and interpretations, even
some evaluation on what you know and what you are reading. These are the key
cognitive heuristics of critical thinking which help to build understanding—when
done well with the right content knowledge, as we saw in Chap. 2.
This capability to be able to consciously think about our actions, be aware of
the potential consequences of action, and the likelihood of experiencing a range
of feelings from heightened pleasure to extreme dread, seems to define mankind
as distinct from other animal species. Over the years, my family has acquired a
few domestic cats as pets, which they see as lovely friendly creatures who are so
affectionate—after all they are pussycats, right? For me, I am ok with cats, but the
occasional gecko or cockroach, not to mention mouse, that happened to venture into
our apartment would not share such positive experience of the pussycats. Of note,
the cats never show any visible signs of remorse for torturing these small creatures.
Fromm (1987) referred to man “as a freak of nature, being within nature and yet
transcending it” which makes humans beset with existential paradoxes. Humans, in
contrast to animals, must consciously live with the consequences of their actions, as
well as deal with knowing that suffering and finality to life (in the existential sense)
is probably inevitable. As Ursula, the sea witch, said to Ariel, the little mermaid,
in the Disney film The Little Mermaid (1989), when she bargained with Ariel an
exchange of her beautiful voice for a pair of legs to be fully human, “…life is full of
tough choices innit?”.
It is this distinctive human capability to be able to self-reflect, think, plan, monitor
and evaluate our thinking and actions that underpin metacognition. Central to self-
directed learning is the capability to use metacognition to self-regulate one’s thinking,
affect and behaviour in meeting learning goals. There is no significant evidence that
other creatures possess such a capability, though of course they experience pleasure
and pain and other emotions that seem to have similar correlates to those in humans.
Flavell originally coined the term metacognition in the late 1970s to mean “cogni-
tion in relationship to cognitive phenomena,” or more simply “thinking about think-
ing” (Flavell 1979, p. 906). He went on to suggest that while metacognition mainly
focuses on knowledge and cognition about cognition, the concept could be broadened
to anything psychological, rather than just anything cognitive. It could be related to
include executive processes, formal operations, consciousness, social cognition, self-
efficacy, self-regulation, reflective self-awareness, and the concept of psychological
self or psychological subject (Flavell 1987).
Flavell’s suggestion that metacognition could be more than just thinking about
thinking, but “broadened to anything psychological” opened-up the ‘many headed
monster’ analogy. Recent research tends to confirm both Flavell and Brown’s anal-
ysis. The most current framing of metacognition, especially from neuropsychology,
goes beyond monitoring and evaluating cognition, but also regulating affective and
motivational aspects of being—the whole person—such as beliefs and emotions (e.g.,
Dweck and Legget 1989). There is now an integration of metacognitive and motiva-
tional approaches to explaining the development of student’s success (or otherwise)
in school learning. Of note, Martinez (2006) argues that metacognition entails the
management of affective states, and that metacognitive strategies can improve per-
sistence in the face of challenging tasks. Paris and Winograd (1990) support this
view as they see affect as an inevitable element of metacognition because as students
monitor and appraise their cognition, they will become more aware of strengths and
weaknesses and can take the necessary action to enhance learning capability and
well-being.
This makes perfect sense as we know cognition (thinking) does not exist as an
independent entity in human decision—making and behaviour. Apart from hereditary
factors and personality configurations, beliefs, emotions, and motivation all play
out as a dynamic system in determining perception and behaviour. Also, there is
increasing evidence that much of this activity (which may give us the illusion of
conscious self-control) is operating sub/unconsciously (e.g., Mlodinow 2012).
Education and many branches of psychology abound with perspectives, theories
and models, and this poses problems for even the theoreticians and researchers,
let alone practitioners in the field of teaching and training, as well as the wider lay
public. It is, therefore, necessary to firstly clarify key conceptual issues in the field
of research on metacognition. For example, the term metacognition is often used
simultaneously or alternately with other frameworks relating to mental processing
and self-regulation. The major frameworks include:
• Self-Directed Learning
• Self-Regulated Learning
• Meta-Learning.
Self-Directed Learning (SDL) is becoming somewhat of a buzzword in the edu-
cational landscape. Certainly, in the rapidly changing and volatile world of today,
the aim of developing persons, in-school environments or elsewhere, who are self-
directed lifelong learners would seem a pertinent educational aim. There is nothing
new about the need for self-directed and lifelong learning. It’s just that it is more
essential in the modern context than yesteryear. A useful reference point in framing
SDL is the enduring definition of Knowles (1975):
Self-Directed Learning describes a process in which individuals take the initiative, with
or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning
goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing
appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes. (p. 18)
More recently, Ambrose et al. (2010) referred to SDL as a key research-based

principle of learning:
To become self-directed learners, students must learn to assess the demands of the task,
evaluate their knowledge and skills, plan their approach, monitor their progress, and adjust
their strategies as needed. (p. 191)
Based on a Delphi study of experts’ framing of SDL; it involves many interrelated

skills, dispositions/habits of mind and beliefs about self and learning:
A highly self-directed learner…is one who exhibits initiative, independence, and persistence
in learning; one who accepts responsibility for his or her own learning and views problems
as challenges, not obstacles; one who is capable of self-discipline and has a high degree of
curiosity; one who has a strong desire to learn or change and is self-confident; one who is
able to use basic study skills, organize his or her time, set an appropriate pace for learning,
and develop a plan for completing work; one who enjoys learning and has a tendency to be
goal-oriented. (Guglielmino 1978, p. 73)
Certainly, to be a self-directed learner, a key underpinning competence is the

ability to think well—Good Thinking—as outlined in Chap. 2.
Self-Regulated Learning (SRL), which also figures extensively in the literature
has been referred to by Schunk and Zimmerman (2012) as:
…the process by which learners personally activate and sustain cognition, affects and
behaviours that are systematically oriented toward the attainment of learning goals. (vii)
In practice, SDL and SRL have often been used interchangeably in the litera-
ture. However, Saks and Leijen (2013), in comparing and contrasting SDL and SRL,
suggest that while both incorporate task definition, goal setting, planning and enact-
ing strategies, monitoring and evaluation—as well as metacognition and Intrinsic
motivation, they differ in certain important ways:
1. SDL originates from Adult Education; whereas SRL originates from Cognitive
Psychology
2. SDL is practiced mainly outside school environments; whereas SRL is practiced
more in school environments
3. SDL involves the learner more in the design of the learning environment and its
trajectory; whereas in SRL, outcomes and tasks are usually set by the teacher
4. SDL is a broader macro-level construct than SRL.
Another term, that of Meta-Learning, originally framed by Maudsley (1979),
has now been re-surfaced by the Center for Curriculum Redesign, (e.g., Fadel and
Trilling 2015) who define it in terms of two main components:
• Metacognition—the process of thinking about thinking.
• Growth Mindset—the inner belief that abilities can be developed through hard
work.
Meta-Learning has a ‘catchy’ tone to it, but these components—metacognition and
growth mindset—are already embedded in more recent framings of metacognition.
From the above comparisons, it is not surprising that there has been confusion
relating to what is metacognition and how it relates to other frameworks such as SDL
and SRL. Indeed, the confusion is enhanced further as a result of some researchers
considering self-regulation to be a subordinate component of metacognition (e.g.,
Kluwe 1987), whereas others regard self-regulation as a concept superordinate to
metacognition (e.g., Winne 1995).
Metacognition may indeed be that many-headed-monster of obscure parentage.
The latter aspect is more the domain of evolutionary theory and may be of academic
interest only; the many heads are of major pedagogical, social and global interest.
What Makes Metacognitive Capability (MC) the Superordinate 21st Compe-

tency?
The nature and focus of learning, concerns of human conduct, improving intelli-
gent behaviour (at individual, organizational, societal, and global levels) may reside
in better MC, which I see as capturing the range of self-regulatory activities and
process that are now subsumed under more recent framings of metacognition. In
most basic terms, MC represents our best existential opportunity to become better
learners, experience better well-being and become more self-directed in our personal
and professional life directions. Such framing also encompasses various notions of
lifelong learning.
Invariably, not everybody will develop such capabilities, as there are many foibles
and paradoxes to the human condition, and our present stage of evolution may well
just be a Kluge (an ill-assorted collection of parts assembled to fulfil a particular pur-
pose) as Marcus (2008) suggests. Even a few nights review of world news depicting
various genres of human tragedies occurring worldwide, more than suggests a sig-
nificant absence of good thinking and sensibility occurring pretty much everywhere.
We are living in a VUCA world (volatile, uncertain,complex,and ambiguous); the
term seems to have migrated from U.S. military to global speak about modern society
and life in general and is especially trendy in managerial dialogues when dealing
with difficult present realities. However, we are having to deal with this scenario with
a brain that is still largely that of our stone-age ancestors, which appears not to be
naturally intelligently designed for notions of global wisdom and betterment in this
VUCA world.
Much is written about the so-called twenty-first century competencies. Skills
such as teamwork and communication, problem solving and creativity, are typically
mentioned in various (often conflating) terminologies across the literature, and of
course, these are essential. However, didn’t our cave-dwelling ancestors also need
such skills to stop hostile intruders, tigers, or whatever other ‘nasties’ were around
to kill, maim or rob them? I tend to agree with Schank (2011) who argued:
Twenty-first-century skills are no different from 1st-century skills. (p. 207)
Research suggests that human brains were pretty much the same (morphologi-
cally) some 50,000 years ago—indeed recent data shows that even 300,000 years
ago, the brain size in H. sapiens already fell within the range of present-day humans
(Neubauer et al. 2018). It is arguable, therefore, that such folk (let’s be gentle on
the language occasionally) had similar cognitive abilities and motivational disposi-
tions—just played out in different contexts, with different resources, and different
contingencies. I note that the Paleo diet is now becoming highly popular with certain
sectors of the healthy-eating community, so there is probably still much in common
between Homo sapiens today and those from the aeons of yesteryear.
One thing that certainly differentiates us from our ancestors is the rate of knowl-
edge production. It’s a cliché to refer to the exponential knowledge explosion of
modern times, but the problem of constant cognitive overload is a problem for many
of us. Before information can be stored in our long-term memory, it must first pass
through our working memory, which has very limited immediate capability when
processing new information, as we explored in some detail in Chap. 2, Core Prin-
ciple 6: Learning design takes into account the working of memory systems. This
limitation is further hampered in terms of learning effectiveness and efficiency by
our brain’s inherent systemic biases and tendency to be lazy (e.g., Kahneman 2012),
and it not being particularly well designed for thinking (e.g., Willingham 2009),
and our limited amounts of willpower (e.g., Baumeister and Tierney 2012). Dealing
with them, at least in terms of mitigating their negative impacts on learning and
well-being, will be imperative in future curriculum planning and instruction.
In terms of the twenty-first century underpinning research-based competencies
identified by Lai (2012), I suggest that they are interrelated in complex ways. For
example, metacognition is inevitably related to both critical and creative thinking
and is the executive function monitoring and evaluating them—all being the main
cognitive components of ‘Good Thinking’ as framed in Chap. 2. Also, motivation
and metacognition are reciprocally related and synergistic and, finally, providing
students with opportunities to work together may stimulate students’ motivation and
thinking.
MC in this context can be validly and usefully framed as the superordinate com-
petence that encompasses a range of sub-competencies and skill sets (including those
of self-regulation) that facilitates the development of SDL. MC fuels the process of
becoming a self-directed learner in that it can develop and facilitate many functions
that are highly beneficial for effective learning and well-being—helping learners to:
• Set key goals for learning (e.g., short term, long-term, and appropriate challenge)
and deciding what needs to be learned for what purpose
• Know how to learn and plan a successful learning strategy (e.g., what, how, when
and where)
• Use specific metacognitive, cognitive, and motivational strategies to achieve the
learning goals
• Maintain positive beliefs and managing emotions to remain calm under pressure
• Persist, exercise volition to stay on track in the face of challenges and/or setbacks
• Monitor and review one’s progress and modify/change aspects of strategy based
on feedback (if necessary).
Research has shown that the effective use of metacognitive strategies has a high
impact on student attainment (e.g., Effect Size of 0.69, Hattie 2009). Similarly, Dig-
nath et al. (2008), quoted in Lai (2012), meta-analysed 48 studies investigating the
effect of training in self-regulation on learning and the use of strategies among
students from grades 1–6, as shown in Table 3.1.
The most effective metacognitive strategies included the combination of planning
and monitoring (mean effect size = 1.50) and the combination of planning and eval-
uation (mean effect-size = 1.46), both of which were more successful than teaching
any of the skills in isolation or teaching a combination of all three metacognitive
skills (planning, monitoring, and evaluation). Training approaches that combined
metacognitive components with other aspects of self-regulation, such as cognitive
Table 3.1 Summary of Dignath et al. (2008), meta-analysis

Type of treatment Mean effect size
Any self-regulation training (metacognitive, cognitive, and motivational) 0.73
Metacognitive and motivational strategies training (all strategies) 0.97
Metacognitive and cognitive strategies training (all strategies) 0.81
Metacognitive strategies training (all strategies) 0.54
Metacognitive strategy training in planning and monitoring 1.50
Metacognitive strategy training in planning and evaluation 1.46
Training on metacognitive reflection—knowledge about and value of 0.95
strategies
Cognitive strategies training (all strategies) 0.58
Cognitive strategy training in elaboration 1.19
Cognitive strategy training in elaboration, organization, problem solving 0.94
or motivational strategies were also successful, with effect sizes of 0.81 and 0.97,
respectively (pp. 22–23).
Also, metacognition impacts other aspects of human psychological functioning,
and their behavioural consequences, simply as a result of its executive function. For
example, Critical Thinking—also one of the so-called twenty-first century competen-
cies, is very much under the ‘supervision’ (for better or for worse) of metacognition.
As Mango (2010) summarized:
Higher-order thinking (like critical thinking) requires executive control and executive pro-
cesses (that comes in the form of metacognition). Note, specifically, metacognition helps
in developing critical thinking, because it is likely that critical thinking requires a form of
meta-level operation. (p. 149)
Akturk and Sahin (2011) conclude:

…teaching students how to use metacognitive strategies increases academic achievement
(Biggs 1988). Students with advanced metacognitive skills are those who are aware of what
they have learned and what they do not know. Generally, students with advanced metacogni-
tive skills monitor their own learning, express their opinions about the information, update
their knowledge and develop and implement new learning strategies to learn more. In compar-
ison to other students, students using their metacognitive skills effectively are those who are
more aware of their strengths and weaknesses and strive to improve their learning skills fur-
ther (Bransford et al. 1999). According to Jones et al. (1995), the further students’ awareness
of metacognition is improved, the more students’ effectiveness is increased. (p. 3735)
Similarly, Pintrich and De Groot (1990) have shown that the use of cognitive
and self-regulatory strategies is an important component of student learning. For
example, students who use cognitive strategies like elaboration (e.g., summarizing,
paraphrasing) and organization (e.g., mind maps, concept maps) engage the content
at a deeper level of processing and are more likely to be able to recall the information,
understand it, and use it purposefully at a later time.
Fig. 3.1 Metacognition as

the superordinate 21st
competence
The view that metacognition can be developed through carefully planned instruc-
tion is supported in the literature. For example, drawing from the research of Ericsson
et al. (1993), Schraw (1998) argues that:
Well organized instruction or the use of effective learning strategies may in large part compen-
sate for differences in IQ. In many cases, sustained practice and teacher modelling lead to the
acquisition of relevant task-specific knowledge as well as general metacognitive knowledge
that is either independent or moderately correlated with traditional IQ scores. (p. 117)
In summary, developing MC is a high leverage evidence-based pedagogic inno-

vation for enhancing self-directed learning. Such competence encompasses both
knowledge on how to manage one’s thinking (e.g., critical and creative thinking),
motivation (e.g., beliefs, emotions) and behaviour (e.g., collaboration with others),
and the skills necessary to implement, monitor and evaluate strategy effectiveness
(and efficiency) in different learning situations. It offers our best route to helping stu-
dents to become self-directed learners, able to navigate the increasing complexities
and existential challenges of the modern world, as well as find purpose and meaning
in their lives. Figure 3.1 depicts the framing of Metacognition as the Superordinate
21st Competence.
3.3 Metacognition and Motivation: Two Bedfellows

for Effective Learning
While the case is made for MC being the superordinate twenty-first century compe-
tence, based on its significance for effective learning and well-being, it is also widely
accepted that metacognitive knowledge is insufficient to promote student achieve-
ment. Students must also be motivated to use their metacognitive knowledge and
skills. In the context of metacognition, motivation is typically framed in terms of the
“beliefs and attitudes that affect the use and development of cognitive and metacog-
nitive skills” (Schraw et al. 2006, p. 112). According to them, motivation has two
primary components: (1) self-efficacy, which is confidence in one’s own ability to
perform a specific task and, (2) epistemological beliefs, which are beliefs about the
origin and nature of knowledge.
These two components of motivation are essentially concerned with beliefs, which
affect perception, feelings and behaviour, though have their origins in prior percep-
tions and experiences. They work as an internal processing system for decision-
making when people are confronted with new tasks. For example, Bandura (1997)
referred to self-efficacy as:
…beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to
produce given attainments. (p. 3)
Without a belief in one’s capability to execute a task successfully there may be a

reluctance to embark on any activity related to tackling it in the first place, and as
Schunk and Zimmerman (2012) points out:
the self-efficacy beliefs that students hold when they approach new tasks and activities serve
as filters through which new information is processed (p. 18)
…unless people believe that their actions can produce the outcomes they desire, they have
little incentive to act or to persevere in the face of difficulties. (p. 113)
Research shows that self-perceived competence is a key motivator for engagement.

People with a strong sense of self-efficacy approach difficult tasks as challenges
to be mastered rather than as threats to be avoided. They have a greater intrinsic
interest and deep engrossment in activities, set themselves challenging goals as well
as maintaining a strong commitment to them. High self-efficacy helps create feelings
of serenity in approaching difficult tasks and activities. Consequently, self-efficacy
beliefs powerfully influence the level of accomplishment one ultimately achieves
(e.g., Fazey and Fazey 2001, p. 113).
Similarly, Weiner (1992), summarized how students attribute their outcomes (e.g.,
successes, failures) to such factors as ability, effort, task difficulty, and luck, have
a significant impact on how they orientate themselves to academic learning. Most
significant, in the present literature in recent years, has been the research by Dweck
(2006) on the impact of a Growth Mind-set (as compared to a fixed Mind-set) on
student learning and attainment:
…growth mindset is based on the belief that your basic qualities are things you can cultivate
through your efforts. Although people may differ in every which way – in their initial talents
and aptitudes, or temperaments – everyone can change and grow through application and
experience. (p. 7)
Dweck’s extensive research on students’ beliefs (mind-sets) relating to intelli-

gence has profound implications in terms of motivation, how students subsequently
approach their learning and for how teachers teach (Table 3.2). In summary, she
contrasted two fundamentally different mind-sets, relating to how students approach
learning, a Fixed Mindset and a Growth Mindset. Students who possessed a fixed
mindset tended to see intelligence as a stable genetic quotient and, consequently,
you are either smart or you are not. In contrast, students who possessed a growth
mind-set saw intelligence as a more fluid entity, reflecting effort and hard work, and
a capability that can be developed and enhanced.
In most basic terms, our thinking and consequent behaviour are largely based on
the ‘pictures in our heads’, which have their roots in our deep-seated belief systems,
3.3 Metacognition and Motivation: Two Bedfellows … 87
Table 3.2 Comparison of fixed and growth mind-sets

Fixed mindset (intelligence is static) Growth mindset (intelligence can be
developed)
Leads to a desire to look smart and Leads to a desire to learn and therefore a
therefore a tendency to: tendency to:
• Avoid challenges • Embrace challenges
• Get defensive and give up when faced with • Persist in the face of setbacks
obstacles
• See effort as something less able people • See effort as the path to mastery
need, and not for the smart
• Ignore useful negative feedback • Learn from criticism
• Feel threatened by the success of others • Find lessons and inspiration in the success
of others
As a result, they may plateau earlier and As a result, they reach ever-higher levels of
achieve less than their full potential achievement
and if they are poor pictures, the consequences may turn out just that way also.
Fortunately, they are changeable based on new experiences which is hardly surprising,
if we think back to what we believed to be true as children. Do you still believe in the
‘tooth fairy’, Santa Claus, or the bogeyman under the bed? As Adler (1996) cleverly
noted:
We forget that beliefs are no more than perceptions, usually with a limited sell-by date, yet
we act as though they were concrete realities. (p. 145)
It is not difficult to understand how beliefs profoundly affect the way people
approach their learning and the subsequent impact on attainment and engagement
levels. Beliefs act as major neurological filters that determine how we perceive exter-
nal reality (Fig. 3.2). In this way, they provide the inner maps we use to make sense
of the world around us. When we have a belief about something in our world, we
act as though it is true. It is what is in our Inner Personal Map of Reality that deter-
mines our perception, emotional responses and orientation to people and things in
the External World. While the External World is only knowable through our senses
and therefore can never be fully ascertained in purely objective terms (whatever this
is), our challenge as evidence-based teaching practitioners is to build increasingly
more useful Internal Maps of how best to facilitate learning and attainment for our
Fig. 3.2 Beliefs as a filter on reality

students (part of our External World) and improve the quality of their Inner Personal
Maps of Reality through the ways we teach and interact with them.
Motivation is fundamental in activating metacognition and both are essential for
learning. Most importantly, their impact is likely to be synergistic. For example,
once motivation is enacted, learners are more likely to want to be successful in their
learning tasks, and this is where metacognitive strategies are particularly useful. As
Martinez (2006) points out, metacognitive strategies can improve persistence and
motivation in the face of challenging tasks, which means the learner can maintain a
strong growth mindset, achieve successful task completion that, in turn, reinforces
self-efficacy. As an old saying goes, “nothing breeds success like success”.
Marzano’s (2007) research is of real pedagogic interest in terms of explaining how
different aspects of human psychological functioning interact in terms of influencing
an individual’s motivation to learn. His new taxonomy focuses on three internal
systems, all of which are important for learning. These are summarized below:
• The Self-system—This relates to the set of beliefs (and related feelings) the student
holds about his or her capabilities, the meaning attributed to the task in hand, along
with the perceived likelihood of success
• The Meta-cognitive system—This relates to the higher-level self-regulation of
the student in terms being able to monitor and evaluate his or her own thinking
process (e.g., setting goals, monitoring progress towards these goals and adapting
to difficulties)
• The Cognitive system—This is the system that reasons, and thinks in specific ways
(e.g., analyses, compares and contrasts, makes inferences and interpretations, and
evaluates) with the information at its disposal, to achieve the desired goals.
When faced with the option of participating in a new learning project or activity, it
is the Self-system which initially decides (whether consciously or subconsciously) to
give attention and then activates the Meta-cognitive and Cognitive systems to provide
structure and direction for the appropriate learning strategies and skills to acquire the
necessary knowledge, build understanding and skills to move progressively to goal
attainment. He found that teaching strategies that activated the Self-system had the
greatest effect on student learning, the Metacognitive system the next most effect,
and the Cognitive system least, though it is still substantial. What this means is
that it is the Self-system that activates the Meta-cognitive system, which actives the
Cognitive system, which creates learning. In the ideal situation for effective learning,
we would like to get all systems fully ‘up and running’ towards meeting the demands
of the desired learning goal. What we now can be reasonably sure of is that without
a desire to meet a task’s outcomes, belief in one’s capabilities to attain the necessary
knowledge and skill components and perception of likely success, there is probably
little effort invested to commit to task requirements. Quite simply, unless the Self-
system is firmly activated, the other important systems are not likely to be working
at anywhere near optimal levels.
Schunk and Zimmerman (2012), in summarizing the research findings conclude
that:
3.3 Metacognition and Motivation: Two Bedfellows … 89
Fig. 3.3 Relationship of motivation, metacognition and learning outcomes. Adapted from the work
Lens and Vansteekiste (2012)
Clearly, motivational processes play a vital role in initiating, guiding and sustaining student
efforts to self - regulate their learning. (p. 3)
The relationship between motivation and metacognition and its impact on learning
outcomes is summarized in Fig. 3.3.
3.4 What Is the Difference Between Cognition

and Metacognition?
Flavell’s (1976) initial framing of metacognition as ‘thinking about thinking’ aptly

captures the relationship of metacognitions to cognition. Invariably, ‘thinking’ and
‘thinking about thinking’ are essentially intertwined. However, in terms of men-
tal activity, the main difference relates to the goal or purpose of the task in hand.
Cognitive strategies ‘facilitate’ learning and task completion, whereas metacognitive
strategies monitor the process. In most basic terms, cognitive skills are necessary to
perform a task, while metacognition is necessary to understand how the task was
performed.
Hence:
• Cognitive Strategies typically focus on acquiring, retaining and trans-
ferring knowledge for meeting specific task goals (e.g., organiz-
ing/classifying/summarizing information; transferring information from Working
Memory to Long-Term Memory).
• Metacognitive Strategies focus on monitoring and evaluating the quality of the
overall (and specific aspects) of the self-regulatory process, including the choice
and application of the cognitive learning strategies.
Metacognition is necessary to understand how a task is to be performed, whereas
cognition is required to fulfil the task, but both must work in unison for this to
happen effectively and efficiently. For operational purposes, we can view cognition
as the thinking (and strategies) employed as we mentally deal with real-world tasks
(e.g., acquiring, retaining and transferring knowledge for meeting specific goals).
These cognitive strategies are conscious mental activities/operations we do to solve

a problem. In the context of learning, we often refer to them as thinking or learning
tools, which often involve physical tools such as Mind-mapping or concept mapping,
but, as Ormrod (2011) points out, they are “…ultimately the things we do inside our
heads – thinking” (p. 135). Hence, as with the use of tools in the physical world,
the effectiveness of any cognitive/learning tool depends on how well it is used in the
current learning context.
The analogy of a Toolbox is useful in terms of framing cognitive strategies in that as
with the use of tools in the physical world, the effectiveness of any cognitive/learning
tool depends on its appropriateness to the learning task in-hand and how well it is
used. Poor thinking, limited knowledge and skills in the application will typically
produce poor results. The cartoon below captures the point in a poignant visible
form and is close to home for my competence level in the domain of household DIY.
In the practical pedagogic context, when selecting and using cognitive strategies,
the following heuristic is helpful:
• What is my learning purpose (e.g., extracting information from a text; organiz-
ing information from a variety of learning resources; building understanding;
cementing mental models in long term memory)
• What are useful strategies for this area of learning
• How to use the strategies effectively and efficiently
• When to use them for best results.
For example, I find mind-mapping very useful for writing research papers, as I
can identify the key structure and content areas on one sheet of paper and do ongoing
good thinking—critical, creative, metacognitive—to develop the paper content areas
from this central advance organizer. However, there is a skill in doing good mind-
mapping and one does need to know the subject domain quite well; otherwise, the
mind maps can become no more than mazes, confusing rather than aiding thinking
and learning.
Another strategy that I introduce to students early in a course of instruction is
Retrieval Practice (see Table 3.3). This strategy helps to build understanding and
cement knowledge in LTM. It involves students using their WM in response to a
question posed internally or externally (e.g., what do I know about agentic engage-
ment?) and searching LTM for what’s there (or not there). This is further enhanced
3.4 What Is the Difference Between Cognition and Metacognition? 91
Table 3.3 Retrieval practice heuristic

Strategy How to use When to use Purpose
Retrieval practice Self-reflect and test Ongoing—as this is Create solid mental
what you know—by crucial for building representations in
posing questions, understanding and LTM—build deeper
‘thinking aloud’, consolidation into understanding
‘verbalizing’ to check Long-Term Memory
understanding of key
concepts/principles
(e.g., what is
important here?; how
does this work?)
when students engage in self-talk (talking aloud) and verbalizing with others as they
can assess what they know already that’s useful, identify gaps and/or misconcep-
tions, and take appropriate learning action (e.g., employ specific cognitive strategies
if needed). The process of extracting what’s in LTM and subjecting it to scrutiny in
WM, and then putting it back (often in an improved form—richer mental schemata)
is a well-validated strategy for effective learning from a cognitive neuroscience per-
spective. Repeated retrieval practice, especially when spaced out over time, builds
the learning as a solid neural network and mental model for understanding. Hence
future recall, when needed, becomes increasing quicker, as well as more effective
for connecting to new learning and enhancing understanding in that topic area.
Metacognition, in contrast, can be viewed as how we mentally act in relation to our
cognition (e.g., monitoring and evaluating the quality of the self-regulatory process,
including the choice and use of the cognitive learning strategies being employed).
Martinez (2006) put it very succinctly:
Metacognition can be seen as evaluation turned inward, especially turned toward our ideas.
(p. 698)
It typically comes into play when cognition becomes problematic (e.g., when tasks
are more challenging) or when a new learning challenge has been identified. Many
researchers in the field acknowledge that they are probably mutually dependent on
each other—hence cannot be entirely separated (e.g., Flavell 1979; Veenman et al.
2006). Figure 3.4 summarizes the key concepts and their likely relationship.
An important summary point is that students need to understand the distinc-
tion between cognition and metacognition to become self-regulated (e.g., Schraw
1998, p. 118). Schraw argues that metacognition is a multidimensional phenomenon,
domain-general in nature, and that metacognitive knowledge and regulation can be
improved through instructional strategies. His view is that cognitive skills tend to
be encapsulated within domains or subject areas, whereas metacognitive skills span
multiple domains, even when those domains have little in common (p. 116). With-
out a clear understanding of these distinct mental processes, what each can do for
effective learning in different learning contexts, and how to work them in unison, is
like driving a manual gear car without knowledge and skill in clutch control.
Fig. 3.4 Relationships between metacognition, cognition and the Real World
Teaching metacognition and teaching cognitive strategies should be mutually

reinforcing as the overall aim is to develop the capability to be a self-directed lifelong
learner and possess what Claxton (1998) referred to as “learning Power”. Students
must learn how to use metacognition to be able to select and use appropriate cognitive
strategies that are most effective to successfully master learning and problem-solving
challenges.
3.5 Metacognition, Cognition, and Other Types of Thinking
In Chap. 2, Core Principle 4: Good thinking promotes the building of understanding

the importance of thinking for learning was established and explained. The difficul-
ties of framing these internal cognitive processes were identified, as were important
systemic barriers (e.g., cognitive biases, beliefs and emotions) to good thinking.
However, it was also made clear that unless we can establish a sufficiently valid and
practical model of what constitutes good thinking, we have little chance of establish-
ing a sound pedagogic base for teaching and assessing it. Hence, I presented a model
of thinking, evolved over some years, which has proved useful in this context. It does
not claim to fully capture the range and accuracy of the cognitive (and another affect)
processes involved in and impacting ‘thinking’, but offers useful heuristics that can
be thoughtfully employed in the practices of curriculum framing and teaching.
Certainly, we are being incredibly naive if we assume that effective thinking
and self-regulation will naturally occur for most students, simply by encouraging or
telling them to do so. Without sound foundational knowledge and skill in good think-
ing, as well as an understanding on how emotions, beliefs and other vagaries of the
human mind influence such capability, many will lack the necessary understanding
and competence to self-regulate effectively. As Hattie and Yates (2014) summarized:
There is a skill in knowing when to think, what to attend to, and when to stop thinking to
save cognitive resources. We need to know when to think fast and when to think slowly.
(xvii)
3.5 Metacognition, Cognition, and Other Types of Thinking 93
Hence, individuals who have developed high MC are likely to be more focused
and successful in their approach to learning—possibly in life generally—than those
lacking in this capability. They can run ‘quality assurance’ checks on what they know,
don’t know, need to find out, as well as ensure that they are utilizing, monitoring and
evaluating the necessary cognitive, motivational and affective strategies needed for
goal attainment. Therefore, while metacognition and cognitive (thinking) skills have
a high impact on student attainment, the situation is still largely as Ambrose (2010)
notes:
Unfortunately, these metacognitive skills tend to fall outside the content area of most courses,
and consequently, they are often neglected in instruction. (p. 191)
Planning Curricula to Incorporate Metacognitive Capability
In the context of teaching and learning, a major pedagogic goal is to teach students
how to develop and use their MC to effectively select, use and evaluate appropriate
cognitive and motivational strategies for meeting their learning goals in different
situations, enhancing their well-being and developing the ability to be self-directed
lifelong learners. This constitutes perhaps the gold standard in terms of educational
aims. In practice, educational systems (and institutions) vary greatly in terms of
policy, practices, and resources. Hence, Stenhouse’s (1989) observation is as relevant
today as it was at the time of his writing:
…the central problem of curriculum study is the gap between our ideals and our attempt to
operationalize them. (p. 3)
How this might be done thoughtfully, from an evidence-based perspective, is

presented in Fig. 3.5.
The following sections explain and illustrate each of the components, and how
they contribute to different aspects of the learning process. The framework is a holistic
and synergistic one, in that the better each component is pedagogically addressed,
integrated and contextualized to the student profile, the better the learning outcomes
in terms of facilitating MC.
Fig. 3.5 Framework for developing metacognitive capability

3.6 The Self-regulation Cycle
Despite many approaches and models in the literature, there is general agreement
that SDL (or SRL) involves the following iterative stages, irrespective of the specific
terminology employed:
1. Planning Learning
2. Managing Learning Performance and Process
3. Reviewing and Evaluating Learning.
1. Planning Learning
As an old saying goes, ‘fail to plan, plan to fail’. This applies equally to learn-
ing almost anything. Essentially, when we seek to learn something new or extend
our existing learning in some way, we are going about the business of enhancing
aspects of our long-term memory system (e.g., in the language of neuroscience,
building on existing neural networks in terms of the richness of pathway connec-
tions). Once established, this enhances our understanding of what we are intending
to learn and, hopefully, our competence in applying this new learning skilfully in
real-world contexts.
Hence, in this planning stage, the learner (you, me, whoever) must do the neces-
sary cognitive and metacognitive work, and it’s necessary to have key underpinning
knowledge on how we learn and how we think—as the latter involves the cognitive
and metacognitive stuff.
Here’s a summary of the key areas/questions to address in the planning stage:
• Assess the task at hand and set key realistic challenging goals for learning
• Identify interest/value (and personal strengths and weaknesses) for the learning
involved
• Evaluate existing knowledge and skills to identify gaps, and how to address these
• Design a successful learning strategy (e.g., specific strategies to be used, when and
how).
Set Key Goals for Learning
The importance of goals was identified and outlined in Chap. 2: Core Principle
1: Learning goals, objectives and proficiency expectations are clearly visible to
learners.
At the initial stage, before setting clear goals, it is useful to assess the task(s) at
hand and have some idea of what may be involved in terms of time and resources
needed (e.g., knowledge, skills to be acquired). Goals need to be challenging but
must equally be a ‘viable proposition’ in terms of one’s life situation. If they are too
challenging, one may be left with feelings of frustration and this may not be good in
terms of self-efficacy in that area. This situation is well captured in an old English
saying (it may be elsewhere also), “you have bitten off more than you can chew”.
Equally, if goals are too easy to attain, they won’t stretch competence, build volition
or grit, and may feed mediocrity and complacency.
3.6 The Self-regulation Cycle 95
Research shows that academic performance gains range from 16 to 41% in class-
rooms where students are explicitly taught how and why it is important to set learning
goals (e.g. Marzano 2007). Setting specific and challenging goals furthers strength-
ens learning by providing students with benchmarks to measure their progress and
to motivate themselves to exert the effort to accomplish their aims. As Hattie (2009)
points out:
A major reason difficult goals are more effective is that they lead to a clearer notion of
success and direct the student’s attention to relevant behaviours of outcomes. (p. 164)
Furthermore, when teachers help students connect to classroom goals in ways that
have personal meaning for them, there is a much greater chance they will be motivated
to engage in the necessary hard work often required in achieving challenging learning
goals. Where possible, allowing students to set some goals for themselves adds a
further intrinsic motivational element to the learning process, as student derived
goals can:
• enhance one’s sense of autonomy (Ryan and Deci 2017) through choice and more
focused attention toward goal-relevant tasks and the most effective strategies to
attain them
• increase one’s effort and volition to attain them through motivation and desire for
mastery
• increase one’s affective reactions to targeted outcomes (i.e. the investment of
emotions and desire to maintain self-efficacy).
Goals then provide the important role of framing cognitive representations of a
future event and, as such, influence motivation through certain key processes. More
specifically, goals, as Alderman (2008) identifies:
• Direct instruction and action toward an intended target. This helps individuals
focus on the task at hand and organize their knowledge and strategies toward the
accomplishment of the goal;
• Mobilize effort in proportion to the difficulty of the task to be accomplished;
• Promote persistence and effort over time for complex tasks. This provides a reason
to continue to work hard even if the task is not going well;
• Promote the development of creative plans and strategies to reach them;
• Provide a reference point that provides information about one’s performance
(p. 107).
Identify Interest/Value and Personal Strengths and Weaknesses for the Learning
Involved
As motivation is fundamental to learning, it’s important to be able to be honest with

oneself in terms of how important the learning goals are. We may like to achieve
certain goals like getting fit, losing weight, etc., but often these don’t happen, and
there’s a reason for this. Motivation is multifaceted, and many aspects combine to
influence the level of commitment and level of effort that one may put into goal
attainment. Key aspects include:
• Interest in the tasks involved (intrinsic motivation)

• Value to the individual over and above intrinsic interest (e.g., usefulness for another
extrinsic personal goal that gives a feeling of satisfaction)
• Cost-Benefit Analysis and Expectations that the effort required will lead to the
perceived desired outcomes
• Beliefs about the nature of intelligence and what makes people successful learners
• Self Efficacy beliefs about one’s capability to be able to do what is necessary to
achieve success.
Individuals are more motivated to engage in activities they find interesting.
Whitehead (1967) puts a nice spin on this:
There can be no mental development without interest. Interest is the sine qua non for attention
and apprehension. You may endeavour to excite interest through birch rods, or you may coax
it by the incitement of pleasurable activity. But without interest, there will be no progress.
(p. 37)
Furthermore, Interest and self-efficacy were reported as significantly correlated

in several studies (e.g., Zimmerman and Kitsantas 1999). Interest and self-regulation
also share several characteristics. They both facilitate learning and optimal levels
of performance and thus are necessary components of academic success and as the
authors suggest:
The combination of interest and self-regulation has the potential to facilitate the
learning of the broad range of skills and competencies students need for productive
and creative futures (p. 101).
Finally, Hidi and Renninger (2006) argue that interest has important distinguishing
features from other motivational variables:
1. Interest includes both affective and cognitive components as separate but
interactive systems.
2. Both cognitive and affective systems involved in experiencing interest have bio-
logical roots (e.g., Hidi 2006). Neuroscientific evidence of the existence of
approach circuits in the brain (e.g., Davidson 2000) and seeking behaviour in
humans and animals (e.g., Panksepp 2004) indicate that interesting activities
have a biological foundation in all mammals.
While interest may be situational or individual, it is the outcome of an interaction
between a person and a particular content, and therefore, while the potential for
interest resides in the person, the content and the environment may determine the
direction of interest and contribute to its development—interest can be enhanced
through pedagogical interventions.
Value, apart from interest, also plays a part in the motivational stakes. While
we may seek to develop students’ passion for learning (i.e., intrinsic motivation) in
the subjects we teach (and this is a noble cause), we must recognize that there are
equally powerful aims and considerations that are more extrinsic. Table 3.4 captures
this overall framing.
Interest is, of course, impacted by value, and in many ways is part of it. Students
who value the learning for its own sake are likely to have interest value, as framed
Table 3.4 Eccles and Wigfield expectancy—value model

Value component Definition Example
Attainment value Importance of the activity to the I value AP courses because I see
individual myself as a capable student
Interest value Enjoyment obtained from doing an I love reading novels
activity
Utility value Usefulness of the activity to the I am taking this math class because
individual I want to be a doctor
Cost Perception of amount of effort I don’t have time to do my
needed for the activity and how that homework because I’d rather go out
has an impact on other valued with my friends
activities
by Eccles and Wigfield. While many writers focus on the importance of intrinsic
motivation (e.g., Ryan and Deci 2017; Reeve and Tseng 2001), and this should be
a main pedagogic focus, we must recognize that other extrinsic factors are equally
important. Measuring precisely how much a persons’ motivation is determined by
intrinsic or extrinsic factors may be of academic interest though less impactful in
terms of pedagogic practice. In many cases for people, their motivation for different
activities will have extrinsic and intrinsic aspects, whose levels and focus vary over
time, even over situations. In writing this book, is my motivation intrinsic or extrinsic?
Both, but I would not be able to put a percentage on this. I like it when all the value
components are strong, and the costs are low. I’ll not argue the compositions too
critically.
Cost-Benefit Analysis is a core concept in decision making, which appears to
apply in some form in most contexts and cultures I have experienced. Of course, how
rational is this process enacted by people is a completely different issue. Often the
costs and benefits cannot be framed (or as clear as we may like) before the decision
is taken, as certain information and outcomes are not available and/or cannot be
predicted with high accuracy. Also, this process requires Good Thinking, and as we
have explored in some detail earlier, which is far from a given pre-requisite in human
psychological functioning.
Identifying what you know and don’t know is fundamental for effective learning.
Specifically, this applies to evaluate one’s strengths and weaknesses, both in terms
of knowledge and skill levels for a specific learning goal, as well as appraising one’s
dispositions for learning (e.g., belief systems; ability to maintain volition in the face
of challenges). A major area of motivational theory has focused on how attributions
(what we believe to be true) impact motivation and learning. For example, research
(e.g., Weiner 1992) shows that students who attribute their successes and failures to
internal and controllable sources (such as one’s effort) are more likely to persist on
difficult tasks and experience success than those who attribute success and failure to
external or uncontrollable sources (such as innate ability, luck, task difficulty).
Perhaps the most notable research in the literature in recent years is that of Dweck
(2006) on the impact of a Growth Mind-set (as compared to a fixed Mind-set) on
student learning and attainment. This was outlined and explained earlier. Equally
important are what Bandura (2004) refers to as Self-Efficacy Beliefs, which “are
rooted in the core belief that one has the power to effect change by one’s actions”
(p. 622). As Pajares (2012) summarizes:
People with a strong sense of self-efficacy approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mas-
tered rather than as threats to be avoided. They have a greater intrinsic interest and deep
engrossment in activities, and they set themselves challenging goals and maintain a strong
commitment to them. (p. 113)
In summary, in this context, while a sizeable body of research demonstrates that

students’ use of learning strategies promotes academic achievement (e.g., Zimmer-
man and Martinez-Pons 2012), research also indicates that student self-beliefs of
efficacy, causality of outcomes, and on the nature of intelligence to strategically reg-
ulate learning play a similarly crucial role in academic self-motivation (Zimmerman
et al. 1992). Therefore, from a pedagogic point of view, developing students’ beliefs
in their learning capability, and competence in using metacognitive and cognitive
self-regulation strategies may result in a synergistic impact on academic achieve-
ment and specific intrinsic motivational engagement dimensions (e.g., cognitive and
emotional engagement). Hence, there is a need to infuse both metacognitive and
motivational strategies into curriculum planning and facilitation, especially in the
context of today’s teaching challenges.
1. Designing a Successful Learning Strategy (e.g., strategies to be used, when
and how)
Having the motivation to succeed is important, as are the beliefs that with effort and
perseverance, success in many situations is possible. However, as Dweck and Master
(2012) point out:
…it is not the sheer effort that produces effective learning. Students must also learn how to
select strategies that will bring success and alter their strategies when they are not working.
(p. 39)
The ability to use metacognition, selecting, using and evaluating cognitive strate-
gies is of key importance in terms of goal attainment and becoming a self-directed
learner. Therefore, students must develop a deep understanding of how to use
metacognitive and cognitive strategies for learning and well-being. (e.g., what these
are, how they benefit specific aspects of the learning process and how to use them
effectively). In generic terms, if we don’t know how to do something, we are unlikely
to attain competence even with much practice. Students need to learn how metacog-
nition works in the context of good thinking and how this is part of the process of
effective learning.
In terms of metacognition, most theorists would agree in distinguishing two main
aspects: Metacognitive Knowledge, and Metacognitive Regulation:
• Metacognitive Knowledge refers to the information that individuals hold about
their cognition and about strategies which impact on it. It also includes one’s
self-efficacy beliefs, motivation or interest in relation to learning demands and
goals. This knowledge provides a plan or guides for processing, the rules of which
may be more (explicit) or less (implicit) in terms of being amenable to conscious
awareness and verbal expression.
• Metacognitive Regulation involves the execution of control strategies to regulate
our cognitive activities to ensure successful planning, monitoring and evaluation
of our actions towards desired goals. As we engage in metacognitive activities,
based on our metacognitive knowledge, this creates ‘metacognitive experiences’
(e.g., Flavell 1981; Schwarz 2010). This is the conscious learning we derive from
applying our metacognitive knowledge in new metacognitive regulation tasks. It
is essentially a process of assimilation and accommodation of new metacogni-
tive knowledge with prior metacognitive knowledge. For example, in writing this
chapter I have probably been metacognitive throughout (not always consciously)
and not just cognitively but also in terms of affect. Some days I feel more pro-
ductive, even excited; others, less so. I have certainly learned that metacognition
is, in fact, ‘a many-headed monster of obscure parentage’. Has it enhanced my
MC?—well, I finished this book. Just writing that statement enhanced my volition
a bit.
Through both retrieval practice and deliberate practice in self-regulation, students
will acquire both the understanding and competence relating to metacognitive knowl-
edge and regulation, to the extent that it becomes a habit of mind (e.g., Costa) and
an adaptive competence across a range of learning contexts.
Similarly, in using cognitive strategies, students will need to have gone through
the same learning process, so that they have acquired:
• Strategic knowledge on how cognition works in facilitating the learning pro-
cess (e.g., information processing through the working of memory systems). This
enables knowing what a cognitive strategy can do in terms of assisting learning in
tackling a specific learning task. For example, in using a mind map one needs to
understand what the tool can do, how to use it effectively, and how this helps the
learning purpose (e.g., summarize information, show relationships/connections,
aid memory processing)
• Knowledge of task, which enables the ability to understand, analyse and make
inferences and interpretations of what a lesson objective, activity or procedure
(as explained by a teacher) specifically involves in terms of what learning (and
performance) is needed
• Knowledge of self, which is essential for identifying and evaluating personal (exist-
ing) strengths and weaknesses as a learner and can choose appropriate learning
strategies (knowledge of strategy) that are aligned with the task(s) at hand (knowl-
edge of task). This will involve both an understanding of systemic barriers to
cognition and learning, as well as openness of personal recognition of specific
traits that may mitigate effective learning (e.g., impulsivity, procrastination).
Cognitive strategies, by definition, will focus on specific aspects of the learning
process and types of learning. These will essentially fall into one or more of the
following activity categorizations:
• Identifying, clarifying and verifying what is already known about a topic or activity
(e.g., activating prior knowledge)
• Framing clear challenging desired goals
• Planning ways to obtain relevant knowledge, resources and develop the neces-
sary understandings and skills to achieve desired goals—create/produce a learning
plan/strategy
• Finding and accessing relevant information sources and resources
• Extracting, organizing and summarizing information
• Processing information between WM and LTM (connecting new information to
prior knowledge)—thinking—to build understanding in LTM. The use of retrieval
practice (pulling information back and forth from LTM to WM to check under-
standing and knowledge completion and cement the learning in LTM at the neural
level
• Using new knowledge and skills in different situations to elaborate understanding
and skill transfer
• Managing one’s motivation and volition in the often frustrating and boring process
of learning, especially the thinking part which is often tiring.
Strategy Evaluation Matrixes (e.g., Schraw 2006) are useful, especially for identi-
fying, analysing and evaluating cognitive, metacognitive and motivational strategies
(see Table 3.5).
As students develop both metacognitive and cognitive skills, both their mastery
levels and self-efficacy in using such skills will likely increase. This, in turn, helps
to maintain/enhance motivation (whether intrinsic or extrinsic) for learning.
2. Managing Learning Performance and Process
Good planning is crucial, and the key components have been outlined and illustrated
above. However, the best plan in the world does not mean success without the appro-
priate action, as we all know. A great lesson plan is not a great lesson; enacted by a
poor teacher it is likely to have little impact in terms of desired learning.
In this stage of the self-regulatory process, metacognition focuses on the use
of cognitive and motivational strategies to ensure the successful maintenance of the
overall learning strategy towards goal attainment. Hence, it is important to be mindful
of:
• Ensuring the necessary skilful use and effort is put into the implementation of the
cognitive learning strategies employed. Unless they are implemented effectively
and conscientiously, there may be little benefit in terms of the desired learning
outcomes.
• Maintaining a Growth Mindset. We are fragile creatures and can easily slip into
self-doubt and loss of confidence. This happens to even the top sportspeople, so
the rest of us had better be mindful.
Students need to be explicitly taught to expect challenges and setbacks that may
seem to push them backwards in what they are trying to learn. This is where self-
control and willpower are important to avoid or at least mitigate procrastination and
maintain persistence. As Borkowski et al. (2000) made clear:
Table 3.5 Examples of strategy evaluation matrices

Learning strategy evaluation matrix (SEM—adapted for the work of Schraw)
Strategy How to use When to use Purpose
Create learning plan Identify In planning learning, Have a structure for
specifically what but needs to be organizing, monitoring and
needs to be learned monitored and evaluating the learning
(goals) and identify modified throughout strategies employed
strategies to meet the learning
them (e.g., 5W’s experience
and H)
Activate prior Pause and think Prior to learning a Makes learning more
knowledge about the new or unfamiliar effective/efficient—connecting
topic/skill topic (e.g., reading new knowledge to old
area—what do you new content; learning
already know—ask a new skill)
what you don’t
know
Organize/summarize Creating diagrams Ongoing—to build Build knowledge bases related
information of key concepts the necessary to the learning goal
and their knowledge base for
relationships (e.g., what needs to be
concept/mind learned
maps)
Comprehension Self-reflect by Ongoing—especially Create solid mental
monitoring posing questions to when seeking representations in LTM—build
check integration—building deeper understanding
understanding of understanding into
key Long-Term Memory
concepts/principles
(e.g., what is
important here?;
how does this
work?)
Motivational Use of self talk and When needed, Keeping focused on required
strategies (meta keeping on especially when the action, persevering, and
cognition) task—need to task becomes managing anxiety
maintain a positive tougher, and during
psychological state mood downturns
Students need to learn that classroom activities require them to work hard to achieve
understanding. (p. 33)
Many terms have been used to capture the underlying traits and characteristics
that facilitate self-control and willpower, including perseverance, conscientiousness,
resilience, to name but a few. The new vogue seems to be ‘Grit’. I remember it well
in my boxing classes at school, as the instructor would say words akin to “show
some grit, Dennis”. I was not good enough to box professionally, but the training did
develop some grit. Going to university was a relative breeze after years of getting up
at 5 a.m. on cold English winter days and doing a 10 km run, followed by several
hundred push-ups and sits ups. There was never any sympathy from the boxing
instructor—he was a second world war veteran, and had little time for excuses not to
push oneself to the limit (as he saw it). From an educational perspective, Duckworth
et al. (2007) defined grit as “perseverance and passion for long-term goals” (p. 1087).
Tough (2013) postulates that in the real world, learning to react to failure is as critical
to success as academic achievement. Noncognitive character traits such as resilience,
drive and delayed gratification are as important as cognitive skills (Farrington et al.
2012).
Of wider concern, Baumeister and Tierney (2012) conclude that:
…most major problems, personal and social, centre on the failure of self-control: compulsive
spending and borrowing, impulsive violence, underachievement in school, procrastination
at work, alcohol and drug abuse, unhealthy diet, lack of exercise, chronic anxiety, explosive
anger. (p. 2)
Collins (2017), based on such evidence sources, suggests that:

Self-regulation failure is the major pathology of our time. (pp. 48–49)
However, research suggests (e.g., Baumeister and Tierney 2012) that we have
limited amounts of willpower and distractions, especially in this digital age, are all
around us. After studying thousands of people inside and outside the lab, researchers
found that experiments consistently demonstrated two lessons:
1. You have a finite amount of willpower that becomes depleted as you use it.
2. You use the same stock of willpower for all manner of tasks. (p. 35)
As they note:
Emotional control is uniquely difficult because you generally can’t change your mood by
an act of will. You can change what you think about or how you behave, but you can’t force
yourself to be happy. (p. 37)
Similarly, as Collins (2017) argues:

One of the most critical self-regulatory skills for students to cultivate is impulse control.
(p. 48)
From a common-sense perspective (though we know such terms are problematic),

it would be nice to think that making such knowledge explicit would result in people
being more mindful and responsible. However, cognitive science, as documented
earlier, is making us more and more aware that the human brain is far from rational—
I would go so far as saying it is not intelligent design; complicated design yes,
intelligent design unlikely. As outlined earlier, there are many limits to the accuracy
of our perceptions and thinking (Kahneman 2012; Willingham 2009).
While willpower or grit are challenging pedagogic goals for the above reasons,
research shows that the ability to employ willpower, maintain self-control and be
persistent in this capability, has positive learning outcomes. Baumeister and Tierney
(2012) summarizes the implications of this, and raise the pedagogic challenges:
When researchers compared students’ grades with nearly three dozen personality traits, self-
control turned out to be the only trait that predicted a college student’s grade-point average
better than chance. Self-control also proved to be a better predictor of college grades than the
student’s IQ or SAT score. Although raw intelligence was an advantage, the study showed
that self-control was more important because it helped the students show up more reliably for
classes, start their homework earlier, and spend more time working than watching television.
(pp. 11–12)
The results couldn’t be clearer: self-control is a vital strength and key to success in life.
(p. 13)
Rohn’s reflections are also poignant in this context:

Average people look for ways of getting away with it; successful people look for ways of
getting on with it.
Success lies in the opposite direction of the normal pull.
3. Reviewing and Evaluating Learning

This process is in operation throughout all stages of the self-regulation process. It is
a key component/activity of MC, as we are evaluating both our thinking processes as
well as those other aspects of being (e.g., beliefs; emotions; and moods) that impact
self-regulation. Key questions to answer truthfully (as far as is possible) are:
• Have I met the goals I set out to achieve (yes, no, more, less)—what is the evidence?
You need to be as honest and open as possible on this—good feedback is crucial.
• How effective and efficient have I been in this learning process—what strategies
have worked (not worked), how well?
• Have I employed and maintained the necessary willpower, and how do I know
this?
• What do I now need to modify/change and how might I get this moving as
effectively and efficiently as possible?
• Do I have the motivation and volition to do what is necessary, or do I have to
modify my goals and expectations, and how do I feel about that?
As in all skill development, this will require understanding, practice and persever-
ance over time, but with the right strategies, competence will develop. Sounds easy,
and everything is easy when you know it thoroughly and can do it with expertise.
However, expertise does not come easy as Gladwell (2008) pointed out. According
to him, it requires considerable effort and perseverance over time, with estimates of
10,000 h being ‘the magic number’ with guided practice, regardless of a person’s
natural aptitude. With enough practice, he claimed that anyone could achieve a level
of proficiency that would rival that of a professional. It was just a matter of putting in
the time, around 10 years. However, the view of 10,000 h for developing high-level
expertise has been challenged (e.g., Goleman 2013; Epstein 2014).
This is not surprising as expertise in different areas may not be equated so precisely
in such algorithmic terms. Furthermore, there is practice and deliberate practice, so
it is probably the case that some individuals are using qualitatively different practice
activities, some favouring (or hindering) the route to expertise. Also, there are likely
to be constitutional factors (e.g., psychological, physical) that come into play along
the journey to expertise, as we are not born with a ‘Blake Slate’ as Pinker (2003)
so comprehensively documented. In summary, on the question of how much time
is necessary to develop expertise, there are certainly no ‘quick fixes’ and it will
involve much time and commitment, but 10,000 h may be more of a metaphor than
an evidence-based heuristic.
To develop an effective approach to developing SDL, all components of this
framework need to be addressed thoughtfully in the context of student profiles. As
an analogy, think of the mind like a car, which is a system, and, if we don’t know the
parts of the system, what they do and how they work, and their relationship to each
other—we are like the poor chap in this cartoon:
This resonates with me, as I have no competence in motor vehicle maintenance.

However, when I do experience problems with cars (e.g., they simply don’t work), as I
now know that I know nothing about motor vehicle maintenance and have no interest
in this area, I now (and it took a while) behave intelligently (i.e. metacognitively)
and ring a motor car mechanic—who somehow knows how to fix it!
If our aim is to develop students’ capability to become self-directed learners,
we must teach them what it is, how to do it, and what makes it useful for meeting
their goals. This entails providing them with the essential knowledge, strategies
and application opportunities through good practice over time. As Treadwell (2017)
makes clear:
Unless learners can reflect on their learning, actions, attitudes, values, motivations and think-
ing, they cannot develop into independent lifelong learners who can have agency over their
learning journey. Metacognitive and cognitive thinking provides the stimulus for under-
standing self and others, and drives the capacity to moderate and improve our thinking and
subsequently our learning. (p. 97)
On the motivational stakes, we can only provide the rationale, learning strategies
and the opportunities to develop MC. It’s ultimately their call.
3.7 A Curriculum Model for Developing Metacognitive … 105
3.7 A Curriculum Model for Developing Metacognitive

Capability: The ‘Thinking Curriculum’
It has been a tough call getting to grips with the many heads of the metacognition
monster. Yes, it certainly is a monster, but as Arnold Schwarzenegger said in Predator,
when he noticed the yellow ‘blood’ of the alien on nearby vegetation, “If it bleeds,
we can kill it”. Predator was a film in which a group of expert combat veterans were
recruited to check out some mysterious killings in a jungle and discovered a strange
presence that turned out to be an alien creature who seemed to enjoy hunting in the
intergalactic context (the latter is my interpretation). Hence, once we have a clearer
evidence-based frame on the nature and components of these heads, and how they
work (and often don’t work), we are in a better position to develop and facilitate
strategies to help students manage their own ‘Many-Headed Monster’. Given the
above analogy, we can subject these ‘many heads’ to rigorous pedagogic analysis,
finding ways of managing them better, and develop MC.
Veenman et al. (2006), in reviewing the literature, identified three fundamental
principles that are necessary for successful metacognitive instruction:
(a) embedding metacognitive instruction in the content matter to ensure connectiv-
ity,
(b) informing learners about the usefulness of metacognitive activities to make them
exert the initial extra effort, and
(c) prolonged training to guarantee the smooth and maintained application of
metacognitive activity.
He suggests following the WWW & H rule (What, When, Why, and How to do)
in implementing these principles (p. 9). This rule is essentially a cognitive strategy
that creates a structured thinking heuristic in the planning and development process.
To be successful, one would need to know what constitutes the What (always a big
question), and Why, possess the necessary knowledge (i.e., conceptual understand-
ing) of knowing When and Where to apply it, and the other big question—How to
do this effectively and efficiently.
I have created a curriculum design model, incorporating the heuristics of Good
Thinking outlined earlier—(what I euphemistically called the ‘Thinking Curricu-
lum’), (Sale 2013) that guides the whole curriculum development cycle and related
processes. Figure 3.6 summarizes the key process.
In basic terms, this means that the types of thinking incorporated in the Learning
Outcomes must be effectively taught through the Instructional Methods/Strategies
used and accurately measured in the Assessment System.
In developing a curriculum that incorporates MC, it is first necessary to estab-
lish a sound theoretical framework that establishes what Good Thinking entails—as
detailed in Chap. 2: Core Principle 4: Good thinking promotes the building of under-
standing. Without a sufficiently valid and practical model of good thinking, notions
of effectively teaching it, let alone assessing it, are tenuous at best. Not an easy task,
as we have seen, and it’s not surprising that many teaching professionals are confused
Fig. 3.6 Summary frame of

thinking curriculum model
in this area. The next big question concerns the extent to which thinking is amenable
to development through pedagogic means, and how best we can do this from an EBT
approach.
Thinking is, essentially, a human performance activity. How we have learned to
think will determine in large part how we think, much the same as for any kind of
learned activity.
Furthermore, as Perkins (1995) points out, “People can learn to think and act
intelligently.” (p. 18). Similarly, Coles and Robinson (1989) argue that:
The problem is not whether we can teach thinking. The evidence suggests we can. The
problem continues to be whether we are willing to make the pedagogic changes necessary
to do so and if we are, which changes might be the most effective. (p. 20)
Paul (1993) provides an interesting analogy between the development of mind and
physical fitness. He points out that the mind, like the body, “has its form of fitness or
excellence” which is “caused by and reflected in activities done in accordance with
standards (critically).” (p. 103). He goes on to argue that:
A fit mind can successfully engage in the designing, fashioning, formulating, originating,
or producing of intellectual products worthy of its challenging ends…Minds indifferent to
standards and disciplined judgment tend to judge inexactly, inaccurately, inappropriately,
prejudicially. (pp. 103–44)
Swartz and Perkins (1990) identify six areas of ‘improvement’ that become
apparent when students’ thinking gets better:
1. Awareness of one’s thinking
2. Investment of effort in one’s thinking
3. Attitude towards thinking processes
4. Organization of thinking processes
5. Development of subskills
6. Smoothness in the thinking process. (p. 24)
Framing Learning Outcomes for a Thinking Curriculum
The appropriate framing of learning outcomes is central to any curriculum product.

Learning outcomes can be seen analogously as the foundation construction work for
building a house. When conducted by skilful and conscientious professionals using

appropriate quality materials, applying correct building procedures and aligned to
safety regulations, this should provide a solid base for the more aesthetic components
to follow.
The learning outcomes for a thinking curriculum should significantly emphasize
real-world applications of the subject matter. For this reason, I suggest writing learn-
ing outcomes, wherever possible, in terms of direct performance or competence. The
curriculum focus then cues and pushes students into doing the cognitive heuristics
for the types of thinking involved.
Swartz’s (1987) infusion framework and Fogarty’s (2009) nested and threaded
approaches went a long way towards proving an effective and efficient EBT method-
ology for integrating thinking skills into the content curriculum. Swartz (1987) argues
that both critical and creative thinking are best developed through “conceptual infu-
sion” with the subject content. This involves identifying the ingredients of good
thinking—“the skills, competencies, attitudes, dispositions, and activities of the good
thinker”—and designing these into the structure of the lesson content (p. 125). In
nested integration, there is a focusing on connecting specific content knowledge
with a thinking skill and/or process skill (e.g., communication, teamwork); whereas
threaded integration focuses on infusing a key skill area such as critical thinking, and
developing it over the duration of the programme (e.g., Fogarty 2009). The essential
pedagogic benefit is that good application of the thinking process and skills with the
subject content mutually develop the meaningful acquisition and connectedness of
knowledge to form understanding. Furthermore, specific types of thinking can be
systematically developed in terms of the level of proficiency and range of context
application. For example, if decision making is to be developed throughout the cur-
riculum, then it will be important to have structured development of such subskills as
‘generating and exploring options’, ‘gathering evidence’, ‘assessing evidence from
different perspectives’. As Marzano (1988) pointed out:
…we can improve students’ ability to perform the various processes by increasing their
awareness of the component skills and by increasing their skill proficiency through conscious
practice. (p. 65)
The learning outcomes can be specially written to cue specific type(s) of thinking
or in terms of direct performance, as illustrated below:
Type of Thinking
• Analyse the impact of pollution on water quality
• Compare and contrast a range of retaining structures
• Generate new design options for marketing a health food product
• Predict the outcomes of specified legal scenarios
• Evaluate a policy for animal protection.
Real Work Performance
• Conduct product packaging tests for a specified product
• Prepare a voyage passage plan
• Write a programme in Java script to animate a range of figures

• Prepare a tender report
• Produce a thinking curriculum for a humanities module.
Note: Objectives can be written at different levels of specificity and contextualized
accordingly—but the general concept of focusing on the desired performance applies.
Also, of importance, when outcomes are written in terms of a performance that does
not cue the type of thinking, though clearly embedded from a pedagogic point of
view, such as in “predict the outcomes of specified legal scenarios”, they can be
derived from asking and visualizing the answer to the following question;
How would a highly competent person think in the effective execution of this
activity?
In predicting the outcomes of legal scenarios, the following types of thinking would
need to be effectively employed:
• analyse the various components of a legal scenario
• make valid inferences and interpretations from legal data
• compare and contrast a range of legal scenarios.
Figure 3.7 illustrates the essential components and process.
Today we are seeing a movement from content-based curriculum to more
outcomes-based curriculum approaches, especially competency-based frameworks.
These descriptions of performance would mirror real-life competencies in the indus-
trial/commercial world, at the appropriate level for designated curriculum levels.
In vocational education, learning objectives should be those that are most relevant
Fig. 3.7 Summary heuristics for identifying and structuring metacognitive and cognitive strategies
into a curriculum plan
to the world of work, both now and in the conceivable future. The essential thing
about performance-based learning outcomes is that the subject content can be orga-
nized in ways that are most likely to be experienced as meaningful for learners. In
this context, the types of thinking, as well as other process skills (e.g., communica-
tion and teamwork), can be naturally embedded in the learning tasks that students
are required to master. For example, The National Vocational Qualifications (NVQ)
framework, which a few decades ago revolutionized vocational education in the
UK, are essentially competency-based standards derived from functional analysis of
industrial roles. Their attainment is not governed by curriculum duration or modes
of delivery, but solely on the learners’ ability to meet the full range of competencies
in a vocational area.
However, while competency models are more tailored to the present need for
effective and efficient learning, there has been a criticism of these approaches. A
major concern has been the extent to which learners possess sufficient depth of both
content and process knowledge (i.e., accurate neural structures/mental models) of
what is necessary for conceptual understanding and adaptive learning—transfer of the
competences in a range of real work situations, even when achieving competence in
the assessment framework. Much of the problem lies in the reduction of occupational
roles into units and elements of competence, based on a methodology of functional
analysis. This typically provides an atomized view of real work activity and falls into
the trap of the decomposability assumption, which as Resnick and Resnick (1989)
note:
…has been seriously challenged by recent cognitive research, which recognizes that com-
plicated skills and competencies owe their complexity not just to the number and compo-
nents they engage but also to interactions among the components and heuristics for calling
upon them. Complex competencies, therefore, cannot be defined just by listing all their
components. (p. 5)
The learning outcomes for a thinking curriculum, then, must avoid the decompos-
ability trap by ensuring that performances represent holistic and complete activities,
not just bits of facts and skills. The essence of this important point is captured by
Fennimore and Tinzmann (1990) when they argue that a thinking curriculum must:
…always treat tasks as indivisible wholes; variations that acknowledge the novice status of
the learner are changes the teacher can make in the environment. (p. 4)
However, the movement towards competency-based models is inevitable and nec-

essary in higher vocational education. The challenge is to resist a reductionist posi-
tion to the more easily measurable features of a performance. Highly competent
performance in any vocational area is more than subject-specific collections of skill
operations but includes other equally important cognitive, social and emotional skill
aspects. Therefore, the performances identified as learning outcomes must embrace
the integration of the whole range of skills that underpin effective performance in
those areas.
In conducting a curriculum review, to construct a Thinking Curriculum to sup-
port the development of MC, firstly identify what are important learning outcomes
that require metacognitive and cognitive activity (e.g., critical and creative thinking
skills), and when and where they are to be taught in the curriculum. Use the frame-
work and method outlined here as an evaluative guide—and some Good Thinking!
You may need to rewrite certain learning outcomes to make specific types of think-
ing explicit where relevant in the curriculum structuring. Using the building analogy
prior, this sets a solid foundation for the rest of the curriculum design and development
process.
3.8 Developing Metacognitive Capability: Evidence-Based

Strategies
The term SignaturePedagogies (Schulman 2005) has become popular recently, which
emphasizes that different professional fields have their distinct pedagogy in terms
of the appropriateness of methods used for enhancing learning. In most basic terms,
there is a need to contextualize pedagogy to the subject content—what Shulman refers
to as Pedagogic Content Knowledge. This emphasizes on domain contextualized
pedagogy rather than generic pedagogy.
However, while it is necessary to select methods and facilitate learning in the con-
text of subject domains, I see this as no more than a feature of EBT (e.g., combining
high effective methods to the subject content and student profile). For example,
in teaching literature there may not be many learning areas where problem-based
learning would be an effective or efficient method. In contrast, in engineering, which
is very much concerned with solving real-world problems, it could be seen as a
‘signature method’ in curriculum planning. However, having worked extensively in
engineering education, I could equally make the case for case-based learning (no
pun intended) or simulated practice—as well as many other method combinations.
Hattie’s (2009) extensive meta-analysis found little support for the use of teaching
specifically focusing on subject content knowledge, as the overall effect size was
relatively small (0.11). Hence, while the term signature pedagogies is useful in terms
of identifying core methods for a field of study, and planning instruction accordingly,
it is better seen in a wider EBT context re method blending.
There cannot be a single ‘silver-bullet’ (simple direct solution to a problem;
derived from the folklore of killing werewolves with a silver bullet) teaching method
that will work with all students in all contexts. Apart from effectiveness, students
(and the rest of us) will get bored with over repetition of one method. I remember
3 decades ago, when teachers were being introduced to Project-Based Learning in
a college in the UK, there great enthusiasm for its use. And, it did seem to work
well initially, as students showed greater engagement and made positive responses
to having more choice and variety in their learning; rather than the traditional lecture
format every lesson. However, after 2–3 weeks and several projects on the go, student
interest waned. I remember hearing a student saying something akin to, ‘can we just
have some teaching rather than another project’. The point is that any method, no
3.8 Developing Metacognitive Capability: Evidence-Based Strategies 111
matter its logical effectiveness, will lose impact when overused. Remember my Chilli
Crab story from Chap. 2: Core Principle 5: Instructional methods and presentation
mediums engage the range of human of senses.
However, students through appropriate instruction can learn to:
1. Understand essential knowledge on how the mind works in terms of human
learning, our unique species-specific capability for being metacognitive and
its potential for learning, well-being and life enhancement through better
self-regulation
2. Thoughtfully use metacognitive, cognitive and motivational learning strategies
and skills
3. Maintain volition and willpower to achieve personal goals.
3.9 The Need for Explicit Teaching of Metacognition
While there is still a current vogue for constructivism underpinning much of class-
room practice, research shows that the most significant gains in student achievement
result when students are taught the use of metacognitive strategies in explicit ways
(e.g., Haidar and Al Naqabi 2008; Kistner et al. 2010). Kistner et al. noted that
while explicit strategy instruction of metacognitive skills is positively correlated with
achievement gains, as compared to implicit instruction, teachers use implicit meth-
ods more often than explicit ones. In an analysis of 60 lessons, involving 20 teachers,
they found that on average, teachers taught strategies through implicit instruction in
comparison to explicit instruction at a ratio of 5 to 1. Implicit instruction is where an
explanation is made of how the strategy is effective and students need to work out
how to do it; in contrast, explicit instruction involves the simultaneous verbalizing
of the teachers’ thought processes and/or asking specific questions to the students
during the demonstration and modelling of the strategy.
From my experience the characteristics of explicit strategy instruction can be
framed to include the following integrated instructional activities:
• Direct instruction on the strategies—what they are, when and how to use them
effectively. This requires a clear explanation and demonstration on how metacog-
nition and cognition work, and the benefits of using the strategies for learning.
This can be illustrated with a range of examples and stories (both yours, others
and the students)
• Modelling the strategies—Making ‘Thinking Visible’ (e.g., eliciting the students’
thinking, modelling expert thinking, thinking aloud and verbalizing, and mind-
fulness). From this Good Thinking can be made explicit, modelled, practised and
learned
• Retrieval, Deliberate and Spaced Practice opportunities for using the strategies in
real-life/work contexts (e.g., using questions and activities to cue the different types
of thinking, develop and extend their application and cement deep understanding
in long term memory; real life performance tasks that incorporate the range of MC
strategies in the context of the subject content).
Direct Instruction
Direct instruction (DI) often conjures up images of teachers talking and students lis-
tening, and one in which there is little opportunity for student engagement, questions,
and an inevitable loss of attention after some 10–15 min. In this situation, it may
seem that students are not active and therefore are unlikely to be doing the necessary
cognitive work—thinking—to make connections with prior knowledge and develop
a deep understanding of the concepts to be learned. The notion that students need to
be actively involved in the learning process to be more engaged and to learn better is
well documented in the literature. Active learning has been identified as one of the
seven principles of good practice in undergraduate education (e.g., Chickering and
Gamson 1987). For learning to be active, students must do more than listen, they
must read, write, discuss, or be engaged in solving problems. Most importantly, to
be actively involved, students must engage in such higher-order thinking tasks as
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Students must be doing things, and then think-
ing about why they are doing them. These kinds of activities can include case study,
cooperative learning, debates, drama, role-playing and simulation, and peer teaching.
However, getting students to do activities while engaging—at least at the
behavioural level—does not mean that they are effectively learning what is intended.
Active learning methods must be aligned to desired learning outcomes and get stu-
dents thinking about the key concepts to be learned. It’s the thinking that does the
work in building understanding—forming neurologically-based mental models in
long-term memory. Equally, it cannot be assumed that students listening to a well-
constituted lecture, with clear concise explanation of key concepts, illustrated with
interesting real-life examples (and non-examples), striking stories and good visuals,
does not get students engaged at both cognitive and emotional levels—which are
more important for learning than simply behavioural engagement.
Indeed, while a long, disorganized lecture with a monotonous voice tone can be
labelled a sin of teaching, so in the same vein of thinking, this can be applied to
activity for activities sake.
Notions of the teacher no longer being the ‘sage on the stage’ but the ‘guide on the
side’ so aptly reflects this dichotomy. Similarly, Brown et al. (2014) refer to ‘student-
directed learning’ (a theory now current among some parents and educators), which
holds that students know best what they need to study to master a subject, and what
pace and methods work best for them, as “laudatory” (p. 123). It’s nonsense at best,
dangerous nonsense at worse. Just more excursions back into ‘Educational Jurassic
Park’. Expert teaching is neither of these—it is much, much more. Learning to be
self-directed requires student engagement and effort, but the evidence suggests—and
the very premises of teaching are based on—that they need much by way of expert
help in getting there.
DI as a method, assumes that all students can learn new material when (a) they
have mastered prerequisite knowledge and skills and (b) the instruction is unambigu-
ous (e.g., Stockard et al. 2018, p. 480). The importance of student’s possessing the
3.9 The Need for Explicit Teaching of Metacognition 113
necessary prior knowledge is a core principle of learning, essential for connecting and
assimilating new knowledge to prior knowledge in long-term memory. Clear (unam-
biguous) explanation supports the thinking process to build further understanding
and, ‘mastery learning’ ensures the necessary skill acquisitions. In this scenario,
they will have developed the necessary neural networks and clear mental schemata
(model) of what is to be learned. Furthermore, DI emphasizes the importance of test-
ing, which uses retrieval practice, to ensure that the learning is well established in
long-term memory. The same conditions apply to skill development. Recent research
by Stockard et al. (2018), supported earlier reviews of the DI effectiveness literature.
The estimated effects were consistently positive. The authors note that:
…despite the very large body of research supporting its effectiveness, DI has not been
widely embraced or implemented. In part, this avoidance of DI may be fuelled by the current
popularity of constructivism. (p. 502)
Certainly, our nation’s children deserve both effective and efficient instruction. As one of
the anonymous reviewers of our article put it, “Researchers and practitioners cannot afford
to ignore the effectiveness research on DI”. (p. 503)
Hattie’s (2009) framing of Whole-Class Interactive Teaching, which has an effect

size of 0.81, is of interest in this context, as the key aspects of direct instruction
(e.g., mastery learning and testing) have positive effect sizes. Whole class interactive
teaching is a specific approach to active learning in class, which is highly teacher-led,
but very active for students. This involves summaries, reviews and a range of active
learning methods, including questioning. In this strategy, there is a blend of high
effect size methods, which Hattie refers to, in analogy, like ‘Russian dolls’. In the
strategy, there is direct instruction, which acts as both providing key subject content
(e.g., key concepts fundamental to understanding; examples, analogies and stories
for illustration) as well as facilitating the context for interleaving with appropriate
active learning methods to encourage types of thinking and practice modes for skill
development. It is the evidence-based and creative blending of the various methods,
tailored to the learning outcomes, student profile, and situated context (e.g., mood
of the group, time of day) that underpins Evidence-Based Creative Teaching.
Figure 3.8 identifies the basis of an instructional strategy I often use in my work-
shops. I may add other specific methods (e.g., Signature Pedagogies), typically in
the form of performance tasks that provide an authentic and experiential learning
experience for the student group. For example, in business studies or life science les-
son, I may use a case study or a problem-based learning task. I always use retrieval
practice to facilitate ongoing two-way feedback.
I typically employ the following broad strategies:
• Evoke or reinforce a specific thinking process/type of thinking (e.g., compare and
contrast, make inferences and interpretations)
• Feel, from observation and dialogue with students, that the group need some
motivating or change in lesson structure and method
• In teachable moments—where an event/the discourse in a lesson is ripe for making
a big learning point/key concept, either for introduction or reinforcement.
Underpinned by the planned and situated application of Core Principles of Learning
Fig. 3.8 Example of a whole-class interactive ‘Russian Doll’ method blend
In this process, I can check their understanding, deal with knowledge gaps and
misconceptions, and provide the retrieval practice for them to cement this learning in
long-term memory. The important point here is that the explicit teaching of MC is not
a passive lecturing scenario, but a highly effective and active teacher-led instructional
approach.
Modelling MC Strategies
Schraw (1998) specifically emphasizes:
Modelling of regulatory skills such as planning, monitoring, and self-evaluating, is espe-
cially important. Every Teacher should make a concerted effort to model explicitly these
behaviours. (p. 122)
Modelling MC strategies extend the knowledge from the explicit instruction to the
how of using the strategies, showing what is to be done at the specific strategy level.
For example, if mind mapping as a cognitive strategy is explained and illustrated,
modelling goes through the essential stages, procedures of how to do it, from the
central framing of the learning area to the selection of the superordinate branches,
and then to extensions. Other features that enhance the mind map, such as colour
and images are them modelled and demonstrated.
Using a Whole-Part-Whole Strategy (see Fig. 3.9) is useful here, as it provides a
key structure to the process, utilizes retrieval practice and reduces cognitive load.
The WPW strategy is analogous to completing a jig-saw puzzle, in that we can
continually refer back to the whole picture while grouping various components based
on similarity (e.g., in a jig-saw puzzle, there are always specific features, such as sky,
objects, people, animals). As we use the strategy, we are doing ongoing retrieval
practice, and as more of the segments are put correctly into place, the task becomes
easier and the cognitive load less. One could say that life is one big jigsaw puzzle,
albeit a more difficult one than a country scene, and there always seem to be pieces
missing but we don’t know what they are.
As students work through this learning strategy, metacognitive, cognitive and
motivational strategies can be systematically infused and facilitated as students tackle
Fig. 3.9 The whole-part-whole strategy
different learning challenges. Educational research (e.g., Schraw 1998) and practice
support the generic teaching of metacognitive and cognitive skills, though customiz-
ing cognitive skills to the subject domain context. This makes perfect sense as we
want our students to be mindful not just in the biology lesson, but across all subjects;
in-fact much more than that, in their lives holistically. There are serious limitations
in displaying good thinking in one life situation, but not in others.
Making Thinking Visible
In the process of helping students to build an understanding of what constitutes good
thinking and how to develop MC, making thinking visible (both student thinking and
teacher thinking) is essential. Questioning is a key strategy in developing all types
of thinking. As the famous success coach Anthony Robbins (2001) wrote:
Questions are the primary way we learn virtually everything. Thinking itself is nothing but
the process of asking and answering questions. (pp. 179–180)
The use of questions creates a stimulus to get students searching (both consciously
and sub/unconsciously) through their LTM system to find appropriate responses to
the stimulus question. The process of questioning, when done skillfully, makes the
invisible internal neural representations occurring when thinking visible to some
extent. As Ritchhart et al. (2011) point out:
We need to make thinking visible because it provides us with the information we as teachers
need to plan opportunities that will take students’ learning to the next level and enable
continued engagement with the ideas being explored. (p. 27)
In this process, it’s necessary to ensure that good thinking is clearly and explic-
itly explained, modelled and then practised through application in a range of rel-
evant activities that incorporate key subject content learning outcomes. Students
must develop their accurate representation of the heuristics of good thinking, which
involves the forming of rich integrated neural networks in the brains to have use-
ful models for doing good thinking in real-life contexts. As Sheppard et al. (2009)
recognized in advocating that:
…teachers have to make their intellectual processes (their performances) visible. This means
that the teacher-expert has to make visible to learners the otherwise invisible processes of
thinking that underlie complex cognitive operations …
Teachers have to articulate and demonstrate rather than assume the thought processes they
want students to learn. (p. 188)
Hattie (2009) provides the final summary in this context:

Visible Teaching and learning occurs when learning is the explicit goal, when it
is appropriately challenging, when the teacher and the student both (in their various
ways) seek to ascertain whether and to what degree the challenging goal is attained,
when there is deliberate practice aimed at attaining mastery of the goal, when there
is feedback given and sought, and when there are active, passionate, and engaging
people (teacher, student, peers, and so on) participating in the act of learning (p. 23).
…the model of visible teaching and learning combines, rather than contrasts, teacher-centred
teaching and student-centred learning and knowing. Too often these methods are expressed
as direct teaching versus constructivist teaching (and then direct teaching is portrayed as
bad, while constructivist teaching is considered to be good. (p. 26)
As outlined earlier metacognition is often framed in terms of two main compo-

nents (e.g., Brown 1987; Flavell 1979): (1) the knowledge component, which refers
to knowing one’s cognitive processes, such as knowledge about oneself as a learner,
characteristics of the tasks to be undertaken to meet learning goals, and the appro-
priate effective strategies that are required to result in effective performance; (2)
the regulation component, which refers to the actual strategies one uses to manage
the cognitive processes, such as planning a strategy to meet the demands of a task,
monitoring one’s understanding of how well one is tackling the task, and evaluating
progress and performance. In practice, metacognitive knowledge, as for knowledge
about anything, will guide action. Through action, this knowledge can be evalu-
ated in terms of usefulness and improved, hence a better understanding can emerge
over time. In the language of cognitive neuroscience, an enhanced neural network
is formed in long-term memory and this facilitates a better mental model for future
learning. In lay terms a better level competence/expertise is coming about. In this
way, the knowledge and regulation components supplement each other and are both
essential for optimal performance. Ku and Ho (2010) point out:
While participants should be encouraged to reflect on their cognitive activities, through
checking and questioning to build up the habit of metacognitive regulation, it is important to
explicitly teach the related metacognitive knowledge when necessary. Without the support
of metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive regulation will not be effective in enhancing
thinking performance. (p. 264)
Many studies (e.g., Pintrich and De Groot 1990; Schraw and Dennison 2004) have
found that having metacognitive knowledge, such as knowing what factors affect
one’s thinking (person variables), how to make sense of a problem or how different
problems demand different cognitions (task variables) and knowing when and why to
use a skill (strategy variables) facilitate metacognitive regulation. However, having
only an awareness for the need to apply metacognitive strategies is not enough for
good performance; one must also know when, how and which strategy to use in
different learning contexts. The same reasoning applies across most learning fields
and domains.
To facilitate this effectively, the key terminology relating to the various heuristics
of the types of thinking needs to become part of the language of learning (to con-
solidate a language of thinking). For example, I often hear teachers, who I assume
are seeking to encourage student thinking, use terms like “What are your comments
on this” or “Let’s discuss this”—even “I want good thinking on this”. This latter
example assumes that students have a mental model (schemata) of what constitutes
thinking. However, in practice, this may vary widely (e.g., Fig. 3.10). If they have
no prior useful mental model, then they are either blank or in the process of just
commenting, which typically results in statements like, “It’s ok”, or “I don’t like it
much” that has little underpinning thoughtful analytical or evaluative base to it.
In contrast, when students understand the different types of thinking and the
cognitive heuristics involved, they can respond thoughtfully (no pun intended) to
their teacher’s systematic use of language to specifically cue these types of thinking.
This provides essential modelling and practice to develop competence over time.
This is illustrated in Table 3.6.
The use of appropriate curing questions, in which the types of thinking are nat-
urally infused into the content of the topic, helps students to become familiar with
the ‘language of thinking’. For example, when asked to evaluate options, whatever
the subject context, they will have already internalized that this requires the deriving
of relevant criteria to be used in evaluation, the likely prioritizing of these criteria in
terms of relative importance in making the decision, and finally to apply the criteria,
based on the available information, to the option or range of options.
In teaching this strategy, I am often posed the scenario that this takes time and
eats into the teaching of content. However, a medical friend of mine has frequently
Fig. 3.10 Mental models of thinking

Table 3.6 Examples of language to cue types of thinking

Often used teacher language Cueing types of thinking
Comment on these two proposed solutions Let’s compare and contrast these two
solutions…to identify what is similar and
different for each…then we can apply our
understanding of what may be most useful in
some specific situations
What’s your view on this? What do these data sources suggest about the
likely causes of this particular accident…what
other information would your need to help make
an even more accurate assessment?
Note Use of language needs to be contextualized to the learner group
said to folk something akin to, ‘eating better and taking exercise is, in the longer
term, less work and cheaper, than treating type 2 diabetes or a stroke’. Poignant, I
know, but the analogy is there. Teaching the heuristics of good thinking, does not,
in practice take that long, and it can be done incrementally, using spaced, retrieval
and deliberate practice. Once students are familiar with the terms, it’s then just a
bit of good EBT pedagogic design to infuse this effectively into a lesson structure.
For example, for a couple of years, I was given (though I did not ask for it) the role
of AIDS educator/counsellor, back in the days when the condition, its causes and
treatment were ambiguous. In this role, I had to do the necessary research to be as
current as possible. In my teaching role in this area, I would typically infuse some
specific thinking questions, tailored to the learning outcomes, as illustrated below:
• What are the similarities and differences between Hepatitis A and HIV?
• In what ways are these differences significant?
• What is the relationship between HIV infection and poverty?
• What inferences and interpretations can be drawn from the data on HIV infection
in Asia?
• How might we evaluate the effectiveness of the present HIV prevention pro-
gramme?
• What other ways might we make people more aware of HIV infection?
Self Talk and Verbalization
I recall revising for my final exams at university, having been told by one of the
psychology professors that talking to yourself while going through notes helps the
learning process. Initially, I thought this was somewhat strange. However, having
used self-talk and verbalization for a few decades, as well as teaching my students
to use it, I am assured to know that if there is a valid cognitive-neuroscience base to
what I was doing. For example, Treadwell (2017) points out:
Throughout our lives, we are conscious, non-consciously and subconsciously creating, refin-
ing and modifying our identity through our self-talk. The influence of self-talk is foundational
in establishing who we are, how we learn, and what we expect of our-self. (p. 40)
It is an easy to use metacognitive strategy as it runs a quality check on what you

know and dont know, pulling information out of long-term memory into working
memory and then doing retrieval practice with it. My many hours of walking around
the kitchen talking to myself about different personality theories, their underlying
premises, the similarities and differences, and making inferences and interpretations
as to their applicability in different psychological cases, was time well spent—even
if anyone looking in—listening in—thought I was just another ‘strange’, psychology
student. Doing verbalization with a friend (a group of friends, can be even better)
has similar and potentially greater benefits. Apart from the sharing of perspectives,
and wider knowledge bases that become available in a collaborative learning context,
it can relieve the boredom of study—even add some fun, and we know this helps.
In doing my Post-Graduate Certificate in Education, I introduced such practices to
my soccer team-mates. We employed these methods, with others (what I would now
refer to as EBT methods—but had no idea of such terms then). The format was:
• Obtain and analyse collectively the past papers for the exam and look for the most
salient question areas. Note this was done at a local eatery so more palatable (again
no pun intended) than alone at home
• Delegate, through consensus (more or less), who was going to research each area
and produce useful revision notes (to be done in pairs or triads)
• Agree on a timeline for doing this and the next meeting date
• In the meetings, pairs/triads would share their notes and explain any key points
that they think will help others learn (e.g., key points of definition, similarity and
differences between various perspectives on the topic areas)—there are always
these in education
• Have a ‘good old chat’—sorry, critical dialogue on the topics involved. This would
be done over several days.
In doing such activities, you are doing what is referred to as Elaboration, which has
benefits in terms of consolidating, extending and facilitating the transfer of learning.
As Brown et al. (2014) explain:
Elaboration is the process of giving new material meaning by expressing it in your own
words and connecting it with what you already know. The more you can explain about the
way your new learning relates to your prior knowledge, the stronger your grasp of the new
learning will be, and the more connections you create that will help you remember it later.
(p. 5)
It certainly made the revision process less tedious, the actual learning of content
seemed quite easy, and we all did well in the exams. Of interest, many components of
this broad process have been refined and formalized in ‘Flipped Classroom Learning’
and the now-famous method of ‘Peer Instruction’ developed by Mazur (1996). The
typical format is as follows:
1. Students are posed a challenging (key concept question) based on prior learning
2. Ask students to provide their answers (e.g., capture through an e-tool, response
cards, even show of hands ) and display the results:
• If most answer correctly, the discussion can be brief (1–2 min)

• If most answer incorrectly, it may be necessary to backtrack and reteach the
key ideas being addressed in the question or problem
• If students are split, ask students to find a peer with a different answer and
discuss the basis/reason for their answers. Make explicit that they can change
their mind about the answer and there will be a re-vote on the correct answer
• Provide students with an opportunity to re-answer the question and show results
• Follow the revote with a whole class discussion, explaining what makes the
correct answer correct and what makes the others incorrect.
Testing, Testing and More Testing
It is now recognized that Retrieval Practice, which involves the retrieval of infor-
mation from Long-Term Memory to Working-Memory and then back to Long-Term
Memory, is a key cognitive and metacognitive strategy (e.g., Lang 2016). The pro-
cess of reciprocal retrieval, apart from gap analysis, and clearing up misconcep-
tions, strengthens the connections between neurons; hence building stronger neural
networks for this area of learning. In doing so this creates increasingly accurate
and useful mental models for the application of learning. As Brown et al. (2014)
summarizing from the research concluded:
In virtually all areas of learning, you build better mastery when you use testing as a tool to
identify and bring up your areas of weakness. (p. 5)
Retrieval practice can be done anytime, in most places, and as one becomes more
familiar and fluent with content (e.g., understanding is becoming richer) the process
can be super-fast. As Willingham (2009) demonstrated, the more factual knowledge
you have in long-term memory, the easier it is to acquire more factual knowledge.
To quote:
It means that the amount of information you retain depends on what you already have. So,
if you have more than I do, you regain more than I do, which means you gain more than me.
(p. 34)
The importance and workings of Deliberate and Spaced practice were outlined
and illustrated in Chap. 2: Core Principle 7: The development of expertise requires
deliberate practice.
Also, according to Lang (2016), interleaving helps to learn in the overall practice
process. Interleaving refers to the practice of spending some time learning one thing
and then pausing to concentrate on learning a second thing before having quite
mastered that first thing, and then returning to the first thing, and then moving on to
a third thing, and then returning to the second thing, and so forth. This utilizes the
brains sub/unconscious processing in terms of the dynamic of memory systems. It
also reduces ‘habituation’—attention disengagement/loss of interest in an activity—
factors that typically creeps in when staying with a single task for too long. Moving
to a new task introduces some novelty and may energise conscious thinking. At the
same time our brains are still indwelling (e.g., Moustakas 1990) sub/unconsciously
on the previous task, but with a different neural focus in a more relaxed manner, as
documented by Claxton (1998).
In writing, I use interleaving quite extensively. I rarely finish a chapter before
moving on to the next one. In space/time between the first and making some inroad
into the second, I typically come up with new ideas and areas of content for enhancing
sections of the previous chapter—and so on.
Practice doesn’t always make perfect. However, the thoughtful use of the types
of practice outlined above certainly enhances learning capability and makes future
learning easier with a ‘bit of practice’—again, no pun intended. They can be infused
into any instructional strategy, as well as used situationally when needed. These
practice methods are certainly a well-constituted Russian Doll in themselves—in
terms of Hattie’s analogy.
Real World Performance Tasks
Performance-based learning tasks are perhaps the most authentic means for devel-
oping MC as key selected skills (e.g., metacognitive, cognitive, volitional) can be
embedded in the task to be accompanied. These skills would have already been
decided and infused into the content curriculum and should be familiar to both fac-
ulty and students. In this way what is to be learned, as well as what will be assessed
is made explicit and transparent. As Tombari and Borich (1999) explain:
A performance assessment is a test that tries to determine if a learner “really knows” about
something, or has a deep understanding. It does this by challenging learners with tasks
that ask them not simply to recall knowledge but to construct or organize it, not just to
solve problems but to demonstrate a disciplined approach requiring strategic thinking and
metacognition. (p. 148)
In specific terms, as Collins (2017) argues, this:

…embodies authentic tasks and assessments, a dual focus on the teaching of particular
competencies in the context of accomplishing meaningful tasks, peer teaching and mentoring,
and a learning cycle of planning, doing and reflecting. (p. 16)
The goal is to develop schooling that will have a major impact on student moti-
vation and learning, and will better prepare students for the complex world they
are entering (p. 9). The extent that performance tasks reflect real work activity, the
greater the opportunities to develop the selected twenty-first century competencies
and to what level in what vocational context. It is for this reason that more and
more vocational and higher education institutions are using internships as an essen-
tial part of the learning experience for their programmes. Internships can take many
forms, in terms of format and duration, but the goal is to provide learners with direct
authentic work experiences in a specific vocational sector where they can acquire
workplace experience, key functional competencies and greater knowledge of that
industry. Invariably, this relies heavily on the arrangements between the educational
institution and the employing industry firm. It is to be noted that an internship is not a
novel learning model. The notion of students having work experience has long been
part of the curriculum landscape. However, this can be largely a ‘hit-or-miss’ expe-
rience, for both students and employers. Often students don’t feel they learn much
of value, apart from doing photocopying, making tea and generally running errands.
Equally, some employers feel that these novices offer little value to the company
effort, especially when they don’t have a ‘good attitude’, and are more trouble than
what they are worth. In contrast, of course, many students have felt that this was
the most valuable and enjoyable part of the curriculum programme. Similarly, many
employers have been delighted with some interns and have offered them employ-
ment post-graduation. Having been involved in this work for many years, this is my
experience and, from numerous conversations with teaching faculty and students,
it’s pretty much the norm.
However, increasingly, the internship is being used in more pedagogically-
structured ways. This involves certain important planning and conduct features:
• Close liaison between the educational institution and employing industrial per-
sonnel. It is important to identify, clarify and agree on what types of learning
experiences the company can provide, and the relationship between these work
functions and curriculum learning outcomes
• Close liaison between the educational institution supervisor and the interns. Interns
must be aware of their role and responsibilities in this learning event. It is useful
to clarify with interns what they are likely to have to do in the company and work
role, and how this relates to other aspects of their course, as well as the specific
learning outcomes that can be met during the internship period
• Ongoing communication and collaboration between all stakeholders to monitor
and evaluate the learning experience and ensure the smooth running of the intern-
ship. This involves many aspects, including how interns are progressing in terms
of key learning outcomes, work performance and attitude, and agreed assessment
arrangements. It is also important to keep regular contact with workplace super-
visors to ensure that interns are meeting expectations and taking any necessary
corrective action if needed.
Apart from internships, a wide range of methods can be used to provide students
with meaningful real-work learning activities, these include:
• Projects
• Problem-Based Learning
• Case Studies
• Simulated Practice
• Role-Play
• Presentations and Critique
• Experiments.
Essentially, any activity that reflects real work/life skills can be used. What is
essential is that it relates to curriculum outcomes and employs some skill(s) and/or
attribute(s) of desired twenty first-century competencies. For example, in the infu-
sion model introduced earlier, metacognitive strategies should run throughout the
activities.
In my experience, projects and problem-based learning activities are popular and

viable methods for providing interesting, real-world/work-related tasks that can be
used as vehicles for the development of skills subsumed in most twenty-first century
competencies. If well-constructed, they provide:
• authentic learning tasks that mirror real world activities and make learning more
meaningful
• an integrated learning activity that naturally combines subject knowledge, types
of thinking and other process skills
• performance-based assessment opportunities that enable a more authentic assess-
ment of actual competence than traditional pencil and paper tests
• a means of developing SDL by offering students more autonomy and choice in
their learning
• a framework for a collaborative and experiential learning approach, whereby stu-
dents are required to solve problems through information resourcing and types of
thinking.
Note that the terms project-based learning and problem-based learning are often
used to refer to the same method, and are similar in most features, though it is possible
to have projects that are not focused on solving an ill-defined problem, which is the
hallmark for problem-based learning ‘purists’. There are other similar methods, such
as ‘scenario-based learning’ and ‘challenge-based learning’ within this broad genre
of Inquiry-Based Learning, which can be employed to add variety and focus on
specific attributes. All can be effectively employed to develop metacognitive and
cognitive strategies, communication and collaboration skills, and related attributes.
Once the twenty-first century competencies are infused in the curriculum plan, it’s
then a question of good task design and facilitation, whatever the delivery context
(e.g., school, workplace, online). Sounds easy, and it is—when you can do it. For
projects, and similar method variants, I have evolved the following guiding heuristics:
Step 1: Identify clearly the knowledge, skills and attributes to be incorporated
into the project task
For this step it is important to:
• Choose topic areas in your curriculum that encompasses key underpinning
knowledge (e.g., central concepts, principles, procedures) and skills essential for
understanding and performance in real-world applications.
• Identify the types of thinking (i.e., specific components of metacognition, critical
and creative thinking) that are important for promoting understanding and compe-
tence in these topic areas. For example, in promoting critical thinking, analysis,
comparison and contrast, inference and interpretation, and evaluation are typically
infused.
• Identify other skills and attributes that are part of the wider competency area
(e.g., team-working, self-regulation components) that are important for competent
performance in the identified areas.
Table 3.7 Project components

Subject knowledge Types of thinking Other process skills
– Circuit design and – Generating possibilities – Oral and written
integration principles relating to circuit design communication
– Circuit building – Analysis—part-whole – Teamwork
– Use of sensors relationships of sensors in an
integrated circuit
– Compare and
contrast—previous options
and new options generated
– Making inferences and
interpretations from data
relating to the behavior of
sensors in an integrated circuit
– Evaluation of interesting
options in relation to derived
criteria
An example of framing the main knowledge and skill components for an electrical
and electronic engineering project is presented in Table 3.7.
Step 2: Produce the learning task
It is important that the task:

• Involves the application of the knowledge, skills and attributes identified from
Step 1
• Is sufficiently challenging, but realistically achievable in terms of student’s prior
competence, access to resources, and time frames allocated
• Successful completion involves more than one correct answer or more than one
correct way of achieving the correct answer
• Clear notes of guidance are provided, which:
– Identify the products of the task and what formats of presentation are acceptable
(e.g. written report, learning materials, portfolio, oral presentation)
– Specify the parameters of the activity (e.g. time, length, areas to incorporate,
individual/collaborative, how much choice is permitted, the support provided)
– Cue the types of thinking and other desired skills and attributes
– Spell out all aspects of the assessment process and criteria.
Table 3.8 is an example illustrating some of the above design features. However,
like a Lego set, more features for specific purposes can be added as the learning needs
arise (e.g., additional skills and attributes, a higher level of expertise, team-based,
level of guidance provided).
It is possible and desirable to design learning activities that incorporate the use
of MC strategies and skills as an essential part of task completion. Also, motiva-
tional aspects can be enhanced through the provision of student choice (as much
as possible) without compromising the learning outcome standards. The more that
Table 3.8 Draft learning task incorporating types of thinking

Design A food package
Select a food product and design the packaging that you think will give it best marketability. You
must be able to identify the product attributes, protection and enhancement needed to satisfy the
functional and marketing requirements, and use suitable packaging material(s) and package
type. The work produced should reflect the quality of your thinking in the following areas:
• Identify the criteria for evaluating the marketability of a product
• Analyze the components of a product that constitute an effective design
• Generate new ways of viewing a product design beyond existing standard forms
• Predict potential clients response to the product given the information you have
• Monitor the development on the group’s progress and revise strategy where necessary
learning (and assessment tasks) are perceived as meaningful and useful from the
students’ perspective, greater is the potential for intrinsic motivation to be evoked. In
this situation, coupled with good teaching, there is the potential for creating synergy
in the utilization of both metacognition and motivation. As an Advance Organizer
for the next chapter, which addresses the meaty challenge of making learning more
motivating for students, especially intrinsic motivation, here’s a positive frame from
Wlodkowski (1999) who suggests:
…if something can be learned, it can be learned in a motivating manner…every instructional
plan also needs to be a motivational plan. (p. 24)
3.10 Summary
In this chapter, I have attempted to get to grips with Metacognition; to repeat, with
some linguistic rejigging, Brown’s (1987) reference to it as a ‘many-headed monster
of obscure parentage’. One purpose has been to provide the reader, without the pain
of going through the extensive and mazy literature on this ‘creature’, and with as
much clarity as possible on its nature, evolution and role in the world of education
and learning. The major purpose though is to propose Metacognition, framed here
as Metacognitive Capability as the most important twenty-first century competence.
Increasingly included in definitions of so-called twenty-first century competencies,
for the reasons explained and illustrated extensively in the chapter, it is still relatively
under-developed in schools. There is an urgent need to address such a significant
curriculum area. Hopefully, this chapter helps to better frame how to go about doing
this from an evidence-based perspective.
MC is both an essential teaching competence as well as a generic competence for
enhancing learning capability, well-being and better citizenship (however defined).
The potential results of this are, as Treadwell (2017) summarizes:
Once we learn how to learn, and we achieve that efficiently, we can learn independently and
anything becomes possible. (p. 49)
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Chapter 4
Motivation and Well-Being:
An Evidence-Based Frame
Abstract This chapter addresses the challenge of enhancing student’s intrinsic moti-
vation in school-based learning environments and, in essence, motivation generically.
Motivation underpins learning in that without motivation, people don’t bother to learn
(or think) too much. It connects extensively to the pedagogic framework developed in
Chap. 2, as well as the superordinate twenty-first century competence of Metacogni-
tive Capability explored and illustrated in Chap. 3. Metacognition and Motivation are
extensively and dynamically interlinked. Without motivation people are unlikely to
do much by way of metacognition. However, without metacognition and the related
thinking and self-regulatory skills, people may not fare well in the learning stakes as
tasks become more complicated—and that’s an existential problem we face today.
Intrinsic motivation is explored in detail, especially the Self-Determination Theory
(SDT) of Ryan and Deci, as it offers much potential for enhancing learning and
well-being in educational contexts.
4.1 Introduction
From a social science perspective, motivation is a concept used to explain why

humans behave as they do, what factors determine or shape this activity, both from
internal sources (e.g., neural processing in the brain, unconscious wants) and external
socialization factors (e.g., life experiences, beliefs). It is a complex and dynamic
process, as captured by the following definitions:
Motivation refers to the process whereby goal-directed activities are energized, directed,
and sustained. Contemporary cognitive theories of motivation postulate that individuals’
thoughts, beliefs, and emotions are central processes that underlie motivation.
(Schunk and Usher 2012, p. 13)
Motivation is the force or energy that results in engagement. In a classroom, the complex
interaction of teacher, student, and curriculum helps to create motivation that yields high
engagement.
(Gregory and Kaufeldt 2015, pp. 9–10)

132 4 Motivation and Well-Being: An Evidence-Based Frame
Certainly, motivation initiates, directs and maintains all human behaviour. It is

inseparable from learning in that without some motivational base, limited attention
and effort will be given to that area of human activity. However, attention, as we
experience it, is a complex and variable process, as it is not something that we can
simply switch on and off like a light bulb. While we can consciously choose to give
attention to a specific phenomenon in our world at any given time, in reality (unless it
is so striking in some way—good or bad) we typically drift away from what we were
paying attention to and start attending to something else. This may be prompted
by a change in the external environment, as captured in the saying, “that caught
my attention”. Mostly, we don’t need a change in the external world, as things will
happen internally which will change the focus and degree of attention in significant
ways.
What this means is that while we may make conscious plans about what we
want to achieve and formulate strategies to meet such goals, in everyday life we
typically flit from one mind-state to another and, over the course of even a day, may
go through a whole range of emotions from feeling confident to angry to tired to
anxious—all depending on what’s going on in both the external world, as well as
our inner mind dynamics. This is what is typically referred to as our psychological
state (e.g., Robbins 2001) which is how we think, feel and perceive at any given
moment. The ability to manage one’s psychological state is a key capability for
achieving peak performance—an integral part of MC. Our psychological state is
largely determined by our internal representations (e.g., our learned maps of the
world, beliefs, and how we have come to organize experiences) and physiology
(e.g., present biochemistry—especially neural activity in the brain).
These work together to filter the way we process things occurring in our here-
and-now environment and our response/approach to such situational events. For
example, when we use terms such as, “my head is in a real mess at the moment”,
we are referring to a feeling of a bad state of mind. In such states, rational thinking
often gives way to anxiety—even fear—and typically leads to poor performance in
whatever activity we are involved in doing. This is noticeable among sportspeople in
critical moments in game situations. Even the very best can get into a poor state, and
this is often reflected in almost novice-like mistakes. However, the best tend to do this
less frequently and/or have the mental resources to quickly get out of a bad state, than
those lacking such skills/attributes. Of course, you need the potential performance
capability in the first place to do well in an activity, but how well you perform in a
given situation (e.g., at your very best, poorly, or somewhere in between) is often
determined by your state of mind. Such ‘mental interference’ affecting our state of
mind has been famously documented by Gallwey (1987), firstly about playing tennis;
then in many other performance contexts. In our everyday lives, the same chaotic
processes are going on, continually impacting our motivation and performance.
In most everyday contexts (and classrooms are everyday contexts for students)
the notion of consistently maintaining high levels of attention may be unrealisti-
cally optimistic—the competition for it is too great, both from outside and within.
4.1 Introduction 133
Often, as teachers, what we get is varying amounts (and levels) of attention from stu-
dents. Unfortunately, without sustained focused attention on a topic being explained,
students may remember very little. Attention is, to all intent and purpose, both a quan-
titative and qualitative human capability and from a pedagogic point of view—a big
challenge. As Miller (2016) States:
Optimizing your learning experiences for attention is the first step towards optimizing it for
long-term memory and higher thought processes. (p. 8)
Motivation and attention are very much connected in the world of the classroom, as
in all areas of human activity. When students are motivated, they are much more likely
to give a higher level of attention and engagement than in situations where motivation
is poor. They are also more likely to put effort into the learning process, especially
when difficulties are encountered. In such scenarios, especially if supported by a good
teacher, students will typically experience better learning outcomes which, in turn,
provides the basis for further motivation, as well as enhancing self-efficacy. Over
time increased mastery is likely to be achieved, which further reinforces positive
beliefs, confidence and motivation in such activities or area of learning.
However, while motivation is recognized as fundamental to learning, there is
much debate about how it works and, more significantly, how we as teachers can
harness such human energy in the pursuit of educationally desired learning goals.
The literature is rich in terms of theories and models of human motivation (e.g.,
Maslow 1962; Herzberg 1966; Ryan and Deci 2017; Dweck 2006) but, as Kim
(2013) argues:
Existing theories on motivation bear three limitations. First is the vagueness of the con-
cept of motivation. It is practically impossible to draw a clear line between motivation and
other concepts such as drive, need, intention, desire, goal, value, and volition. Due to this
conceptual vagueness, it is difficult to come to a consensus on whether motivation refers
to a psychological state or process, let alone the definition. Various constructs in different
theories of motivation are overlapping and often create confusion. For instance, the vague
conceptual distinctions between intrinsic motivation and interest, self-efficacy and perceived
competence, value and reward, self-regulation and volition hinder effective communication
and constructive arguments on the identical phenomenon of motivation.
I would concur on the above and have some empathy with the frame of the
management guru Peter Drucker, who made the challenging assertion that:
We know nothing about motivation. All we can do is write books about it.
Indeed, this may seem to have a fair measure of face-validity at least in terms of
widespread practice in educational institutions, as Levin (2008) concluded:
…boredom and lack of engagement remain endemic in schools around the world, and
seemingly unmotivated students are a main complaint of teachers. (p. 99)
Certainly, whatever the underpinning bases of human motivation entail, especially

in the context of the school environment, there seems to be a real problem which has
not been sufficiently addressed to date. For example, Wagner (2010) made the point
that:
In countless focus groups, I’ve conducted with high school students, “boring classes”- which
include so-called advanced classes – are among the main complaints about the school. (p. 114)
It is not surprising, therefore, as Gregory and Kaufeldt (2015) noted:

Motivation, enthusiasm, perseverance, drive, grit, and tenacity are currently hot topics in
education. Understanding how to get students to pay attention and engage in rigorous tasks
is something every teacher desires. (p. 1)
4.2 The Components of Motivation
On many occasions, I have heard teachers being told by various sources that they
should ‘ignite the passion for learning in every child’—or something akin to this. The
assumption is that by activating passion (e.g., a strong emotional desire for some-
thing—in this case learning) it will provide the sustained attention and motivation to
do the necessary hard work that learning often entails. A nice ideal and it should be
a goal we seek to attain. However, it’s a bit like saying doctors should be able to cure
all diseases and sickness, and this may be a goal that many seek. I would particularly
like that, especially if they can reverse the ageing process also. However, it’s not the
world as I know it. The evidence would also support this, as people are still getting
sick and dying, and I am not getting any younger. Referring to motivating students—
is it possible to ignite a passion for learning in all students? Well, I’m going to play
my ‘get out of jail’ card (this is a card used in the game of Monopoly to enable your
moving counter icon to immediately get out of jail when it, unfortunately, through
the throw of the die, lands on a space that denotes ‘Go to jail’). I don’t know the
answer to the question, and I’m not sure there is one. It is like asking the question of
whether people are born good or neutral in terms of dispositions, or are some simply
badly wired to be difficult or even dangerous?
However, while we might like algorithmic answers to our big questions, whether
it’s how best to motivate our students or other areas of life that are meaningful to
us, in reality we may have to settle for a well-framed evidence-based set of useful
heuristics; otherwise we may simply go with personal preference or fad, albeit more
philosophical than empirical. In most basic terms, from my experience, I would not
dispute the English philosopher Jeremy Bentham’s framing of human motivation in
terms of:
Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure.
Invariably, what is a pleasure to one person may be a pain for another, but little in
my life has seriously questioned these underlying premises. Indeed, such a perspec-
tive, with the additional component of ‘novelty’ has been supported by the field of
cognitive neuroscience (e.g., Cloninger 1997). The avoidance of pain is inherent in
the notion of punishment, whether for the infraction of laws, regulations or mores.
Punishment is based on the fact that folk won’t do certain acts of deviance for fear of
4.2 The Components of Motivation 135
the painful consequences of such acts. For example, long prison sentences are framed
both in terms of being retributive and justice providing, as well as a deterrent to others
who might otherwise transgress. When I was at school, the cane was used for specific
misdemeanours such as fighting, bullying, being disrespectful—whatever the school
establishment framed as meriting such treatment. There was also some notion of
severity; the worse the infraction, the more strokes of the cane administered. Did it
work?—probably for most of us. However, I remember one of my classmates who
seemed intent on being caned by all teachers in the school, probably as a mark of
masculinity. The point is that most students, whether they would admit it or not, don’t
enjoy failing in their learning. Those who want to learn the schoolwork are likely to
experience pain in failure, and this can come in many forms (e.g., loss of self-esteem
and self-efficacy, punishment by parents).
Let’s move on to the pleasure aspect of motivation. People like doing things
that lead to pleasurable feelings—albeit variation in the things deemed pleasurable.
We can, therefore, assume that people are more likely to be interested in things
that provide pleasurable feelings for them; hence interest drives, in no small part,
motivation. We actively seek to do stuff we like. It’s as simple as that. As explored in
the previous chapter interest is fundamental to motivation and has biological roots.
Futhermore, interest is very much bound up with the experience of a reward.
For example, I have a passion for soccer—which means I am interested in playing
it, watching it—even talking about it. I also often experience a range of emotions
when playing and watching soccer, which can change from negative to positive emo-
tions—especially the latter when the game goes well (e.g., the team wins, especially
when the quality of the soccer is good); it’s psychologically rewarding. Rewards are,
according to Kim (2013), one of the most powerful variables influencing motiva-
tion, irrespective of reward type (physical or social reward; extrinsic or intrinsic).
The main function of a reward is to induce positive emotions, which then releases
the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain—this creates a great emotional feeling
of pleasure. Emotions, whether positive or negative, are highly impactful on the
learning process, as Wlodkowski and Ginsberg (2017) summarized:
Research in the neurosciences and the field of intrinsic motivation indicates that emotions
are critical to learning (Reeve and Lee 2012). Not only do emotions largely determine what
we pay attention to and help us to be aware of our mind-body states also affect what we
remember. We are much more likely to remember things that engage us emotionally. (p. 18)
Kim (2013), from a neuroscience perspective, argues that a more evidence-based

approach to motivation should focus on:
…pleasure, value, and goal as principal units of analysis on the psychological level because
their underlying neural mechanisms have been heavily investigated and relatively well-
identified.
Value and goal are concerned with the importance of the activity. For example, if
a highly valued goal is being sought, there is more likelihood of sustained motivation
being activated and maintained. Invariably, of course, other factors come into play,
but that’s what makes predicting human behaviour heuristic at best; never fully
algorithmic.
A more neuroscientific model of motivational processes suggests certain very

practical educational implications to enhance motivation to learn. As reward is an
essential driving force in the learning environment, there is a need to ascertain what
aspects of the learning arrangements can be made more rewarding and interesting
for the students we teach. Rewards can be both extrinsic and intrinsic, though there
is more long-term merit in intrinsic motivation. I have noticed that chocolate is quite
an effective extrinsic situational motivator—it’s a reward right! (most students like
chocolate and its less messy in class than ice cream). However, it’s an expensive
motivator from the teachers’ point of view, and it’s not creating much by way of a
passion for learning.
Intrinsic reward in the classroom can be any stimulus which has a positive expected
value, including quality feedback on how students are learning, genuine praise for
effort, interesting and meaningful learning activities, humour and fun activity, social
support, and relatedness. Much of this is known, but not always utilized by some
teachers (and this may not be their fault). It makes sense, therefore, to find out
and incorporate those things that students see as rewarding from their perspective,
providing they are viably implementable in the educational context. This is likely to
activate the reward circuits of the brain—creating that pleasurable feeling through the
release of dopamine. Note, there is little worry of students becoming badly affected
by addiction to learning.
However, even pleasure itself is not a constant entity, but a variable and change-
able one at the level of subjective experience. For example, the repetition of the same
stimulus tends to reduce the positive rewarding impact of that stimulus. In neuro-
science terms, there will be less dopamine released and the feelings of pleasure less.
(e.g., there’s only so much chocolate students will eat before the pleasure largely
abates). Furthermore, the psychological process of habituation comes into play, or in
lay terms ‘boredom has set in’. Even the chocolate loses some impact when continu-
ally presented in highly predictable circumstances. Such processes are aptly captured
in the economists’ concept of Marginal Utility (the law of marginal utility states that
the first x is worth more than the second x—be it dollars, hours of free time, pieces of
food, etc.) and, in the worst scenario, starkly captured in the folk saying, “familiarity
breeds contempt”. The message is clear, though a challenging one: It is desirable
to introduce various reward contingencies unexpectedly to sustain motivation. This
calibrates very much to Core Principle 5: Instructional methods and presentation
mediums engage the range of human senses and the ability to create Von Restorff
effects in the classroom—remember this? (i.e., the tendency of the brain to respond
activately to novel stimuli).
Such considerations raise questions on the extent to which the experience of school
learning is interesting for students, as experienced by them. Of course, there will be
some that enjoy all of it (okay, most of it) and others that probably loathe all of it.
In between, and this is perhaps where most students fall, and where the high-level
pedagogic battles need to be fought (metaphorically speaking) in the learning stakes.
In most basic terms, can we make the learning experiences more pleasurable (at
least in some significant part) that lead to better engagement in the learning process?
In Chap. 1, the purpose was to make a clear case for evidence-based practice in
4.2 The Components of Motivation 137
teaching. The evidence is clear that what teachers do and how they do it significantly
impacts student’s attainment. Does the same logic and heuristics apply to enhancing
students’ intrinsic motivation? According to Ryan and Deci (2017):
School curricula or materials are often not packaged to be intrinsically motivating, nor
in any way made to be particularly meaningful or relevant to the students’ daily lives or
purposes. In addition, under various top-down policy pressures, many modern schools have
become extremely focused on a very narrow set of cognitive goals, often to the neglect of the
varied interests, talents and more holistic psychological and intellectual needs of students.
(pp. 352–353)
In educational contexts, few would disagree that students who perceive classroom
learning as painful and boring are unlikely to contribute much, except to absenteeism
rates and disruptive behaviour. The converse is also true. When students experience
the learning as personally interesting, or place value on the outcomes to be obtained
from successful completion of a programme (e.g., qualification/certification), they
are more likely to participate meaningfully in the learning activities. For many adult
learners, there are clear goals associated with their learning. These may have both
extrinsic and intrinsic motivational components. Extrinsic motivation typically refers
to the motivation coming from external factors to the activity (e.g., money, status or
power, rather than the specific work activity). In contrast, intrinsic motivation is
where motivation is derived from doing the task itself (e.g., passion for teaching).
For example, having conducted more than 100 teacher education programmes, it
was apparent that many participants had joined the programmes largely for purposes
of accreditation (e.g., no certificate, no job). However, even for such extrinsically
motivated persons many did, over the duration of the programme, find intrinsic
interest which resulted in added value to their overall learning experience.
Where there are strong extrinsic motivators, it is always likely that adult learners,
even with little intrinsic interest will try to maintain a level of attention and the neces-
sary volition to achieve success on the programme (typically certification). Even for
non-adult learners, grades and passing the examinations are strong extrinsic moti-
vating anchors. However, for many school students, there may be limited extrinsic
motivators (e.g., passing the exams does not get them a desired job) as well as little
or no intrinsic interest in the content of the school subjects. This makes teaching such
students highly challenging and potentially frustrating. I need say no more on this.
4.3 Evidence-Based Heuristics on Human Motivation

and Well-Being
The seeking of pleasure, the avoidance of pain, and a desire or need for variation
and novelty are existential aspects of motivation, in that they drive people to do
things—often referred to as needs. Indeed, we need to eat, and when feeling hungry,
we have the drive to find food. It may also be pleasurable and novel—even painful.
I have many favourite foods, but will usually try something new when in different
countries—I won’t bore you with examples—but I have found some pleasurable,
others not pleasurable (painful would be a bit of an exaggeration) but certainly novel.
I retain the motivation to explore eating new food items in different countries and
contexts.
As noted, prior, there are many models and theories of motivation. One that has
been probably the most prevalent for the past three decades has been that of Abraham
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, summarized in Fig. 4.1.
However, despite its appeal in terms of providing a clear and appealing structure
for framing human motivation in terms of progressive need enhancement towards
self-actualization, it has been criticized on a number of counts; notably its absence to
include social cohesion and collaboration, which are fundamental to human survival,
as well as the notion of hierarchy (e.g., Rutledge 2012). Most significantly, as Ryan
and Deci (2017) summarize:
…despite the appearance of Maslow’s (1943) pyramid-shaped hierarchy in almost every
introductory psychology textbook and its intuitive appeal, empirical evidence for his
hierarchy of psychological needs is quite thin. (p. 93)
In contrast, the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) of Ryan and Deci (2017)

is perhaps becoming the most validated current motivational theory that offers
evidence-based heuristics for framing motivational strategies that enhance learning
in educational contexts. As the authors state:
SDT is not a relativistic framework; it hits bedrock in its conception of certain universals in
the social and cultural nutrients required to support healthy psychological and behavioural
functioning. (p. 4)
The theory posits only three basic and universal psychological needs: competence,
relatedness and autonomy. As Ryan and Deci (2017) explain:
…a basic need is essential for growth, wellness and integrity. Accordingly, optimal develop-
ment, supported by basic need satisfaction, will be manifested in the motivational process of
(1) intrinsic motivation, a fundamental psychological growth process; (2) the internalization
and integration of behavioral regulations and social prescriptions and values, which results in
psychological coherence and integrity and (3) an experience of vitality and wellness. (p. 98)
Competence refers to feeling effective and impactful in one’s actions. As Ryan

and Deci (2017) state:
Fig. 4.1 Maslow’s hierarchy

of needs
4.3 Evidence-Based Heuristics on Human Motivation and Well-Being 139
As a psychological need, competence is not only functionally important but is also experi-
entially significant to the self. Phenomenally, feelings of effectance nourish people’s selves,
whereas feelings of effectance threaten their feelings of agency and undermine their ability
to mobilize and organize action. (p. 95)
Relatedness refers to the feeling of belonging and being significant in the eyes of
others. Ryan and Deci (2017) define it in terms of a need to:
…feel responded to, respected, and important to others, and, conversely, to avoid rejection,
insignificance and disconnectedness. (p. 96)
Autonomy refers to the need to experience personal control and self-endorsement

of one’s behaviour. In the context of educational settings, Reeve and Lee (2012)
suggests that:
Students experience autonomy need satisfaction to the extent to which their classroom
activity affords them opportunities to engage in learning activities with an internal locus
of causality, sense of psychological freedom, and perceived choice over their actions.
(pp. 153–154)
SDT is a psychological theory that focuses on people’s subjective experience as

the key factor that determines their behaviour. It is how people interpret external and
internal stimulus inputs, and the meaning they attribute to them in terms of need
fulfilment, that is key to predicting behaviour and its consequences. The relevance
of SDT to learning and well-being is captured by Ryan and Deci (2017):
…aspects of a social context that are likely to support satisfaction of the fundamental psy-
chological needs are predicted to promote effective functioning and integrated development,
whereas features of a social context that are likely to thwart need satisfaction are predicted
to diminish effective functioning and to support non-optimal developmental trajectories.
…classroom climates supporting autonomy, providing high structure, and conveying relat-
edness and inclusion foster personal well-being and feelings of connection to one’s school
and community. (p. 12)
While what constitutes well-being is open to contestation, the framing of the likely
preferences of people by Pinker (2003) makes perfect sense to me:
Most people agree that life is better than death. Health is better than sickness. Sustenance
is better than hunger. Abundance is better than poverty. Peace is better than war. Safety
is better than danger. Freedom is better than tyranny. Equal rights are better than bigotry
and discrimination. Literacy is better than illiteracy. Knowledge is better than ignorance.
Intelligence is better than dull wittedness. Happiness is better than misery. Opportunities to
enjoy family and friends are better than drudgery and monotony. (p. 51)
Such a viewpoint can be supported in many similar veins and contexts. For exam-
ple, Harari (2016) argues that “the most real thing in the world is suffering” (p. 307).
This may sound somewhat extreme—even shocking—but I don’t think many of the
inmates of Auschwitz would take issue with such a claim. And, we don’t need to look
for archetypal examples, suffering is embedded in most peoples’ lives at some time, in
various ways. The point is not to be morbid here, but if suffering has a realism beyond
the arguments of social relativists, then there is value in considering Well-Being as a
necessary consideration in framing twenty-first century competencies.
In the moral domain, there is much that reason and science can contribute to
our understanding of well-being. Pinker (2019) argues, with a few unexceptional
convictions, that:
…all of us value our welfare, and that we are social beings who impinge on each other and
can negotiate codes of conduct – the scientific facts militate toward a defensible morality,
namely principles that maximize the flourishing of humans and other sentient beings. (p. 395)
Similarly, Harris (2010) argues the case for looking at science for ways to better
understand human values and what aspects of the moral domain may enhance human
action, relationships and well-being. He takes as a premise that:
Human well-being entirely depends on events in the world and states of the human brain.
Consequently, there must be scientific truths to be known about it. A more detailed under-
standing of these truths will force us to draw clear distinctions between different ways of
living in a society with one another, judging some to be better or worse, more or less true
to the facts, and more or less ethical. Such insights could help us to improve the quality of
human life – and this is where the academic debate ends and choices affecting millions of
lives begin. (p. 3)
Conceptions of well-being can vary, and there is subjectivity here, but extensive
research on the impact of a whole host of physical, social and emotional experiences
have massive implications for brain development, physical and mental well-being.
For example, Swaab (2015) summarizing the evidence, highlights:
Children who are seriously neglected during their early development …have smaller brains;
their intelligence and linguistic and fine motor control are permanently impaired, and they
are impulsive and hyperactive. (p. 27)
Certainly, we would not argue the case that such experiences and outcomes
contribute to the well-being of these children. As Harris (2010) points out:
(1) Some people have better lives than others, and (2) these differences relate, in some lawful
and not arbitrary way to states of the human brain and states of the world. (p. 15)
He also goes on to argue that:

Kindness, compassion, fairness and other classically “good” traits will be vindicated neuro-
logically – which is to say that we will only discover further reasons to believe that they are
good for us, in that they generally enhance our lives. (p. 180)
Hence, the pedagogic framing of twenty-first century competencies must go

beyond considerations of cognitive attainment. Of course, attainment and employa-
bility are central concerns, but so is well-being—especially in a society of increasing
volatility and change. In an overview of SDT, Vallerand et al. (2008) suggest that
“SDT represents a theory with great heuristic power” (p. 257). In summarizing the
research findings in this area, the authors point out:
4.3 Evidence-Based Heuristics on Human Motivation and Well-Being 141
findings in all articles underscore the fact that environments that provide autonomy sup-
port lead to qualitatively superior forms of motivation characterized by high levels of self-
determination (i.e., intrinsic motivation and identified regulation) that, in turn, are conducive
to more adaptive cognitive, affective, and behavioural outcomes. (p. 257)
In contrast, as Ryan and Deci (2017) note:

when there is little intrinsic motivation for learning and no inherent interest and excitement
in what is going on in the classroom, then both learning outcomes and student wellness are
in jeopardy, as longitudinal data confirm. (p. 354)
From an evidence-based perspective, SDT focuses on psychological processes,

as these relate directly to the subjective experiences of persons, which deal with
the dynamics of external events in their environment and the internal forces (both
conscious and non-conscious). As Ryan and Deci (2017) state:
…the level of analysis that is most needed for scientific understanding of motivation and
behaviour change is the level encompassing the psychological processes operating within the
individual and the variables and influences within the social context that activate or diminish
those processes. (p. 7)
Most importantly, as the authors summarize, it is:

…the most practical level at which we can intervene in human behavioral affairs. (p. 7)
In terms of practical interventions for enhancing teaching and learning, this is

where we can directly impact such processes as perception, thinking and meaning-
making, as it is at the level of subjective experience where people make sense of their
world, their selves, others in the world, and respond accordingly.
As Ryan and Deci (2008) point out:
Well-being, mental health, and a life well-lived are all about experiencing love, freedom,
efficacy, and meaningful goals and values, all of which are psychological phenomena.
Thus, within, their “objective” circumstances (the external world - my inset), the most impor-
tant feature in people’s lives is their experience of living, so enhancing that experience, with its
various consequences, is an important focus for psychological interventions. (pp. 654–655)
4.4 Perception, Thinking, and Meaning Making
As the world-famous psychologist Edward De Bono stated:

Most of the mistakes in thinking are inadequacies of perception rather than mistakes of logic.
Indeed, from my life experiences, I would say that everything is a matter of

perception, though it is probably more often than not a lack of good perception.
Unfortunately, what we see is shaped by what we know, and this will determine how
we think about it, and the meaning we make of it. Chapter 2 outlined many of the
limitations, systemic biases—if you like ‘bugs’ of thinking—and their impact on
behaviour.
In the previous chapter, I argued that Metacognition—more specifically Metacog-

nitive Capability is the superordinate twenty-first century competence, as its signif-
icance for developing self-directed lifelong learners is paramount. However, there
is little point in having a Rolls Royce car in the garage if you loathe driving and
travelling in cars. Equally, we may have the best curriculum program in a particu-
lar topic area, and the best teachers to deliver it, but if there are no students who
are interested in the offering, it is essentially redundant. Hence, motivation remains
the most fundamental concern for learning in formal educational settings. It’s not a
concern when motivation is intrinsic. As an adolescent I was fascinated with astron-
omy, and I learned much more about this on my own volition, than I did for most
of my school subjects, where I was largely motivated by the desire to avoid punish-
ment (e.g., redoing the boring work, not being able to play soccer) for unacceptable
performance.
Furthermore, as explained in Chap. 3, beliefs are fundamental in shaping per-
ception, as they are no more than prior perceptions that have become strong neuro-
logically wired mental schemata in long term memory. The work of Dweck (2006)
on the importance of developing a Growth Mindset in students, documented previ-
ously, is especially important for developing positive beliefs that are conducive to
students’ motivation to learn. For example, Saphier (2017) concludes that the evi-
dence suggests that the variables that appear to have the most significant impact on
a person’s development and achievement extend well beyond any measurement of
innate intelligence. He identifies that:
These variables appear to include the quality and quantity of schooling one experiences, the
amount and kind of effort one invests, and the beliefs one holds in the individual’s capability
to grow ability itself. (pp. 30–31)
Most significantly, and specifically, as Schunk and Zimmerman (2012) point out:
…unless people believe that their actions can produce the outcomes they desire, they have
little incentive to act or to persevere in the face of difficulties. (p. 113)
It is not difficult to understand how beliefs profoundly affect the way people
approach their learning and the subsequent impact on motivational (and eventually
attainment) levels. Beliefs act as major neurological filters that determine how we
perceive, and respond to, external reality (the world around us and the people in it),
and as Henry Ford famously wrote:
If you think you can or think you can’t, you’re right.
4.4 Perception, Thinking, and Meaning Making 143
Fig. 4.2 Simple model of cognitive dissonance
How to Change Beliefs—especially those that limit motivation, learning and

well-being
Just as beliefs originated as perceptions, they can be changed by new perceptions

that significantly challenge the existing beliefs. As a kid, I believed in Tooth Fairies,
Father Christmas and the Bogeyman under the bed. Since I sawed the legs off my
bed, I’ve stopped believing in the latter. Just joking—and I think you will have made
the relevant inferences and interpretations by now.
Invariably, people can be highly resistant to belief change, especially to deeply
held ones that define life-meaning and personal identity. However, in many cases,
it can be a quick process when a new experience significantly challenges the belief
and creates Cognitive Dissonance (i.e., a real challenge to the reality/validity of the
existing belief). Figure 4.2, illustrates how this can happen in terms of changing one’s
perception of smartness.
For many years, I worked in educational institutions where many students had
little belief in their intellectual capabilities, and perhaps even less in the usefulness
of teachers to do much to help them. In this situation, my priority is to bring about
changes in their perception of themselves as learners, and this can only be achieved
by achieving some degree of mastery in learning tasks meaningful to them. However,
this firstly will typically involve getting some positive reframing by them on me as a
person, not their wider perception of teachers per se. Unless I can get their attention,
build some rapport, and ‘prove’ that there is some meaning and value to the learning
experience, it’s going to be a tough time as Michelle Pfieffer learned in ‘Dangerous
Minds’, 1995, an American drama film in which she faced a very challenging class,
but eventually got their attention and this made the difference. You can watch the
film to find out how she did it, in the context of the strategy above. I was not able to
get students to reframe their beliefs about teacher’s in general, but I influenced them
to see me; firstly as ok and not like other teachers they had experienced; secondly as
someone they got on with and trusted; and finally, someone they liked and who could
help them meet desired personal goals. In that last scenario, the new perception had
replaced the prior belief—at least on me anyway, and that’s what was important (for
me) at that time (see Fig. 4.3). This story is extended in Chap. 5, so there is more to
come, and there’s a happy ending.
Fig. 4.3 Dennis is ok
Notions of purpose and meaning are of course central to learning and existential
to well-being. For example, Pink (2009), while using Autonomy and Mastery as key
psychological needs, also includes Purpose in his motivational framework. One could
argue, that to some extent at least, purpose gives meaning to one’s activities—even
life itself. Frankl’s (2014) account of how he managed to survive the experience of
Auschwitz through his belief that one day he would share his psychological theories
(e.g., logotherapy) to the world and his ability to maintain a sufficiently enduring
positive psychological state (in the face of the terrible external realities around him),
defines “Man’s Search for Meaning” (the title of his book).
However, purpose and meaning, in the everyday context, can be interpreted in
different ways with different levels of importance, which may also be highly situa-
tional. Students are likely to experience and frame them in terms of what they feel are
important at that time in their life-worlds. For example, being in the school soccer
team was highly meaningful to me at around 14 years of age, and a major purpose at
that time was to have my hair straightened—how I hated that wave in my hair. Was I
indeed a younger version of ‘Shallow Hal’, a 2001 American romantic comedy film
starring Gwyneth Paltrow and Jack Black about a shallow man who, after hypnosis,
begins to see people’s inner beauty reflected in their outward appearance? Certainly,
helping students to find purpose and meaning in their schoolwork and facilitating
their well-being at this important developmental period are important aspects of a
good holistic education (e.g. supporting their purpose and meaning in school life
and future planning). Good career mediation is facilitative in this context. Indeed,
purpose and meaning are very much bound up with need satisfaction as students
who, in their everyday lives, are experiencing mastery, relatedness and autonomy are
likely to have a positive sense of well-being. This may give them sufficient purpose
and meaning to be both settled and proactive in their learning and life generally. They
may even be happy. Of course, these are generalizations, and personality and other
factors inevitably come into play in such existential matters. Ryan and Deci (2017)
illustrate the likely linkages in terms of these human states:
Empirical studies also show a linkage, with basic need satisfaction reliably predicting mean-
ing. Recent research suggests that one’s sense of meaning in life is largely accounted for
by SDT’s basic needs, along with feelings of benevolence, which itself is need-satisfying.
(p. 253)
There are evidence-based practical strategies that foster these psychological

aspects of intrinsic motivation, growth mindset, well-being, as well as the wider
process of learning and how this happens at the level of subjective experience and
brain functioning. These strategies may have very quick positive impacts, or it may
take a while, and teachers may need some deliberate practice and persistence in mak-
ing them work in unison. They are not separate, as they have an underpinning syntax
in terms of psychological functioning and processes—which are evidence-based. In
practice, they are highly synergistic in terms of an overall instructional strategy and
impact on motivation, learning and well-being:
• Use an Autonomy Supporting Style of Teaching
• Teach students about How Humans Learn
• Communicate Positive Growth Mindset Messages in everyday teaching
• Use instructional strategies that support Mastery Learning
• Use Teachable Moments to reinforce aspects of students’ learning experiences that
support a Growth Mindset.
Use an Autonomy Supporting Style of Teaching
Reeve (2015) defined Autonomy Support (AS) as:

…a coherent cluster of teacher-provided instructional behaviours that collectively commu-
nicate to students an interpersonal tone of support and understanding, such as “I am your
ally; I am here to support you and your strivings.” (p. 407)
Behaviours conducive to establishing this ‘interpersonal tone of support and

understanding’ include:
• Using informational, non-controlling language
• Communicating the purpose/value of the learning (e.g., explanatory rationales)
• Acknowledging and accepting students’ expressions of negative effect
• Listening to students and encouraging them to ask questions
• Allowing students choices/ preferences wherever possible on how they learn and
the context of learning.
In that learning experiences can meet a learner’s basic psychological needs, there
is potential for enhancing intrinsic motivation. From an SDT perspective, the commu-
nication styles adopted by teachers play a fundamental role in shaping how students
experience their learning and the extent to which such needs are likely to be met.
Reeve et al. (2004), for example, who compared the communication styles of teach-
ers in terms of a continuum ranging from highly controlling to autonomy-supportive,
noted that:
In general, autonomy-supportive teachers facilitate, whereas controlling teachers interfere
with, the congruence between students’ self-determined inner motives and their classroom
activity. (p. 148)
In more basic terms, Deci et al. (1991) reported that:

Students in classrooms with autonomy-supportive teachers displayed more intrinsic motiva-

tion, perceived competence, and self-esteem than did students in classrooms with controlling
teachers. (p. 337)
Furthermore, and of particular interest, Ryan and Deci (2017) noted:

…when teachers are autonomy supporting, they are typically also supportive of the students’
need for competence and relatedness. (p. 369)
An AS style of teaching or facilitation is congruent with Core Principle 9: A

psychological climate is created which is both success-orientated and fun. Teachers
who systematically and consistently utilize such behaviours in their everyday interac-
tions with students are likely to develop good relationships and rapport with students.
Hence, in meeting the needs of mastery, relatedness and autonomy, which creates
such a psychological climate, they are supporting key aspects of the learning process
(e.g., attainment opportunities; engagement) and student well-being. Note that while
I use the term intrinsic motivation, the focus is essentially on student engagement
in the learning process and how this impacts their feelings of being competent and
confident in their learning (i.e., self-efficacy). The distinction between these two
constructs is that motivation is a private, unobservable, psychological and neurolog-
ical (unconscious) process that serves as an antecedent cause to the more publicly
observable behaviour that is engagement. Furthermore, engagement is an essential
educational outcome in itself, as a marker of students positive functioning, as it pre-
dicts highly values outcomes such as students’ academic progress and achievement
(e.g., Ladd and Dinella 2009). As Zepke and Leach (2010) summarize, from an exten-
sive review of the literature, “…teaching and teachers are central to engagement.”
(p. 170). Without meaningful and sustained engagement, there would be underlying
poor attention, and learning would be limited at best.
Engagement, in the context of classroom learning, is student motivated action
toward meeting desired educational goals. There is a consensus that engagement has
the following 3 component constructs/dimensions:
• Behavioural (on-task attention, effort, persistence)
• Emotional (presence of interest, enthusiasm)
• Cognitive (use of thinking, learning strategies) While teachers are tasked with
designing and facilitating instructional strategies that engage students in the
learning process and optimize their attainment opportunities, learning is also
enhanced when students are actively involved in shaping the instructional process
themselves, making it more of a collaborative rather than a one-way process.
Reeve and Tseng (2011) referred to such student involvement as Agentic Engage-
ment, suggesting it as a fourth aspect to student engagement, which they define
as:
…a students’ constructive contributions into the flow of the instruction they receive. What this
new concept captures the process in which students intentionally and somewhat proactively
try to personalize and otherwise enrich both what it is to be learned and the conditions and
the circumstances under which it is to be learned. (p. 258)
This is where students take a consciously active role in shaping the learning
context and instructional activities through collaborative learning relationships with
teachers. Agentic Learners are confident to:
• Offer input into the lesson content (e.g., based on a diagnosis of what they are
finding difficult and what might help their understanding for a topic area)
• Express preferences in terms of how they learn best (e.g., what methods/learning
resources are most useful)
• Communicate their thinking or learning need (e.g., ask specific questions about
what to learn and how)
• Communicate their level of interest (e.g., provide negative effect constructively
when bored or frustrated)
• Solicit resources to help their learning (e.g., feel comfortable in asking for help).
Agentic Learners can be framed as students who have learned how to learn and
have developed appropriate habits of mind (e.g., Growth mindset) that support active
engagement and autonomy in their learning relations and strategies. Framing the
characteristics of agentic students is not a difficult task, and these fully calibrate with
the components and features of MC. For example, we would expect agentic learners
to have the following skills and attributes:
• Aware of being metacognitive and what this entails in terms of personal self-
regulation and the ability to be self-directed
• Understand the key aspects of how people learn (e.g., cognitive scientific principles
from a user’s perspective)
• Competence in using a range of cognitive strategies; knows when to use them and
for what specific learning purpose and goals
• Frame clear, challenging realistic goals
• Plan, implement, monitor and evaluate a learning plan/strategy for meeting
learning goals
• Aware of the range of existential and personal barriers to maintaining motivation,
effort, and belief in meeting challenging goals
• Strategize and use techniques and tools for maintaining self-regulation in-the-face
of inevitable challenges
• Understand that failure is part of the learning process, and sees this as important
feedback for future learning
• Active seeking of feedback from a range of sources (teachers, peers, anyone who
might know), and ability to ask thoughtful focused questions
• Aware that showing empathy, respect and interest in the goals, thoughts and
feelings of others builds rapport, and that this is a key life skill
• Can use motivational strategies to keep a balanced perspective on managing self
in situations of poor mood, boredom, or challenges to a growth mindset.
Agentic engagement adds much of value to the learning process, as agentic stu-
dents elicit (demand) greater mediation between the teacher and themselves, facilitat-
ing collaborative two-way feedback on what instructional strategies are best support-
ing their learning. Treadwell (2017) argues that empowering learners with the com-
petency to take agency over their learning is something every school and educational
system needs to address (p. 9). He goes on to argue:
If we give people agency over their world they generally rise to the occasion and increasingly
manage their world more successfully, but only if we provide them with the underlying
competencies to achieve this. (p. 9)
One of the key aspects of increasing agency in school is having the learners take responsibility
for their learning, where they can be aware of, and learn about, their mind-set and capacity
to show ‘grit’ (determination). Learners in schools get the opportunity to ‘play’ with taking
agency over their world and this is one of the most powerful learning lessons we can gift
them. (p. 146)
The importance of developing agentic learners as outlined above is fundamental

to the wider aims of developing self-directed lifelong learners. Agentic students
are both a product and the ‘co-facilitators’ (e.g., with their teachers and peers) in
an ongoing creative evidence-based learning approach, which also includes good
collaboration and communication skills as central to such learning and well-being.
As Reeve and Tseng (2011) suggest:
The reason why agentic engagement contributes uniquely to achievement is presumably
that it is through intentional, proactive, and constructive acts that students find ways to
improve their opportunity to learn by enriching the learning experience and by enhancing
the conditions in which they learn. (p. 263)
Finally, as Ryan and Deci (2008) point out, AS is not only beneficial to students
learning and engagement but has more generic benefits:
In short, both giving and receiving autonomy support in a close relationship are related to
relationship quality and well-being. (p. 671)
Teach students about How Humans Learn
Throughout this book, there has been, and this will continue in subsequent chap-
ters, an extensive focus on the nature, underpinning components, features—even
nuances—of the learning process and that’s because this is the core business of
education and training.
In becoming competent and confident self-directed learners, students need to have
key understandings of how humans learn and are competent in using metacognition,
cognitive and motivational strategies. In this way, both the teacher’s and the students
thinking becomes visible and they have a shared language of learning, which makes
the mediation of learning between stakeholders (e.g., teacher, student, peers) much
more effective.
Teaching students the principles of learning (Saphier 2017; Sale 2015) is the
essential primary strategy for helping students to understand how their minds work
(in the context of school learning and well-being), enhancing their learning capability
and, over time, empowering them to become self-directed lifelong learners. Saphier
(2017) recommends that educators:
…Share with them teaching and learning strategies we use ourselves. By including them in
the secret knowledge of teaching and learning strategies we give students choices, power,
and license to control their learning.
Principles of learning should be explicitly taught to students as they can use them to be more
powerful learners. (pp. 114–15)
Such knowledge and its application to everyday learning and life goals can be
effectively taught. This is ‘The Future of Learning’, as Treadwell (2017) described
it in a book of that title.
Communicate Positive Growth Mindset Messages in everyday interactions with
students
To develop good thinking, I emphasized the importance of making the cognitive
heuristics of the specific types of thinking explicit for students—visible—and through
retrieval practice in a range of application contexts, this becomes part of the language
of learning. The same pedagogic process is necessary to make growth mind-set
concepts visible and part of everyday classroom interactions. As Saphier (2017)
points out:
It is through daily interactions in everyday classroom life that we can:
• Convince students that “smart” is something they can get,

• Show them how, and
• Get them to want to. (p. 40)
It is important not to confuse such a style with giving excessive or gratuitous

praise. It is most appropriate to give praise when students, especially those who
have worked hard and struggled more than others to achieve mastery, finally making
those neural connections and suddenly have that ‘aha’ feeling of ‘I get it’. This is a
direct experience of the underpinning logic of a growth mindset, which is inherently
simple: more effort, with expert teaching and appropriate practice leads to mastery
learning, which enhances self-efficacy—and so the synergistic cycles moves-on—of
course with blips and challenges—but that’s life also. The essence here, though, is
that if students understand the nature of this scenario; how it works; and that it is
manageable; and they know they have the strategies to do this effectively—then they
also know they are becoming Self-Directed Learners. This is also the way to attack
(and eventually destroy) limiting beliefs.
Teaching Expertise involves the capability of Mindfulness (Langer 2016) Essen-
tially, in this context, mindfulness refers to being aware—observing, listening and
reflecting—of the interactions occurring in the here and now classroom situation,
and what this may mean in terms of student learning and well-being. For sure, stu-
dents pick up on our language codes, vocal tones, and body language and form both
impressions of us as teachers (as people), and of course how they think we perceive
them. Tomlinson (2005) captures this poignantly:
My students hear every message I send – whether overt or implied – about their capability
to learn and succeed. (p. 76)
Use Instructional Strategies that promote Mastery Learning
Teachers are often pressurized into completing the curriculum in specified time
frames. However, students who lack prior knowledge and/or skills often fall behind,
have difficulties with subsequent topics, and risk becoming labelled (and may self-
identify as) ‘weak learner’s’. Mastery Learning focuses on ensuring that all students
master a topic area at a specified level of conceptual understanding or skill, before
moving on to a more advanced one (allowing students to move at their own pace in
this process). Hence, when students master the content, they experience a sense of
being competent, which is fundamental to supporting a growth mind-set as it pro-
vides a direct experience that perseverance and effort lead to success. Simultaneously
mastery promotes and reinforces self-efficacy in learning the topics, and the more
this is experienced across topics, enhances the possibilities of transfer and intrinsic
motivation.
Facilitating mastery learning inevitably involves some differentiation in the
instructional strategy but, with good pedagogic design and the thoughtful appli-
cation of technology, it is an achievable and desirable educational goal in the present
educational context.
Use Teachable Moments to reinforce aspects of students’ learning experiences that

support a Growth Mindset
A teachable moment is the time at which learning a specific topic or idea becomes
possible or easier. Great teachable moments for supporting a growth mind-set are
when students directly experience a learning breakthrough (e.g., achieve a learning
goal—a new understanding or skill level) and have that ‘aha feeling’—which essen-
tially means that they have ‘got it’—and will have developed a useful addition to
their neural networks in long-term memory. This is especially the case when this new
learning can be directly linked to their positive learning actions, such as extra effort,
persistence, using a learning strategy well. Nothing convinces like direct experience.
Once students understand how learning works, and how their actions impact the
results, they are more likely to adopt the beliefs and behave in ways consistent with
a growth mindset. The cartoon below is just for amusement.
Hence, from an EBT approach, first and foremost, the design and facilitation of
learning experiences must involve, as an essential design heuristic, ways to gener-
ate and sustain learner motivation. The Core Principles of Learning, outlined and
illustrated in Chap. 2, are a significant part of the instructional design heuristics for
enhancing motivation to learn as they constitute the key underpinning knowledge—
Pedagogic Literacy—for making teaching more effective, efficient and engaging.
However, it is how the core principles are employed in the design and facilitation of
learning—the situated context of teaching—that is most important for maximizing
student motivation. This entails the creative blending of strategies and methods, uti-
lizing technologies, and teachers being active agents in the motivational process. As
Brophy (1987) makes explicit:
…teachers are not merely reactors to whatever motivation patterns their students had devel-
oped before entering their classrooms but rather are active socialization agents capable of
stimulating the general development of student motivation to learn and its activation in
particular situations. (p. 40)
Therefore, as Alderman (2008) argues:

…teachers have a primary responsibility in education to help students to cultivate personal
qualities of motivation that can give them resources for developing aspiration, independent
learning, achieving goals, and fostering resilience in the face of setbacks. (p. 3)
This may just be the gold standard (e.g., Adaptive Expertise, Hatano and Inagaki
1986) of expert teaching, or what I refer to as Creative Teaching Competence.
For the purposes of this chapter, we can conclude that while motivation is a
complex and dynamic entity, influenced by a range of external environmental factors
and internal features of the human brain and mind (and not necessarily working in
unison) as well as much of its processing operating unconsciously (the extent of
which is contested)—we can derive useful heuristics for enhancing motivation and
well-being As Miller (2016) summarizes:
…the combination of an atmosphere of self-determination and a connection to student’s
personal goals and values is a potent formula for motivating college students. (p. 73)
4.5 Summary
Considerations of motivation are fundamental to all aspects of planning and facil-

itating the practices of teaching. Creating and facilitating motivationally enriching
experiences, as well as providing high attainment opportunities, requires a high level
of creative teaching competence. The ability to do this consistently may no longer
be a ‘nice to have’ capability for the few who can do it, but rather a necessary com-
petence and proficiency level for mainstream teaching and training personnel This is
especially challenging—even for creative teachers—in that, as Zig Zigler famously
stated:
People often say that motivation doesn’t last. Well neither does bathing – that’s why we
recommend it daily.
Finally, in this framing of student motivation, don’t forget yourself in this endeav-
our. As professional educators, while we are paid to do this challenging work, there
is no harm, in fact, massive benefit, in enjoying the experience. There is little plea-
sure or novelty, and certainly considerable pain in teaching groups of unmotivated
learners. However, when we have learners who show interest in what we are teach-
ing (not necessary all the time), positively interact with us as human beings, and are
successful in the attainment stakes, it is a highly rewarding experience, and it’s why
many of us do this job. As Levin (2008) summarized:
Greater engagement is a vehicle that improves students’ work and makes teachers’ lives
easier as well.
…increased student motivation is very positive for teachers’ experience of their work. (p. 99)
Similarly, as Ryan and Deci (2017) conclude:

Having teachers experience need satisfaction and be autonomously motivated to teach and
having students experience need satisfaction and be autonomously motivated to learn is the
optimal situation in classrooms. (p. 374)
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Chapter 5
Creative Teaching Competence: The
SHAPE of Creative Teachers
Abstract This chapter analyses the psychological capability for creative thinking
and how this is most usefully contextualized to everyday teaching and learning con-
texts—what I refer to as Creative Teaching Competence. As creativity or creative
thinking appears in most frameworks of twenty-first century competencies, it is nec-
essary to reduce misconceptions and frame this area in more evidence-based specific
practical terms. While creative teaching can take many forms, and be both a planned
experience and/or a situated invention in the teaching context, there is an underpin-
ning syntax to how it works and what are typical outcomes of such behaviour in terms
of specific practices. In summary, creative teaching can be demystified, explained
and illustrated. Hence, it is a learnable competence/expertise for motivated teaching
professionals.
5.1 Introduction
Chapter 1 argued for teaching to become evidence-based, as is the case for other
professions such as engineering and medicine—you may remember the Jurassic Park
analogy! Chapter 2 established cognitive scientific principles—the core principles of
learning—as a foundational base for an emerging and increasing Pedagogic Literacy.
Chapter 3 argued that Metacognitive Capability is the superordinate twenty-first
century competence, and what makes it an essential component of student learning
and expert teaching. Chapter 4 unpacked motivation, especially intrinsic motivation,
to better understand how it works at the level of subjective experience and human
psychological needs.
However, while the core principles of learning provide evidence-based heuristics
for the design and facilitation of learning experiences, they do not dictate the form or
structure of any specific learning event. This is always mediated by a whole host of
situated factors, as portrayed in the ‘fly fishing analogy’ (e.g. learning outcomes, sub-
ject content, student competence, resource access). Hence, teaching is not a highly
prescriptive activity, governed by a finite range of algorithmic teacher behaviours;
rather it is an act of situated design—but not determined by whim or fashion. Design
in teaching is essentially similar to design in other fields in that it must involve

156 5 Creative Teaching Competence: The SHAPE of Creative Teachers
aspects of a structured process based on a range of known heuristics, but invariably

open to new forms of reality within the context of the field. For example, an engi-
neering product such as a hand-phone must, by definition, have certain features to
enable the process of communication between people, but the shape, colour, addi-
tional features and aspects of functionality are variables that can be ‘played with’ to
generate novelty and aesthetic appeal. Maintaining the status quo function with per-
ceived added features and functionality is what enables competitive advantage and
typically encompasses some creativity within these parameters. Design, in any field
of application, is by nature both a systematic and creative process, aptly captured by
Beetham and Sharpes’ (2007) definition:
…a systematic approach with rules based on evidence, and a set of contextualized practices
that are constantly adapting to circumstances. It is a skilful, creative activity that can be
improved on with reflection and scholarship. (p. 6)
In this chapter, building on the key heuristics outlined in previous chapters, a

frame on creative teaching is developed and illustrated using Beetham and Sharpe’s
heuristics on design. It seeks to establish what I refer to as Creative Teaching
Competence (CTC), which can move us in some useful practical way along the
funnel of knowledge, from mystery to heuristics, in terms of what creative teachers
do and how they do it. It will constitute a key competence, along with Metacognitive
Capability (MC), in the framing of expert teaching in the coming decade or so. It
also addresses some questions that I have been asked many times over the years,
which essentially can be summarized as:
• Is creative teaching different from effective teaching?
• Is creative teaching better than effective teaching?
You may already have an opinion on this or maybe framing one as you reflect on
these questions. You may also be thinking of the well-worn discussion of whether
or not, or to what extent, teaching is an art or science.
There is little doubt that our increased understanding of human psychological
functioning is providing a strong evidence base for the practices of teaching. In that
sense, we can certainly talk about the science of teaching. However, we should also
recognize the importance of artistry (however defined) in teaching, as Eisner (1995)
so boldly asserted:
…artistry in teaching represents the apotheosis of educational performance and rather than
try to diminish or replace it with rule-governed prescriptions, we ought to offer it a seat of
honour. (p. 96)
Art and creativity have much in common and are sometimes seen as synonymous.
Indeed, art by its very nature is always seeking new forms and genres, and the most
valued in financial terms are often those exhibits that are deemed ‘creative’. However,
in the context of teaching, while recognition has long been there, creativity has proved
elusive in terms of clear framing and how its works pedagogically. As Schon (1987)
notes:
…outstanding practitioners are not said to have more professional knowledge than others
but more “wisdom”, “talent”, “intuition”, or “artistry”. (p. 13)
5.1 Introduction 157
In the following sections, I will explore the notion that the art of teaching can also
be better understood from an EBT approach in that aspects of human psychological
functioning, which appears elusive—almost ephemeral—but impactful in terms of
learning and well-being, can be effectively modelled, learned and applied like other
more overt aspects of behaviour. It just may be the case that this applies to all
forms of art, and works as a result of its subtle impact on human sensation and
perception, creating positive aesthetic and affective responses (both conscious and
sub/unconscious). The dichotomy of science and art of teaching may cease to be
a useful one; we may simply talk about Creative Teaching or Creative Teaching
Competence.
5.2 Teaching as a Systematic Approach with Rules Based

on Evidence
In the context of teaching, key heuristics such as the core principles of learning
provide the systematic approach with rules, based on evidence. When planning the
design of any learning experience (e.g., module, workshop) these heuristics should
be at the forefront of planning decisions. For example, in planning a professional
development workshop, I will typically generate and address the following kinds of
questions:
• What are the learning goals and key outcomes for this learning group?
• What prior knowledge do these learners already have, and what activities might
best capture their present understanding of these areas of learning?
• What are the key concepts that need to be negotiated to facilitate understanding,
and how is this best organized and managed with this group of learners?
• What essential questions connected with this topic might get them thinking in
critical or creative ways about areas of interest or problem-solving?
• What presentation mediums and resources do I have that will generate and maintain
interest?
• How do I organize the learning sequences to avoid cognitive overload, facilitate
the ‘digesting’ and understanding of the content to enable effective transfer into
long-term memory?
• How best can I make the learning experience active and experiential for supporting
application-based learning outcomes?
• What specific skills need to be developed and how might effective spaced and
deliberate practice be organized?
• Are there areas where feedback is likely to be most critical for effective learning;
and what strategies will I employ to maximize efficiency?
• How best do I present myself to this group of learners to encourage the building
of rapport, positive interpersonal interactions and a ‘can do’ feeling for the tasks
in hand?
• What activities, stories, examples, artefacts do I have that will generate interest
and engagement around the key areas of learning?
Ok, I’ll confess, the process may not always be as explicit, meticulous or pristine as
the above description depicts. Furthermore, as with all learning over time, especially
with expertise, it becomes a largely unconscious competence and can be done very
quickly. The key point is that there is a systematic process in design; it is far from
ad hoc.
5.3 Teaching as a Set of Contextualized Practices

Constantly Adapting to Circumstances
In teaching, the term practices can relate to many activities, resources and arrange-
ments designed to enhance desired learning outcomes. At a technical level, and
typically for competency-based teacher education programs, practices are often seen
in terms of specific functional competencies such as:
• Write clear and appropriate learning outcomes
• Prepare a teaching/training plan
• Produce learning resources
• Conduct teaching/training
• Design differentiated learning activities
• Produce a scheme of assessment
• Conduct assessment
• Produce an online module
• Facilitate an online module.
Such functional competencies are foundational to teaching/training as they com-
prise—metaphorically speaking—the ‘tool-box’ and underpinning knowledge relat-
ing to key technical practices. However, I have conducted numerous teaching obser-
vations in which the designated competencies were technically met, but I did not
perceive the actual learning experience as being effective in terms of student learn-
ing—especially concerning cognitive and emotional engagement. I might sum up
the experience as ‘just ok’. The reason is that practices cannot just be seen solely
in technical terms, but also in the way teachers conduct themselves, interact with
learners and mediate the situated learning experience to engage, motivate and, on the
best occasions, inspire them. As Andrews et al (1996) pointed out:
…the hallmark of excellent teaching is more than adequate content expertise and effective
technical performance. (p. 82)
This is similarly echoed by Bain (2004), who emphasized that:

…the best teaching can be found not in particular practices or rules but the attitudes of the
teachers. (p. 78)
5.3 Teaching as a Set of Contextualized Practices Constantly … 159
Andrews et al. (1996) develop this further in their description of excellent teachers:
…excellent teachers seem to want to facilitate a meaning approach (deep) to learning rather
than a reproducing (surface) approach. Moreover, they tend to engage in instructional pro-
cesses that are congruent with their preferred approach and have values and beliefs, and
characteristics (for example, honesty, integrity, genuineness and respect for self, students,
materials and the process of teaching) that are considered foundational to a meaning approach
to teaching. (p. 101)
While considerations of human conduct may be contested in certain situations,

there is strong evidence of core universal principles that transcend cultural norms
and rituals. Nucci (2001) from extensive research of the literature noted:
…the domain of morality is structured around issues that are universal and non-arbitrary.
The core of human morality is a concern for fairness and human welfare. Thus, there is
a basic core of morality around which educators can construct their educational practices
without imposing arbitrary standards or retreating into value relativism. (p. 19)
The practices of teaching, therefore, involves both a range of technical functional

competencies as well as ‘social and emotional’ competencies and underpinned by
core principles of human conduct. The social and emotional aspects of life are embed-
ded in all human encounters, and teaching is no exception. Furthermore, while this
provides a systematic approach to the overall design of learning experiences, it will
always require thoughtful contextualization and adaptation to the particular learning
group and context, as outlined previously. This also applies to the use of specific prac-
tices. For example, teachers often debate the merits or otherwise of different teaching
methods. It is as though some are looking for a pedagogic ‘silver bullet’; an approach
or strategy that will engage and motivate all students and meet the desired learning
outcomes. Such a wish is akin to alchemy. There are many reasons for the neces-
sity to contextualize and adapt methods, including their appropriateness to outcomes
and learners, the basic human desire for novelty and variation, and even the situated
mood of the class at a particular time. Teaching methods are structures that deal
with the delivery of content to help students acquire knowledge, build understanding
and develop skills and competence. As is now well documented, some methods are
more effective than others in terms of their effect sizes on student attainment, and
this should be a key consideration in method selection. However, most methods can
have benefits in terms of student learning when used skillfully and appropriately in
context. The relative merit of different instructional methods has been well captured
in an analogy by Bransford (1999):
Asking which teaching method/technique is best is analogous to asking what tool is best – a
hammer, a screwdriver, a knife, or pliers. In teaching, as in carpentry, the selection of tools
depends on the task at hand and the materials one is working with. (p. 22)
Equally the most powerful methods, in terms of their potential for enhancing stu-
dent attainment, may be ineffective when employed by less competent practitioners,
just as the best tools are often wasted in the hands of DIY (do-it-yourself) novices—as
I have learned from personal experience.
Similarly, while universal human conduct principles such as equity, fairness,
respect, concern for the person are fundamental to the practices of teaching, the
actual style and the content of human interaction often requires much contextualiza-
tion and adaptation. Even simple greetings, which are pretty much universal, need
careful contextualization across cultural and ethnic groups. A kiss on the cheek when
being introduced to a lady may be expected in France, but it would be highly risky in
many other countries. Fortunately, we are not confronted with such decision-making
in class on an everyday basis.
5.4 Teaching as Skillful Creative Activity
When people are skillful in an area, the inference is that they can perform a range
of specific activities in a highly effective and efficient manner. For example, to say
that the soccer player, Cristiano Ronaldo, is very skillful means that he is considered
highly proficient or expert in employing such skills as controlling, passing, heading,
shooting and dribbling with a soccer ball when playing soccer. However, while such
skills are essential for a high level of performance in an activity, they are not the only
components in determining an individual’s actual performance in real-life situations.
Other attributes, such as aptitude, personality traits, and attitudinal components also
play an important part in determining performance. To capture the range of attributes
involved in a complex performance the term competency is often used (Fig. 5.1), as
it attempts to capture the wider configuration of attributes that determines actual
performance in real work and life contexts.
Aptitude
This term is generally used to refer to a person’s innate tendency for competence
in an area. For example, a female basketball coach once asked me, perhaps with
some humour in mind, if I knew any 6 6 women who have an athletic physique.
Interesting question. My answer was “none”, but I did ask her, “why did you ask?”
The reply was something like ‘if I had one in my team, she would probably become a
millionaire’. Interesting, I thought, so I asked, “How does that work?” The rationale
provided was simple; very few women reach that height, so given some motivation,
good training, and playing time for a year or two, she is likely to be recruited by a top
Fig. 5.1 Generic

competency pyramid
5.4 Teaching as Skillful Creative Activity 161
team, and top players earn large salaries. How many 5 2 professionals basketball
players have you seen?
A similar framing can be applied in terms of psychological/neurological aspects
related to learning. For example, in the contested field of defining human intelligence,
Spearman (1950) proposed a two-factor theory of intelligence that posited that all
cognitive performance can be explained by two variables: one general ability (g)
and the many specific abilities (s). The General ability or G factor intelligence refers
to inborn aptitude, which varies from individual to individual and facilitates mental
operations across all situations. People vary in terms of this G factor intelligence,
and it underpins the basis of much of present-day intelligence testing. However, indi-
viduals typically possess specific abilities (S factors), also innate, and these facilitate
their learning in these areas (e.g., singing, painting, drawing). People can also have
more than one special ability and in varying degrees of innate potentiality. How-
ever, of interest, one form of specific ability may not help in the development of
others. For example, If you are very good at painting and you can also sing well,
this does not mean that your ability in painting helps you sing—or vice-versa. The
extent to which this intelligence can be impacted by instructional interventions has
been argued extensively over the years—often depicted in terms of the nature-nurture
debate. The stance taken here is not to engage in discussions of extent, as clearly both
are important determiners of behaviour, and we can only impact what is impactable—
so to speak. Most significantly, in this context, is the notion that intelligence can be
developed through a positive mindset (e.g., Growth Mind-set, Dweck 2006), student
effort and perseverance and, of course, good instruction. There is, little doubt that
an innate disposition for a specific S factor, other things being equal, has a natural
advantage over someone not possessing that S factor. For example, in my case, I
have tried to learn to sing, and while I have improved, it’s been minimal at best. I
would not claim even the most basic of competence (however defined). In contrast, I
have worked extensively in the Philippines and am astonished at how well so many
of the locals can sing. How much is innate, and how much is cultural, I don’t know.
I quake in fear (as novices do) when they ask me to sing a song after a workshop
session in a social event. In summary, from Spearman’s perspective, most tasks you
perform are likely to be influenced by G factor, and all individuals have some spe-
cific abilities, which may help in task success, though varied in nature and intensity.
Most importantly, however, both G and S intelligence are highly subject to positive
environmental influence. As Bloom (1985) concluded:
After forty years of intensive research on school learning in the United States as well as
abroad, my major conclusion is: What any person in the world can learn, almost all persons
can learn if provided with appropriate prior and current conditions of learning. This general-
ization does not appear to apply to the 2% or 3% of individuals who have severe emotional
and physical difficulties that impair their learning. At the other extreme, there are about 1%
or 2% of individuals who appear to learn in such unusually capable ways that they may be
exceptions to the theory.
He goes on to illustrate:
This middle 95% of school students become very similar in terms of their measured achieve-
ment, learning ability, rate of learning, and motivation for further learning when provided
with favourable learning conditions.
One example of such favourable learning conditions is mastery learning where the students
are helped to master each learning unit before proceeding to a more advanced learning task.
In general, the average student taught under mastery-learning procedures achieves at a level
above 85% of students taught under conventional instructional conditions. (p. 4)
Another, more recent framing of intelligence is that of Multiple Intelligences

(Gardner 1983), which posits a number-of different kinds of intelligences. He initially
proposed that there are eight main types of intelligence:
• Visual-Spatial
• Linguistic-Verbal
• Interpersonal
• Intrapersonal
• Logical-Mathematic
• Musical
• Bodily-Kinaesthetic
• Naturalistic.
In 2009, Gardner suggested that existential and moral intelligence may also be
worthy of inclusion. However, Gardner’s theory, much like that of the learning styles
proponents, has come under criticism from psychologists who argue that his defini-
tion of intelligence is too broad and that his eight different “intelligences” simply
represent talents, personality traits, and abilities. Gardner’s theory also suffers from
a lack of supporting empirical research and as Hattie (2009) argues:
…the pursuit of multiple intelligences has a limited return. Realizing that students have
different abilities, talents, and interests is critical, but there is no need for a rhetoric of
multiple intelligences that goes beyond this well-argued, well known, and almost simplistic
(but powerful) message. (p. 90)
…it is desirable to have multiple ways of teaching and there is no need to classify students
into different ‘intelligences’. (p. 91)
Traits/Dispositions
The area of traits and dispositions often creates some conceptual confusion, not
dissimilar to that of comparing & contrasting metacognition, self-regulated learning,
self-directed learning and meta-learning. The term trait is used to describe a typical
characteristic that a person has or is perceived to possess. For example, we may refer
to a person in such terms of ‘friendly’, ‘selfish’, ‘unreliable’, etc. Sometimes the term
personality is attached to the description, e.g., she’s an extrovert personality or he is
introverted. Essentially, personality is generally framed, though with variation and
focus, as the more generalized set of key traits that a person displays. In mainstream
psychology, these are often referred to as the Big 5:
• introverted or extroverted
• neurotic or stable
• incurious or open to experience
• agreeable or antagonistic
• conscientious or undirected.
Personality traits are hereditary and are relatively permanent and stable over
time. The innate basis of personality traits has been extensively validated, especially
through the study of monozygotic (identical) twins separated at birth (e.g., Mit-
tler 1971; Bouchard 1990). Such twins show remarkable similarities, even though
reared in very different environments. Hence, people often postulate on how much
of personality, our trait configurations, are hereditary and how much is influenced
by environmental experience. This nature-nurture debate has raged (note: I do not
use this term loosely) over the decades, swinging back and forth depending on the
dominant ideology of the time. Over the past two decades the dominant ‘social sci-
ence model’ (i.e., focus on culture and socialization as the main determinants of
behaviour, and perhaps most prevalently voiced in terms of gender and race issues)
is now being challenged by a wide range of research findings (e.g., Pinker 2003;
Swaab 2015). The important issue from a pedagogic point of view is that while we
have finally ‘put the learning styles issue to bed’, we cannot avoid the reality that our
learners have different personalities that can vary greatly—and some configurations
may be easier (much easier) to teach than others. O’Connor and Paunonen (2007)
have noted that:
…there are behavioural tendencies in personality traits that can affect certain habits that influ-
ence academic achievement (e.g., perseverance, conscientiousness, talkativeness)…While
cognitive ability reflects what an individual can do, personality traits reflect will do. (p. 40)
In an unfavourable scenario, you simply may have a disproportionate number of

neurotic, incurious, antagonistic and undirected learners. Even worse, have you had
managers who have such personality configurations? Sadly, whether we like it or
not, and it may not be the person’s fault, as this is how genetics and early experi-
ences play out (even from inside the womb according to Swaab 2015) in creating
micro-wiring neurologically in the brain that determiners such behaviour (largely
sub/unconsciously). Such framing invariably raises questions relating to free will, or
our lack of it, aptly elucidated by Harris (2010). These are deep philosophical issues,
under increasing scrutiny by cognitive scientists and philosophers alike. However,
from an educational point of view, this only heightens the importance of MC, as
it is perhaps our best—maybe only means for enhancing conscious (more rational)
self-direction.
It can be argued that such hereditary factors influence what is often referred to as
‘dispositions’, which are generally framed in terms of a person’s tendency to exhibit
a consistent response to a particular stimulus situation, which may not be within their
control (e.g., Katz 1993). As Hattie (2009) summarizes:
…students not only bring to school their prior achievement (from preschool, home, and
genetics), but also a set of personal dispositions that can have a marked effect on the outcomes
of schooling. (p. 40)
For example, we may notice that some students tend to be impulsive when given
a challenging task—which can be framed as a maturational issue or a disposition.
It’s probably some of each, and there is little point in trying to ascertain how much
to allocate to either aspect. What is important is that dispositions can easily lead to
the forming of habits, which are particular-behavioural sets, often involuntary and
automatic. We tend to think of habits in negative terms, such as ‘that person has some
shocking-habits’. In practice habits can be productive for learning, as in the case of
students who have the habit of doing key reading and critical thinking when doing
their assignments. MC can help individuals to analyse their dispositions, identify
what one’s constitutes strengths and weaknesses for learning and well-being, and
then take the necessary self-regulatory action. Hence, there is little need to change
positive dispositions. These include what Costa (1991) referred to as Habits of Mind
or Intelligent Behaviours, which include such dispositions as ‘persisting’, ‘manag-
ing impulsivity’, ‘listening with understanding and empathy’, ‘creating’, ‘innovat-
ing’, ‘thinking flexibly, ‘thinking about thinking’, ‘taking responsible risks’, ‘striving
for accuracy’, ‘finding humor’, ‘questioning and posing problems’, ‘applying past
knowledge to new situations’, and ‘remaining open to continuous learning’.
Whatever the terminology employed, Positive Dispositions, Habits of Mind
or Intelligent Behaviours, they are essentially referring to the same attributes
(traits/dispositions) that facilitate better learning and well-being. However, equally,
many negative dispositions can mitigate one’s learning capability and in doing so,
impact self-efficacy and well-being. These can be seen in terms of the absence of the
above positive dispositions/ habits of mind. For example, impulsivity, poor thinking,
sloppiness in doing work, etc. are not good on the learning front, and are likely to
have negative impacts across all of life’s domains. However, many poor disposi-
tions can be addressed through specific cognitive strategies and tools, supported by
metacognitive strategies. Over time, better habits will form, and these will develop
neurological correlates that will further support the behaviour—even reducing the
innate valency of the disposition over time.
Skills
Skill in the most basic sense is the ability to do something well. For example, one
could say that a person has a good skill in heading a soccer ball, presenting a speech,
creative thinking, cake-baking, etc. Skill is often confused with competence, as we
could equally apply very similar terminology to the above examples (i.e. competent
at heading a football, etc.). However, as we know, a person may be very good at doing
something (i.e., skilful), but not choose to (or be able to) display his/her skill in real
work or life situations, for whatever reasons (e.g., impulsivity, introverted). Hence,
the term competence is generally used to describe the work-related performance or
complex performances in any field that involve more than skilful activity, but also
other important attributes for successful performance—as identified and explored
above.
In the case of teaching, and this would apply to any complex activity, there
are many skills involved as part of the overall performance (i.e., in the observable
behaviour, from which we can infer and interpret a person’s competence), and these
can vary significantly in terms of complexity. For example, if we talk about presen-
tation skills, which are important in teaching, one aspect of the skill is voice tone.
Mlodinow (2012), for example, quoting research by Apple et al. (1979), highlighted
the power of voice on person perception. This involved an experiment in which vol-
unteers were asked to judge the attributes of speakers’ voices (without seeing them),
who were using the same content, but with a specific variation in the vocal qualities.
In this way, the listeners’ assessments would be based on the influence of those vocal
qualities and not the content of the speech. Mlodinow’s summary captures the key
results:
…speakers with high-pitched voices were judged to be less truthful, less emphatic, less
potent, and more nervous than speakers with lower-pitched voices. Also, slower-talking
speakers were judged to be less truthful, less persuasive, and more passive than people who
spoke more quickly. …And if two speakers utter the same words but one speaks a little faster
and louder and with fewer pauses and greater variation in volume, that speaker will be judged
to be more energetic, knowledgeable, and intelligent. Expressive speech, with modulation in
pitch and volume and with a minimum of noticeable pauses, boosts credibility and enhances
the impression of intelligence. (p. 113)
However, it is not just the use of a voice that is impactful in terms of influenc-
ing how people experience a speaker, but also a whole host of non-verbal aspects
of interpersonal communication, many operating unconsciously, that significantly
affect perception and attention. For example, a key behavioural aspect of human
interaction which I have long believed to be fundamental in creating a good psy-
chological climate, whether in the classroom or the local coffee shop, is Smiling.
Not surprisingly, cognitive neuroscience is providing a strong evidence base for its
impact, which has been summarized by Hattie and Yates (2014):
…the smile is one of the most powerful tools to use in interpersonal teaching situations.
(p. 259)
They go on to note that research:

…has documented that a split second’s exposure to a smiling face can gently alter people’s
minds with attitudes to neutral objects becoming more positive, as well as other people being
rated more favourably. (p. 259)
The above analysis has important implications for identifying, defining, and sub-
sequent professional development in building teacher expertise. Firstly, it is valid
and useful to conclude that voice tone and smiling can be framed as skills (e.g.,
she is skillful in voice modulation; he has a skill in the way he smiles). While not
typically found in competency-based teacher education frameworks, I see them as
key human communication (even human conduct) skills, and given that teaching is
essentially an act of communication, they are definitely in my toolbox of skills for
teacher expertise.
5.5 Competency-Based Teacher Education
An influential approach to framing competencies in teaching is what is known as

Competency-Based Teacher Education (CBTE), which works by identifying the
range of demonstrable competencies in the teaching role through a process of
functional analysis and thereby define standards of quality in teaching. A crucial
assumption of C.B.T.E., as Tuxworth (1982) pointed out, is that:
…the role of the teacher can be described in terms of specific acts, functions or competencies
which are observable and which can be learned by the student-teacher or in-service teacher.
(p. 5)
In today’s context, there is an increasing focus on Outcomes-based Education, of

which Competency-Based Training is a key framework. According to Blank (1982):
The competency-based approach will work equally well in any occupational training area…
as well as at any level…vocational, technical, or professional. (p. 19)
It is simply not true that the competencies that make up competency-based training programs
have to be low level or basic skills. If the trainee needs to be able to ‘solve quadratic equations,’
or ‘diagnose the patient’s condition,’ or ‘land a 747 without power’…then it’s simply a matter
of saying so. (p. 20)
Quality in teaching, within this approach, is defined and assessed in terms of

meeting ‘agreed’ competencies. A teacher’s quality can then be judged by the number
of competencies met and to what extent. The appeal of this approach is that it provides
a clear framework from which to develop teaching competencies, as well as for
purposes of appraisal. It identifies performance criteria across specified important
areas of teaching (e.g., lesson planning, method use, presentation and explanation,
producing and using learning resources, and assessment). Indeed, we would expect
teachers to be able to demonstrate these competencies consistently. Such competency
areas are systemic to the act of teaching and learning, though with some variation in
the framing of content areas and the specific skills emphasized.
Competency frameworks are typically framed in terms of broad competency stan-
dards, comprising specific units of competence, which contain more specific sub-
sumed elements of competence. For each element of competence, key underpinning
knowledge and performance criteria are stated as requirements for meeting the com-
petence. There is also guidance on the range and context in which the competency
is to be demonstrated and what constitutes valid and sufficient evidence sources for
deciding that a person has met the competency. Figure 5.2 illustrates the generic
structure.
However, the key question is whether or not CTC can be, (1) sufficiently subjected
to functional analysis and framed in clear, valid and useful competency-based terms
and; (2) learnable by other motivated teaching professionals? For many writers in
the field, the CBTE approach is severely limited in terms of addressing quality in
teaching because of its narrow and simplistic conception of what teaching is and
what teachers do. As Elliot (1991) pointed out:
5.5 Competency-Based Teacher Education 167
Fig. 5.2 Singapore workforce skills qualification competency-based system
They are told it will deliver quality. They believe it will deliver managerial control over their
performance, leave less room for professional judgement and reduce their status to that of a
technical operative. (pp. 118–119)
I have empathy with such critiques of CBTE, as having used this for over a decade
in the UK context, I often experience cognitive dissonance in making judgements
of teacher competence based on the criteria provided, which often seemed to focus
on easy to assess aspects like the font size in PPT slides, positioning in the class-
room, rigid sequencing of content, etc. Now, these things impact learning and are
important. However, I found from much experience, that while I was accrediting
competence based on the performance criteria provided on the assessment proforma,
my personal feelings were that this did not constitute good teaching in many cases,
especially in terms of emotional, cognitive and agentic engagement. Yes, they met
the stated criteria in minimalistic terms, and they were not incompetent, but I would
not have employed them. CTC must extend beyond functional competence, as there
are essential qualitative aspects to expert teaching, though more difficult to frame
and, therefore high inference in terms of assessment.
The Reflective Practitioner Model
Carr (1989) called for a fundamentally different approach to addressing quality in
teaching from that of a competency-based model, focusing on teachers’ reflecting
on their practice. He argues that:
When teaching is interpreted in this way, ‘quality’ has little to do with the measuring up to
a list of performance criteria but instead is something that can only be judged by reference
to those ethical criteria which teachers tacitly invoke to explain the educational purpose of
their teaching. This means that teaching quality cannot be improved other then by improving
teachers’ capacity to realize educational values through their practice. It also means that this
process of improvement can be nothing other than a research process in which teachers
reflect on their practice and use the products of their reflections to reconstruct their practice
as an educational practice in a systematic and rational way. (p. 11)
The Reflective Practitioner approach to improving teaching is popular and con-

sonant with a constructivist perspective as it focuses on individuals making personal
meaning of their learning through their experiences and reflections on those experi-
ences. As Dewey wrote: “We do not learn from experience… We learn from reflecting
on experience”.
It is argued, from this approach, that conceptions of clearly defined and organized
knowledge, which can be applied in universal and systematic ways to the problems
of practice, do not capture in the words of Schon (1991):
…the complexity, uncertainty, instability, uniqueness, and value conflicts which are
increasingly perceived as central to the world of professional practice. (p. 14)
Also, and most importantly, it does not recognize what Schon (1987) refers to as
artistry:
…the kinds of competence practitioners sometimes display in unique, uncertain and
conflicted situations of practice. (p. 22)
Teaching from this point of view cannot be seen solely in terms of the systematic
application of universal or licensed competencies; rather it involves a process of social
construction whereby acquired professional knowledge is dynamically negotiated
concerning the unique contexts of practical situations. Furthermore, implicit in such
a model is the notion of professional practice driven by professional judgement and
ethics. Brophy and Evertson (1976) richly captured the wide range of attributes
involved, and it’s our challenge to unpack this and provide teacher education that
facilitates the learning of such capability:
Effective teaching requires the ability to implement a very large number of diagnostic,
instructional, managerial, and therapeutic skills, tailoring behaviour in specific contexts and
situations to the specific needs of the moment. Effective teachers not only must be able to
do a large number of things: they must also be able to recognize which of the many they
know how to do applies at a given moment and be able to follow through by performing the
behaviour effectively. (p. 139)
Having worked with both frameworks, there are merits and limitations in each.
The competency-based approach provides a systematic structure for teachers to learn
pedagogic competencies such as lesson planning & preparation, the delivery of learn-
ing, design and using teaching/resources, classroom management, assessing learn-
ing, etc. The terminology may change but it’s essentially planning, teaching and
assessment, and there’s nothing wrong with that in broad terms. However, given the
focus on clear measurable aspects of these activities, it often does not capture the
more qualitative aspects of human interaction that influence student’s engagement,
beliefs and feelings, and ultimately the quality of their learning. However, I am not
arguing that a competency-based approach cannot do this, but in practice, it often
results is a more reductionist focus on the easier to define—more quantitative tech-
nical aspects of classroom management and methods—missing the more difficult to
5.5 Competency-Based Teacher Education 169
define qualitative interactional aspects that shape perception and behaviour. Simi-
larly, working with reflective, rather than highly prescriptive criteria, has the benefit
of a more holistic and interpretive framing of what is occurring in the classroom,
focusing more on how students are engaged emotionally and cognitively, rather than
just behaviourally (though not minimizing this aspect of engagement). The major
limitation of this approach is that without a strong underpinning pedagogic literacy,
the reflection may simply result in what Hattie (2009) described as ‘post hoc justifi-
cation’ (e.g., superficial coverage and generalities, lacking sound pedagogic analysis
and evaluation against evidence-based criteria—my interpretation).
5.6 Expertise and Creativity in Teaching
The work of Hatano and Inagaki (1986) has generated interest in terms of differ-
entiating performance at the highest level of competence, which is expertise. They
distinguish between two broad categories of expertise, “routine expertise” and “adap-
tive expertise”. Routine expertise is characterized by a high level of technical profi-
ciency across the typical range of real-world problem-solving contexts. However, as
problems become less familiar or novel, the performance of routine experts can dip
significantly. In contrast, adaptive experts can reframe problems in different ways,
modify or invent strategies and combine skills to deal much more effectively in solv-
ing such problems. They suggest a range of factors that encourage adaptive expertise
in the context of education and may support creative teaching competence. These
include:
• the extent to which the situation has flexibility of options, rather than rigid
procedures, to enable exploration of new approaches
• the degree to which people can tackle problems with a degree of playfulness and
acceptance of some risk in terms of it not working out in practice
• an organizational culture that encourages better practice from professionals as a
key goal. For example, Hatano and Inagaki note:
…they are invited to try new versions of the procedural skill, even at the cost of efficiency.
(p. 270)
Creativity is one of today’s global buzzwords and figures high on lists of so-called
twenty-first-century competencies and skills. Furthermore, if it is such a necessary
attribute, so essential in the worlds of engineering, business and medicine, it should
also be similarly valued in education—and teaching is the core activity of education.
It is important, therefore, to make the best sense we can on what creativity entails in
the context of teaching, and the ways in which it can be utilized at the level of practice.
As a basic assumption, it would seem logical to approach creativity in teaching as
analogous to creativity in any domain, as it involves combining existing knowledge
in some new form to get a useful result. As Amabile (1996) suggested:
A product or response will be judged creative to the extent that (a) it is both a novel and
appropriate, useful, correct or valuable response to the task at hand, and (b) the task is
heuristic rather than algorithmic. (p. 35)
In any attempt to define creativity there are inevitable questions about what con-
stitutes the novel, in whose eyes, by what criteria, and to what extent? Furthermore,
the notion of useful, correct or valuable also involves subjectivity. Rap music may
meet certain criteria of novel, but in no way does it feel useful or valuable to me.
However, because something is difficult to define in precise and uncontested terms
should not detract one from working towards useful heuristics and their practical
application, as outlined earlier. Most things at some point in time were a mystery but
eventually move down the knowledge funnel (Martin 2009) as a result of systematic
inquiry and evidence-based practice—as illustrated in the case of HIV in Chap. 1.
If novelty, in some form and at some level, is foundational to creativity, then effec-
tive teaching may not entail creativity. For example, a teaching professional applying
the core principles of learning, selecting high effect size methods and using them
thoughtfully to the situated context may be teaching very effectively, even perhaps a
“routine expert”—though not an “adaptive expert” in terms of the differentiation of
experts by Hatano and Inagaki (1986). To frame creativity in the context of teaching,
it is essential to identify, in realistic and specific terms, what this might entail in both
the design and facilitation of learning experiences. For example:
• What specifically can be considered novel and useful in the context and practices
of teaching?
• What are the processes and activities that can generate novel resources for
incorporation into the design and facilitation of learning experiences?
Firstly, creativity, like wealth and beauty, are value-laden and relative. When I
travel to some countries, in certain locations I get a sense that some people think I
am very wealthy in financial terms. However, in certain social circles in Singapore
(and this is not specific to Singapore) I could feel relatively impoverished, as I don’t
own the condominium I live in and only have one modest car. In making sense of
creativity the same framing applies, in that novelty and usefulness is relative and one
of extent. Fasco’s (2006) creativity continuum, (identified prior, and refreshed here
for context), in which creativity can extend between two poles: Big C for ‘extreme
forms of originality’ (e.g., Nobel-prize winners in science) and Little c for ‘everyday
creativity’ (e.g., adding butter to coffee to make it tastier), has usefulness in framing
creativity for practical purposes. For example, if creativity is framed primarily in Big
C terms, then notions of developing a better creative competence for any professional
group (teachers included) becomes a very tall order indeed. In contrast, if we see
creativity in terms of such a continuum, then we enter a completely different arena
for conceptualizing creative teaching; one that is both challenging and realistically
achievable for any motivated teaching professional.
Secondly, it is important to understand how the creative process works, especially
the underpinning thinking processes, as these are fundamental to producing creative
outcomes. There is certainly an extensive research literature base on all aspects of
5.6 Expertise and Creativity in Teaching 171
creativity and many factors have been identified as contributing to such outcomes,
including biology, biography and the systematic use of creative techniques and tools.
Changing biology is difficult, and past biography is exactly that, hence a focus on
the creative thinking process and how the mind works may be the best avenue for
enhancing creative capability in practical ways.
I like travelling to different countries and have been fortunate to work and partici-
pate in a wide range of cultural contexts. I have also seen most of the acclaimed tourist
sites, especially in Asia. However, what I find most interesting is talking to people in
local eating places, sharing stories and finding mutually meaningful humour. For me,
stories provide the key narrative to understanding the human condition and building
rapport with people, irrespective of culture and location. How the creative process
works can also be framed in terms of stories, as each creative act has a story to tell.
One story that comes readily to mind and it fully fits a Big C categorization is that
of Percy Shaw and his invention in 1933 of the cat’s eye, a road stud for lighting
the way along roads in the dark. While there are a number of stories on what led to
him inventing the cat’s eye, a popular version (one that I like anyway) is that on a
foggy night in 1933, when he was driving back to his home in the Boothtown area
of Halifax from nearby Bradford, he hit a perilous stretch of road with a sheer drop
down a hillside to the right of the road. It was very dark and Percy could not see where
the road ended and the hillside began, until suddenly he spotted, in the darkness, the
reflections of his car headlamps in the eyes of a cat sitting by the road. It is then that
he is said to have hit upon the idea of replicating the reflection of a cat’s eyes to guide
drivers along dark and dangerous roads.
The main purpose of this story is to illustrate some important aspects of creativity.
Firstly, once invented, a creative act often seems so simple and logical. How many
people before Percy Shaw had, on a dark foggy night, noticed the reflective power
of cat’s eyes to light, but failed to make the internal neural connections to create a
new perception which may have generated the idea of a reflective road-stud? As De
Bono (2003) emphasized: “…every valuable creative idea must always be logical in
hindsight.” (p. 24).
Thirdly, creativity is not a process of ‘thinking out of the box’, which is impossible,
I think. Rather it is more useful to think of it as a process that changes internal neural
connections and creating new representations ‘in the box’, which is, of course, the
human brain. The process moves on further when these ‘new representations’ become
conscious and surface as a new perception of phenomena in the external world—as
happened to Percy Shaw above. Typically, without disruption, the brain will process
information through established learned neural networks, and that makes good sense
as life would be chaotic without a high degree of perceptual consistency. As De Bono
(1992) summarized:
What it all amounts to is a system in which incoming information sets up a sequence of
activity. In time this sequence of activity becomes a sort of preferred path or pattern. (p. 17)
So whenever we look at the world we are only too ready to see the world in terms of our
existing patterns… (p. 18)
For many people, everyday life is a fairly ordered series of activities in which
existing neural networks fire in relation to well-known and predictable stimulus
events, which further reinforce those connections. There is little need for creativity,
or the likelihood of it occurring. An interesting question is whether or not continually
enhancing one’s knowledge will eventually result in creativity. Such activity will
certainly increase neural density and elaboration in long term memory and the notion
would seem to have face validity in that many big C people fit this description.
Leonardo Da Vinci, for example, was no sloth on the knowledge stakes, frequently
referred to as a polymath (i.e., a person whose expertise runs across several subject
domains and professional fields).
However, creativity involves more than having rich knowledge bases and exper-
tise. Many experts are not noted in the creativity ratings. Hence, while expert knowl-
edge bases may enhance the likelihood of a new perception that results in a creative
outcome, it is far from guaranteed. Other factors are invariably important, such as
personality, other neurological features, belief systems, effort, and typically, some
luck. For example, as with successful learning generally, what may be of particular
significance is the desire and belief in one’s creative capability, and the persistence
to keep going with a problem scenario until a creative perception occurs. As Albert
Einstein is famously quoted:
It’s not that I’m so smart, it’s just that I stay with problems longer.
Furthermore, unless situations dictate or there is a process of continuous deliber-

ation to break up or at least challenge existing perceptions, additional information
will still largely be processed within the existing neural organization. For Creativity
to occur, it is necessary to be able to perceive some aspect of reality in a different
light, and that requires some internal neural restructuring of existing knowledge. As
Mauzy and Harriman (2003) describe:
…breaking and making connections is where the fundamental action of the creative process
takes place, and what’s known in the fields of psychology and brain physiology lines up with
this. (p. 22)
As a result, De Bono’s (2003) is correct in arguing that:

We need creativity to break free from the temporary structures that have been set up by a
particular sequence of experience. (p. 27)
This can be facilitated by deliberative interventions in which existing neural path-

ways (“main track”) are disrupted and new ones created (“sidetrack”), especially
through what he refers to as the techniques of provocation:
They are methods of helping us to escape from the main track to increase our
chances of getting to the sidetrack. That is also the basis of the expression lateral
thinking. The ‘lateral’ refers to moving sideways across the pattern instead of moving
along them as in normal thinking. (p. 24). The purpose of this is to take us out of the
normal perceptual pattern and to place our minds in an unstable position from which
we can then “move” to a new idea. (p. 71).
De Bono challenges the view that the brain is naturally creative. He acknowledges,
however, that:
New ideas may be produced by an unusual coming together of events. New ideas may be
produced by a chance provocation provided by nature… (p. 67)
In terms of explaining Percy Shaw’s creative act of generating the idea of the ‘cat’s
eye’, the notion of ‘an unusual coming together’ and ‘chance provocation provided
by nature’ seems to fit nicely. Who knows, if the cat had not been there, on that night,
would the new perception have emerged? How methods of provocation can relate
to producing creative instructional strategies for teaching (i.e. developing creative
teaching competence) will be explored later. The important point to emphasize here
is that novel perceptions must inevitably have, as their basis, the elaboration and
restructuring of neural configurations. Creativity is essentially just another aspect of
the generic process of learning, but with a different cognitive spin (so to speak); the
building of more differentiated frames on reality. As de Bono makes fully explicit:
In my view learning, creative thinking is no different from learning mathematics and any
sport. (p. 57)
A similar analogy can be applied to the naturally funny people in life, whether
professional comedians or otherwise. Do such people have funnier experiences than
those lacking humour, or do they actively look for the funny side of the experience,
provoking new ways of experiencing everyday reality, hence creating the conditions
in which funny outcomes are more likely? For example, in East London humour
(well when I lived there some 30 years ago), there was a type of humour which was
referred to as ‘selling a dummy’. This involved making a silly statement in jest and
waiting to see the response of others. For example, if someone talks perhaps too
positively about someone else (e.g., they are very talented, kind, generous, etc.), a
listener may respond by saying, “Well, she must have some good points as well”.
If this results in the speaker, taking this seriously and responding with some mild
annoyance, he/she has been “sold a dummy”. Now, what’s clever, if the person who
was being sold the dummy initially does not falls for it, and sells a dummy back, it’s
called a ‘double dummy’ and that’s a very witty thing to be able to do. Can you do
this?
As a Cockney from East London, I think I know the answer to the question posed in
the last paragraph. If you look at things in the same way and do the same things in the
same situations, you will typically (unless there is a chance provocation) get the same
results. To get different results, it is necessary to do something differently. Hence,
it is not surprising that people who desire and persevere in deliberately connecting
things that may not initially seem to be naturally connected and look for new ways of
perceiving aspects of reality are likely to produce more creative outcomes, whether
in engineering design, teaching, or in making people laugh.
Finally, in terms of fostering creative outcomes, there appear to be recognizable
phases, mindsets and activities that can be systematically employed to stimulate and
enhance creativity. For example, Petty (1997) described the creative process as con-
sisting of six interrelated phases: inspiration, clarification, distillation, perspiration,
evaluation and incubation (p. 15). He also highlighted:
One of the main difficulties for creative people is that the different phases require radically
different, even opposite ‘mind-sets’, each of which is difficult to sustain without deliberate
effort. (p. 19)
Most significant in the context of this chapter is moving the focus of one’s mind
through the different stages, from generating new possibilities and applying more
critical thinking frames (e.g., analysis, comparison & contrast, inference and inter-
pretation, and evaluation) until the idea reaches fruition and practical application.
This is in many ways the result of good thinking, which not only involves manag-
ing the thinking process (cognition) but the whole swirl of beliefs, emotions and
other vagaries of the human mind. Perspiration, which is massive effort over time by
another name, is an expected necessity in most cases, especially for coming up with
something exceptionally novel and useful (e.g., a big C creativity outcome) as this
is far from easy as we all know. Thomas Edison made the point most bluntly:
Genius is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration.
Of interest is the phase Petty referred to as ‘incubation’. Creativity, in terms of

creative outcomes, cannot be summoned up at will over a designated period-of-time
(e.g., let’s be creative in the next 3 h). We may focus our minds on various phases in
the process, but incubation has its patterns of behaviour and they are outside of our
conscious control. As Petty (1997) pointed out:
Many brilliant ideas have occurred in the bath or traffic jams. If you can stop work on a
project for a few days, perhaps to work on other things, this will give your subconscious
mind time to work on any problems encountered, and will also distance you from your ideas
so that you are better able to evaluate them. (p. 8)
Claxton’s (1998) analysis of the interplay between our fast conscious mind (which
has some similarities to Kahneman’s, 2011, description of “System 1 Thinking”,
outlined in Chap. 2) and a slower more fluid ‘undermind’ of “unconscious awareness”
(p. 10), which acts as an “intelligent unconscious” (p. 133) is particularly interesting
in this context. It sees creative ideas as being slowly and unconsciously brewed in
the neural re-configurations of long-term memory and when sufficiently structured,
flashing from the unconscious mind into conscious thought. In other words, while
we are not consciously seeking a creative solution our mind slows down, becomes
more relaxed and uninhibited, enabling it to do such creative work in its way, and
eventually switching on that elusive new perception on reality. Claxton (1998) may
have captured this internal process accurately:
Interesting intuitions occur as a result of thinking that is a low focus, capable of making
associations between ideas that may be structurally remote from each other in the brainscape.
(p. 148)
He went on to summarize the wider process of creative thinking:

The creative mind possesses a dynamic, integrated balance between deliberation and contem-
plation. It can swing flexibly between its focused, analytical, articulated mode of conscious
thought and its diffused, synthetic mode of intuition. (p. 96)
The above analysis on how creativity works in terms of psychological and neu-
rological functioning, and factors that may promote its development and capability,
helps to similarly frame creative teaching from a more evidence-based perspective.
Firstly, using Amabile’s (1996) definition earlier, I previously offered (Sale 2015)
the following operational definition of creative teaching:
Creative teaching occurs when a teacher combines existing knowledge in some novel form
to get useful or valuable results in terms of facilitating student learning and attainment. This
may be either planned before the act of teaching or invented as a response to the demands
of the here and now learning situation. (p. 100)
Secondly, in terms of Fasco’s (2006) creativity continuum, we are looking more

towards Little c. However, while it may be Little c in that it may go unnoticed except
by those directly influenced, the cumulative impact of such teaching over time will
significantly impact the perception, beliefs and actions of students towards better
learning experiences and attainment. It might only be Little c in the world stage, but
Big C for those students who get inspired to learn, attain better grades, achieve goals
that are meaningful to them and experience well-being—it changes their lives.
Thirdly, ensuring a high level of competence with the longer-term aim of devel-
oping “adaptive experts” rather than “routine experts” (Hatano and Inagaki 1986),
provides a clear viable goal for framing the creative teacher. Creative teaching is,
therefore, different from effective teaching, but both involve a high level of pedagogic
literacy and proficiency in terms of technical competence in the practices of teach-
ing, as outlined earlier in the chapter. However, creative teachers have the added
capability of combining existing knowledge to produce novel and useful learning
experiences as well as being able to reinvent their pedagogic strategies in situ, to
meet changing demands in different learning contexts. They can see more flexible
connections between the technical skills they possess and the range of resources that
can be accessed and weaved together to create a better-situated strategy for support-
ing learning then. Hattie’s (2009) concept of “Russian Dolls” has relevance again
in this context as it captures the ability to creatively combine several high effect
size methods and e-tools into ‘optimal’ instructional strategies. Creative teachers are
more able to make connections between methods, activities and resources that may
not always seem to be logically connected, but in practice make significant impacts on
aspects of the learning process. This is lateral thinking (De Bono) in operation, and it
will often involve teachers consciously provoking themselves to create new ways and
activities for teaching difficult concepts or processes. Teaching from this perspective
is outlined in Fig. 5.3. Note: this is a conceptual model, not hierarchical in that one
stage must be achieved before the next. It is essentially iterative. However, Compe-
tent and Creative teachers employ a strong Pedagogic Literacy—whether explicitly
or tacitly.
Some teachers often complain that their students are bored in certain lessons and
don’t show any interest in learning. This is a legitimate complaint but often, from
my experience, they still employ the same instructional strategy for those topics
over again, and the inevitable happens—the results are usually the same. Creative
teachers in such situations do things differently and most importantly what they do
Fig. 5.3 Summary frame on

teaching expertise
differently tends to work better. Over time, using an EBT approach with lateral think-
ing (e.g., deliberate practice using lateral thinking), most teachers, those motivated
to do so, will get better and quicker at coming up with more interesting and effective
components to infuse into their lessons. They will be developing creative teaching
competence.
5.7 The Syntax of Creative Teachers
For over two decades, I had responsibilities for the mentoring and coaching of
under-performing teachers, and many of them were ‘conscripts’ (e.g., sent to me
for improvement). Over a decade ago, having worked with hundreds of such folk,
in many different contexts, I noticed patterns of behaviours and thinking that made
understanding what ineffective teachers do quite easy to work out. It has variation in
nature and form, but there is an underlying syntax of ineffective teaching behaviours,
irrespective of whether they are intended or not, and in most cases, it is not intended.
Essentially, in the context of EBT, they violated many of the core principles of
learning very consistently and to some measure of negative effect. Eventually, hav-
ing cracked the ‘code’ of poor teaching—so to speak—it occurred to me, that it is
equally tenable to be able to unpack what effective creative teachers do and how
they do it (e.g., the work of Bain 2004, was pioneering in this context). Hence, for
more than a decade, I have continued in this vein as a researcher in Singapore. I must
confess, that developing the creative teaching framework documented in Creative
Teaching: An Evidence-Based Approach (Sale 2015) was not a question of switch-
ing on a ‘creative thinking switch’, but the very opposite; many thousands of hours
of hard work, probably building up—incubating—over many years (much occurring
unconsciously)—as documented earlier in the chapter. It was like that. As Winget
(2007), in his book titled “It’s Called Work for a Reason”—fits my experience well.
5.7 The Syntax of Creative Teachers 177
In observing teachers who consistently get high attainment results and positive
feedback (both quantitative and qualitative) I typically notice high levels of engage-
ment and, in particular, good rapport with students. Most significant, was that while
they might have different teaching styles, there is an underpinning syntax in what
they do in terms of certain behavioural elements that positively shape student expe-
riences, which lead to such results. While people make sense of the world based on
prior experience and selective perception, our common human apparatus and need
orientation typically results in shared ways of experiencing the world. Indeed, with-
out this commonality, the inter-subjectivity of everyday life would be even more
problematic than it is already. As Marton (1981) argued:
…we have repeatedly found that phenomena, aspects of reality, are experienced (or
conceptualized) in a relatively limited number of qualitatively different ways. (p. 181)
You may recall from Chap. 1 that even the defining of effective teaching has
proved contentious and problematic over the decades, so what chance is there of
achieving an adequate definition of creative teaching? I can only offer a frame on
this and let’s initially recognize fully that we have little choice but to live with a
fair measure (whatever that is) of subjectivity in making sense of the world. For
example, we have beauty contests and there are judges, contestants, decisions made,
and winners identified. Well, how does that work when supposedly, “Beauty is in
the eye of the beholder?” Well, it is and it isn’t—right? Yes, beauty is subjective, but
there’s a lot of common agreement, explicit or otherwise, about what its key features
are, at least at a heuristic level; and that’s why I have yet to win one.
Now, what’s important is that in the mediation between teacher and students,
and between students, some things facilitate learning and well-being much better
than others—as we have documented, and this is the basis of EBT. However, much
is subtle and working unconsciously, and appears almost ephemeral—but that is
because the mind ‘is as the mind is’—essentially chaotic and open to subtle influences
in terms of impacting mood or psychological state. However, combinations of certain
behaviours, often linked to specific activities, create positive perceptions and feelings
about what is occurring, and we know what positive feelings do—create a nice little
shot of dopamine.
The following sections outline and illustrate some specific notable features and
aspects of CTC, which I have captured in the acronym SHAPE (Stories, Humour,
Activities, Presentation Style and Examples). This acronym provides a useful and
easy to remember metaphor as it is so much a term in our everyday vocabulary for
qualitative descriptions of things. For example, when a person has attained a high
level of physical fitness, which is visible in terms of muscle tone, etc., we might say
to the person that he or she is in “good shape”. The converse is also true at the level of
perception, though we are highly unlikely to say this to the person. In the context of
creative teaching, SHAPE was just something that came into my conscious mind as
a result of indwelling about what creative teachers do (based on students’ qualitative
feedback on these teachers) at the behavioural level in their classrooms. There were
so many references to ‘stories’, ‘humour’, ‘interesting activities’, ‘personality of the
teacher’ and ‘good examples’ in the students’ qualitative responses about teachers
that were perceived as creative or interesting. These same teachers also got responses
very much in tune with Willingham’s (2009) description of the teacher as ‘being a
nice person’. It is interesting that Willingham, in reviewing researchers’ analysis of
feedback questionnaires to figure out which professors get good ratings and why,
noted that one of the interesting findings is that most of the question items are
redundant. He suggests that:
A two-item survey would be almost as useful as a thirty-item survey because all the questions
really boil down to two: Does the professor seem like a nice person, and is the class well
organized…Although they don’t realize they are doing so, students treat each of the thirty
items as variants of these two questions. (p. 50)
While academics may break up the components of highly effective teaching into
a wide range of sub-components or constructs, this is not how students perceive and
apprehend the experience of their teachers; rather their perception is based on more
holistic generic constructs such as personality and organization. As Willingham
summarized:
When we think of a good teacher, we tend to focus on personality and on the way the teacher
presents himself or herself. But that’s only half of good teaching. The jokes, the stories, and
the warm manner all generate goodwill and get students to pay attention. But then how do
we make sure they think about meaning? That is where the second property of being a good
teacher comes in - organizing the ideas in the lesson plan in a coherent way so that students
will understand and remember. (p. 51)
Furthermore, it is highly likely that this evaluation process by students will be

based on unconscious as well as conscious processing. Students are likely to relate the
experience of their teachers to key aspects of motivation—pleasure, pain avoidance
and novelty in relation to their need orientation. From this they will derive varying
degrees of meaning, which will then translate into ratings for the teachers being
evaluated. The disorganized and dull, even mean, teacher, is going to fare badly
in most cases. The interesting question becomes, “What are the components of the
experience that lead many students towards perceptions of a very well organized and
nice teacher?”.
From an EBT approach it is not too difficult to largely answer this question, as
a teacher who can effectively employ the core principles of learning thoughtfully in
the situated context, is likely to be perceived in such ways—though not necessarily
by all the students all of the time, as that’s how life plays out.
Furthermore, once framed in the wider context of an evidence-based approach to
teaching, SHAPE seemed so simple as a metaphor on creative teaching. In retrospect,
for most of the least effective and dullest of teaching observations I have been involved
with, the description of ‘poor SHAPE’ fits the overall experience very accurately.
Although, unlikely to figure on a formal evaluation form for teachers, a teaching
session with no stories, no humour, no engaging activity, poor presentation style and
no examples, is most likely to be a drab and ineffective affair by any criteria.
5.7.1 Stories
Human history is a collection of stories of how we have attempted to make sense of

the world around us, find solutions to a whole range of existential problems and even
explain the nature of our very existence. As Schank (2011) argued:
Human beings understand stories because stories resonate with them. Characters have dilem-
mas that readers or viewers themselves have had. Stories appeal to emotions rather than logic,
and emotions are at the heart of our pre-7-year old unconscious selves. (p. 42)
When there are no more stories to tell, we may be in that perfect world where
thinking is redundant and there are no problems to solve. At the personal level, we
communicate our experience through the stories we tell: they reflect who we are,
the sense we have made of our experiences and they become a stimulus for other
people’s perception and the quality of attention they are likely to give us.
Watch the very best speakers in any field and there is typically a story in their
presentation, invariably a very poignant one to their main purpose and audience. From
the perspective of enhancing a learning experience, stories connect powerfully with
others as they immediately associate with their own experiences, especially at the
emotional level. From an evidence-based perspective, as the cognitive neuroscientist
Willingham (2009) suggested:
The human mind seems exquisitely tuned to understand and remember stories – so much so
that psychologists sometimes refer to stories as “psychologically privileged,” meaning that
they are treated differently in memory than other types of material. (p. 51)
Learners may forget the factual content of our lessons but stories that are embed-
ded with meaning, especially when it connects to their own experiences, needs and
interests, are committed easily to memory and provide a powerful anchor for recall.
Stories can also be transformative in that they connect with people emotionally and
are a key means of enhancing positive beliefs. As noted previously, beliefs are no
more than perceptions that have been around a long time, but they are real to the
believer. There is often little point in telling students that they are smart when they
believe they are not. Changing limiting beliefs most readily occurs when people
are confronted with evidence, over time, that consistently contradicts the belief, and
which is perceived as real and meaningful. This is where stories can provide an
effective means for initiating alternative ways of looking at the world (i.e., refram-
ing). Reframing refers to looking at things in different contexts and, in doing so,
give them different meanings. For example, in certain contexts, if I feel it may have
relevance and meaningful learning impact for students, I have deliberately used per-
sonal stories relating to my own experiences at school (you will have noted this from
Chap. 1). Has this led to some students actually significantly reframing aspects of
their belief systems and then going on to make the necessary behavioural changes
(e.g., put in personal effort, acquire key knowledge and skills, develop metacognitive
capabilities, persist when things get tough and seek good feedback) and, as a result,
becoming more successful (however defined)?
Typically, as teachers, unlike plastic surgeons, we rarely know how impactful we

have been in some transformative way on our students’ lives. For plastic surgeons,
given that all as gone as planned, there is likely to be immediate grateful feedback
from the patients concerned. However, for teachers, significant personal change in
students is usually difficult to ascertain as it often takes time to develop and by then
they have probably long left our tutorage. I am perhaps fortunate to have experienced
one very striking example that occurred from a chance encounter. Some 20 years ago,
I had just completed a consultancy assignment in Hong Kong and was sitting in the
airport lounge waiting to catch the flight back to Singapore, when I heard someone
call my name. Looking around, I recognized a student I had taught previously in the
UK but had not seen since he graduated as an electrician from a further education
college many years earlier. He recognized me in this far away location, which was
pleasing as it meant I had not aged that much. We had a drink at the airport, and
I discovered that since leaving the college he had completed a degree in electrical
engineering and established a successful company. However, what was significant
was his reference to my influence on him in terms of affecting his beliefs about
himself through the stories I told of my experiences in growing up in a tough East
London community. I was quite surprised at the time by his perception of my impact
on his thinking and behaviour, but on reflection, it’s not that surprising given the way
the mind works.
Perhaps, even such a chance encounter, in a globalized world is also not so sur-
prising. However, generally, and perhaps sadly, teaching is perhaps, as was once
described to me, “The second most private act”. How many people have been signif-
icantly influenced by good teachers, as Petty (2009) described in Chap. 1? Most of
those teachers will never know and will remain ‘unsung heroes. Equally, many may
not care about such acclaim. That’s because they chose to teach and they know what
this means.
Also, it is important to bear in mind that stories do not need to be highly excep-
tional in terms of the human experience they communicate. They simply need to be
authentic, relate to what is being taught and be meaningful to the learners involved.
For example, I remember a teacher using a personal story to communicate the expe-
rience of dealing with a ‘no’ in the context of working as a salesperson. This was a
business studies lesson focusing on selling. One of the big challenges that salespeo-
ple face in dealing with constant ‘no’s’ to their offers of products or services, is a
loss of personal feelings of esteem and confidence. His story involved asking a girl
for a date over the phone (in the days of rotary dial phones). As he told the story, he
modelled the dialing of each number, showing his nervousness visibly. He explained
his fear about her saying no and made the powerful point that unless you ask in the
first place, you already have a ‘no’ and if you get a ‘no’, then you have a simple
choice—persist or give up. The story had a happy ending—she said yes. Stories
represent a unique, novel and personal means to enhance the learning experience
for students. The very best personal stories, used in context, are a key component
of creative teaching as they provide both deep anchors for remembering the subject
context and, even more importantly, a potentially positive transformative experience
for many students. Table 5.1 provides an advance organizer for building a portfolio
of useful stories.
Table 5.1 Summary framing questions for using stories

Stories
What are the different ways in which stories • Provide interesting and effective advance
can be used to creatively enhance student organizers for a new topic area or key
learning? concept
• Create emotional anchors for enhancing
learning impact and building rapport
• Model good attitudes and dispositions, as
stories will evoke mirror neurons which
have strong subconscious impact on
perception and, in the longer term, beliefs
What is important in telling stories? • A clear and lively presentation style
• Timing and emphasis of key learning
point(s) in the story
• Relevance to the specific topic to be learned
and/or to the process of learning
• Involve students where possible in terms of
eye contact, posture and gestures
• Draw out and analyse the relevance of the
story to the topic (if necessary)
Where can I get useful stories to make lessons • Personal experience
more interesting and creative? • Colleagues, family members,
friends—almost anybody
• Media sources such as books, journals,
newspapers, television, films, internet, etc.
5.7.2 Humour
The importance of humour and its uses to enhance learning were identified in Core
Principle 9: A psychological climate is created which is both success-orientated and
fun. The ability to create and use humour productively for the benefit of others is a
rare and highly sought-after skill, which may explain why professional comedians
earn significantly more than teachers. Useful specific definitions of humour have
proved problematic, as it takes many forms and is always situated to persons and
context. What some people may find extremely funny, others may simply find deeply
offensive. Earleywine (2011), in this context, frames humour generically to focus on
its interpersonal and outcome features:
Humour is an intricate interaction between the perceiver and the perceived…
…humour is anything that somebody deems funny. (p. 21)
Similarly, Tamblyn (2003) sees humor as “a state or quality”, which has a number
of aspects:
…humor is openness, optimism – a sort of yes-saying to life. Humor is creativity. Humor is,
above all, play. Humor, creativity, and play are the same thing because they all involve the
same act: Finding new connections between things. (pp. 9–10)
While there are many genres or types of humour (e.g., jokes, anecdotes, wise-
cracks, witticisms, banter, wordplay), they all typically play out in an interpersonal
context. If the humour is perceived by some as funny, it will result in smiles or laugh-
ter in some form. You may also have noticed that when some people laugh, it often
has a contagion effect causing others to join in, often unknowing of the exact source
of the humour. It is as though laughter of others, just as listening to sad songs or
watching emotional scenes in a film, evokes our mirror neurons (Rizzolatti and Sini-
gaglia 2008). These are neurons that fire automatically when observing someone else
having an experience, creating an inner feeling of having the experience oneself and
we respond with sad emotion, often with tears, almost instinctively. Mirror neurons
may also be an important consideration for how we interact with students in other
ways. For example, showing enthusiasm and displaying good equity in dealing with
students may have similar productive unconscious influences at the neural level.
In a similar vein, Martin (2007), drawing from brain imaging research, reports
that exposure to humorous cartoons activates the well/known reward network in the
limbic system of the brain (e.g., Mobbs et al. 2003). The funnier the particular cartoon
is rated by a participant, the more strongly these parts of the brain are activated. As
he summarizes:
This explains why humour is so enjoyable and why people go to such lengths to experience
it as often as they can; whenever we laugh at something funny, we are experiencing an
emotional high that is rooted in the biochemistry of our brains. (p. 7)
Humour has a particularly powerful effect on human motivation as it affects all

motivational dimensions. Humour creates pleasure (typically manifesting in laugh-
ter), reduces pain (as it distracts attention away from the object or perception of pain,
if only fleetingly) and is typically novel in some way. Humour and creativity may well
be fundamentally linked in terms of shaping aspects of our subjective experience.
As Earleywine (2011) noted:
Creativity and humour appear to go hand in hand. Some researchers view humour as another
form of innovative, inspired flair…A few minutes of comedy, if it leads to genuine guffaws,
can make folks happy and innovative. A good mood enhances creativity anyway, at least up
to a point. (p. 137)
Similarly, Morrison (2008) argued that:

The creative process flourishes when accompanied by a sense of humour. (p. 3)
Perhaps the most critical aspect of humour for learning is its impact on attention
and perception in the learning situation. Firstly, humour, by definition is typically
unpredictable and often is a surprise element in human experience. Hence, it has
both a Von Restorff effect as well as creating a sense of immediacy (e.g., Anderson
1979). Martin (2007) summarizing the research on the impact of immediacy, notes:
Past research has indicated that greater levels of immediacy are associated with more positive
student attitudes towards the class and instructor, greater enjoyment and motivation, and
greater perceived learning. (p. 353)
However, a new joke that we find funny, is funny because of its novelty. If we hear
someone tell it a second time, it may be boring. My wife, for example, will berate
me for repeating a joke or funny story with “We’ve heard that one before.” Now, of
course, when told to a new audience, it will be novel and if their mindset is ‘in sync’
with that type of humour it will get the usual positive response. If something is new
to a particular person, it is creative in their eyes. The essential point is that humour
typically catches the attention of the brain as it creates a strong Von Restorff effect,
as we explored in Chap. 1 and as Morrison (2008) explained:
The surprising aspect of humour affects the attentional centre of the brain and increases the
likelihood of memory storage and long-term retrieval. Humour has the potential to hook
easily bored and inattentive students. As brain food, humour can’t be beaten. (pp. 2–3).
Note, in teaching, while a good piece of humour will work well in getting attention
and helping to build a positive perception of you in the students’ minds, but it has no
or limited positive impact once repeated. However, the good news is that once one
can use humour, there is an almost unlimited supply of resources. It’s not the genre
that becomes habituated to, it’s only the specific example, whether joke, cartoon or
story.
Humour is not just an attention grabber; it is also an experience shaper. I have
a good friend who has a far greater creative capability for humour generation than
anyone I know. He can tell the funniest of stories, display spontaneous wit, and
typically gets folk laughing almost at will. When he is not present at an event, people
notice immediately and ask, “Where is Tom?” If he is not coming, the groans of
disappointment can be audibly heard. Tom’s presence creates pleasure and novelty
and people feel comfortable in talking (and laughing) openly with him. He creates
that type of rapport.
In the context of teaching, the same patterns of human attention and perception
play out, again much of this is unconscious. Being liked is a big factor in positive
student evaluation of their teachers and humour shapes this perception helping to
foster a positive psychological climate and facilitates the building of rapport. There
are several subtle interacting components at play in this experience formation. Firstly,
as Morrison highlighted:
Humour thrives in an environment of trust and is a major factor that contributes to building
trust. (p. 6)
Similarly, as Liston and Zeichner (1990), drawing on the work of Macmillan,

suggest:
Honesty and trust are inherent in the activity of teaching, irrespective of context or time…
(p. 236)
Collectively, the experience works towards engaging students more emotionally

in the learning experience. It’s not rocket science to think of ways in which people,
teachers or otherwise, can evoke such emotional states in others. In situations in
which negative emotions are evoked (e.g., fear, disgust, anger), the only attention
given is one of ‘how best to exit or put up with the existing reality’. The converse
is also true, enthusiastic, humorous and fair-minded teachers are more likely to be
perceived as ‘nice people’. Morisson (2008) goes as far as arguing that:
Humour is a key element in building positive relationships with students that will make
classroom management an invisible element. (p. 59)
Furthermore, humour is more than a strategic technique to generate attention

or refresh the brain but is fundamental to our basic need structure, enabling us to
experience both the joyful emotions as well as deal more effectively with some of the
more negative aspects of human experience (e.g., stress and personal loss). The case
for humour as a powerful resource for creative teachers is strong from an evidence-
based perspective, both in terms of its outcomes on student learning and attainment,
and as a key aspect of the creative design process and ability to teach creatively in situ.
However, for many teaching professionals, this may seem a daunting challenge. Many
concerned teachers have asked me, particularly in the context of students who appear
increasingly distractible in class (so-called Gen Y students), “Do I have to entertain
the student now?” and “Am I supposed to be a comedian also?” Well, there’s some
bad news and some good news. The bad news is that students may well be more
distracted in formal classroom situations, in the sense that they won’t just sit there
and be bored as many might have done in yesteryear. Instead, they may simply
access their mobile devices and indulge in more pleasurable activities, disrupting the
classroom in some non-productive way. The good news is that we now have much
more knowledge on how to teach better, much better and creatively. Of course, we are
not going to motivate all students all of the time, that’s a silly notion. It’s like asking
medical professionals to cure all illnesses for all people. The reality is that teachers
do not need to be highly capable in the comedy stakes, but they should recognize
the benefits of humour in creatively enhancing student learning and attainment. As
a teacher, you need little competence in delivering humour, just the intent to foster
it. As students don’t generally expect their teachers to be humorous, when this is
the case, it is typically experienced as a Von Restorff effect (though students are
unlikely to frame it in these terms). I remember vividly an interesting scenario when
observing a business studies lecturer teaching ‘optional pricing’ to a large group
of young adult students in a lecture theatre format. He used his honeymoon in New
Zealand as the context for some humorous ways to engage and entertain the students,
as well as teach the concept in varied and authentic contexts. He explained that on his
honeymoon in New Zealand there were many tours with options, at additional costs,
of which one was ‘bungee jumping’. He added quizzically that he did not choose
this option in case an alligator was waiting below and ate him. You probably did not
find this particularly funny, neither did I. However, the widespread laughter from the
students was quite striking. What is significant is that a teacher does not need much
skill in being humorous, only the intent to encourage lighter moments. Students
react to what the teacher is trying to do, which is to make the learning experience
a bit more fun than is often the case in many dry classrooms. This teacher simply
used a bit of humour to lighten up a morning lecture while effectively teaching the
designated content knowledge in the syllabus outcomes. His use of humour, as well
as stories, had helped to create a positive psychological climate that worked very well
in terms of student learning. This teacher did win an excellence in teaching award,
and it was not difficult to see why. Apart from the ability to use humour, there were
several other aspects of his practice that, as a total experience, made perfect sense
from an evidence-based perspective. He also had the creative component—using his
honeymoon experience (a Von Restorff effect) as the foundation for teaching optional
pricing. That’s everyday Little c creativity, and it’s not that difficult to do when one
understands the underpinning syntax and heuristics.
Humour then, like other aspects of human capability can be understood, and,
while difficult to define, can be described in very specific terms and therefore, as
Morisson (2008) argued:
Humor is a procedural skill that can be learned. (p. 58)
For example, when telling a joke, as when telling a story, there are key aspects
of an effective presentation. These include keeping it moving fairly quickly, using
movement and expressive voice tone when modelling a conversation between people,
and a quick pause before the punchline. This is not difficult to model, understand
and, with some deliberate practice, show a reasonable proficiency in delivery. When
people tell me they can’t do this, I can usually change their minds in around 1–2 h,
through modelling of the story/joke and getting them to do the necessary practise
with appropriate feedback. They are not quite ready for a professional career as a
comedian but are good to go in terms of adding this humour component to their
teaching skill repertoire of resources. Even easier is the use of materials’, such as
audio or video clips. The important point is that you don’t have to be funny, just the
communication of this intent is a rapport builder and communicates your humanness.
I recall one teacher who, every week, shared either an amusing story about his dog or
a cartoon with his students. It was hardly highly sophisticated humour, but it always
lifted the mood in the classroom and communicated to the students that he was
making an extra effort to make learning more interesting (or at least, less painful).
Quick wit is a really powerful humour resource but requires more skill in terms
of recognizing when and how to use it. I have seen this used by skilful teachers to
manage a wide range of potentially disruptive behaviours. Quick wit can break up
situations of potential conflict, as it’s hard to build up an aggressive psychological
state once interrupted by something funny. This often works simply by slowing down
the negative response long enough for the evoked emotions to settle at the neurolog-
ical level and a more rational state of mind to take prominence in consciousness. I
often use wit to ‘call the room’, an old comedian’s term for being straight and honest
with the audience. For example, in a long session on a dry subject, I might say to
the students something like, “I know you would rather be on an exotic Island with
‘Person x’ (I identify a local celebrity of noted glamour as exemplar) than here with
me doing this on a Tuesday afternoon, but what can we do about it?” This needs to
be done with a bit of ‘playfulness’ in terms of voice-tone and gesture but typically
works as intended because it communicates your empathy and that you share some
of their learning ‘pain’. Quick wit is probably the most difficult of all humour to do
consistently well, and the ‘quick’ component can lead to saying something that may
not be intended and which may be perceived as offensive by some. However, I use
this type of humour extensively and have yet to be slapped or reprimanded in any
way, so it’s not that risky—if one is thoughtful of context.
Even for the teacher who is genuinely self-conscious and chooses not to experi-
ment with any form of humour, there is a fairly easy solution, and this is to allow the
students to generate some humour and simply participate with a genuine smile. The
teacher does not need to be, nor should be, the seat of all humour, it’s much better
when it’s collaborative. Table 5.2 provides a guide for using humour as part of one’s
creative teaching repertoire of resources.
Finally, it is important to recognize that infusing some humour into everyday
classroom interactions is not taking valuable time away from learning the subject.
Quite the contrary, as Dewey argued:
To be playful and serious at the same time is possible, and it defines the ideal mental condition.
Table 5.2 Summary framing questions for using humour

Humour
What are the different types of humour that • Jokes; riddles; anecdotes; stories; cartoons;
can be creatively used to enhance student witticisms; impersonations; humorous video
learning? clips, audio segments or objects—almost
unlimited
What are the main purposes for using humour • Get good attention (humour is a great
in teaching? resource for creating von Restorff effects)
• Create and maintain a positive
psychological climate and build rapport
• Creatively illustrate a fact, concept or
principle with high impact
• Icebreaker for new classes (if done well this
is a good primacy effect)
What must we consider carefully before using • Sensitivity to the learning group and
humour? individuals In terms of political correctness
issues, such as ethnicity, gender, sexual
orientation, etc.
• Confidence in using the particular humour
genre/type (e.g., witticism is more difficult)
Where can I get resources of humour that will • Personal experience
work for me? • Colleagues, family members,
• Media sources such as joke books, journals,
newspapers, television, films, internet, etc.
• Observe professional comedians (live or on
video)—model what they do and how they
do it
5.7.3 Activities
In designing an instructional strategy, one of the most impactful aspects of the learn-
ing experience is the activities that students are engaged in to facilitate key learning
outcomes. Activities are usually used in unison with methods, and can sometimes
refer to the same thing. For example, case studies are considered a method of instruc-
tion, but the actual case is an activity in itself. In most basic term’s activities provide
specific structures for students to engage their thinking skills with selected content
knowledge and work towards understanding and subsequent application. Activities
can take numerous forms, varying from a single question posed to a large project or
dissertation, but they all share a common purpose which is to enhance the learning
process towards designated learning outcomes.
In practice, all instructional strategies are a sequence of planned activities. Some
are predominantly teacher-centred, such as explanation (typically framed as lecturing
or previously ‘chalk and talk’); others involve greater participation and student auton-
omy in terms of choice and management. There is much talk about the need to make
learning more student-centred, rather than teacher-centred and, as noted in Chap. 1,
‘The role of the teacher being changed from the “sage on the stage” to “the guide
on the side”. Frankly, I find this quite disturbing as all instructional strategies should
be student-centred, whether they are more teacher-directed or student-managed. For
example, lecturing, while typically involving more teacher talk than that of students,
does not inevitably mean a lack of student engagement and thinking. Invariably,
long periods of teacher talk, especially if it lacks organization and presentation style
is likely to be both boring and ineffective. However, where lectures are delivered
in ways consistent with an evidence-based approach (e.g., appropriate chunking, a
variation of presentation medium, focus on key concepts, questions to encourage
thinking) and good presentation skills, they can be highly effective and creative in
terms of enhancing student learning and attainment. It is a serious misconception to
perceive lectures as a passive experience for learners. As Hattie and Yates (2014)
make clear:
Within the world of psychology, there is no such thing as passive learning, unless this term
implies learning to do nothing, in a manner akin to learned helplessness. When we are
learning from listening or watching, our minds are highly active…People will often learn
more effectively from watching a model perform than from doing and performing that same
action in the flesh. Although we note that learners need to be active, this does not mean being
active in the physical sense of having to respond overtly. (p. 47)
In contrast, activity for activity’s sake is both un-motivating in many cases, and not
useful for enhancing learning and attainment. The important point is that an effective
instructional strategy is typically an organized series of well-chosen methods and
activities designed to meet the learning goal/outcomes for a given student profile;
the main decisions should relate to the design and facilitation of the overall strategy,
rather than a generic framing of it being teacher-centred-versus student-centred. The
aim, over time, is to enable students to develop the necessary learning-to-learn skills
and sufficient content knowledge to increasingly initiate, direct and manage their
learning, becoming self-directed learners. Of course, well designed and appropriately

calibrated activities (i.e. sufficiently challenging and achievable with effort for the
student group) are fundamental to effective learning. Chickering and Gamson (1987)
pointed out:
Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just by sitting in class listening
to teachers, memorizing pre-packaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must
talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past experiences, apply it to their
daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves. (p. 3)
The most basic form of activity is the question, which powerfully impacts all
aspects of the learning process. Robbins (2001) went as far as arguing that:
Thinking itself is nothing but the process of asking and answering questions. (pp. 179–8)
The very nature of posing a question suggests some gap in knowledge in long term
memory, hence the question. Once the answer is not found in long term memory,
other possible sources of information are then identified and sought to provide the
necessary information. If we ask the right questions about what we need to learn,
find appropriate resources and persist in building the necessary understanding and
competence, we should be well equipped to meet necessary attainment targets.
Questions can take many forms and serve different purposes. For example, they
can be closed, and focused on the memory of key factual knowledge, such as “What
is the currency used in Brazil?” This will provide immediate specific feedback on
whether or not students know this particular fact. However, helping students to build a
solid understanding of the subject content—that is memorizing relevant information
and making the necessary connections through good thinking—requires the use of
open-ended questions that specifically cue the relevant types of thinking documented
in Chaps. 2 and 3. Questions that can effectively promote these types of thinking are
typically what and how questions. The following are some examples relating to
aspects of this book:
• What is the relationship between deliberate practice and expertise?
• What are the similarities and differences between whole-class interactive teaching
and problem-based learning, and how does this affect the role of the teacher?
• What inferences and interpretations can be drawn from Hattie’s meta-analysis of
the research on the impact of learning styles on student attainment?
• How might we evaluate the effectiveness of our evidence-based teaching in terms
of enhancing student attainment?
• What other ways might we encourage our colleagues to take on the challenge of
being more creative in their teaching?
You will have noticed that the first four questions focus on critical thinking skills
(e.g., analysis, compare and contrast, inference and interpretation, evaluation) and the
fifth on creative thinking (generating possibilities). Of particular importance, students
need to clearly understand what good thinking entails (e.g., the cognitive heuristics
identified and outlined in Chap. 2), have opportunities for deliberate practice to apply
these in authentic real-world contexts, as well as receive clear and useful feedback
from expert professionals.
The creative challenge with activities is to produce authentic learning tasks that are
sufficiently challenging as well as to systematically infuse key concept knowledge
and appropriate thinking skills, tailored to desired learning outcomes. While thinking
may not be a desirable activity in all situations, for reasons outlined earlier, the brain
responds well to interesting mental challenges, and in some way novel. Hence, we
may be naturally curious and take pleasure in solving problems. For whatever other
reason would people do crosswords and other puzzles on underground railway system
and buses, apart from relieving boredom? However, apart from personal dispositions,
other factors influence our responses to activities, whether school-based or otherwise.
Firstly, what is sufficiently challenging will vary depending on the student group and
even for individuals within it. Secondly, as Willingham (2009) pointed out:
…curiosity prompts people to explore new ideas and problems, but when we do, we quickly
evaluate how much mental work it will take to solve the problem. If it is too much or too
little, we stop working on the problem if we can. (p. 10)
Activities that facilitate a range of differentiation (e.g., where all students can
be successful, but the activity enables more competent or motivated students to go
further in terms of depth or breadth of the knowledge and skill areas involved),
is particularly challenging and requires creativity on the part of the teacher. Such
activities can take various formats (e.g., cases, projects, problem-based learning,
simulations and experiments) and are based on real work applications of the subject
content How to design of real world tasks was explained and illustrated in Chap. 3.
Table 5.3 provides a guide for enhancing student learning through the creative
use of activities.
It must be emphasized that activities need to be appropriately integrated within the
overall instructional strategy which may also include other methods (e.g., cooperative
learning, reciprocal teaching, peer assessment). Also, just as a funny story can always
be ruined by poor presentation skills, a potentially high impact activity can fall
relatively flat with poor facilitation skills.
5.7.4 Presentation Style
The importance of good presentation skills is obvious in the case of teaching. Unclear
voice, disorganized sentences, monotonous tone, dull body language, irritating man-
nerisms (however defined) etc., all contribute to a quick loss of attention, boredom,
disengagement and, for those wanting to learn, frustration. Increasing research evi-
dence is highlighting very specifically how aspects of our presentation style impact
on others’ perception of who we are and what we are like. The powerful impact
of voice tone and smile were identified prior, and it is certainly my experience that
smiling, often supported with appropriate humour, provides important feedback to
students about your mood and approachability, both at conscious and subconscious
Table 5.3 Summary framing questions for using activities

Activities
What are the different types of activities that • Specific learning tasks; quizzes;
can be used to creatively enhance student competitions; projects; visits; forums;
learning? simulations; cases; work experience; brain
gym/puzzles; experiments; role-play-almost
unlimited
What is important in designing and managing • Relevant to the learning goal(s) and specific
activities? learning outcomes
• Tasks are real life focused, challenging but
achievable, based on students prior
knowledge and skills, and in the context of
resource and time allocation
• Logistic/resource support is available for
successful completion
• Clear and sufficient notes of guidance are
provided for students in terms of task
requirements and assessment components
and criteria
• The overall activity provides opportunities
for differentiated learning
• Good facilitation skills are maintained
throughout the duration of the activity
Where can I get relevant activities that will be • Produce these yourself—that’s a real
challenging and achievable for the students I creative challenge. But a great way to fully
teach? customize activities to the student group and
learning outcomes
• Industry personnel, colleagues
commercial packages, Internet, etc.
levels, and has contagion effects. For example, if you smile at a student, he or she is
likely to smile back at you and this can quickly spread to his or her classmates. This
has such face validity—excuse the pun—but it is not so easy for many people to do
this and, even more importantly, to do it well. In my first year in Singapore, there
was a National Smile Campaign, as it was felt that local people did not smile much,
and this would be a good thing to encourage in the community. The intention was
well-founded, and it provided me, a former teacher of social psychology, to conduct
one of those ‘strange experiments’ that social psychologists often partake in. The
basic experimental design was simple, I smile at everybody I walk past in the local
‘hawker centre’ (this is a Singaporean term for an area comprising many vendors
providing food outlets, usually but not always outdoors). Social psychologists have
thick skins and can deal with embarrassment. What other occupational group goes
around with bold faces asking people to give up their seats in crowded underground
stations, to investigate the impact of social norms on people’s response behaviour?
(Milgram 1977). Many did get up, without asking for reasons. It might on the surface
seem unlikely that few people would ask why, but would you like a response such
as, “My colostomy bag has just broken and….”? Anyway, I conducted the smiling
experiment and held firm despite the great majority of local people, for the first day or
two, looking at me as though I was from another world. Persistence is another trait of
social psychologists, so I continued the daily smiling routine, and guess what? Some
started smiling back to me and, for one week (my designated time for the coverage
of the experiment), I had several brief conversations with local Singaporeans. A few
even congratulated me on my bravery. Of interest, no one during this week initiated
smiling at me. That experience may support the view that smiling is not particularly
easy for many people.
Furthermore, there is a skill in smiling, as in most aspects of interpersonal com-
munication. In the context of classroom teaching, it should be brief, natural and
unforced, involves scanning the whole group with quick friendly eye contact. Yes,
it’s a skill requiring deliberate practice, but one well worth developing both for effec-
tive teaching and social interaction generally. Of course, smiling is not the content
of one’s interaction with others but facilitates setting the climate or context of the
interactions, especially towards building rapport. And, as the famous success coach,
Anthony Robbins (2001) once wrote:
Rapport is the ultimate tool for getting results with other people. (p. 231)
Rapport is very much bound up with positive feelings towards someone you like
and results from your perceptions of what they do and how. There is a saying that
goes something like this, “People like people like themselves.” It also includes liking
people, who you might like to be like. This is often an unconscious bonding process
and reflects the human tendency for identification with desired social models. I like
Molden’s (2001) frame:
Rapport is long-lasting, elegant, respectful, and acknowledging in nature. Rapport con-
nects emotional centres and creates enjoyable bonds between people. Rapport is the intelli-
gent approach to influencing, regardless of positional power, whereas power and authority
are defaults for people in positions of power who have poor interpersonal skills and little
flexibility. (p. 72)
Presentation style is not just the ability to use one’s voice and specific aspects of
body language to maintain positive attention and build rapport, but also to quickly rec-
ognize the reactions of other people, and modify one’s communication style accord-
ingly to encourage desired changes in their behaviour. This ability to quickly notice,
monitor, and to make sense of the external cues from other people, through careful
observation and empathic listening, is often referred to as sensory acuity. These skills,
while typically associated with professionals working in various fields of applied psy-
chology and detective or military work are now increasingly becoming part of the
training of salespeople and customer service personnel. The field of neuro-linguistic
programming (NLP) which focuses on influencing other people’s behaviour through
the use of language, voice tone and a range of non-verbal communication strategies
has much to offer teaching professionals in terms of enhancing presentation style.
It involves skill in recognising patterns in body language and voice characteristics
to understand the states of mind of other people and to be able to make accurate
inferences about their perception and feelings. In this way, it is then possible to
communicate more effectively and get better results in terms of building mutual
understanding and rapport Ultimately, perception and judgements about other peo-
ple, accurate or otherwise, are the product of their behaviour, and of course, our
pre-existing beliefs. The use of NLP is explored further in Chap. 9, in the context of
developing teacher expertise.
In teaching, as in other human interaction situations, the processes of perception,
apprehension and response play out and lead participants to construct their realities,
and these can be favourable or not for the teachers concerned. For example, Wadd
(1973) warned:
In establishing the order he has decided upon, the teacher must be fully aware that what
happens in the first few encounters with the pupils is likely to establish the relationship
which he will have to live with for the rest of his contact with that particular class. (p. 87)
Like on a first date, for a teacher encountering a new class for the first time, it can
be the first step toward a long-lasting positive relationship, or it can be a disaster. In
the language of psychology, as introduced prior, this is a Primacy effect, which has
its roots in our evolution as a survival mechanism. For example, it probably wasn’t
helpful to take too long in ascertaining that the large sabre tooth tiger at the entrance to
our cave may not be there offering us a meaty barbeque item. Similarly, the Recency
effect also discussed earlier, is impactful in these ways. What you say or do at the
end of a teaching session, or on your first date, may have a similarly strong impact
on the other’s perception, feelings and subsequent response to you. Hence, good
Primacy and Recency effects can put one in a potentially strong position in terms of
the ‘person perception stakes’. To make this even more impactful, introduce a novel
and interesting aspect—a Von Restorff effect—to the communication encounter, and
you may well be on your way to achieving positive framing by others, in many (not
all) situations.
For example, enthusiasm is typically considered a positive feature of a teacher’s
presentation style. However, the inference and interpretation of a person’s enthusi-
asm can only be made by others based on their observation of behaviour, not the
person’s intent. Hence, if you want to be perceived as an enthusiastic teacher you
need to behave like one (e.g., displaying the range of behaviours that people, within
the cultural and normative context, typically frame as enthusiasm). We know that
variations in movement and proximity, voice and tone, certain types of posture and
gestures and eye contact, all contribute to positive perceptions of enthusiasm. We
also know that this needs to be done skillfully for it to work in practice. In other
words, the best-contrived performance works best, but it must not be perceived as
contrived—sounds kind of strange, but true. That’s why great actors earn such big
bucks.
What this means is that the way we structure and conduct our communication
behaviours to other people is crucial for influencing their perception of us and the
kind and amount of attention, if any, they are likely to give. The impact of good
presentation style is particularly significant in influencing students’ perception of
you as a teacher, especially in the area of being seen as a ‘nice person’.
Many factors and contingencies will affect how others perceive our behaviour
(e.g., personality configuration, cultural values and norms, prior experience, mood
and situation) but it is far from a random process. People with high proficiency
in emotional and social intelligence typically have a deep understanding of how
interpersonal communication works, and, perhaps more importantly, why it often
does not. As a result, they can, through good thinking and careful structuring of their
communication strategies; mitigate the likelihood of ambiguity and misperception.
Note, I say mitigate not eliminate. I remember a quote, but cannot trace the reference
(apologies), but it captures the context so nicely:
Life is a matter of perception, though more often than not a misperception.
While presentation style is influenced by the personality and biographical aspects

of the presenter and is a holistic performance, it is understandable in terms of the key
behavioural components involved and how they work to influence people’s perception
and behaviour. Skilled observation, listening, voice modulation and calibration of
one’s body language to the situation and audience are learnable through modelling
how they work and through deliberate practice. The ability to use one’s presentation
style to specifically engage and motivate learners is a high-level skill, akin to that of
great orators or other persuasive political figures. In the classroom it is less one of high
verbal and visual rhetoric, but equally powerful in terms of creating impact than can
be used productively for learning. I often use the analogy of Presentation Style being
the Pedagogic Glue that binds together all components of the instructional strategy
and is a major aspect of creative teaching competence. Table 5.4 identifies some key
practical ways to develop greater creativity in this important area of practice.
5.7.5 Examples
In teaching students over three decades and across many educational and cultural
contexts, a generic response that sticks in my mind is students asking for examples.
It’s as though an example will provide that special key to open the door to understand-
ing the concept or principle being taught. Examples are a representation of a class
or a group of things and, as understanding requires classifying things to generalize
and differentiate, they play a key role in this organizing process. More complex con-
ceptual understanding is analogous (this is also a kind of an example) in many ways
to completing a large jigsaw puzzle. I can remember back to my childhood years
when opening the box of a large jigsaw puzzle containing many hundreds of pieces,
that feeling of both challenge and anxiety at the thought of the task ahead. However,
by using certain strategies (e.g., finding and assembling all the straight edge pieces
to form the border; putting together pieces of specific items in the picture) the task
becomes more manageable and eventually, towards completion, easy, as the last sev-
eral pieces can be quickly put in. Building complex understanding is a bit like this. In
terms of the jig-saw analogy, examples are key ‘instructional pieces’ to facilitate this
process, enabling the mind to organize information and build a clear and accurate
Table 5.4 Summary framing questions for developing presentation style

Presentation style
What are the various aspects of presentation • Clarity, pace and tone of voice (expressive
style that make it most effective in creating voice being most effective)
and maintaining attention and interest? • Calibration of body language (e.g., posture,
gestures, eye contact, appropriate use of
smile) to voice presentation
• Appropriate variation and ability to
creatively use stories, humour and examples
(appropriate to the learning
group)—remember this is your Pedagogic
Glue
How can I develop a presentation style that is • Apply the relevant Core Principles of
effective, creative and fits my personality? Learning to oneself. Remember you must
understand how it works (key concepts and
principles, etc.) and be able to do it well
across a range of situations (hence good
deliberate practice with feedback is
essential)
• Observe directly (or from videos) effective
presenters and motivational speakers and
model what they do and how they do
it—(remember NLP?)
• Ask colleagues who have very good
presentation style to observe you teaching
and provide relevant feedback
• Practice, evaluate and modify, etc. from an
evidence-base—I might have said this prior!
picture of reality (mental schemata) for the topic being learned. The use of a range
of worked examples (Effect Size of 0.57, Hattie 2009), in which students can clearly
see the full process or procedure for completing an activity, enables them to fully
connect their prior knowledge with new knowledge, build understanding and be able
to transfer learning to other relevant contexts in which it has useful applications.
According to Hattie and Yates (2014):
The worked example effect now stands as one of the most robust findings from applied
psychology research. Worked examples provide a form of modelling through demonstrations
of successful procedures or products. (p. 151)
Examples also include such things as analogy and metaphor. These liken one thing
with another for simplification and making things mean in terms of the particular
prior experience of the student involved. For example, I often use the analogy of
creative teaching as akin to good cake-making. A good cake requires a solid base
and an attractive topping. Creative teaching requires an evidence-based instructional
strategy, which has great SHAPE. It’s a very simple analogy, but easy to remember.
The reason I have selected examples as a key area for creative teaching is that there is
almost unlimited potential for finding or creating powerful examples, analogies and
metaphors to support the learning process. Like stories, examples cover all aspects of
Table 5.5 Summary framing questions for using examples

Examples
What makes an example a good example? • Relevance to a key concept, principle, skill
being taught
• Students can relate to it through their own
experiences
• It has a strong real life current impact
When is it most effective to use examples? • Before or immediately following the
teaching of a concept, principle, procedure
or skill
• When concepts are abstract or difficult to
visualise
Where can I get good examples for the topics • Personal experience
I teach? • Colleagues, family members,
newspapers, television, films, Internet,
etc.—almost limitless
human experience, and we can use them to creatively communicate difficult concepts
in simplified but authentic ways. Good analogies and metaphors are also very likely to
result in a strong Von Restorff effect, stimulating attention and interest. Like stories,
we can never find or create all the possible relevant examples for the topics we teach,
and this always provides us with a challenging and creative avenue for practice.
However, over time, with diligence and some creativity, it is not too difficult to
build an extensive and varied portfolio of these valuable pedagogic tools. Table 5.5
provides an advance organizer for this.
5.8 Creative Activity and Resource Blending: The Art

of Teaching
SHAPE is a metaphor for a range of activities and resources that can be utilized in the
creative design and facilitation of instructional strategies. The selection, blending and
enactment of such activities and resources determines, in large part, the experiences
of the learning group. Better the blend and facilitation, and its alignment to the
learning outcomes, student profile and situated context, the more likelihood of better
quality in terms of the learning experience and its outcomes (e.g., effectiveness,
efficiency and engagement). To use an analogy, it is like the very best chefs, who
can use a range and blend of ingredients to getting that special taste that customers
respond to, that can differentiate them from other expert chefs. Creative teachers use
their ‘ingredients’ (personal and professional knowledge and skills) to design and
facilitate lessons to better connect with student needs and interests than those less
creatively competent.
Creativity in lesson planning, in most basic terms, is the ability to combine meth-
ods, activities and resources in novel and useful ways that can significantly heighten
the learning process for students in terms of attainment and engagement. Often some
of the methods, activities and resources may seem to have little connectivity in them-
selves, but when creatively combined and contextualized to the subject content, they
make the learning of key concepts almost easy and fun. Again, another analogy,
this time from the field of environmental engineering: one may ask, “What is a
mirror got to do with solving a problem of tenants complaining about long elevator
waiting-times?” There seems no immediate connection. However, there is a well-told
story involving a multi-storey office building in New York, where many occupants
complained about the slowness of elevators at peak hours. Several of the tenants
threatened to break their leases and move out of the building because of this. In
response, the management authorized a study to determine what would be the best
solution. The study revealed that because of the age of the building no engineering
solution could be justified economically. The engineers said that management would
just have to live with the problem permanently. However, a young psychologist who
took on the challenge of solving this problem reframed it differently and concluded
that the complaints were as much a consequence of boredom as slowness. Therefore,
he took the problem to be one of giving those waiting for something to occupy their
time pleasantly. He suggested installing mirrors in the elevator boarding areas so that
those waiting could look at each other or themselves without appearing to do so. The
management took up his suggestion. The installation of mirrors was made quickly
and at a relatively low cost. The complaints about waiting stopped. Today, mirrors
in elevator lobbies and even on elevators in tall buildings are commonplace.
In the context of teaching, here’s an example of making creative connections
between what would appear to be unconnected aspects of reality to produce an
effective learning experience for a group of students. Many years ago, mentoring and
coaching a teacher who had received consistently low feedback scores, I remember
him lamenting on how students found his teaching of Newton’s Second Law of
Motion particularly boring and difficult to grasp. He agreed to me observing his
lesson on this topic, which began with a typical technical verbatim definition of the
law, which went something like this:
Newton’s second law of motion can be formally stated as follows: The acceleration of an
object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force,
in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
The definition was then followed by around 40 min of exposition and the writing
of formulae on the whiteboard. I was confused and bored, but no more than the stu-
dents, based on my observations. In our post-lesson discussion, he acknowledged the
students lack student engagement and interest, but could not see how it was possible
to make this topic area interesting or meaningful for students to learn effectively.
Having explored with him exactly what Newton’s Second Law of Motion entailed,
we designed the following strategy as a way of attracting increased attention and
putting the law into a more practical perspective for the students. In summary, this
involved showing a picture of the famous soccer player, David Beckham, then a
5.8 Creative Activity and Resource Blending: The Art of Teaching 197
Manchester United player, taking his trademark free-kick. As soccer is very popular
in Singapore and David Beckham is considered to be particularly good looking, this
seemed both a good Primacy and Von Restorff effect combined to get good initial
attention from both the male and female students, albeit for different reasons. The
students were then asked to consider the following two scenarios and the impact they
might have in terms of the acceleration of the soccer ball once struck by David:
Scenario 1 One of the opposition players changes the soccer ball before the free
kick has been taken with a ball that is 20% heavier than the original
ball.
Scenario 2 The ball remains the same, but David has been doing extra fitness
training and can now strike the ball with around 10% more power.
I’m sure you have worked this out, so I won’t need to bore you with my limited
display of physics jargon. While not a perfect analogy, it was sufficient to get the
students attention, create some interest and make the psychological climate a bit
more fun than usual. The strategy also included a lively and humorous presentation
style in which the scenarios were simulated by the teacher (e.g., putting a real soccer
ball down and asking the students if he looked like David Beckham). As the teacher
concerned lacked certain skills in terms of voice and gesture it was necessary to
provide some measure of coaching here before the teaching session. In summary,
the strategy worked in that student attendance was high and they quickly saw the
relationship between mass, force and acceleration. Also, it lifted the mood of the class
in an afternoon session noted for low student attention. From this basis, the teacher
then made connections between the free-kick analogy and other real engineering
contexts, inviting and answering questions, before proceeding with the mathematical
formula and how it worked. He also chunked up the session and conducted short
quizzes and activities to check to understand and provide feedback. This was creative
teaching (remember Little c) as it was novel and produced useful results in terms of
student learning.
How many teachers have previously introduced Newton’s Second Law of Motion
through a simulation of David Beckham’s free-kick? Some may have, but that would
have been creative teaching also. The connections are not readily apparent until
you see them, as is the case with visual illusions, such as the famous ‘old’ and
‘young’ woman visual illusion. This is an example of lateral thinking in the context
of teaching, as one is unlikely to automatically connect a David Beckham free-kick
with Isaac Newton’s Second Law of Motion. As outlined previously, creativity, as for
good thinking generally, it is not necessarily something the human brain likes doing
naturally. For this reason, we need to provoke it into action and make a conscious
effort to think laterally.
The lesson incorporated several core principles of learning (e.g., focus on key con-
cepts, good thinking, psychological climate) and it also had a creative spin, which
made the experience more attention-grabbing and impactful (e.g., David Beckham
was a fairly powerful Von Restorff effect in this situated context). Also, when attempt-
ing creative activities in class with students, it communicates an important latent
message that you are genuinely interested in their learning and this is fundamental
in determining their perceptions of you as a person.
The teacher in question went on to receive significant improvements in terms of
feedback over the following two semesters. Invariably, this was not based on one
session but his realization that good teaching is much more than positive intentions
in a teacher’s mind, but the actual behavioural performances in class over time.
Most importantly, he was keen to improve his teaching and obtain better results,
both in terms of student learning and, of course, his feedback scores. Of particular
significance was his reframing of himself as a teacher, which was the result of the
direct experience of feedback from students. As he taught better and responded to
them more positively, they were more responsive and positive towards him, and good
rapport was developed over time.
Creative teaching can also occur in the here and now teaching situation in response
to the teacher’s perception and subsequent reframing of the learning situation. No
matter how well we try to plan an effective (evidence-based) instructional strategy,
there are occasions when the methods or activities do not work out as expected.
We may have made some incorrect inferences and interpretations about the prior
knowledge of the student group, not delivered the lesson activities as well as we can,
or it may simply be that some of the students are not in a good mood on that occasion,
for whatever reasons.
Even the weather can influence people’s behaviour. Mlodinow (2012) quoted
research by Cunningham (1979) in which waitresses in a shopping centre in Chicago
kept track of their tips and the weather over thirteen randomly chosen spring days.
Customers were probably unaware that the weather influenced them, but when it was
sunny outside, they were significantly more generous. It is therefore not surprising
that student attention and behaviour can vary so much, even with the same teachers.
Hence, don’t take it too personally, if things don’t always work out well; sometimes
they just don’t.
In situations where the planned strategy is not working the teacher, faced with
little by way of positive response, maybe at his/her most creative. As the saying goes,
“Necessity is the mother of invention”. For example, several years ago I was teaching
an elective module on learning strategies and skills at 2 p.m. on a Wednesday. These
electives were compulsory though students could choose which ones they took.
However, they were noted to be challenging in terms of getting student attention
and participation as students did not receive much by way of academic credit and
many thought this constituted unnecessary work. In my first lesson, before I had even
spoken a word, I quickly noticed the look of disinterest on the faces of many students.
It was apparent that if I just went ahead with the planned lesson, there might be little
value to their learning and tedious experience for all, including myself. I was acutely
aware of the need to change the students’ perception of the situation and was seeking
a strategy. Here’s the summary story in context. Firstly, of note, the students were
Singaporeans. In Singapore, education is highly valued and very well-funded, which
means that all students have good access to learning opportunities. A few years prior,
I was involved in a consultancy project in Kolkata, India. What’s the connection you
might ask? While working there I usually went for a walk after breakfast, just for some
short exercise and mentally revising what I needed to do that day. On one occasion
I was approached by a teenage boy of around 13 years of age who asked me if I was
a businessman. Intrigued, I asked him why he was interested in that. In summary, he
pointed out that he was living on the streets, wanted to avoid getting into trouble and
was looking for an opportunity to get a job and learn some useful skills. He thought
I might be able to find him employment. Somewhat sadly, I explained that I was
not a businessman and could not provide him with any employment opportunities
(though I wish I could have done this). He left and that was that. My only significant
reflection at that time was that he did not ask me for any money.
Going back to the classroom situation in Singapore, a strategy flitted into my
mind. I walked around and looked at the students, one and all, and told them that
they were so lucky. One immediately perked up and said, “Why are we lucky?” I
replied, “Well, you are young, healthy and Singaporean”. They, of course, could not
dispute the first two assertions, but there was a quick response to the third, “What’s
so lucky about being Singaporean?” I told them the Kolkata story and while walking
around the classroom with a fairly serious expression on my face, making quick eye
contact with the students. On completion of the story, I asked them to discuss in
pairs what made them different from the boy in Kolkata. I used a verbal emphasis
on the word different by slightly raising the tone and slowing pace. It was not long
before they identified their situation of excellent learning opportunities and good job
prospects, which were lacking for the boy in Kolkata. I then said something like,
“Ok, well let’s not waste our time being negative” and started the lesson. To my
surprise, they settled down and the lesson seemed to progress quite well, especially
in the context of the earlier scenario.
I subsequently gave this little thought but was quite astonished by the response of
the students at the beginning of the next session. On my arrival, I was greeted by the
students with words akin to, “It’s ok, Cher (Singaporean slang for Teacher) we get
the message, no need to tell us the Kolkata story again”. They were quite good fun
to teach for the next 14 weeks and many gave feedback that they had learned some
useful stuff out of the elective. Was the story that impactful, or was I just lucky? Sure,
I exploited what is often referred to as a ‘teachable moment’; a situated unplanned
activity that I grasped as an opportunity to create an impactful learning experience
for the group at that specific time. In this case, the learning purpose was to change the
present negative attitude into one more conducive to learning and to do this I needed
to get some reframing of their present situation, by changing their perception of it.
In terms of lucky, who knows? On another day, I may not have thought about this
Kolkata story and I would have had to deal with the situation in a different way, which
may or may not have been as successful. However, without the story encoded in my
long-term memory, it could never have been part of my instructional strategy, albeit
constructed in situ. Hence, creativity requires both resources in long-term memory
as well as the creative competency to be able to see new combinations of methods,
activities and resources to structure a novel and effective instructional strategy for a
particular group of learners.
Similarly, while the core principles of learning have universality in terms of how
humans learn, learners come to the learning event with different biographies, per-
sonality configurations and prior knowledge which will influence their perception
and initial motivational status. Therefore, in planning the learning experiences, it is
really useful to ascertain as much as possible about the learners, both collectively and
individually. Invariably it is not possible to do this as thoroughly as one might like,
as it can be time-consuming. Equally, one must be cautious in making inferences and
interpretations from prior information about learners from secondary sources (e.g.,
attainment reports, other teachers’ framing) as objective or fixed. Often, I have found
that prior descriptions have been quite different and even at variance to what I experi-
enced. Teachers construct their realities, through their teaching practices and human
interactions with groups of students, as do the students themselves. I once inherited
a class of students where their prior teacher referred to them as, “That bunch of ani-
mals”. For the first two weeks, I could understand the basis of that teacher’s framing.
The students showed no interest in anything I tried to do, with many using a range
of negative responses to try to ‘wind me up’. It was obvious that many of them did
not like school or teachers. In this situation, there’s little point in trying to persuade
them verbally to see meaning in any aspect of the formal curriculum when they do
not. Furthermore, in my experience, there’s no point in doing anything that might
be perceived as confrontational as this will go nowhere useful for all concerned.
In such situations, my response, based on a strategy that has worked previously on
most occasions, starts with not showing fear or stress (of course, more easily said
than done) and maintaining a positive stance towards them. What this means at the
behavioural level is maintaining a friendly voice tone, smile and calibrated body
language. This will typically, over time, result in even the more vociferous of the
students losing interest in the activity of ‘winding up teacher’. At the psychological
level, a type of cognitive dissonance (Festinger 1957) will come into play. Cogni-
tive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to seek consistency in
our beliefs, perceptions and attitudes, and will experience inner conflict in situations
where two cognitions are inconsistent. For example, if students believe that teachers
are not particularly interested in them but are then consistently presented with one
who seems to be showing genuine interest, such dissonance may occur. In this sit-
uation, the person may either retain the existing belief (e.g., rationalization; denial)
or change the belief in some way. However, it is often not so clear-cut in terms of
perceptual change, and I would not expect students to suddenly completely reframe
and start liking teachers. I am only realistically looking for a slight shift in percep-
tion towards ‘Dennis is ok, for a teacher’. Once this has been attained, I am usually
able to engage in some informal non-confrontational chat with them and gradually
build a workable rapport. This is how most relationships develop over time, and
it is as much an unconscious as a conscious process. The key outcome is that the
reality of this situated context (e.g., negative confrontational student responses) will
change for the better. I remember hearing stories about how some people survived
the horrors of concentration camps by ‘being nice’ (at the behavioural level) to the
guards. It seems that it may be harder to kill someone who gives you a friendly word
and a well-calibrated smile. Whatever one’s views on this as a survival strategy, if it
sometimes works in such situations, what can the genuine behaviour achieve in most
classrooms?
Having achieved a level of rapport, defined in terms of friendly banter with at
least a few individual students (this usually has a contagion effect over time), I am
then in a position to explore areas of possible interest and collaboratively identify
school-based activities that have at least a minimal buy-in from their perspective.
This is what happened with this particular class. By the end of the year, they were
quite responsive to learning and fun to teach. At the beginning of each session, I had
to run the gauntlet of jokes for several minutes, but they would always settle down
enough to do some ‘useful schoolwork’. The main significance of this story is that
at the beginning of the following semester something really interesting happened. I
was not timetabled for this group of students as another teaching faculty had been
was. I approached this colleague and asked if I could take them on, and he could
choose any one of my classes in exchange. He was somewhat surprised but readily
agreed. On arrival in class on their first session, the students were surprised to see
me, though visibly pleased. When I explained I had exchanged another class to teach
them, one stated that this had never happened before in their school life. Over the next
two years, they choose to do a City & Guilds qualification in Communication Skills
(with all passing and many getting distinctions) and the ‘O’ level English Language
(in which around 50% passed). Even the principal of the institution was shocked by
such results and congratulated me. This was not what seemed the likely outcomes
after the first few lessons, which were largely encounters of sarcasm and nihilism.
Had I tamed ‘that bunch of animals’, or were they not that bad in the first place?
Life is a matter of perception, and at any point time, it’s the reality. All I can say is
that I preferred the latter reality, and I think the students did. And I also think they
benefited in terms of learning and well-being—I certainly did.
When I have been asked, “What was your most significant achievement as a
teacher”, I often tell this story. After establishing a positive learning relationship
with these students, and seeing them develop a real sense of personal belief as able
learners, this fully reinforced my perception of the potential value of teaching and
the impact it can have on student attainment and well-being. It also taught me that it
was damn hard work.
5.9 The Magic of Expertise: Getting into Great Shape
A few years past my wife persuaded me to accompany her to see the magician David
Blaine perform a live show in Singapore. I rarely go to such events and have never
before seen a world-renowned magician perform live. I don’t believe in magic in the
metaphysical sense but can appreciate the illusion of the experience. David Blaine
did not disappoint on this count. However, I was a bit disappointed not to have been
selected to participate in one of his magic segments, not for reasons of ‘being on
stage’ but to get that close up view of how he does things. As a psychologist, who
should possess a good level of sensory acuity in terms of observation skills (he says
hopefully), I thought I might be able to work out how he performed the particular
piece of ‘magic’, at least in theory. Even though I did not get this opportunity of
a close-up view, I was impressed with David’s expertise—it was surely magic for
us mere novices. I can, in contrast, remember my father doing card tricks and other
bits of magic such as separating his thumb in two when I was a kid. It seemed quite
awesome when I was five years old, but by eight years old I had worked it all out.
The card tricks had a planned sequence (arranged beforehand) and the separating
thumb was the thumb of the other hand, disguised by two fingers.
How might we explain the apparent magic of such expertise? The answer lies
in the earlier discussion of Core Principle 7: The development of expertise requires
deliberate practice in Chap. 2. David has developed a level of expertise in his magic
acts that it has become part of his physiology (cognitively, effectively, and in terms
of neural wiring) that makes him different from the rest of us. It’s amazing, but it’s
not magic. For example, in his final act in Singapore, David immersed himself in a
tank of water for over 10 min. I would have died within a minute, but in 2012 Stig
Severinsen was awarded the record of “Longest time breath held voluntarily (male)”
by Guinness World Records for holding his breath for 22 min. This makes David’s
performance almost routine for such experts. Stig has a doctorate in medicine and
started experimenting with holding his breath as a child at the bottom of his parents’
pool. Hence, while his performance is exceptional and world-class, it is explainable.
Experts can do things far better than the general population because they are different
in significant ways and, therefore, it feels like magic to the rest of us.
There is a saying, “One swallow does not a summer make”. This essentially means
that seeing one swallow (swallows are birds that typically migrate toward warmer
weather) is not sufficient evidence that the summer is, in fact, on its way. I have no
idea how many swallows one must see to feel confident about the impending arrival
of summer in a given environment. The point in this context is that one creative act
of teaching does not make an effective learning experience for students, nor define a
creative teacher. There needs to be consistency in the overall evidence-based design
of instructional strategies over time. This is the case with all areas of expertise in
any field. However, while we would expect expert teachers to be able to teach to
consistently high standards in terms of their ability to maximize student learning
opportunity and achievement scores, it is unlikely that even the most creative can
come up with creative aspects (e.g., original components of SHAPE) every lesson.
Furthermore, creativity can arise in so many ways in teaching, as SHAPE illustrates.
For example, some teachers may be creative in terms of the activities and examples
they create for students, others in their presentation style and humour. Very few are
likely to be able to weave highly creative SHAPE, incorporating all components, in
most lessons they teach. That would constitute creative teaching competence at the
highest level of proficiency.
However, creative teaching competence, like other forms of competence, is based
on the same core principles of learning and involves the teacher developing from
novice to varying levels of proficiency towards expertise, and ultimately to adaptive
expertise. This may throw better light on differing conceptions of teaching as ‘art’,
‘craft’ or ‘science’ that have appeared in the research literature (e.g., Eisner 1995).
5.9 The Magic of Expertise: Getting into Great Shape 203
Creative teaching is science, art and craft combined. We now understand, in large
part, how this works in terms of the underlying syntax and heuristics involved. There
is no real dichotomy between the science and art of teaching, as both are underpinned
by strong evidence-bases from diverse fields in the human sciences. The art is the
capability for creative weaving of methods, activities and resources into high impact
instructional strategies. They can be seen in terms of great SHAPE, and just as David
Blaine creates the aura of magic in his performance, the most creative teachers create
similar experiences in their classrooms. It has the illusion of magic, but it is expertise
and can be learned by motivated teaching professionals over time. Once attained it
is exactly as Intrator (2003) depicts in his description of excellent teachers:
A potent teacher will skillfully and gracefully create conditions and stage activities that
inspire students to have a sustained and meaningful encounter with a subject – because they
can. (p. 7)
Furthermore, the development of powerful and easy-to-use information-

communication technologies (EdTech) are increasingly providing useful resource
capabilities for teachers to become even more creative in their professional work.
Utilizing the affordances of EdTech for enhancing student learning (e.g., attainment,
engagement, differentiation) is now a fertile field for creative teachers. This will be
the focus in the following chapter.
5.10 Teaching Can Be Improved with Reflection

and Scholarship
The notion of reflective practice has long been a buzzword in teacher education in
terms of how teachers can go about improving aspects of their practice. However,
reflection like thinking is a very general term and asking somebody to do good
thinking (or reflection) is making some very big assumptions about prior learning.
If teachers are as confused on what constitutes critical thinking, as Wagner (2010)
suggested in Chap. 2, we may similarly question the extent and quality of their critical
thinking when reflecting on aspects of professional practice.
However, let’s not ascribe blame to teachers for gaps in knowledge relating to
current research on human learning or even a lack of application of evidence-based
practices. Our earlier tour into Educational Jurassic Park in Chap. 1 provides ample
explanation for teachers’ reticence to buy into new initiatives. Furthermore, given
their busy schedules and the increasing plethora of demands placed on them, it’s a
wonder that many function as effectively as they do.
Scholarship, which involves research and sustained interaction with ongoing
developments and new knowledge relating to a field, is foundational to improve-
ment in any professional arena. Reflection, when underpinned by good thinking and
scholarship go ‘hand and glove’ in enhancing understanding and improving aspects of
practice. How teachers can thoughtfully use an evidence-based approach to improve
teaching, both at individual and collective levels will be further illustrated in Chap. 9.
5.11 Summary
This chapter, using the process and features of good design and building on the
pedagogic framework outlined in previous chapters have sought to unpack what
constitutes creativity in the context of teaching (e.g., the key underlying processes
and how they work in terms of producing creative outcomes). We no longer need to
view creativity as some mystical or ephemeral activity, limited to a few exceptionally
talented people. The creative process can be understood in terms of the underlying
cognitive processes involved, then modelled and applied to the design and facilitation
of learning. Therefore, Creative Teaching Competence can be learned by any teach-
ing/training professional through the acquisition of EBT knowledge and practices,
creative thinking as outlined here, and a strong volition to achieve such capability.
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Chapter 6
Creative Teaching Competence
and EdTech: Total Pedagogy
Abstract This chapter, based on the evidence-based creative teaching framework

established in the previous chapters, provides a design model for utilizing the affor-
dances of EdTech to positively impact specific aspects of the learning process, learn-
ing delivery arrangements, and student attainment and engagement. While there are
emerging new technologies (e.g., virtual reality, augmented reality, and mixed real-
ity), which have specific learning affordances (though often high cost in the present
context), it is now possible to use low tech (in terms of user learning), low cost
(mostly free) and user-friendly (essential) in effective, efficient and creative ways to
enhance student learning outcomes. The design frame provides the practical heuris-
tics for selecting, blending, and employing appropriate EdTech tools into the design
and facilitation of learning for all delivery modes (e.g., face-to-face, blended/flipped
classroom, and fully online).
6.1 My Early Scepticism Was Not Unfounded
I must confess to previously being very sceptical concerning the early euphoria
relating to the supposed benefits of information-communication technologies (now
summarized as EdTech) in enhancing learning effectiveness, at least in the short term.
Like many others, I regularly experienced frustration when using technology-based
databases and software, often questioning, “Why is it that such a simple process
seems like the Mars mission?” I particularly remember attending an education con-
ference, waiting to listen to a keynote talk on the benefits of using technology in
teaching, only to see the speaker struggle with the applications and not able to even
get his PowerPoint slides up on the screen. After some 15 or so minutes he aborted
(or postponed) the presentation. I did not even bother to check. Anyway, such expe-
riences did little to inspire us non-techie folk to embrace technology for learning in
any sustained manner. Also, it does not seem many years past that e-learning was
being touted as, to use an old English metaphor, “The best thing since sliced bread.”
However, such early overhyping soon waned and it was not that long before a signif-
icant evaluation of the use of e-learning in education was referred to as a “Thwarted
Innovation” (Zemsky and Massy 2004). Similarly, Oliver (2007), commenting on the

208 6 Creative Teaching Competence and EdTech: Total Pedagogy
lack of EdTech’s widespread application in educational settings to create engaging

and effective learning experiences noted that:
What appears to be still missing for teachers is appropriate guidance on the effective
pedagogical practice needed to support such activities. (p. 64)
Robinson and Schraw (2008), in reviewing the literature on e-learning research,

further supported this overall perception:
Unfortunately, empirical research informing decisions regarding “what works” ranges from
sparse at best, to non-existent at worse. This is because e-learning has focused on the delivery
of information rather than the learning of that information. (p. 1)
More recently, Gallagher-Mackay and Steinhauer (2017) pointed out:

Despite our high hopes and high financial investment, however, most evidence suggests
that, so far, technology impact on schools and on achievement is relatively limited. In 2015,
the OECD released Students, Computers and Learning, a report analysing tests of literacy,
numeracy, science, digital reading and computer-assisted mathematics taken by fifteen-year-
olds in thirty-one countries or economies around the world. Despite the fact that all the
countries surveyed have invested mightily in information and computer technologies over
the past decade, there has been no discernible improvement in literacy, mathematics or
science test scores over the same period. Moreover, in countries where it is less common
for students to use computers at school, student’s performance in reading improved more
rapidly, on average, than in countries where it is more common. (p. 123)
Given a relative lack of widespread application of evidence-based practice in

mainstream teaching and training, the adding of technology tools that were often
far from user-friendly, in contexts of variable operability and bandwidth capability,
these findings were not surprising. The reflections by Shea-Schultz and Fogarty
(2002) provide a poignant insight into this apparent failure of EdTech to make the
expected significant far-reaching positive impacts on teaching and student learning:
One thing is certain – e-learning will evolve into something so simple, so elegant yet all
persuasive and natural, that our grandchildren will wonder in dismay why we didn’t see it
coming. (p. 165)
Truly human-friendly technological design won’t appear anytime soon. Computer, network-
ing and software engineers cast the die five decades ago. (p. 89)
However, much is now changing for the better concerning the use of EdTech
in teaching and learning. Several factors are contributing to this, and overall, their
impact is to merge pedagogy and technology into one seamless enterprise to offer
the increasing capability for highly effective, efficient and differentiated learning
experiences. This will become the arena in which professionals can fully display
their pedagogic knowledge (i.e., Pedagogic Literacy) and CTC. I would also like to
think that it may move teaching further towards the profession it has only fleetingly
threatened to become: one noted for its wide range of knowledge bases relating to
human learning, high skills in learning design and creative competence in practices
that significantly enhance learner attainment, engagement and well-being.
Firstly, and most significant, there is the recognition that technology tools alone
do not constitute anything near a learning revolution. No matter what we can create
6.1 My Early Scepticism Was Not Unfounded 209
in terms of computer-generated resources, human brains are still little or no different

from those of our distant ancestors. As Mlodinow (2012) explained:
Our genus, Homo, has been evolving for a couple million years. Brain evolution happens
over many thousands or millions of years, but we’ve lived in civilized society for less than
1% of that time. That means that while we may pack our brains with twenty-first-century
knowledge, the organ inside our skull is still a Stone Age brain. (pp. 129–130)
Hence, no matter how much information we have in terms of gigabytes and ter-
abytes, it is not going to get quickly assimilated and nicely integrated into long-
term memory. The same Core Principles of Learning apply irrespective of mode or
medium. In most basic terms, looking into a computer screen does not change how
our memory systems work.
Secondly, there has been a significant reframing of the use of EdTech towards
pedagogic considerations and how they might enhance specific aspects of the learning
process, rather than the technologies per se. For many years I sat, and frowned, in
meetings on the use of technology tools. I listened to enthusiasts who showed that
with several clicks on fuzzily conceived icons one could read other people’s opinions
as well as offer one’s own opinion on an online discussion board. It seemed to them
that this technology affordance would exceed the frustration and inconvenience of its
complex technical use. It did not for most of us. The pain exceeded the relatively small
pleasure, and it was far from novel. From a pedagogic focus, and using an evidence-
based approach, we can now analyse and evaluate the use of various EdTech tools in
terms of how they can enhance aspects of the learning process. In this way, we can
select and creatively combine those e-tools which are most effective and efficient in
promoting learning, and not use technology simply because we have it.
Finally, the technologies are becoming more stable, much faster and, most impor-
tantly, user-friendly. For many years, apart from a lack of good pedagogic design,
there has been much criticism of online learning in terms of its ease of usability.
Shea-Schultz and Fogarty (2002) observed that very basic design failure is common
in e-learning environments:
When most learners complain about e-learning, it’s often not the training they object to but
the confusing menus, unclear buttons, or illogical links. (p. 117)
Similarly, as Shank and Sitze (2004) have pointed out:

Your success as a designer and developer of online learning is directly tied to your ability to
build instructional materials that don’t leave users frustrated. (p. 138)
Taken together, while the initial hype of EdTech was premature and exaggerated,
there is now a strong evidence base for their potential to significantly enhance learn-
ing and attainment opportunities for a wider range of learners. EdTech tools are not
going to change brain capability and functioning in highly significant ways but driven
by a strong pedagogic literacy, they now provide an exceptional resource capability
for teachers to design learning experiences and teach in ways that are more effec-
tive, efficient and engaging. Miller (2016), from a cognitive psychology perspective,
summarizes the present scenario:
I believe that technology gives us many advantages over and above traditional face-to-face
classroom techniques, but clarification is in order. I don’t believe that instructional technology
promotes learning by its mere presence. Nor does it let us evade some of the immutable truths
about how we learn – especially the fact that learning requires focused attention, effortful
practice, and motivation. Rather, what technology allows us to do is amplify and expand the
repertoire of techniques that effective teachers use to elicit attention, effort, and engagement
that are the basis for learning.
In a short space of time, technology in higher education has gone from a smattering of fully
online distance-only programmes and self-created web resources of a few individuals to
near-ubiquitous. (p. 1)
We can see, therefore, that many factors have led to more optimistic and viable use
of technology in education—but another significant factor is the increasing demand
for high-quality flexible access learning opportunities with reduced costs. As Miller
(2016) summarizes:
…one reason that interest in technology is exploding is that it is easier and cheaper than
before. (p. 12)
6.2 Framing EdTech Genres
Even though this is a rapidly developing and changing arena, with new applications
and e-tools emerging almost daily, there is an underlying set of generic learning affor-
dances that remain relatively stable. All are related to enhancing some aspect(s) of the
learning process, whether the focus is more on providing subject content knowledge,
facilitating the building of understanding or skill acquisition. Furthermore, while
there may be many applications and specific e-tools available, they will inevitably
fall into a limited number of key genres or categories, relating to these broad learning
areas. For example, while tablets come in many formats and have different features,
they are essentially similar in terms of being compact mobile personal computers.
The same is true of the wide range of smartphones, and social media platforms such
as Facebook and Twitter.
In terms of EdTech genres, several broad categorizations have been suggested.
For example, Pacansky-Brock (2013) offered the following four main categories:
• Cloud-based applications—accessible from anywhere
• Web 2.0 tools, that make the creation and sharing of multimedia content simple
• Social media, technologies that enable communication and sharing
• Mobile apps.
This captures the essential range of EdTech options, which collectively provide a
rich resource base for teaching/training professionals to exploit in designing learning
experiences and facilitating their practices in effective, efficient, and creative ways.
I will be primarily focusing on e-tools that are user-friendly and can effectively
facilitate:
6.2 Framing EdTech Genres 211
1. the production and delivery of differentiated multi-media content and hyperlinked

resources
2. communication, sharing and collaboration of learners.
In analysing and evaluating EdTech, especially specific e-tools, the Core Prin-
ciples of Learning will be used as the guiding heuristics. In this way, it becomes
possible to identify the key learning affordances for each technology genre and spe-
cific e-tool. In summary form from Chap. 2, learning and motivation are enhanced
when there is:
• clarity of learning goals, objectives and expectations
• activation of learner’s prior knowledge
• a focus on key concepts and principles
• the facilitation of good thinking
• variation in the methods and mediums of presentation
• teaching that works in accordance with memory systems and processes
• ongoing quality feedback from formative assessment
• a success orientated and fun psychological climate.
The following sections explore the various affordances of EdTech, and how spe-
cific e-tools can contribute to enhancing aspects of the learning process. This will
be framed in the context of designing and facilitating Blended Learning and Flipped
Classroom Learning, which are becoming the most used formats in the structuring
and delivery of learning using EdTech.
6.3 The What, the Why and How of Blended Learning
As with most things relating to teaching and learning, there are different perceptions
of blended learning and any one particular definition will lead to some contestation.
Indeed, it could be argued that most learning designs are blended in the sense that
different methods and resources are typically combined in the creation of teaching
and learning strategies. As Littlejohn and Pegler (2007) pointed out:
Blending is an art that has been practised by inspirational teachers for centuries. It centres
on the integration of different types of resources and activities within a range of learning
environments where learners can interact and build ideas. (p. 1)
Effective teachers typically blend (or weave) methods, activities, and other
resources into pedagogically sound instructional strategies to meet desired learn-
ing outcomes for the students they teach. Furthermore, as we saw in the previous
chapter, the generation and blending of appropriate methods, activities and resources
are at the root of creativity in teaching. Here, the focus is specifically on the ped-
agogically driven blending of EdTech into learning design and teaching practices.
Over time, we will most likely talk less about the use of technology in teaching and
learning, as it will just be part of Creative Teaching Competence.
Even in most lectures today, it’s rare not to see at least some use of EdTech, such
as PowerPoint slides or a video, blended into this traditional teacher centred format.
At the other end of the spectrum, we are seeing the growth of fully online courses,
in which there is no traditional face-to-face contact time. Invariably, discussions on
blended learning raise questions as to what content areas are best delivered online,
and on what basis, as compared to the face-to-face mode; as well as what percentage
of a programme should be delivered in these different modes. Such questions will be
addressed later in the chapter. In terms of operationally useful definitions of blended
learning, I find the following conceptions capture the essential framing:
Blended learning is the combination of different training “media” (technologies, activities,
and types of events) to create an optimum training for a specific audience. (Bersin 2004, xv)
In the best-blended learning design, the selection and organization of learning activities
and assessments support desired learning outcomes while maximizing the strengths and
minimizing the weaknesses - of both online and onsite environments. (Stein and Graham
2014, p. 28)
Most importantly, as Picciano et al. (2014) summarized:

Maximizing success in a blended learning initiative requires a planned and well-supported
approach that includes a theory-based instructional model, high-quality faculty development,
course development assistance, [and] learner support. (p. 3)
The concept of blended learning is attractive for several reasons. Firstly, from a
pragmatic point of view, there are affordances in terms of cost, time and convenience.
As the demand for higher education increases, in the face of public funding and
personal finances decreasing, high-cost long-duration face-to-face instruction may
become an option only for the wealthier minority. It’s not a high-level prediction to
forecast an explosion of low cost, even free, online or blended learning, as MOOC
(Massive Open Online Courses) have demonstrated. How this will eventually position
itself in the market context is open to anyone’s guess at present, but there’s little doubt
that blended learning, in whatever format (e.g., Flipped Classroom Learning) will be
a major curriculum option. The challenge will be to make it as effective, efficient, and
engaging as possible for increasingly diverse groups of learners (e.g., differentiation).
This is where creative teachers will be most impactful and needed.
There is evidence that blended learning can enhance learner attainment. For
example, The U.S. Department of Education, in a meta-analysis of online research,
reported that students in online courses performed modestly better, on average than
those in face-to-face courses, with blended students performing the best (e.g., Means
et al. 2010). Furthermore, according to the Educause Horizon Report (2019) Higher
Education Edition:
Students report a preference for blended learning, citing flexibility, ease of access and the
integration of sophisticated multimedia. (p. 12)
6.4 Designing and Facilitating Blended Learning 213
6.4 Designing and Facilitating Blended Learning
The EdTech design frame presented here can be applied both at the macro-curriculum
level (e.g., a module or unit of study), as well as for individual sessions or lessons.
Invariably, as in the face-to-face situation, even the best pedagogic design and prac-
tices will not engage all learners, and certainly not all of the time. As we know, when
dealing with humans, you will not, as the saying goes, “Please all the people all of the
time”. There are just better heuristics, but it’s an important ‘just’. From an evidence-
based approach, I use the following broad heuristics in the creative pedagogic design
and facilitation of blended learning:
1. Good learning design is based on Evidence-Based Practice (e.g., methods that
work best and consistent with how humans learn, i.e., embodied in the Core
Principles of Learning)
2. EdTech (e.g., internet, e-tools, multimedia) are used strategically and creatively
to enhance specific aspects of the learning process across the design, planning,
facilitation and evaluation of learning events
3. The completed blended learning design maximizes the affordances of a range
of learning modes, mediums and methods to enhance learning effectiveness and
efficiency (e.g., attainment levels, interest/engagement, differentiation, access
and flexibility).
For example, the selection and use of technology platforms and tools become one
of identifying the affordances of different categories of e-tools (e.g., content creation
& delivery tools; communication & collaboration tools; assessment & feedback tools)
and how they can be used to positively impact aspects of the learning process. The
following EBT guiding heuristics apply:
• In principle, if an EdTech facility (e.g., e-tool or an e-tool combination) enhances
any aspect(s) of the learning process (e.g., taking in, processing and applying
information in practice) for a group of learners, then there is potential use in terms
of infusion into the instructional strategy
• EdTech combinations that enhance a number of the core principles of learning
simultaneously are more likely to have a greater synergistic impact in terms of
enhancing student attainment opportunities and the experience of learning
• The creative blending of high effect size methods and cognitive scientific principles
(e.g., the core principles of learning) with appropriate e-tools is where teachers can
be most impactful, both on the motivational and attainment stakes. Such expertise,
both in planning and when the situation demands (e.g., when the planned strategy
is not working with a group of learners), can re-invent a new more effective strategy
in situ—is Creative Teaching Competence. In terms of Hattie’s (2009) ‘Russian
Doll’ analogy, the dolls are getting an added EdTech ‘makeover’, so to speak. We
would then be using the best method combination in terms of pedagogic design
and e-tools integration to support such methods.
This guide can be systematically worked through in the learning design process.
Key focal areas for creative thinking and application will be in the strategic enhance-
ment of the learning process and maximization of the blend. You will often find
that while working through this design process in practice, new ideas or potential
resource blends will come into mind, making this as much an iterative process as
a linear one, and that’s where much of the creative connections will incubate and
hopefully flit into conscious thought—as we explored previously/That’s the way the
brain typically works in terms of creativity in any field.
6.4.1 Good Learning Design Is Always Grounded

on Evidence-Based Practice, Incorporating Core
Principles of Learning
The ‘brain is the brain’, whether it’s in a face-to-face situation or processing stuff
online. Do we need to adapt the teaching strategy, customizing what we know about
human learning and teaching methods to the online environment? Of course, we do,
just as there is always customization of instructional strategies in different face-to-
face contexts. However, we now have to effectively negotiate an added customization
and adapt it to the particular nature, affordances and limitations of this different
instructional mode. Clarke and Lyons’ (2005) analysis, in the context of human
learning, remains relevant for the foreseeable future:
The most robust instructional principles are those based on a model of human psychological
learning processes …Any given instructional method will be effective or ineffective depend-
ing on the extent to which it supports or disrupts basic-learning psychological processes
regardless of the delivery media. (p. 594)
Hence, no matter how much information we have in terms of gigabytes and ter-
abytes, it is not going to get quickly assimilated and nicely integrated into long-term
memory. As Moroder (2013) discovered from her experience:
Technology does not make learning more engaging or meaningful. A great lesson does
this…technology can make it more effective and efficient.
However, as summarized earlier, the situation is now changing for the better
concerning the use of technology in teaching and learning. Firstly, the technologies
are becoming more stable, much faster and, most importantly, user-friendly (and
many are free). Secondly, and most significantly, there is a reframing of the use of
technology towards pedagogic design considerations and how they might enhance
specific aspects of the learning process, rather than the technologies per se. Hence,
Horton (2006) makes the summative point in this context:
At its best, e-learning is as good as the best classroom learning. At its worst, it is as bad as
the worst classroom learning. The difference is design. (p. 3)
Similarly, Olbrish Pagano (2013) pointed out:

Technology will change, but good design is constant. (p. 8)
Quite simply, disorganized and over complex content in the online environment is
no less disruptive than in the face-to-face context—perhaps even more so. Similarly,
dull is dull, wherever, whenever; and we know how this works in terms of brain
processes. The framework developed in the previous chapters equally applies here.
EdTech simply provides a resource capability which, if thoughtfully used, has the
almost unlimited creative capability for enhancing learning opportunities for a wider
differentiated range of learners. Treadwell (2017) summarizes the present scenario
accurately:
The focus of technology is not to make the learner’s work look pretty or create far more
‘stuff’, but to give greater agency to the learner and drive their learning capacity deeper
by focusing on the new end-point of building conceptual frameworks of understanding that
learners can apply creatively to be innovative…
The key here is to leverage technology to make that happen, but the technology must be
simple to use, requiring no significant training. If ongoing training courses of any length are
required, then it is unlikely that in the long term, the technology will be used by educators
as it was intended. (p. 156)
6.4.2 EdTech Is Used to Strategically and Creatively

Enhance Aspects of the Learning Process
Pacansky-Brocks’ (2013) position on the use of e-tools is particularly pertinent in

this context:
The tools here are merely colours in a palette. As an artist, your task is to select a tool and
align it to your creative vision to construct relevant, engaging learning activities for your
students. (p. 130)
EdTech does not change the fundamental ways in which the brain works and
therefore our focus must be on what the different e-tools can specifically do to
enhance aspects of the learning process. For example, at the most generic level,
we know that EdTech provides anytime and anyplace access to online resources.
Also, computers do not suffer from mental fatigue and we can, therefore, expect
consistency in performance, if the technical architecture is good. Hence, this is a
potentially good affordance for those who cannot attend class at designated times.
In understanding more fully the specific range of learning affordances that EdTech
offers, it is useful to consider what technology and human brains are disposed to do
well with information processing. This provides evidence-based guidance as to the
learning contexts in which technologies may be most effective. For example, we
know EdTech tools are much better than the human brain at:
• retrieving information from vast resource banks of data

• rapidly, accurately and effectively processing complex sequences of clearly defined
facts
• reconstructing and representing large amounts of information.
In contrast, the human brain is better (at present anyway) than the computer at:
• conceptualising ambiguous problems
• exploring concepts
• formulating and communicating ideas.
Sylwester’s (1995) summary, from an extensive review of the literature, pulls the
present discussion together nicely:
Our brain is better than a computer at conceptualising ambiguous problems. Conversely, a
computer is better at rapidly, accurately and effectively processing complex sequences of
clearly defined facts. (p. 120)
Based on the brief comparison and contrast above, certain inferences and inter-
pretations of what types of e-tools offer significant learning affordances for different
aspects of the learning process are readily apparent. For example, cloud-based appli-
cations such as Google Drive and Dropbox enable the storing, organizing, sharing
and collaboration of a wide range of content and applications. This enables teachers
to present extensive content resources in various formats and mediums, catering to a
wide range of learners’ needs and competency levels. The capacity to decentralise the
structure of knowledge bases and reconstruct them in dynamic customised digestible
bits (knowledge warehousing) makes knowledge even more directly accessible and
manageable. Similarly, and perhaps the most significant single learning affordance
of the online learning environment is the hyperlink which, at the click of the mouse,
can bring together a wide range of text-based, multimedia and personnel resources
way beyond what is possible in the traditional classroom. Hamilton and Zimmerman
(2002) illustrate this vividly when they wrote:
…the hyperlink, which is practicable without counterpart in the physical world of traditional
academics. Within an internet document, hyperlinks are used to bring multi-sourced infor-
mation into the primary text or to give the reader a path to alternative media. In essence,
this eliminates the physical separation of material messages that are logically connected. In
addition to text, hyperlinked messages may be pictures, sound files, animations, or video
clips. External links can refer students to other information-rich Internet sites, including
personal Web pages, specialized bibliographies, and professional specialists. (p. 270)
This provides the capability of creating networked resources that enable both
faculty and students to create, share and continually develop an extensive and varied
range of resources that can support the desired learning outcomes. These enable the
capability to:
• centralize key resources relating to a module syllabus (e.g., learning guides, module
maps, advanced organizers, annotated bibliographies of key resources, guidance
on how to negotiate potentially difficult topic areas)
• select prepared resources to support learning (e.g., notes, cases, videos, animations,
activities)
• select web links to provide a networked architecture of extended and dynamic
resources
• access, where appropriate, to other digital learning exchange portals (e.g., libraries,
specific learning communities).
6.4.3 The Completed Blended Learning Design Maximizes

the Affordances of a Range of Learning Modes
and Mediums
This concerns determining what curriculum components and specific learning out-
comes can be effectively and efficiently met in the online environment, and what can
be better facilitated in a face-to-face context, the ‘balance of the blend’ so to speak.
From an evidence-based approach, the answer is primarily pedagogic and situated
rather than numeric. It is not a question of how much online learning versus how
much face-to-face learning; rather about how the face-to-face learning context can be
enhanced through ICTs and vice-versa. The real indicator of effective blended learn-
ing is not the amount of face-to-face or online learning but their effective integration
within a programme (Garrison and Kanuka 2004).
Therefore, if the previous two stages of the design process have been appropri-
ately negotiated, this final stage is essentially one of practicality and creativity. For
example, while we may have an ‘ideal’ blend in our mind, in practice the ‘right blend’
may depend on some other factors, which typically include the following:
• Programme type and focus (e.g., cost reduction, high impact on attainment)
• Learning group (e.g., prior competence, motivational level, cultural factors)
• Resources (e.g., budget and technology infrastructure)
• Content stability (e.g., enduring, relevance to key outcomes).
As the creative combination of methods, activities and resources underpin creative
teaching in the face-to-face context, the same design principles equally apply in the
online environment. We now have an increasing range and variety of e-tools that
provide affordances for different aspects of the learning process, hence the increasing
potential for more and more creative combinations. Furthermore, as we create and
develop effective and efficient method and e-tool combinations (blends), the creative
process will, over time, lead to highly synergistic embedded learning experiences that
will move us towards the ideal of maximising learning opportunities and attainment
for all students. This is creative teaching competence at the level of adaptive expertise.
The following section outlines the Flipped Classroom Learning approach (a vari-
ant of blended learning) and illustrates the EBT Blended Learning Design Model
with examples from a 3-year research project conducted at Singapore Polytechnic
(SP), which systematically implemented Flipped Classroom Learning in a series of

15-week module programs. (Sale et al. 2017).
Flipped Classroom Learning
The Flipped Classroom is a blended learning format, in which online work on key
underpinning knowledge is completed before more application orientated work is
facilitated in the face-to-face context. It was highly popularized by Bergmann and
Sams (2012), and since then, there had been many publications attesting to the
usefulness of flipped classroom in improving various aspects of students learning (e.g.
Herreid and Schiller 2013; Berrett 2012), and many resources offering guidelines
and tips for implementing flipped classroom (e.g. Moffett 2014; Margulieux et al.
2013). Strayer (2012), in the teaching of statistics, noted that students in an inverted
classroom become more aware of their learning process than those in more traditional
settings; and increases in student cooperation, innovation and task orientation. Based
on analysis of self-determination theory and cognitive load theory, Abeysekera and
Dawson (2015) suggested that flipped classroom can improve student motivation and
help manage cognitive load. Other benefits include increased student’s engagement
and satisfaction with the course of study (e.g. Strayer 2012; Wilson 2014), and
improvement in meta-cognition (van Vliet et al. 2015).
Equally, flipped classroom learning has received a significant share of critical
review. For example, Mason et al. (2013) reported that the flipped classroom “at
best-improved students’ understanding of engineering concepts” and that at worst
“did not harm”. Similarly, McLaughlin et al. (2013) compared final exam scores of
students and found no significant differences. In a recent publication, Jensen et al.
(2015) reported that flipped classroom does not result in higher learning gains or
better attitudes compared to a non-flipped classroom when both utilized an active
learning, constructivist approach. These authors proposed that such gains are most
likely a result of the active learning style of instruction rather than the use of flipped
classroom per se. One of the strongest objections to a flipped classroom is a view
that it is “simply a time-shifting tool that is grounded in the same didactic, lecture-
based philosophy. It’s a better version of a bad thing” (Ash 2012). Pienta (2016)
noted that the literature is clear that flipped classroom, just like other forms of active
learning, requires engaged students. However, not all students are motivated to put
in the required effort to learn lesson materials on their own before coming to class.
Most importantly, in this context, according to Abeysekera and Dawson’s (2015,
p. 3) review of research on flipped classroom learning, it remains “…under eval-
uated, under-theorized, and under-researched in general.” Recent research is still
showing that much of design research is still focusing on surface features, or phys-
ical attributes (e.g., online, face-to-face), of the design without articulating clearly
the core pedagogical attributes. As Picciano et al. (2014) point out:
…the heavy focus in existing models on physical or surface-level characteristics rather than
pedagogical or psychological characteristics are impeding progress. (p.29).
The following extracts are from two of the research-based cases on implementing
Creative Flipped Classroom Learning: An Evidence-Based Approach (Sale et al.
2017).
Supported Experiment 1: Digital Electronics
The Digital Electronics module in the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineer-
ing in SP has been flipped for 3 years. Apart from its impact generically, we have
become interested in how it specifically impacts weaker students. The learning design
process incorporated appropriate high ‘Effect Size’ teaching methods (Hattie 2009)
and cognitive scientific principles (e.g., Core Principles of Learning, Sale 2015).
Furthermore, the selection of EdTech tools was based on their predictive capability
to enhance specific aspects of the learning process. For example, the EdTech tool
Kahoot was chosen for its capability, when used effectively (especially creatively)
to get good student attention and engagement with the content learning, activate
prior knowledge and check conceptual understanding. In the language of cognitive
science, this had an excellent Von Restorff effect and hit the ‘sweet spot’ in terms of
an appropriate motivation strategy for many students.
Data from ‘Student Co-participants’ (e.g., Lincoln 1990) was collected to ascer-
tain how the students experienced the different components of the flipped class-
room innovation These were student volunteers who actively participated in the
research, providing regular feedback to the research team of their experience in
learning throughout the modules. The focus group of student co-participants com-
prised 11 of the class members. Based on agreed areas by the majority of students,
the following inferences and interpretations were recorded:
• The anytime, anyplace and opportunities for repeated exposure received a strong
majority affordance (which was to be expected).
• The use of the messenger app for smartphones like WhatsApp and EdTech tools
such as Socrative Exit Poll and Kahoot was widely noted as supporting learning.
Students found the provision of the short videos both supporting content under-
standing and interesting. They also identified and confirmed the learning benefits of
some of the key explicit EBT strategies employed (e.g. activation of prior knowl-
edge, checking understanding, timely and quality feedback, and the creation of
humour and fun as part of the learning experience).
• Of note, while the design of the instructional strategy is important, much of the
feedback seemed to be contextualized to how individual teachers facilitated the
learning process and interacted with students. In most basic terms the teachers’
style, personality and competence are key components determining the success or
otherwise of a flipped-classroom approach.
Student Performance
Apart from what the students told us about their learning experience, we also wanted
to find out the actual attainment levels in terms of the meeting stated outcomes. We
used both formative and summative assessment strategies to facilitate our learning
goals and objectives throughout the semester.
Fig. 6.1 Comparison of student performance
The comparison was made between the flipped classes and the entire cohort of
students taking the same module, with overall results computed using marks from
general participation, continual assessment, laboratory tests, mid-semester test and
final exam. Figure 6.1 shows the comparison of student performance for over 3 years.
The results show better student attainment for the flipped classes as compared to
school overall. Furthermore, there is a consistent improvement in student attainment
for consecutive 3 years.
Supported Experiment 2: Plant Safety and Loss Prevention
Flipped Classroom Learning has been implemented for the Year 3 core module Plant
Safety & Loss Prevention in the Diploma in Chemical Engineering since Academic
Year (AY) 2015/2016.
The motivation for adopting flipped classroom stemmed from the observation
(and frustration) of the lecturer that students taking this module are often unable to
integrate knowledge and skills gained from earlier studies and developed a sufficient
understanding of the subject content. Students also lacked real-world experience in
the chemical process industries to fully appreciate the application of loss prevention
principles in the chemical plant. This, plus the ‘fact’ that safety itself is a relatively
dry topic due to its ‘common-sense-on-hindsight’ nature, makes teaching the module
especially challenging.
Like the Digital Electronics module, the learning design process utilized Hat-
tie’s high effect size strategies (2009) and Sale’s (2015) Core Principles of Learn-
ing. We specifically focused on the effectiveness of the following high effect size
interventions and using the ‘Russian Doll strategy’ (Hattie 2009) outlined earlier:
• Learning Outcomes: Advance Organizer (start-of-class) and Checklist (mid-point
and end-of-class) (effect size 0.40)
• Whole-class Interactive Teaching: Challenging Goals (effect size 0.56), Classroom
Discussion (effect size 0.82) with Peer Influences (effect size 0.53)
• Facilitation: Questioning (effect size 0.46), Scaffolding (effect size 0.53)

• Assessment for Learning: Feedback (effect size 0.73), Formative Evaluation (effect
size 0.68)
• Deliberate Practice: Worked Examples (effect size 0.37), Mass Practice (effect
size 0.60).
A designated website was created to host all the resources students needed for the
flipped classroom lessons. Bite-sized pre-class mini-lectures were organized using
EBT practices and principles to ensure activating student’s prior knowledge, facili-
tate the acquiring and assimilation of new context knowledge, as well as managing
cognitive load (e.g., consistent with effective memory processing). EdTech tools
were used effectively and efficiently (e.g. where it was felt that they could posi-
tively impact one or more of the core principles of learning) throughout the pre-class
learning experience. For example, all mini-lectures were created in MP4 format and
made available in a dedicated YouTube Channel via links in the module website.
Similarly, animations of process flow were created using PowerPoint exported to
YouTube and drawings of the process control loop and safety interlock were created
using Video-Scribe. The animated piping and instrumentation diagrams were cre-
ated using Thinglink; while instructions to students are delivered via cartoons created
using PowToon. Other pre-class activities are introduced as and when appropriate,
e.g., reading of industry journal, or visit a laboratory. At the end of the pre-class
lessons, students get to evaluate their understanding using Socrative, usually via a
combination of True/False and multiple-choice questions. Students can also get a
“sneak preview” of how the knowledge gained from the pre-class learning will be
used in the classroom.
In the face-to-face learning context, calibrated to the prior online learning experi-
ence, real-world case incidents (e.g., Bhopal Gas Tragedy; Piper Alpha Explosion)
are used to demonstrate that failure to adhere to safety principles often is a leading
cause of these events. Understanding is further reinforced through worked exam-
ples and transfer of learning encouraged through the application of key concepts to
other case study scenarios. To facilitate a conducive learning environment, one that
is success orientated and fun, the use of positive language, tone of voice, calibrated
body language and smiling (e.g., Hattie and Yates 2014) is consciously employed to
facilitate rapport building.
Some class activities involve all groups working on the same problem, and results
from different groups are then compared. To maximize learning via collaboration,
two key strategies are used. One requires that each group of students work on different
aspects of the same problem. For example, one classroom activity requires students
to assess the adequacy of a reactor systems protective system from an over-pressure
condition. One group can look into excessive pressure scenarios due to uncontrolled
chemical reaction, while another group can investigate potential over-pressures due
to failure in the reactor’s cooling jacket, and yet another group can study the failure
of its pressure control system. Each group can then share their findings with the
rest of the class. Another strategy requires that each group of students work on a
different case study and share the results with the whole class. In this way, groups
are purposefully active towards meaningful goals and have variety in the learning
experience. There are also more challenging questions for any group to tackle if they
finish the assigned questions earlier.
Google Doc, Google Slide and Padlet are used for student work submission in
a class, enabling the lecturer to review and give appropriate feedback in real-time.
Google Doc is used most frequently, predominant for the posting of group answers
for the activities mentioned above. Google Slide is used for activities requiring stu-
dents to arrange events in a particular sequence, for example, how a series of plant
modifications made out of good intentions, resulted in an unintended consequence
that proved fatal. The use of Padlet enabled individual students to pose questions
to lecturers on topics that they did not understand, as well as for posting individual
work in response to concept-type review questions posed by the lecturer.
The opportunity to view students’ work in real-time is perhaps one of the most
significant benefits of flipped classroom learning, as it afforded both the lecturer and
students to analyse and evaluate the learning experience in situ—so to speak. This
benefits the students as they get to clarify any doubts or uncertainty in understanding
on the spot. For the lecturer this means that he/she can get feedback on the effective-
ness of a particular classroom strategy employed, and depending on the situation,
can make adjustments in real-time as well.
To ascertain the effectiveness of the different high effect size strategies used,
survey questionnaires, focus group discussion, and student co-participants were
employed (as in the previous Supported Experiment). Overall, students find the learn-
ing experience enriching. On the more specific strategies, the students reported that
the use of advance organizers is useful in helping them to keep track of their learning
progress and how the various topics are connected to form the big picture, although
some found it difficult to understand at first. They also found that the use of self-
evaluation exercises after every topic (multiple choice and/or true/false questions in
Socrative) are useful. Likewise, students reported that the use of Google Doc and
Google Slide in the classroom is very useful in helping them to learn, especially from
each other. Students also informed that they found the use of mock assignments and
marking with rubrics is useful to help them understand the lecturer’s expectations
and how to improve on their work. They, however, did not find the use of checklist
very useful, partly due to the way the lecture used it – which is seen as more for the
lecturers own check rather than for the students to track their learning.
Besides feedback from student co-participants, the lecturer also engaged in
Evidence-Based Reflective Practice (Sale 2015). This involves a structured thinking
process (e.g. analysis and evaluation) using evidence-based teaching (EBT) princi-
ples to all valid evidence sources (e.g. students, peers, peer observers), rather than
personal reflections in isolation. As a holistic process, it enables a better under-
standing of the reality of classroom learning (e.g. what is happening, and how this
is affecting the learning process). Through this process, the lecturer can pinpoint
areas where strategy/EdTech tool blending can be improved, and also identifying
one’s blind spot in assuming that students can retain key learning points from ear-
lier modules. Furthermore, via this process, the lecturer can draw similarities in one
classroom activity that posed difficulty and adjust the delivery approach in a later
classroom activity, e.g. making better alignment of topics and making connections
to topics covered earlier.
Table 6.1 summarizes the findings on the impact of each strategy employed from
the students’ perspective (using broad categories of “Very Useful’, ‘Useful’ etc.,
based on students’ responses to the survey questions) alongside with the lecturer’s
own reflection based on his classroom observation.
In the following subsections, I will illustrate how selected EdTech tools can signif-
icantly enhance different aspects of the learning process. This will involve a consid-
eration of e-tools from the genres identified prior, focusing mainly on content devel-
opment and delivery, knowledge building for understanding, and supporting skill
acquisition. This provides the key underpinning components for the development of
competence. The e-tools selected are not meant to be comprehensive coverage of
the genres or prescriptive in any way, as many others can serve similar pedagogic
purposes. Also, I am focusing on those tools that I find user-friendly, both in terms of
the teacher/developers’ perspective as well as from the learner’s experience. Most of
the tools discussed below are either freeware or ‘affordable’, recognizing the latter
is always relative.
Table 6.1 Effectiveness of various strategies employed

Strategy employed Students’ reported Lecturer’s own class
usefulness observation
Learning outcomes Advance organizer Useful Students initially
have some difficulty
Learning checklist Not useful Agreed—largely due
to the way it was
used!
Whole-class Challenging goals Very useful Allowing students to
interactive teaching classroom discussion form own group is
and peer influences preferred
Facilitation Questioning and Useful Students initially
scaffolding need encouragement
(activation of Prior to ask questions.
knowledge) Once rapport was
Assessment for Feedback and Useful built (after about
learning formative evaluation 3 weeks) this process
is going on well.
Deliberate practice Worked examples Very useful They are generally
and mass practice open to feedback,
and are now not
hesitant to ask
questions. However,
getting students to do
extra exercises on
their own still proved
challenging
6.4.3.1 Rapid Content Development Software Tools
The importance of good subject content knowledge, the essential information that
needs to eventually end up as well as formulated mental schemata in the learner’s
long-term memory is a crucial element of effective learning. Hence, the selection,
organization and presentation of content are important considerations in all learn-
ing contexts, and especially so in the online context, which usually lacks immediate
opportunities for clarification and feedback. It’s important also to be highly sceptical
of the notion that content is all out there in cyberspace, just waiting to be downloaded
by a few clicks of the mouse. This is wildly over-optimistic. While there are numer-
ous and varied resources on the Internet, much may lack validity and usefulness.
Keen (2007), for example, makes a damning criticism of so-called internet expertise
knowledge contained in such sites as Wikipedia:
…the real consequence of the Web 2.0 revolution is less culture, less reliable news, and chaos
of useless information. One chilling reality in this brave new digital epoch is the blurring,
obfuscation, and even disappearance of truth. (p. 16)
Invariably, this problem can be mitigated to some extent by helping learners to be

more critical, and apply good thinking, to what they are reading or looking at, often
referred to as Media literacy or Digital Literacy. The ability to do this effectively and
efficiently will constitute an important competence for learning from such resources.
It is noteworthy that this is not a new human faculty or competence but generically
applies to all aspects of human communication. Newspapers, books and other media
have been around a long time, which need such critique; it’s just that we now have
more and more varied information sources to validate.
From an evidence-based approach, in the real world of teaching and learning,
well-prepared resources, tailored to the desired learning goals and outcomes, with
multi-modal and differentiated learning experiences, are a key affordance to support
student attainment in most learning contexts. To illustrate this, let’s go back to my
GCE ‘A’ level experience of yesteryear. The lessons typically had the following
format for the full 2-year duration of the programme:
• The teacher dictates notes for the whole duration of the lesson
• The students copy these down verbatim or in personal shorthand form
• The students write these out neatly and store them safely after the lesson
• The students memorize these notes for tests and exams.
There were probably some opportunities for questions but I cannot recall these as
a significant part of the instructional strategy. It was not pleasurable, and it was not
novel, but a dull and boring ‘slog’ to pass the exams. Such practice was forgivable
some 40 years back, but it is not now. We are in a position to use EdTech to create,
organize and present our subject content knowledge in highly organized, dynamic
and interesting ways. This is where rapid content development tools are particularly
useful. In most basic terms these are technologies that enable the production of
e-learning content and learning experiences which have the following key elements:
• User-friendly functionality requiring only a short learning curve (in some cases
only a few hours) to master
• Teaching and learning resources can be produced and updated rapidly. This
depends on the number of resources produced but is significantly quicker than
the previous e-learning development software
• The content mix can include text, graphics, embedded videos and podcasts,
hyperlinks to more detailed and differentiated content, activities and assessments.
This enables faculty to quickly get up to speed in being able to produce and inte-
grate a variety of media-rich and interactive learning resources tailored to programme
learning outcomes and accommodating a range of student learning capabilities. When
guided by a strong pedagogic literacy and creative teaching competence, these tools
provide an enormous capability for enhancing the student learning experience at the
level of exposure to the content knowledge to be learned; these specifically include:
• Content structuring that ensures good chunking to reduce cognitive overload
• Multimodal presentation to enhance interest and application for the content to be
learned
• Ongoing formative assessment, enabling retrieval practice of key concepts through
short quizzes and immediate feedback.
From my experience, apart from PowerPoint which has been around for a long
while, I have found the following rapid content development software tools to be
particularly useful:
SoftChalk LessonBuilder enables the creation of interactive web pages for
e-learning courses. The software is easy to use (really) and it enables the quick
production of interactive lessons that have a professional look to them. Specific
features include pop-up text annotations, self-assessment quizzes, and interactive
learning games. After production, you can package the lessons for delivery via CD-
ROM, Intranet, Internet, or integrate with a Learning Management System. As their
homepage states:
If you can use a word-processing program, you can use LessonBuilder. Designed for teachers
and content-experts that don’t have time to learn complex software, LessonBuilder is simple,
yet powerful, with only the features you need to create exciting, interactive content for your
online course. It claims to enable you to:
Create custom lessons by combining your materials with interactive learning content. The
mixture of personalized content, embedded assessment, and interactivity will increase
student engagement and improve learning outcomes.
They offer free trial downloads and the software is well priced in terms of
comparative products on the market. The current website is https://softchalk.com/.
Camtasia Studio enables the creation of packaged lessons within a self-contained
video format that can be web-enabled. Its screen recording system that will capture a
prepared lesson (e.g., PowerPoint presentation) as well as your voice-over during the
recording. Using good pedagogic design, high-quality teaching videos can be shared
with students on the Web, CD-ROM, as well as on portable media players such as
the iPod. The live-action video component adds the human touch to the presentation
material and enables both technical professionalisms as well as the use of informal
narrative and humour. The current website is: https://www.techsmith.com/store.
VoiceThread is a web-based application tool that facilitates the presentation of
an environment of integrated learning resources (e.g., images, video, documents)
in which participants can interact and contribute (e.g., voice, video upload) both
synchronously and asynchronously as part of collaborative discussion. It is a more
interactive collaboration tool than the other tools outlined. The application is easy to
use, provides a versatile learning environment that is easily modifiable and reasonably
priced. The current website is: https://voicethread.com/.
VideoScribe is an easy to use tool that enables the production of content, incorpo-
rating text, graphics and audio into a visually powerful and animated video format.
In terms of learning affordances, it enhances presentation impact, can highlight key
concepts, and works particularly well in terms of our memory systems. For creative
teaching and the development of one’s creative teaching competence, it’s a real play-
ground for such activity. The opportunities for creating novelty—those powerful Von
Restorff effects—into the content structuring are probably unlimited. It is both fun
and challenging to use creatively and, from what we know about human learning, it
will have positive impacts on learning, especially student attention and engagement.
The current website is: https://www.videoscribe.co/.
While these applications have quite different affordances, all have significant
capability to enhance learning effectiveness and efficiency in terms of content provi-
sion. Given the user-friendly nature of these e-tools, it will not be a time consuming
or frustrating experience to experiment with them or view some good exemplars.
From that basis, it should then be readily apparent which applications (and you can
use more than one) are best suited for particular parts of your curriculum and for the
students you teach.
6.4.3.2 Communication and Collaboration Tools
The ability to engage with a wide range of relevant content in the context of open
communication and collaboration with peers and experts, where there is ease in
posing and answering questions to facilitate building understanding, has much by
way of learning affordance and cuts across many of the core principles of learning.
This is another area in which EdTech can have an increasing creative impact on how
learning is facilitated but requires, of course, creative teachers. Students themselves
will likely find creative ways in which to use these technologies as they are supposedly
the ‘Digital Natives’ (Prensky 2001). However, are they? There is much to challenge
such popular generalizations, as Hattie and Yates (2014), from reviewing the research,
pointed out:
The central problem with the digital native theory is that it is advanced in the absence of any
known database…In its raw form, the digital native theory has to be seen as considerably
overstated and incorrect. Human capabilities are not as flexible or tied to experience as this
theory might suggest. (p. 197)
They also pointed out:

The same is true of students today being able to multitask – again the evidence is negative.
The notion that the brain can genuinely do two things at one is widely recognized to have
no serious validity. (p. 188)
This is fully supported by Miller (2016) who notes that:

There’s little reason to believe that ubiquitous computing has transferred the younger gen-
eration of students into tech-savvy, tech-dependent individuals who think in ways that are
distinct from those of their older counterparts. (p. 5)
The whole notion of students’ today being significantly different in terms of

learning from previous generations makes no sense in terms of human evolution. It
is unlikely that brain functioning, despite the arguments for brain neuroplasticity,
could have undergone such systemic neurological change so quickly. Hence, the
significant changes in student behaviour are most likely to be both phenotypical and
memetic. It is, however, worrying, if Winget’s (2017) assertion that many of the new
generations are true ‘snowflakes’ (I don’t think I need to explain the analogy) has
validity, and accredits this to:
Our values are slipping and it shows up in every area of our society, and it terrifies me that
people have convinced themselves this isn’t the case. (p. 7)
He goes on to argue:
Because of the collapse of the core values of kindness, charity, love, being-nice, and respect,
people resort to meanness as a way of dealing with each other. (p. 76)
Most people are cursed with a combination of too much want and too much won’t. (p. 82)
How accurate Winget’s framing is, and how generalizable it is across countries
and cultures, is likely to be contested by many, and I am not going to pursue the
debate here. However, if there are increasing numbers of students who are lacking in
such values, this will make the job of teachers even more challenging in promoting
self-directed lifelong learning, which is based as much on values and volition as it
is on cognition. Such concerns are not just pertinent to this analysis and evaluation
on teaching with technology, nor of teaching per se, but of wider societal concern.
Anyway, back to the specific issue of technology for learning in this context. Of all
the EdTech features, perhaps the most prolific in terms of impact on young people’s
engagement is the ever-increasing range of Web 2.0 and social media e-tools that
enable communication, content sharing and collaboration. There is some confusion
between what exactly are the differences between Web 2.0 tools and social media
tools? It seems that it is as Beattie (2011) wrote:
It would be difficult to find two popular buzzwords that are in more of a quagmire than social
media and Web 2.0. (technopedia)
He goes on to argue that while social media is a Web 2.0 innovation:

…referring to Web 2.0 as social media is incorrect because it ignores all its less social aspects,
such as blogs, YouTube, and so on.
I am not too concerned about these fine differentiations, though I note the qual-
itative difference of social media being more focused on the ease and simplicity of
user-generated content sharing and reviewing. Collectively, these tools provide an
extensive platform for both asynchronous and synchronous communication, shar-
ing and collaboration. Learners can engage in multiple platforms of subject content
knowledge, share and collaboratively work with these knowledge sources. Such
activity has the potential to help learners to build understanding, join and participate
in learning environments and communities that focus on their specific interests and
learning goals, whilst in a psychological climate that works for them. Furthermore,
related to the capability for extensive resource connectivity, there is the specific con-
necting (both synchronously and asynchronously) of people globally. Learners can
now connect with their tutors, peers and other experts who give their time to enthu-
siastic learners, as well as pretty much anyone prepared to communicate with them.
In today’s internet society, we can readily go beyond this physical local community
of learners, to a global community of learners. In this context, there is the emergence
of “Communities of Inquiry”, which Garrison and Vaughan (2008) defined as:
…a formally constituted group of individuals whose connection is that of academic purpose
and interest who work collaboratively toward intended learning goals and outcomes. (p. 6)
However, some words of caution, as popular notions of students being able to build
new knowledge and deep understanding through their inherent creative capabilities
with various social media and Web 2.0 tools such as blogs and Wikis may also be
somewhat exaggerated. Indeed, Willingham (2009) argued that getting students to
create new knowledge should not be the main goal, rather it’s better to focus on
developing a deep understanding of existing knowledge. He noted:
…posing students challenges that demand the creation of something new is a task beyond
their reach - but that does not mean you should never pose such tasks. (p. 109)
However, communication, collaboration and the opportunity to be creative is

motivating, can facilitate differentiation of learning, and provides multiple feed-
back sources. Hence, from an evidence-based approach, there is much potential for
enhancing learning opportunities. There are many e-tools in this genre, and certainly
some I have probably not even heard of. Here’s my experience of a few.
Facebook, while often not seen specifically in the context of teaching and formal
education, offers many good affordances in terms of supporting different aspects of
the learning process Firstly, it’s free and easy to use. Secondly, though now perhaps
less so, our students are on it and are comfortable with the format. They may be on it
less now, as we are on it more. Nothing changes when it comes to intergenerational
interactions, does it? Ok, what’s the pedagogic affordances? I find it easy to keep
students updated on key aspects of the programme, get feedback from them on my
teaching, generate some lively chat around topics of interest, quickly add or update
bite-sized resources and quickly hyperlink to more in-depth content of interest. The
students can do this also. Once a good psychological climate is created with a bit of
humour, it can be a fun and very effective collaborative learning experience. There’s
much that can be done with the good pedagogic application and a little creativity.
The blog is a Web 2.0 e-tool I find particularly useful. It is easy to use and young
people are very familiar with it. Blogs are now an everyday part of communication
channels for most students, albeit with a more social rather than educational orien-
tation at present. However, a blogs capability to enhance learning and attainment is
high if we look at its potential impact through the lenses of the Core Principles of
Learning. For example, to learn a subject effectively, students need to connect new
information with what they already know (Core Principle 2: Learners’ prior knowl-
edge is activated and connected to new knowledge). The very nature and design
of a blog facilitate this principle very well, as blog posts typically appear in reverse
chronological order with the most recent post appearing at the top of the web browser.
If the blog is regularly updated, students will be able to see a progressive update of
the material covered each week and will be able to link what they are currently
learning with prior knowledge. Similarly, as different media types can enhance the
learning experience (Core Principle 5: Instructional methods and presentation medi-
ums engage the range of human of senses), blogs can enable the publishing of a
range of multimedia content on the web (e.g., video, audio, animation). They can
also make explicit and clarify learning outcomes, encourage good thinking, provide
rapid, clear and constructive feedback, as well as create a psychological climate that
is success-oriented and fun.
A further affordance of the online learning environment for promoting student
thinking is that the use of asynchronous text can provide certain significant advantages
over the typical face-to-face situation. In face-to-face learning, there is often too much
information to absorb and too little time for critical and creative thinking around
the content. As a result, knowledge may not be fully understood or even effectively
transferred into long-term memory. In contrast, the provision of enduring text, which
enables students to spend time revisiting this content, posing and answering questions
around its application, helps to build a solid understanding of topics over time. As
Hamilton and Zimmerman (2002) argued:
The medium supports iterative exchanges of information and opinions over an extended
period, so ideas are not merely “hatched” and delivered but rather allowed to evolve and be
refined in a manner that makes information more convincing, narrative deliveries richer in
detail, and learning more thorough. (p. 265)
The blog is certainly, from my experience, a high leverage e-tool. It is easy to use,
low cost and has a range of learning affordances that can be utilized with a sound
pedagogic literacy and some creativity.
Kahoot is a student response e-tool that works in an interactive game-based quiz
environment. It is free (at the time of writing) as user-friendly as an e-tool can get
and provides a platform in which student prior knowledge and understanding can be
readily assessed in a non-threatening and fun environment. The creation of questions
is simple, and the question types can be easily varied (i.e., the typical multiple-choice
question format). Also, when used creatively, it can do all the above, plus be used as
a catalyst for other parts of the instructional strategy (e.g., extended questioning and
discussion post the quiz questions; an advance organizer for new input). It’s also a
good Von Restorff effect—but don’t over-use this. Kahoot is, in terms of a previous
analogy, an elegant ICT enhanced “Russian Doll” and, with good Presentation Style,
open to much creativity in the classroom. The current website is https://getkahoot.
com/.
While numerous e-tools are offering a wide range of communication options, it
is important to recognize, as with most things, that more is not necessarily better.
There is much online chat and sharing in these social media cyber-places, but we
may also question just how effective such online collaboration is in real learning
outcome terms. For example, Brown (2009) concluded that:
The internet helps move information around but has done little to bring people together. Cre-
ative teams need to be able to share their thoughts not only verbally but visually and physically
as well. I am not at my best writing memos…I haven’t heard of a remote collaboration tool
that can substitute for the give-and-take of sharing ideas in real-time. (p. 30)
Similarly, as Melchior et al. (1997) rightly pointed out:

One pervasive myth is that the technologies themselves teach important complex skills…they
need to be identified, taught, modelled, and reinforced by capable teachers. (p. 91)
Indeed, the development of good thinking is a major challenge in any medium and
we explored the reasons for this in some detail prior. Furthermore, we also explored
strategies which firmly established that student thinking can be developed through:
• The explicit modelling of the cognitive processes that are involved in good thinking
• Involvement in questioning processes that cues and reinforces specific types of
thinking
• Engagement in authentic real-world meaningful tasks (e.g., projects, case studies)
that are challenging but achievable and necessitate the use of the main types of
thinking (e.g., critical, creative, and metacognitive).
There are now many EdTech applications that can be used to facilitate and enhance
thinking, provided that they are employed thoughtfully within the context of the
pedagogic considerations and practices. Such applications include:
• Online tutorials involving active problem solving with feedback
• Hypermedia software integrating knowledge, multimedia, activities and feedback
• A range of communication tools (e.g., email, blogs, bulletin boards, forums)
• Constructing software (e.g., desktop publishing, spreadsheets, etc.) where learners
can produce, manipulate and change information
• Simulations and virtual reality programmes.
For example, in a chemical engineering module, in which students had to solve
a range of problems in a chemical reaction plant simulator it was noted that certain
key factors in the instructional strategy combined to enhance the quality of stu-
dents’ thinking. Most important was that the design of activities was a challenge but
achievable in the time allowed, coupled with appropriate questioning strategies such
as cueing such critical thinking skills as analysis, comparison & contrast, evaluation
and making inferences & interpretations (Sale and Cheah 2011). Where activities
were not experienced as challenging by students, the simulator lost this capability
for enhancing the development of such critical thinking skills. It was also noted that
in situations where both faculty and students had shared notions of what constitutes
good thinking, there was evidence of further enhancements in the quality of student
thinking.
Interactive Videos
We are primarily visual learners, and our visual system is so advanced as compared
with our other senses. While we struggle to keep several (at best) pieces of new
information in our working memory, we can immediately apprehend (not necessar-
ily understand) a new complex visual experience. That’s not to say we pay attention
to, or will remember, everything in that visual field, as other mental systems come
in to play, including memory. However, we don’t suffer from visual overload in
the same way we do with cognitive overload. It was long popular, but now largely
refuted (e.g. Hattie 2009), that people had distinct learning styles (e.g., visual, audi-
tory, kinaesthetic). I had long challenged such notions, based on reason rather than
the research findings that have surfaced since then. Visual dominance seemed obvi-
ous from experience, and captured in the saying, “a picture paints a thousand words”.
Words and auditory learning are of course also important, and these enhance visual
learning. Equally, kinaesthetic learning is important, as much learning, especially
skills, involves touching stuff—so that’s obvious. However, the implication of the
importance of our senses is not to seek to understand student’s learning styles (quite
the opposite); rather be creative in designing learning experiences that engage the
necessary range of senses relevant to supporting the learning outcome(s). This is also
the case for engaging emotions, as these can aid attention and memory encoding.
However, we may not need to engage smelling and tasting—or emotions—in every-
thing we teach. The same generic heuristics, as in the selection and use of e-tools,
applies—can it/they enhance an aspect(s) of the learning process (in cost-effective
ways)?
I have used video extensively as a key learning resource in teacher education, long
before they had the newer technological affordances of interactivity and augmenta-
tion in the form of quiz pop-ups, reflective cues, hyperlinks and other embedded
features that enable increasing differentiation. It makes sound pedagogic sense in
teacher education to use video of actual teachers, doing their work in authentic con-
texts and then exploring aspects of practice with them through skillful mediation.
Furthermore, short, focused videos can provide key conceptual understanding and
illustration of specific teaching methods and tools, which can be logically packaged
and customized (basic curriculum design stuff) and hey presto—you have some good
teaching and learning resources.
Previously, in micro-teaching or post teaching video-recorded sessions, I would
manually stop the video at those times that I felt were relevant to exploring a specific
teaching practice or principles of learning (professional judgment here) and facilitate
accordingly (e.g., open sharing of experience and connections with evidence-based
principles). I may also capture key points and/or questions on the whiteboard for
further or later reference. In many ways, pedagogically, I was doing then what now
can be done more efficiently and in varied ways with technology.
Interactive videos offer many affordances in terms of supporting all the core
principles of learning as well as motivation generically. It is not surprising that
Treadwell (2017) offers such a bold assertion:
Over the next 25 years, we will experience the rise of video as the primary information
source that learners will use for research and inquiry. It will also increasingly become the
medium that educators use to demonstrate their comprehension and understanding. (p. 4)
Greenberg and Zanetis (2012) in a report commissioned by Cisco Systems Inc,

identified three key concepts that summarize the pedagogical impact of videos:
1. Interactivity with content (the learner relates to visual content, whether verbally,
by note-taking or thinking, or by applying concepts)
2. Engagement (the learner connects to the visual content, becoming drawn in by
video, whether on-demand or real-time)
3. Knowledge transfer and memory (the learner may remember and retain concepts
better than with other instructional media).
In terms of human learning, a video produced and facilitated with EBT pedagogic
design principles is likely to get good attention, engagement and be intrinsically
motivating for learners.
Furthermore, in today’s context, with easy to use production tools, teachers can
produce customized videos, tailored to key concepts in their subject areas, and the
context (linguistic or otherwise) of their student groups. There is little need for the
video production to be of ‘National Geographic’ standard, though the key EBT ped-
agogic and communication principles need to be fully employed. Much research
has been conducted that is extensively validated and can be easily integrated into
the design and facilitation process. For example, Colvin Clark and Mayer (2011)
recommend that E-learning (which includes video formats) include both words and
graphics and provide evidence to support the importance of delivering information
in the correct audio and visual mix, to create balance in the visual and audio chan-
nels of the student. The key principles of good instructional design for audio-visual
presentations were identified in Chap. 2, Core Principle 5: Instructional methods and
presentation mediums engage the range of human senses. Also, Mayer reinforces
what has been explained prior in terms of what constitutes active learning, as in the
false dichotomy that students listening, looking and hearing is inevitably passive
learning while doing stuff is invariably active and more effective. He argues that:
well-designed multimedia instructional messages can promote active cognitive processing
in students, even when learners seem to be behaviourally inactive. (p. 9)
Miller (2016), argues that one of the major directives from Mayer’s research is that:
…narrated animations work better than animations paired with text, most likely because the
latter arrangement requires the learner to shift visual attention back and forth between these
two visually presented sources of information. Auditory input can be processed somewhat
independently from visual input, a claim that makes sense given what we know about sep-
arate brain mechanisms used for visual and auditory processing. It follows that the two can
complement one another when presented in pair fashion.
Furthermore, narration works best when it uses conversational everyday language, compared
to when it’s formal and academic in tone. (p. 151)
The video is also exceptionally versatile in providing variation in the learning

experience, as it can combine multiple methods and techniques, such as stories,
questions, examples, presentational style and humour. I have found that a two-person
informal interview in a video is effective, especially in terms of engagement. In new
teacher induction programs, I employ an instructional strategy in which a colleague
and myself, through a series of role-play videos in which I play the experienced
teacher (I am, I think) and the other teacher plays the novice (new teacher), and we
explore practical ways to apply EBT to different aspects of planning, facilitation,
and using EdTech for enhancing learning—as outlined above. In the first video,
for example, the new teacher asks me what he should do in the first lesson, as
he informs me that colleagues have said to him, “just go in and teach”, which he
finds confusing and of little value. The video then captures a dialogue in which
I ask him what he thinks he might do, and based on his responses, I offer some
contextualized options, and so it proceeds. The basic aim is to introduce the concept
of an Instructional Strategy and its key components, and how one can plan a lesson.
I gradually introduce EBT practices and principles, noting to work situationally
and not create cognitive overload. I focus on key concepts and work from there.
Subsequent videos build on this, but always incorporate some variation, often a bit
of a plot with some humour. Based on much feedback, new teachers consistently
find these videos both engaging and useful for preparing and teaching their lessons.
The videos are typically short (around 5–7 min), informal in style, reinforce the key
concepts, incorporate illustrative examples and stories, facilitate retrieval practice and
feedback, and maintain a positive and fun presence. Hence, the overall programme
seeks to utilize the affordances of EdTech, especially those of the video, in the context
of the EBCT framework.
Even changing location in itself helps on the attentional front (e.g., don’t have
that white wall or same pot plant in the background all the time). There’s much
scope for creativity in the overall design and use of video, and it is cost-effective. For
example, I make all my videos,—you can view them on YouTube. Most are one take,
and I don’t worry about them not being pristine; the focus is on content and learning.
Hence, making your video, as long as you are not copying, avoids plagiarism, and
students respond well to their teachers’ effort to engage them more personally—it
sends positive subliminal messages of your commitment—remember those mirror-
neurons? In my experience, it’s a good rapport builder, and often creates a bit of
fun, which always works well. Finally, students can also learn in meaningful and
motivating ways from making their own videos content—again an area for creative
collaborative learning.
Mixed Reality and Artificial Intelligence

Mixed reality (MR) is an umbrella term for a range of technologies, though drawing
on Virtual reality (VR) which most people are now familiar with (where the user
puts on a helmet and is immersed into an entirely computer-generated environment)
and Augmented Reality (AR) (which may use a headset or a smartphone) overlays
images or other content onto the physical world. From AR, MR deploys overlays,
but like VR, these are interactive and can be manipulated.
The potential learning affordances of VR, AR and MR need little by way of
explanation in that they provide immersive experiential learning events. Invariably,
their design and connectivity to learning outcomes are of central importance as the
cost can be high in production. It may be that their widespread use in mainstream
education is unlikely in the immediate future as it can be expensive, with the time
for adoption forecasted by the Educause Horizon Report (2019) as between 2 and
3 years. One could argue that AR is not a new concept. I remember using overlays in
the days of overhead transparencies, to gradually reveal more of a process or object.
Of course, technology-based AR makes possible the immediate capability of delving
both very wide and deep into, and across, areas of learning—as was suggested in the
movie ‘Minority Report’, a 2002 film in which such technologies were being used
to synergise databases to build models of crime scenes before they happened.
In most basic terms, Artificial Intelligence (AI) uses computer systems to accom-
plish tasks and activities that have historically relied on human cognition (Educause
Horizon Report 2019, pp. 25–27). AI has attracted much attention as its impact across
society is potentially life-changing and often referred to as “the next electricity” (e.g.,
Ilkka 2018, p. 2). There is no doubt that AI will impact many occupational structures,
as outlined prior. How much AI will impact teaching and learning, and in what ways,
is open to debate. Certainly, key issues revolve around the capability of technology
to fully model all aspects of human intelligence and maybe surpass it. For example,
Gee (2017), sees this as unlikely in the foreseeable future, and uses the following
logic:
Since computers cannot have experience, they cannot learn humanly. They start with facts and
generalizations as strings of symbols they cannot understand. We humans do not generally
start with facts or generalizations; we start with embodied experiences. In turn, these embody
experiences give deep meaning to the facts and generalizations we eventually derive from
them or learn from others. (p. 10)
Ilkka (2018), from a similar analytical standpoint, sees the current AI systems as
severely limited, suggesting that there are technical, social, scientific and conceptual
limits to what they can do (p. 3) and concurs with the view of Luckin (2018) that at
present AI lacks most of the human’s metacognitive regulatory capabilities.
In contrast, Harari (2018) paints a more sinister and worrying picture of the future
of AI. He suggests:
AI not only stands poised to hack humans and outperform them in what were hitherto uniquely
human skills. It also enjoys uniquely non-human abilities, which make the difference between
an AI and a human worker one of kind rather than merely of degree. Two particularly
important non-human abilities that AI possesses are connectivity and updateability. (pp. 22–
23)
Harari’s inference and interpretation of this scenario are not one of a replacement
of millions of human workers by millions of individual robots and computers—but
being replaced by an integrated network, that is immensely more powerful. What
we can infer and interpret from the consequences of this are unknown, and we may
easily fall into the realms of science fiction, envisioning something akin to that of
the Terminator film series, in which machines take control of the world. Is it possible
that an AI integrated network could possess a superordinate form of consciousness
that could turn on humans?—we simply don’t know. As Harari (2016) states:
The rise of AI and biotechnology will certainly transform the world but it does not mandate
a single deterministic outcome. (p. 461)
In terms of impacting specific aspects of teaching and learning in educational

institutions, there are some clear indicative possibilities, including intelligent tutoring
customized to individual learning needs and the process of assessment. The two can
be related in many ways to provide fully customized personalized learning. It is
likely that neural AI will enhance the areas of learning diagnostics, analytics and
data mining. As the Educause Horizon Report (2009) summarizes (with a warning):
It is possible to imagine many exciting possibilities for AI in teaching. Without clear
pedagogic principles, it is, however, probable that AI vendors will provide products and
services that affect key-decision-makers’ perceived immediate problems, instead of more
fundamental social and economic challenges.
AI may, therefore, mechanize and reinvent outmoded teaching practices and make them
increasingly difficult to change. (p. 32)
The report highlights several challenges, the most salient being a redefining of
what educational aims and goals educational institutions should best focus on; it
highlights:
As AI will be used to automate production processes, we may need to reinvent current
educational institutions. It is, for example, possible that formal educational institutions will
play a diminishing role in creating job-related competencies. This could mean that the future
role of education will increasingly be in supporting human development. (p. 34)
For example, Gallagher-Mackay and Steinhauer (2017) make the case for increasing
social and emotional skills in the school curriculum. They point out that:
Strong social-emotional skills, like self-regulation, growth mindset and peaceful problem-
solving, give students the tools to manage themselves and their relationships better and clear
the way for improved learning. (p. 103)
SEL programs do not merely impact behaviour; they are also correlated to higher academic
performance. (p. 75)
Such a viewpoint is very much within my earlier framing of Metacognitive Capa-

bility as the Superordinate twenty-first century competence. Certainly, as EdTech
makes the organization, delivery and assessment of learning more effective and effi-
cient, this enables a greater emphasis of teaching—indeed educational—to focus on
how best to learn, how we might enhance human well-being, as well as derive a value
system most conducive to such aims (e.g., Harris 2010).
6.4.3.3 Presence in the Online Learning Environment
Creating presence online is not specifically related to a particular EdTech genre or e-

tool, but is an essential aspect of using a blended or fully online learning format. In the
previous chapter, the importance of Presentation Style was explored in detail as the
pedagogic glue that creates and structures the learning experience for students. This is
where the quality of teaching ultimately plays out at the level of subjective experience
for the participating learners, creating communication features and behaviours that
have high impact in the building of rapport and facilitating a psychological climate
that is success-orientated and fun. The importance of voice, pace and modulation,
the use of eye contact and smile were considered from an evidence-based approach.
These subtle but powerful aspects of a teacher’s presentation style are key determiners
of the way students (both consciously and unconsciously) make meaning of the
learning experience and orientate their level of participation accordingly. In the face-
to-face situation, the teacher has the advantage, if practices are well executed, to
quickly establish, monitor and evaluate the psychological climate of the classroom,
and make modifications instantly. However, in the context of the online environment,
where the direct visceral aspects of a positive presence are lost, or at least significantly
dulled, this is much more challenging for the teacher.
To create and maintain an effective presence online, many researchers have looked
at online presence in terms of interrelated role functions. For example, Hodges and
Saba (2002) suggest that there are three role dimensions for online tutors to negotiate
if they are to be effective in online tutoring:
• Organisational Role: This involves creating the agenda for the online programme,
establishing objectives of the forum discussion, timetabling, creating procedural
rules, and decision-making norms
• Social Role: This involves creating a friendly social environment for learning. It
will involve a frequent and lively presence, as well as a sense of humour
• Intellectual Role: This is essentially about educational facilitation. As in any kind
of teaching, the moderator should focus discussions on crucial points, ask pertinent
questions, and probe responses to encourage critical thinking (pp. 399–401).
Similarly, Garrison and Vaughan (2008) refer to ‘social’, ‘teaching’ and ‘cognitive’
presence in an online community, as summarized below:
• Social presence is focused on open communication and building group cohesion
• Cognitive presence is focused on the process of inquiry and encouraging thinking
and discourse among participants
• Teaching presence is concerned with the management of curriculum and instruc-
tion, guiding activities and providing structure.
These dimensions of online role functions or aspects of presence, however, framed,
essentially relate to facilitating the learning experience online, especially the specific
ways in which the teacher (facilitator or tutor—as these terms are now increasingly
used) can best utilize the resources available in optimizing participants learning.
There are many e-tools available for creating and managing this online presence,
which range from the most common but highly effective asynchronous tool, the
email, to more interactive synchronous virtual classrooms, such as Lync. The choice
of particular e-tools is often a matter of preference, cost and access. Many can do the
same things, which are to provide communication through the various mediums of
text, audio and visual. What is most important is how communication is conducted,
and this is essentially a good Presentation Style. The creative challenge is how best
to apply this contextually for effective presence in the online environment. From an
evidence-based approach, we have a set of heuristics to ascertain what is likely to
work well, how, when and on what basis. As in the face-to-face situation, the initial
experience, the Primacy effect is very important. For example, faced with a new group
of students, the disorganized teacher with an uninspiring presentational style is likely
to experience a very quick downturn in levels of attention and engagement. In the
online environment, this negative experience is likely to be even more heightened for
participants, often leading to early attrition. In my online tutorials, I typically start
with a short video, which will have some carefully crafted and positioned supporting
text to make the best initial contact, without cognitive overload. A major goal at
the onset is to communicate my approachability and commitment to supporting the
learning group. I am very mindful of my voice tone and body language, and try
to work as much on the unconscious mind as the conscious. I am also seeking to
convey the best possible clarity on what the purpose of the programme is, how it
works, what to expect, and how to deal with any questions and concerns. I then focus
on establishing an open and trusting base for ongoing two-way feedback.
There is much that can be modelled and customized from the field of customer
service practices. Customer service professionals are particularly aware of important
touchpoints in shaping the relationship between the customer service provider (e.g., in
this case the online tutor) and the customer (e.g., in this case the online learners). For
example, first impressions are significant as we have outlined previously, but these
can quickly fade, if not maintained and developed to learner expectations. In the
hotel industry, other touchpoints include the contact with customers in their coming
and going from the hotel, making requests—no matter how small—and creating
nice surprises (delighters) such as leaving a favourite magazine on the table in the
customer’s room (previous researched by hotel staff). Of course, we expect a high
level of customer service when staying at the so-called top hotels, and usually (not
always) receive it. However, this can also be the experience anywhere, as it’s not that
difficult to do, when you know how and, most importantly, want to do it really well. In
my many travels, I have had some of the best customer service experiences in the most
modest of places in terms of pricing or ascribed status. The same touchpoints apply
in the online environment. For example, students will need to be given information
and assignments at different points, there will be times when they need clarification
and other support, and there will simply be times when they get a bit fed up of doing
the work. Hence, try to make these touchpoints less painful than they could otherwise
be. Even better, and this is where creativity can come into play, introduce novelty
and pleasure into the mix, a humorous caption of the present situation that provides
a reframe in which the ‘funny side’ can be seen or introduce a fun activity. Anyway,
here’s a few guiding frames that often (not always) work well:
• Ensure clarity, access and ease of use of all designated feedback channels. People
don’t like being left in ‘limbo’, so to speak. It’s much worse than being given a
‘no’ in many cases
• Avoid overburdening learners with too much information at any one time, it’ll
cause cognitive overload and strain. Use the announcement board, and any other
programme organizer to provide a clear structure and bite-sized guidance on what
needs to be done, how and when
• Maintain regular contact, but don’t overdo this. Too much communication can
become boring and eat up participants’ valued time. Most importantly, identify
and deal with concerns quickly
• Work towards an informal communication style that fits the comfort zone of your
learners. You can find this out through experimenting with your use of language
and tone, and some safe humour. The more you can work in a friendly informal
manner, the better is the likelihood of rapport. Once you have this, coupled with
sound pedagogy, everything (ok, most things with most people) will work better,
especially retention rates and student attainment.
To be more creative, look for opportunities to incorporate an appropriate Von
Restorff effect, in the context of the learner group. I like to use humour and the
occasional poignant story to achieve this, as it supports rapport building and creating
a positive psychological climate—“Russian Doll” stuff. Invariably, be careful not
to overuse these strategies, and ensure contextualization to the learner profile. Also,
you may remember the Recency effect. At the end of any specific period of learning
(e.g., transitions and endpoints), check key understanding and provide supportive
feedback, key summaries of what’s been achieved and what’s coming next.
As the online tutor, do not contribute unnecessary confusion and complexity to
your learners’ already busy lives. Do the opposite—provide structure, be predictable
in supporting their learning, and enhance their lives with a bit of fun and humour.
And, finally, to the point of repetition, work not only with the conscious aspects of
the mind, but pay good service to the unconscious aspects of human psychological
functioning. You will find that this works well.
6.5 Summary
There is now a convergence or ‘singularity’ of pedagogy and technology in terms

of learning design, and there is little doubt of the potential affordances of EdTech
for content development, deployment and management as well as multiple global
communication and collaboration mediums to support the learning process. Apart
from technical, access and administrative issues, the main differentiator between the
good and poor usage of EdTech is one of pedagogy. Hattie and Yates (2014), made
the summative point (as for now) on the impact of computers on teaching:
6.5 Summary 239
What became apparent, through a careful reading of the extensive literature, was the reali-
sation that such positive effects are achieved through applications of the same principles of
learning that apply in all other areas of human learning. (p. 199)
It is now viable for most teaching professionals to be able to produce effective,

efficient and creative blended learning experiences. It is for this reason that blended
learning is unlikely to be just another creature of fashion in the educational landscape
for our foreseeable future. There is also little doubt that interactive videos with
augmented reality will significantly transform the shape of teaching and the context
of learning.
The day when we can ask a device that activates an AI agent which, at the blink
of an eye, produces customized resources, video and other relevant features, and
then facilitates our learning in the communication style of our preference, is not yet
available for most of us. However, ‘the train has left the station’—so to speak—and
the digital revolution, with sound pedagogy, is on its way. It’s not a quantum learning
revolution, as we still have a stone age brain—but teaching will need to change quite
radically.
On a positive note, if teachers of yesteryear, armed with only a blackboard and
a set of coloured chalks, could create interesting and effective lessons, (and some
could do this) then what’s the potential for the highly creative teacher in the present
context?
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Chapter 7
Framing a Curriculum
for the Twenty-First Century
Competencies
Abstract This chapter explores and addresses the key considerations that need to
be thoughtfully negotiated in curriculum development. It provides a critical analysis
and evaluation of what constitutes twenty-first century competencies, how these are
best derived from a cognitive science perspective, and the implications for framing
educational aims and outcomes. A core valuation is that while we must frame and
enact curriculum to meet the demands of industry and provide employability, there
is also a need to accommodate competencies for wider issues of well-being and
citizenship. There are concerns that technology—especially Artificial Intelligence—
may make employability increasingly difficult for more people, and this will provide
a systemic new challenge to twenty-first century curriculum planning and teaching.
7.1 Introduction
In Chap. 1, the short tour of Educational Jurassic Park illustrated the contestation
about what constitutes the nature and practices of good teaching. Equally impor-
tant, in terms of framing educational quality (however defined), there are similar
parallel issues in terms of what is the good curriculum. A stark description of cur-
riculum divergence over the decades (centuries) is aptly captured by Kelly (1989)
who describes it as:
….the battlefield of many competing influences and ideologies. (p. 149)
Framing the essential curriculum aims and components for work and living in
the twenty-first century may indeed be a battle; it will certainly constitute a major
educational challenge. At present much of the curriculum focus is on defining, and of
course teaching and assessing the so-called twenty-first century competencies. These
competencies are deemed essential for success, progress and well-being—though it
often feels more like survival—in the face of rapid technological and social change.
In this chapter, I unpack and explore the key curriculum issues in terms of an EBT
approach, which has similarities with what Pinker (2019) refers to as reason and
science in decision-making, concerning what we need/want our workers and citizens

244 7 Framing a Curriculum for the Twenty-First Century Competencies
to learn, to be, and on what basis. This provides the framework for deciding how
best to achieve such educational aims and goals, based on the pedagogic framework
established in the previous chapters. It will involve analysing and evaluating prevalent
conceptions of twenty-first century competencies, how they align to an evidence-
based approach to learning and the implications for professional practice in teaching.
Notions of curriculum innovation and change imply that certain forms of knowledge,
skill sets and attributes (e.g., attitudes, dispositions) are more important than others in
terms of facilitating a better society and/or in response to perceptions of a challenge to
existing societal arrangements. In ‘nuts and bolts’ terms, it has become apparent, or it
is perceived by significant interest groups (stakeholders) that significant changes need
to be made in terms of what is taught in school curricula to meet changing societal
needs; often those of industry, but also for issues of citizenship and well-being.
Curriculum change, whether now or in yesteryear, is always based on consid-
erations of what is a Good Society and how do we prepare (socialize) people into
achieving it and making it work—as best as is possible, given the existential condi-
tions that prevail. The good society is typically framed, in Edu-speak, as Educational
Aims; the means to bring this about is the Curriculum; and Pedagogy is what we do
in the various delivery forms and arrangements (e.g., instructional approaches) to
bring about that socialization.
7.2 Human Learning and Curriculum Framing
It is useful to anchor this discussion in evidence-based facts about learning and

the concept of curriculum. Firstly, learning is foundational to the human species
and the developmental of culture in its myriad of forms, and it appears that we are
the only species, as far as we can ascertain, that possesses the unique capability
for metacognition. Such capability is immensely powerful as we explored prior.
Evolution, as documented by Darwin (1859) occurs across all species, including
humans, and can be said to constitute a biological fact (irrespective of whatever, if
any, metaphysical spins we may choose to put on it). However, it has been a slow
process and has left us with an existential burden, as Pinker (2019) documents:
…our cognitive, emotional and moral faculties are adapted to individual survival and repro-
duction in an archaic environment, not to universal thriving in a modern one. To appreciate
this, one doesn’t have to believe that we are cavemen out of time, only that evolution, with
its speed limit measured in generations, could not possibly have adapted our brains to mod-
ern technology and institutions. Humans today rely on cognitive faculties that worked well
enough in traditional societies, but which we now see are infested with bugs. (p. 25)
No matter how much we try to wriggle out of this problem, with vague notions
of ‘accelerated learning’, ‘clicking on the creativity switch’, and other quick-fix
solutions to achieve success, we cannot get away from certain existential facts. Firstly,
we are living in an age when the discrepancy between our brains’ evolutionary
7.2 Human Learning and Curriculum Framing 245
capacity for processing information and the amounts of information hitting it, (albeit
that most of it is probably of no real use) is becoming increasingly problematic and
untenable. Cognitive overload, probably of little concern for our primitive ancestors,
is now a nemesis and may underpin much of modern stress in human learning.
Learning in primitive societies would have been little in terms of content knowledge,
and the important bits probably taught (and learned) relatively quickly. Of course,
skills (e.g., hunting, building shelter) may have taken a long time, depending on how
long it took to become competent or expert at doing this. This fits squarely with our
lazy brain (e.g., Kahneman 2012) and our desire to avoid thinking (e.g., Willingham
2009). Also, as documented in Chap. 3, research suggests that human brains were
pretty much the same (morphologically) some 50,000 years ago (Neubauer et al.
2018). Hence, folk then probably had similar cognitive abilities and motivational
dispositions to us now—but they just played out in different contexts, with different
resources, and different contingencies.
The problem is stark and clear, we are stuck (in the present cognitive arrangements)
with a stone-age brain, perfectly equipped for living in savannah in Africa some
hundreds of thousands of years ago, but unequipped to deal with the exponential
knowledge explosion of modern times.
Hence, we have an existential problem, though there are some credible futurists,
such as Kurzweil (2005) who argues that Radical Evolution (e.g., the coming together
of genetics, robotics, information-communication technologies and nanotechnology
into a singularity) will, apart from significantly increasing the human lifespan, also
increase human capability through bionic enhancement, transforming physical health
and cognitive capability through the connectivity of IT and brain neural networks.
Just as map applications have largely made redundant the painful task of years of
learning (memorizing) the names and locations of all London’s roads (which was
the case to acquire a taxi license for driving the famous black taxi-cab in London),
downloading a full language system straight into an organized set of neural networks
in the brain would take the drudge out of learning a foreign language. The futurist
writer, Harari (2016) makes an interesting assertion:
In the twenty-first century, humans are likely to make a serious bid for immortality. Struggling
against old age and death will merely carry on the time-honoured fight against famine and
disease. (p. 24)
In terms of modern science and modern culture, he goes on to suggest that:

They don’t think of death as a metaphysical mystery, and they certainly don’t view death as
the source of life’s meaning. Rather, for modern people, death is a technical problem that
we can and should solve. (p. 25)
Well, what are the curriculum implications of such radical evolution events? Off
the bat I don’t think this will happen for the next 50 years or so and, in the meantime,
we are living with a stone-age brain and dealing with a VUCA world. Hence, I will
continue writing this book.
Animals do learn, and this has certain correlates with human learning. For exam-
ple, there are similarities in terms of learning through the senses, especially visual,
auditory and kinaesthetic. I had a budgerigar (who was called Joey) and he could con-
sistently orate-well, “Who’s a pretty boy then” (note: with an East London accent).
There’s nothing mystical about how Joey acquired such exquisite linguistic capabil-
ity. I must have repeated this to him hundreds of times, and as he picked up bits of the
sentence syntax, I would give him a tasty bit of millet (that’s a food treat for budgies,
apparently). He learned from hearing (we would not call this empathic listening),
and inevitably from practice (though we would also not call this deliberate practice).
However, animals, lacking such metacognitive capability do not build culture as
humans do; their knowledge production over time is limited and their basic survival
mechanisms, deeply rooted in instinct, remain largely untouched. Invariably, as the
environmental conditions around them change, they will evolve new responses and
can communicate this information to each other (maybe more effectively than us
humans). For example, foxes are now quite prevalent in some English cities, and
they are not there for aesthetic reasons; they are seeking food and/or shelter—no
more, no less. Without degradation to their previous environment, they would not be
foraging around the cities.
While primitive men (and women) had the capability for extensive learning as their
distant successors (us), there was little need for it. Curriculum, though it is unlikely
that the word existed in their vocabulary, would constitute locally constructed knowl-
edge and practices mainly relating to skills in finding food, building shelter, dealing
with threats, and human conduct among themselves. They would also have notions
about their existence and its meaning, as noted in the wide variety of beliefs in the
supernatural among primitives. Such knowledge would largely be passed on orally,
though many created cave drawings and other artefacts, from generation to gener-
ation, and that’s how we know about them. Socialization into this cultural milieu
would not have required decades of formal education and lifelong learning. The big
difference for us today, for sure, is that its damn more complex now.
The unique human capability of metacognition may well have been relatively
latent for primitive people, as they did not have to do much thinking, and if there is
little by way of change, even less need for ‘thinking about thinking’. However, in the
present situation of exponential knowledge growth, as well as rapid social and tech-
nological change, the need for good thinking has become somewhat of a ‘Pandora’s
Box’—in that once opened, the nemeses are let out and tough challenges ensue.
Pandora’s box is considered one of the most descriptive myths of human behaviour
in Greek mythology in that Ancient Greeks used it not only to instruct themselves
about the weaknesses of humans but also to explain certain human misfortunes. As
the legend goes, Pandora was given a box by Gods who told her that it contained
special gifts from them, but she was not allowed to open the box ever. Even if you
are not familiar with the myth, you have probably guessed the rest—curiosity got the
better of Pandora and she opened the box allowing all the illnesses and hardships that
gods had hidden in the box to come out. While Pandora quickly closed the box, it
was too late—only Hope was left inside. Perhaps this is the metaphor of these times.
As the old saying goes “Hope springs eternal”.
7.2 Human Learning and Curriculum Framing 247
However, while today’s world is more complex, rapidly changing and potentially
more dangerous at the macro-level, humans of yesteryear still faced similar existential
challenges to their survival, making meaning of life, and dealing with death. As
mentioned prior, humans then still needed to solve difficult problems such as finding
food, staving off intruders, etc. It’s just that in modern culture, technology has scaled
up certain problems exponentially—as threatening tribes can be world-wide and the
weapons of today offer the potential for extinction, not just local genocide.
7.3 Framing Twenty-First Century Competencies

from an Evidence-Based Approach
We must be thoughtful in framing new so-called twenty-first century competencies,

as there needs to be a sound base for this in terms of the most important human
capabilities needed for meeting the demands and challenges of living in the VUCA
world of the twenty-first century—as best as we can predict them. Equally important,
how best to organize these in terms of practical curricula and learning arrangements
that are most viable for learning (and teaching), whether in educational institutions
or otherwise?
The P21 Skills Framework, a U.S. organization composed of educational, govern-
mental, and business leaders, has developed a comprehensive framework articulating
the competencies that are required for successful employment and citizenship in the
twenty-first century. The framework does not negate the importance of traditional cur-
riculum forms of knowledge (e.g., school subjects such as history, geography, etc.) or
the so-called “3Rs” (reading, writing, arithmetic). It argues that in this rapidly chang-
ing digital age, other skills are increasingly necessary, highlighting the importance of
the “4Cs” (Creativity, Communication, Collaboration, and Critical Thinking). In this
context, in Chap. 3, I made the case for Metacognitive Capability as the superordi-
nate competence, as all others are ultimately subsumed in terms of their effective and
efficient enactment through the executive self-regulatory aspects of metacognition.
The above discussion may have seemed a bit like a detective plot, it was—but
there is a point to this. Firstly, it raises the question of what are twenty-first century
competencies, and how similar or different are they from those of yesteryear, in what
ways and, most importantly, what does this mean in terms educational aims? Such
questions are central to curriculum design and typically involve considerations of
the following:
1. What knowledge is most useful to attain and on what basis?
2. How is this knowledge most effectively attained, or created ?
1. What knowledge is most useful to attain and on what basis?
To provide an advance organizer here, it is worth reflecting on the following two

quotes, one from a nineteenth century writer, and the other from a former prime
minister of Singapore.
It is not proposed that the children of the poor should be educated in a manner to elevate their
minds above the rank they are destined to fill in society… Utopian schemes for an extensive
diffusion of knowledge would be injurious and absurd.
(Colquhoun, 1806, Writing About Education in England)
We must get away from the idea that it is only the people at the top who should be thinking,
and the job of everybody else is to do as told. Instead, we want to bring about a spirit of
innovation, of learning by doing, of everybody each at his level all the time asking how he
can do his job better.
(Mr Goh Chok Tong, 1997, the Prime Minister of Singapore, at the Opening of the 7th
International Conference on Thinking)
Different times, different cultures, different views on the human condition, dif-
ferent needs—one could go on with this—but it illustrates the culturally constructed
nature of the curriculum, reflecting the power structures and aims of education at any
particular time in human history. The same framing can also be made for primitive
mankind, though it was simpler, less formalized (there were no books about it), and
less contested in the localized context. All contexts were largely localized; hence,
homogeneity would tend to persist until threatened by external agencies.
Fundamental to the challenges of the curriculum today, issues revolve around the
framing of our educational aims, which in turn reflect our perception (grounded in
beliefs) of the good society, as identified earlier. Wringe (1988) captured this nicely:
Human beings have the potential for developing in many directions and the problem of
educational aims is deciding which kinds of development should be fostered and which
discouraged. (p. 43)
Questions of what constitutes the Good Society today is underpinned by one

of the major problems facing mankind now. In yesteryear, tribes would inevitably
develop different local cultures, and while they would have to face the same existen-
tial problems of survival, there would be indexicality in how they tackled them. Most
significant they would evolve different norms of human conduct for themselves, as
well as for how they would interact with other tribes. For example, the Sentinelese
are an uncontacted tribe living on North Sentinel Island, one of the Andaman Islands
in the Indian Ocean, and they vigorously reject all contact with outsiders. In con-
trast, the Kombai tribes in Indonesia are more friendly to outsiders. Such ‘cultural
dispositions’ would remain for centuries, as there were no challenges to their world
view. However, in an internet rich society, a Flat World (Friedman 2006), we are
awash with knowledge about what is good, on what basis (and this seems to change
constantly), what we should aspire to be, what is the purpose of life, etc. It goes on
and on, and it is not surprising that many people are confused as to what to believe,
and on what basis.
7.4 What’s Our Best Package of Competencies in a VUCA World? 249
7.4 What’s Our Best Package of Competencies in a VUCA

World?
As identified earlier, the basic questions are not new; it has always been prevalent (and
current) at any time since the formulation of knowledge into organized structures (i.e.,
curriculum) for deliberate transmission to a learner group (e.g., the whole society
or segments within it). Hirst (1974) argued that socialization into these organized
structures of knowledge—what he referred to as, “Forms of Knowledge”—are very
important as there is a close relationship between their acquisition and the growth
and development of the mind. Such an approach makes the following psychological
assumptions about the nature of the mind:
• Knowledge is a quality of mind. Failure to receive certain forms of knowledge is
a failure to achieve rational ways of thinking in those areas.
• The mind does not develop rationally—it needs organised forms of knowledge.
Hirst argued that there are seven distinct forms of knowledge, each with its unique
concepts, distinctive logical structure, testability against experience and unique meth-
ods of testing. These seven forms of knowledge are mathematics, the physical sci-
ences, the human sciences, history, religion, literature and the fine arts, and philos-
ophy and moral knowledge. The framing of traditional school subjects is consonant
with Hirst’s model of the intelligent mind. Latin for example, which was central to
elite education, was perceived to be a valuable tool for the development of the mind,
and Lowe (2017) suggests that there are reasons and evidence to support such a view.
She notes that Latin helps with SAT scores and makes learning a modern vocabu-
lary easier. True, but Lowe also argues that there are more important objectives that
Latin achieves better than any other subject: The first is mental development, and the
second is an understanding of English grammar.
Latin, like math, provides students with the experience of studying one subject to
a mastery level which, according to her, is missing in modern education where we
try to teach everything, and we cover too many subjects superficially. There are few
opportunities to use higher-order thinking skills when you are merely a novice. It is
only when the student has studied a subject enough to have some depth that his/her
mind can be stretched and challenged with higher-order thinking skills. This relates
to Hirst’s (1974) notion that in moving upwards through the structure of a form of
knowledge increasingly develops rationality in that form of knowledge. Latin and
math give students the invaluable experience of studying one systematic subject to a
mastery level over a long period. From this perspective, such learning is essential for
mental and character development and is the most valuable academic experience a
child can have in school. Latin and math, when taught to a mastery level, according to
Lowe (2017), requires perseverance, hard work, stamina, will, and grit. Students need
to plan, adopt a never-give-up attitude, and display flexibility in learning. Sounds very
much like good preparation for self-directed lifelong learning! No, I am not arguing
that Latin becomes a universal part of the curriculum for the twenty-first century—but
the ‘thinking behind the thinking’—so to speak—has merit.
The extent to which these forms of knowledge are distinct has been open to
criticism. Young et al. (1971), for example, argued that knowledge is less delineated
at the experience level and is best learned in a more integrated and holistic context.
From this perspective, a well-integrated curriculum is more consistent with how we
learn, the nature of knowledge in the real world, as well as making learning more
interesting for students (e.g., Fogarty 2009).
As cultures develop, and extended forms of knowledge become available, there are
inevitable choices concerning what forms of knowledge are most useful. Questions
concerning how much of each form, and to what level of competence are the essentials
of curriculum content decision making. Neary (2014) summarized the perennial
issue:
The structure and methods of education must help to sustain the traditional values of society,
but they must also respond adequately to current cultural, social, industrial and technological
issues, and to future change.
Lawton’s (1975) notion of cultural analysis identifies the need to consider the
wider context of a society in curriculum decision-making, though recognizing that
this was still value-laden as decisions need to be made based on current perceptions
of relevance, and this must reflect the dominant forces shaping curriculum at any
particular time. Many factors or forces shape the curriculum; these include dominant
political ideology, dominant educational perspectives, industry, educational institu-
tions, practitioners, and students. The present context is no different, but the problems
are perhaps more pressing than in yesteryears. For example, Collins (2017) argues
that:
We educators can’t go on adding things to the school curriculum as knowledge grows expo-
nentially. We can’t keep people in school longer and longer until everybody needs several
advanced degrees just to deal with the complexity they face in their lives. We can’t make
our textbooks much fatter than they already are and cover more and more topics in the same
amount of time…Our strategies for coping with the exponential growth of knowledge are
hitting a wall. (xv)
The school curriculum is filled with stuff that most people will never use and hence will
forget as soon as they leave school or move on to the next grade. (p. 1)
Our current model of universal schooling is an Industrial Age institution, and it is not at all
clear how well it can adapt to the Information Age, where thinking and creativity are prized.
(p. 3)
The message and the problems are clear. There is a significant need to reframe cur-
riculum, and this has led to the growth of frameworks attempting to define twenty-first
century competencies. However, the same fundamental curriculum questions remain
in terms of what the competencies should be, what range and depth of knowledge,
skills and attitudes are the key content constituents, how to structure them into viable
educational offerings, and how best to deliver them pedagogically to meet desired
educational aims and outcomes. Certainly, as detailed in Chap. 3, much is now focus-
ing on the need to develop self-sufficiency in our students so that they can become
Self-Directed Lifelong Learners. Collins (2017) sees this as a major curriculum aim
in that:
Having a critical mindset is critical to navigating through today’s complex world. (p. 340)
Planning, monitoring, and reflection are the basic elements of the learning cycle that pervades
everything we do. (p. 35)
There is abundant evidence that self-regulatory skills are central to living a happy and
successful life. Recent studies have shown that it is possible to learn these new skills, but
they are seldom taught in school, except in extra-curricular activities. They need to become
central to the school curriculum. (p. 35)
Finally, in this context, he suggests that:

The goal is to develop schooling that will have a major impact on student motivation and
learning and will better prepare students for the complex world they are entering. (p. 9)
In meeting this challenge, it is useful to conduct a thorough and thoughtful ped-

agogic analysis of what competencies are most useful (as far as this is possible)—
akin to Lawton’s approach—but driven from the perspective of learning science as
well as cultural memetics and stakeholder interests. As Reimers and Chung (2016)
emphasize:
In spite of the obvious need for a theoretical underpinning to the development of curriculum,
most conversations about “twenty-first-century-education” to date have failed to draw a
connection between the proposed twenty-first-century competencies and any psychological
theories of how those competencies are developed, in particular in relationship to one another,
as a unified developmental process. (p. 9)
The Towards Defining 21st Century Competencies, The Foundation Document

for Discussion, Ontario (2016) makes an anchoring statement:
Many international thought leaders and business leaders – and many young people today
are increasingly asking educational systems to prepare students with “21st-century” com-
petencies that will enable them to face complex challenges now and in the future. These
competencies – knowledge, skills, and attributes that help children and youth to reach their
full potential - are added to the important foundational skills of literacy and mathematics
and the core learning in other subjects. (p. 5)
Various groups, such as the OECD, the European Commission, the Partnership
for twenty-first century Skills, and the U.S. National Research Council have made
significant contributions to framing these competencies. While there are differences
in the approaches taken, there is broad agreement that twenty-first century compe-
tencies are associated with growth in the cognitive, interpersonal and intrapersonal
dimensions. For example, The National Research Council report titled Education for
Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the twenty-first
century synthesizes psychological and social science research evidence on skills that
have demonstrated positive short or long-term consequences for individuals. The
report summarizes those skills in the following framework:
1. Cognitive Competencies
1.1 Cognitive Process and Strategies
Critical thinking; problem-solving; analysis; reasoning and argumentation;
interpretation; adaptive learning; executive function
1.2. Knowledge
Information literacy, including research using evidence and recognizing bias in
sources; information and communication technology literacy; oral and written
communication; active listening
1.3. Creativity
Creativity and innovation.
2. Intrapersonal Competencies
2.1. Intellectual Openness
Flexibility; adaptability; artistic and cultural appreciation; personal and social
responsibility; cultural awareness and competence; appreciation for diversity;
continuous learning; intellectual interest and curiosity
2.2. Work Ethic/Conscientiousness
Initiative; self-direction; responsibility; perseverance; grit; productivity; type 1
Self-regulation (metacognitive skills, including forethought, performance, and
self-regulation); professionalism/ethics; integrity; citizenship; career orientation
2.3. Positive Core Self-Evaluation
Type 2 self-regulation (self-monitoring, self-evaluation, self-reinforcement);
physical and psychological health.
3. Interpersonal Competencies
3.1. Teamwork and Collaboration
Communication.
To derive standards for these competencies that are sufficiently clear, valid, and
practical for teaching and assessment, it is necessary to clarify certain conceptual
confusions about what constitutes a competency, especially as the terms competency
and skills are often used in interchanged ways. Competencies involve much more than
skills as such. For example, in the game of tennis, and this applies to any sport, there
are discrete skills in terms of hitting the ball with the racket to gain speed, spin and
other ball behaviours that might be effective in winning points. We talk about serving
techniques, which typically involve some skill combinations. For example, there are
serving techniques that put spin and slice on the ball, but these are skill combinations.
The top players are top players because of their combined high level of skills in these
different techniques. However, one can be skilful, but not that effective, and that’s
because of other factors (e.g., aptitude, traits/disposition) impact performance in
real-world contexts—whether at work or in play, as explained in Chap. 5. Without
clear framing of what we want our students to learn in order to develop a deep
understanding and skill in using competencies (e.g., the specific performance criteria,
evidence of what constitutes competence and expectancy levels), teachers with be
unsure on what to teach and assess, creating much by way of confusion for all
concerned, especially the students. As identified in Chap. 2, many teachers are unsure
of what critical thinking entails or how to teach it (e.g., Wagner 2010). While teachers
may be experts in their subject domains, many may lack the necessary level of
expertise in the emerging science of learning and what this means for pedagogic
practices (e.g., EBT)—as outlined in Chap. 1.
7.5 The Competency-Based Approach to Education

and Training
Defining competencies has its roots in the functional analysis of work roles. Many
different methods of developing competency frameworks have evolved, but the most
effective ones share certain characteristics. All of them follow McClelland’s (1973)
dictate to determine what leads to superior performance and to identify top performers
and find out what they do. This can be broken down into two important principles:
1. focus on highly successful people without making assumptions about their role
2. pay attention to what they do.
From this, the range of behaviours can be identified from observation in various
contexts, then explored, clarified and made meaning of through interviewing, which
often involves skilled questioning to evoke latent or tacit knowledge (e.g., Polanyi
1966). They can then be validated through checking with high performers and other
stakeholders (e.g., supervisors; other workers who are part of the role-set for that
work area). In other words, if the high performers can relate well to the competence,
supervisors agree that this constitutes good competence, and those who engage with
persons performing this work competence also feel that this is the case, that’s probably
competence in this work function(s). To use an analogy: ‘If it looks like a bird, sounds
like a bird, behaves like a bird’—it’s probably a bird.
Hence, to reiterate, there are many components to competence, and some (i.e.,
knowledge and skills) are more conducive to training than others. Aptitude, Traits and
Dispositions certainly have a hereditary/neurological base and related to personality
configuration. Discussions on how many hereditary aspects impact competence, and
how much results from environmentally structured experiences, is largely irrelevant
in the world of mainstream teaching and training. Currently, we are not going to
impact genetics much in the classroom. However, we can through the systematic use
of metacognition and self-regulatory strategies help people to monitor, evaluate and
modify their behaviour more in line with the requirements of the competency areas (at
least in work contexts). Therefore, these are also subject to curriculum and pedagogic
interventions as explained previously. There is also evidence that for persons who
use such strategies, especially volition, in changing their actual behaviours, this can
change brain structuring at the neural level (i.e., neuroplasticity), which starts to
‘rewire’ the person, in this area—so to speak. However, in my experience, while
there is validity in this framing and it should be pursued as a regulatory ideal (i.e.,
give everybody a chance and be inclusive), there are some individuals who display
almost a complete non-alignment to certain competencies. In working with thousands
of teachers, many in training, despite much mentoring and coaching, for whatever
of the above reasons, some just don’t seem to have enough of the ‘competency
pack’ to be effective teachers. Keeping such persons in the profession is not useful
for the students or the folk themselves to continue. There is an adage that seems
tautological (but it isn’t), that it is easier and better, in many cases, to ‘change people
than to change people’.
It is also necessary to remember that competence, knowledge and understand-
ing are all constructs and not something we can observe directly. Of course, we
can observe behaviour, which is time-consuming and thereby make inferences and
interpretations about a person’s competence. We also know that:
• Knowledge and understanding contribute to competence
• Knowledge and understanding are best learned ‘in use’
• Competency, knowledge and understanding are highly contextualized.
A significant part of the present confusion about framing twenty-first-century
competencies has stemmed from a lack of clarity in framing educational outcomes,
particularly, though not exclusively, to higher education. Diamond (1998), from a
wide range of sources, argues that:
A serious problem that institutions of higher education face is the perception by business
leaders, governmental leaders, and the public at large that they have enthusiastically avoided
stating clearly what competencies graduates should have and that as a result, they have
provided little evidence that they are successful at what they are expected to do. (p. 4)
In an increasingly competitive educational landscape, institutions of higher edu-

cation need to be perceived as relevant by key stakeholders if they are to stay viable
and thrive. It is not surprising that many are conducting major reviews and adopt-
ing what is referred to as Outcomes-Based Education (OBE). This has resulted, in
no small part, from the industry’s dissatisfaction with the present more theoretical
content-based curriculum that is seen as not adequately preparing graduates with the
necessary competencies needed in modern work environments. OBE is a curricu-
lum approach that provides the following framework (e.g., heuristics) for curriculum
design and development:
• The starting point for any curriculum offering is the identification of clear stu-
dent learning outcomes, which describe the result of learning for that curriculum.
In the context of twenty-first century competencies, this requires the definition,
delineation and organization of the knowledge, skills and attitudes of the various
competencies into measurable learning outcomes.
• Assessment supports the learning process (formative) and is more performance-
based (authentic assessment). Teaching, learning and assessment are therefore
systematically interlocked.
• The learning environment and instructional system are designed to facilitate the
desired outcomes. Note: This has typically been the case in theory, though not
always the practice.
7.5 The Competency-Based Approach to Education and Training 255
The Conceive-Design-Implement-Operate (CDIO) engineering education frame-

work is a global example of a large-scale OBE curriculum innovation, which has
responded to the need to make the curriculum more relevant to the world of work,
develop skills for the twenty-first century, as well as making the learning experience
of students more interesting. CDIO is an international initiative, originally conceived
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts in
the late 1990s. In 2000, in collaboration with the Swedish universities of the Wal-
lenberg Foundation, Chalmers University of Technology, Linkoping University and
the Royal Institute of Technology, the CDIO initiative was formed. It has now over
300 member institutions worldwide.
The initiative represented a response by engineers in industry, government and
academia to a concern about the present state of engineering education. Essentially,
feedback on engineering education from the various stakeholders revealed percep-
tions of it prioritizing the teaching of theory, especially mathematics and science,
while not paying enough attention to the real world of engineering practice and the
need for skills such as design, teamwork and communications. As Crawley et al.
(2007) summarized:
…we identified an underlying critical need – to educate students who can Conceive-Design-
Implement-Operate complex, value-added engineering products, processes and systems in a
modern, team-based environment. It is from this emphasis on the product, process, or system
lifecycle that the initiative derives its name - CDIO. (p. 1)
The importance of Conceive-Design-Implement-Operate, as an organizing frame

for engineering education, is further explained by Crawley et al. (2007):
Modern engineers lead or are involved in all phases of a product, process, or system lifecycle.
That is, they Conceive, Design, Implement, and Operate. (p. 8)
The creation of an educational framework that would encompass this wide range
of competencies, enabling students on graduation to be “ready to engineer” (Crawley
et al. 2007, p. 6) is the basis and rationale of CDIO. The aim is to ensure that graduates
will leave universities and colleges with both relevant practical competences as well
as a thorough understanding of the role of an engineer in the present and future work
context, and what this entails.
In The Challenge of Reframing Engineering Education (2014) I documented the
complete curriculum development process from an OBE perspective. This included:
• Customizing the general syllabus (very much in the genre of most twenty-first
century skills), but lacking specificity (which is a major challenge at present) to
more specific and measurable skill areas.
• Calibrating the assessment approaches and tools for assessing more complex real
work performances (outlined and illustrated in this chapter).
• Developing an instructional strategy using EBT generically, though with a spe-
cific focus on identifying the most effective pedagogic methods (e.g., signature
pedagogies, Shulman 2005) conducive to key skill development in the context of
engineering education (e.g., project-based learning, case-based learning, simulated
practice).
• Developing a Professional Development Framework to provide faculty training

and support in their learning of new pedagogic skills, which was essential for the
success of the initiative.
• Conducting a 3-year longitudinal evaluation of the student learning experience.
Competency-Based Education and Training encompasses OBE and is likely to be
the dominant curriculum planning model for the time being. However, as we frame
the twenty-first century competencies into more specific performance elements and
criteria, it is necessary to recognize that competency-based approaches, like other
curriculum models, have inherent limitations and need to be addressed, as explored
in Chap. 5.
7.6 Evaluating the Worth of Twenty-First Century

Competencies
The Towards Defining 21st century Competencies, Foundation Document for Dis-
cussion, Ontario (2016), emphasizes that key-criteria for evaluating the worth of
twenty-first century competencies must have measurable benefits for multiple areas
of life and therefore critical for all students. The most prominent twenty-first century
competencies found in international frameworks that have shown measurable benefits
are associated with critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity
and innovation (p. 12). Certainly, the area of thinking, most notably identified—
critical and creative thinking—has been extensively framed as essential in a society
that is rapidly changing from a workforce embedded in an industrial model to a
technology-driven, interconnected globalized knowledge-based economy:
Researchers acknowledge that the need to engage in problem-solving and critical and creative
thinking has “always been at the core of learning and innovation” (Trilling and Fadel 2009,
p. 50). What’s new in the 21st century is the call for education systems to emphasize and
develop these competencies in explicit and intentional ways through deliberate changes in
curriculum design and pedagogical practice. The goal of these changes is to prepare students
to solve messy, complex problems – including problems we don’t yet know about – associated
with living in a competitive, globally-connected, and technology-intensive world. (p. 3)
Similarly, competencies of teamwork, communication and collaboration, as well

as relating to important dispositions are well-validated in terms of positive outcomes
in the present work and life contexts. As they document:
Employers value skills such as teamwork and leadership.
Studies in health and well-being have found that characteristics such as perseverance, grit,
and tenacity are a more accurate predictor of success than IQ scores. For example, among
intrapersonal competencies, the characteristic of conscientiousness (a tendency to be orga-
nized, responsible, and hard-working) is “most highly correlated with desirable educational,
career, and health outcomes”. (e.g., Pellegrino and Hilton 2012, pp. 4–5) (p. 10)
Fullan and Langworthy (2014) describe metacognition or learning to learn,

as a twenty-first century competency that enhances student’s ability to acquire
7.6 Evaluating the Worth of Twenty-First Century Competencies 257
skills, knowledge, and attitudes that are relevant to new areas of learning. Simi-
larly, The Towards Defining 21st Century Competencies, Foundation Document for
Discussion, Ontario (2016) highlight:
Researchers and thought leaders see that metacognition and a growth mindset (including
self-regulation skills and ethical and emotional awareness), while always important, are
much more so in a connected, global context that requires an ability to communicate, work,
and learn with diverse groups of individuals and teams worldwide. (p. 16)
As explored extensively in Chap. 3, MC provides the superordinate and anchor-

ing role in terms of twenty-first century competencies, as it constitutes the executive
functioning system, which is capable of initiating, maintaining, and evaluating self-
directedness. I use the term capable with some caution, as previous chapters have
documented and illustrated that rational thought—good thinking—is far from com-
mon sense, and even further away from being easy. To what extent individuals possess
autonomous free will and have the ability to understand and regulate oneself remains
contested among neuroscientists and philosophers alike. For us educators, we have to
assume that people can learn the skill sets that underpin MC, and in doing so—learn
better, think better, communicate and work with others better, and achieve a better
sense of well-being in their lives. The more that we can achieve better MC globally,
especially among young people, the more we may achieve a meaningful framing
and direction towards global citizenship—transcending prejudice, bigotry and self-
ishness—recognizing that we need to solve the big global issues collaboratively and
thoughtfully.
In this context, Rychen and Salganik (2003) argue that twenty-first century com-
petencies should make measurable contributions to specific valued areas of life such
as:
• Educational attainment
• Relationships
• Employment
• Health and well-being (pp. 66–67).
Yes, twenty-first century competencies must support attainment opportunities, and
we know that teachers make a massive difference here; better teachers result in better
student learning outcomes. Furthermore, we are a long way towards knowing how
to teach better, as we have much more evidence-based knowledge of how humans
learn and how the brain works in such matters. Hattie’s work (2009, 2012) provided
a strong empirical base to the relative usefulness of different aspects of the learning
landscape, especially the effectiveness of instructional methods and strategies, as
explained in Chap. 1. Similarly, the usefulness of the curriculum—what is to be
learned—is equally important.
Yes, relationships matter to human functioning, well-being and happiness—as
explored prior, and it is fairly obvious on how this works. Good relationships are
also important in working environments and for living in the local community. And,
wouldn’t it be nice, and better, if this was more prevalent globally also?
Yes, we need to create employability opportunities, especially as the growth of
artificial intelligence and other aspects of the ‘internet of things’ impacts occupational
structures, resulting in the need for learner adaptability. Employability is helped

through education, but the curriculum must develop both relevant functional work-
related competencies and, perhaps more importantly, skills and attitudes that facilitate
better learning, self-regulation and well-being. The nemesis of having a stone-age
brain in the modern world is one thing, but as Pinker (2019) also points out:
People are by nature illiterate and innumerate, quantifying the world by “one, two, many” and
by rough guesstimates. They understand physical things as having hidden essences that obey
the laws of sympathetic magic of voodoo rather than physics and biology…They generalize
from paltry samples, namely their own experience, and the reason by stereotype, projecting
the typical traits of a group onto any individual that belongs to it…They overestimate their
knowledge, understanding, rectitude and luck. (p. 26)
Fortunately, such natural limitations can be mitigated in large part by firstly, being
aware of them, and secondly, through developing MC—not just in schools—being
able to self-regulate in more positive and effective ways. As Pinker points out (which
is positive):
However, long it takes, we must not let the existence of cognitive and emotional biases
or the spasms of irrationality in the political arena discourage us from the Enlightenment
ideal of relentlessly pursuing reason and truth. If we can identify ways in which humans
are irrational, we must know what rationality is. Since there’s nothing special about us, our
fellows must have at least some capacity for rationality as well. And it’s in the very nature
of rationality that reasoners can always step back, consider their shortcomings, and reason
out ways to work around them. (p. 384)
Similarly, Harris (2010), recognizing the impact of systemic biases in human

psychological functioning, points out:
As one might expect, many of these errors decrease as cognitive ability increases. We also
know that training, using both examples and formal rules, mitigates many of these problems
and can improve a person’s thinking. (p. 123)
Furthermore, competencies in the intrapersonal domain contribute significantly

to students’ well-being, character development, and success. There is a growing
body of research (e.g., Dweck 2006; Tough 2014) demonstrating that intrapersonal
competencies such as perseverance, grit and tenacity, with a growth mindset, has
a strong relationship with individuals’ capacity to overcome challenges, achieve
long-term success, and experience well-being.
7.7 Learning for What Purpose for the Many
I grew up in East London in the 1960s, when gaining employment was not a difficult
task; it was indeed the “Affluent Society”, so aptly described by Galbraith (1958). On
leaving university for the first time in 1974, companies contacted me to see if I would
like to be considered for employment with them. This is a far cry from the situation
facing many graduates today, where applicants are in thousands, and they must go
through a rigorous multi-stage recruitment process. It seemed a different world then, a
7.7 Learning for What Purpose for the Many 259
world of plenty, and England seemed a great place to live. England also won the soccer
world cup in 1966, a feat yet to be replicated. Of course, things were not like that for
everywhere in the world; I was simply in an affluent bubble, but it was a nice bubble.
I was not from a wealthy family, my parents were solid working-class folk, and we
lived in a council flat (i.e., a local government-owned apartment). However, as a kid
(twelve-something), on a Saturday and Sunday mornings, I earned ‘pocket-money’
doing car cleaning, edge cutting, and helping a local trader deliver paraffin. All was
good, and my needs (e.g., money for chocolate bars and the amusement arcade)
were adequately met—not that I had any concept of what a need was. However, it’s a
different frame now for many people. Of course, the wealthy are largely immune from
such considerations—as the famous pop group ABBA recited in the song “Money,
Money, Money”, “it’s a rich man’s world.” Of course, this applies equally to women.
The worrying feature now is as Ford (2015) warns:
…it is becoming increasingly clear that many people will do all the right things in terms of
pursuing advanced education, but fail to find a foothold in the economy of the future. (p. 27)
We are running up against a fundamental limit both in terms of the capabilities of the people
being herded into colleges, and the number of high-skill jobs that will be available for them
if they manage to graduate. The problem is that the skill ladder is not a ladder at all; it is a
pyramid, and there is only so much room at the top. (p. 52)
For those of us working in the higher educational sectors, the vulnerability should
be obvious, as Ford reminds us:
If the higher education industry ultimately succumbs to the digital onslaught, the transfor-
mation will very likely be a duel-edged sword. A college credential may well become less
expensive and more accessible to many students, but at the same time, technology could dev-
astate an industry that is itself a major nexus of employment for highly educated workers.
(p. 143)
There is much debate surrounding the impact of new technologies, particularly

Artificial Intelligence (AI). We are seeing the impact of AI on many jobs already.
I remember a friend of mine, who spent over 2-years doing the knowledge as it
was then called in the local argot. The knowledge was a slang term for learning
the location of the streets in London (and there are many of them), which was a
mandatory requirement for acquiring the competence and licence to own and work as
a registered black cab taxi driver in London. He achieved and acquired a comfortable
living standard for his whole working life—retiring at 58. According to the cab
drivers I once knew, this seemed to be the case generally, and many of them retired
before 60 to live in warmer climates such as Spain and Thailand—so I believe them.
However, what’s the ‘knowledge’ worth now with smart maps? It may not be long
before there are no cabs, as cars will increasingly become driverless. There is a view
that it will be mainly the algorithmic jobs (e.g., can be totally modelled and turned
into computerized ‘neural networks’, often referred to as machine learning) that will
be eliminated or massively reduced. Again, Ford argues:
…the ongoing race between technology and education may well be approaching the
endgame: the machines are coming for the higher-skill jobs as well. (p. 121)
His most pessimistic frame is worrying:

In a perverse process of creative destruction, the mass-market industries that currently power
our economy would be replaced by new industries producing high-value products and ser-
vices geared exclusively towards a super wealthy elite. The vast majority of humanity would
effectively be disenfranchised. Economic mobility would be non-existent. (p. 219)
Not everyone shares Fords’ more pessimist framing. For example, in contrast,
Brynjolfson and McAfee (2014) take a less pessimistic frame. They argue that:
Computers are not useless, but there are still machines for generating answers, not posing
interesting new questions. That ability still seems to be uniquely human, and still highly
valuable. We predict that people who are good at idea creation will continue to have com-
petitive advantage over digital labour for some time to come and will find themselves in
demand. (p. 192)
The impact of technology on learning and teaching was considered in some detail
in Chap. 6. It is certainly changing the educational landscape, and this will only
accelerate; how significant it will be in terms of employment and the subsequent
societal consequences is probably still conjecture.
7.8 Summary
The macro-sociological theories of the past (e.g., Comte, Durkheim, Spencer, Mark)
seem to have little generalizability in an era of post-modernity—this VUCA world.
As Costa et al. (2016) wrote:
Hypercomplexity – our world is changing at an unprecedented rate, becoming more complex
and globally interactive. Clear cut, unambiguous understandings are no longer an option.
Thus, the capacity for self-directed and continuous learning has become the most impor-
tant capabilities needed for survival in the future. Fortunately, the brain permits our ability
to change, to grow, and to continuously develop our intellectual capabilities throughout a
lifetime. (p. 3)
In a world of many potential threats and unpredictability, but equally much oppor-
tunity for greater understanding and progress e.g., Pinker (2019), we may just have
to become more comfortable with being uncomfortable about the future. It may seem
like a different mindset, but humanity has always had to deal with threats and uncer-
tainty; I don’t think the great plague was much fun for those who contracted it or
lived in such localities. What we do know is that there are modern challenges to us
as humans which, while different in form and require different solutions, do share
a similar existential genesis. We seek to maintain a notion of the good society and
well-being and stage off threats from the environment, albeit much of the real threats
are within ourselves—though most do not see this—it’s an evolutionary nemesis.
However, on the positive side, we have made much progress as a species and with
better thinking (i.e., MC) we may even call it ‘global intelligence’, and with better
values, we may call it a ‘universal morality’—and we have the capacity for both—
we can use the curriculum for the twenty-first century as a vehicle to develop such
7.8 Summary 261
capacities. In a sense, we must pitch aspects of our evolutionary human nature against
other aspects of our human nature. Harris (2010), drawing from the reflections of
Adam Smith captures this paradox well:
The truth about us is plain to see: most of us are powerfully absorbed by selfish desires
almost every moment of our lives; our attention to our pains could scarcely be more acute;
only the most piercing cries of anonymous suffering capture our interest; then fleetingly.
And yet, when we consciously reflect on what we should do, an angel of beneficence and
impartiality seems to spread its wings within us: we genuinely want fair and just societies;
we want others to have their hopes realized; we want to leave the world better than we found
it. (pp. 58–59)
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Chapter 8
Assessing Twenty-First Century
Competencies
Abstract This chapter focuses on the challenging area of assessing the twenty-first
century competencies identified and analysed in Chap. 7. Different competencies, as
well as different aspects of competence, will require different assessment methods.
Assessing more complex competencies such as metacognition, critical thinking and
creativity, will involve higher levels of inference in making valid and reliable assess-
ment decisions (as greater subjectivity is inherent in assessing these skill areas), and
it is both time and resource intensive. Furthermore, there is increasing pressure to
ensure quality in the assessment process, to maintain standards and justify expendi-
ture. Various strategies are explored and evaluated, but there is no easy solution to
the issue of cost. Even the best combinations of methods and technology affordances
may not be sufficient to meet such high expectations in a context of limited funding
availability.
8.1 Introduction
The previous chapter explored key curriculum questions in the framing of twenty-
first century competencies, especially what knowledge, skills and attitudes these
competencies should encompass and on what basis. This chapter closes the cur-
riculum development cycle, focusing on the big issues, questions and challenges in
assessing these more complex and interrelated competencies. This is a thorny issue
in education, for the simple reason that Ramsden (1992) suggests, assessment:
…defines the actual curriculum…Assessment sends messages about the standard and amount
of work required, and what aspects of the syllabus are most important. (pp. 187–188)
As a consequence, there may be little benefit in framing educational aims and

outcomes that promote the cognitive, intrapersonal and interpersonal skills docu-
mented prior (e.g., critical thinking, creative thinking, metacognition, communica-
tion and collaboration), if we do not make corresponding changes in the assessment
approaches and methods employed. Students, those motivated, will seek to learn
what they see as the mandatory requirements of the assessments they receive, not
necessarily the idealistic outcomes of being self-directed lifelong learners espoused

264 8 Assessing Twenty-First Century Competencies
by their teachers. Furthermore, to become a self-directed learner requires good think-

ing, volition and practice, though as humans we don’t like to do too much of this
stuff—for all the reasons outlined prior.
8.2 The Need for Good Assessment
Firstly, in the present context of breakneck competition for viable students, and
increasing pressure on educational institutions to be accountable for their products
in cost-effective ways, assessment quality is high profile. There is a need to be able
to justify public expenditure in terms of value for money outputs. The quality of
teaching and the cost-effective use of resources are rightly important issues in this
context. However, it is the assessment credentials that largely define the value of
educational programmes. If assessment practices are lacking in quality, what value
can be placed on the qualifications accredited? The present situation is, as Bloxham
and Boyd (2007) highlight:
Assessment is now expected to assess subject knowledge and a wide range of intellectual,
professional and generic skills in a quality assurance climate that stresses reliability with
robust marking and moderation methods. (p. 4)
Secondly, and most significantly for understanding and enhancing students learn-
ing, there is increasing recognition of the important role that assessment plays in the
learning process (e.g., Ramsden 1992; Boud 1995) as detailed in Chap. 2. Assess-
ment is not simply a means to measure learning that has already occurred, it is a
major facilitator in the learning process itself. As Boud (1988) illustrated:
There have been several notable studies over the years which have demonstrated that assess-
ment methods and requirements probably have a greater influence on how and what students
learn than any other single factor. This influence may well be of greater significance than
the impact of teaching or learning materials. (p. 35)
Furthermore, much research supports the view that students choose their
approaches to learning rather than these being the result of innate characteristics
or dispositions. For example, Prosser and Trigwell (1998) argue:
…approaches to learning are not stable characteristics of students. Student’s approaches to
learning do change with changes in perception of their learning situation and their perception
of it can be changed by…teachers. (p. 83)
This is particularly significant if we accept the view that some approaches to

learning are qualitatively better than others. Again, to quote Prosser and Trigwell in
this context:
…there are better and worse ways for students to approach their learning – a deep approach
being better than a surface approach. (p. 7)
What this means in practice is that how we design and conduct our assessment
is fundamental to how students approach their learning, and the usefulness of that
8.2 The Need for Good Assessment 265
learning in terms of developing comprehensive and well-organized mental represen-

tations (e.g., neurological network in long-term memory), which are essential for
conceptual understanding and transfer. Comparisons of ‘Surface’ and ‘Deep’ learn-
ing are useful frames for illustrating both a pedagogic and an assessment challenge
that must be thoughtfully addressed (e.g., Biggs 2003). A surface learning approach
typically involves the following characteristics and the consequent implications for
learning:
• Lack of intrinsic motivation—which leads students to focus on passing the exam
with minimal work; hence not developing a mindset for seeking interest in learning,
making-effort and sustaining volition
• Little cognitive involvement—which leads students to fail to make sufficient con-
nections between prior knowledge (which may be limited anyway) and new knowl-
edge presented; hence resulting in incomplete and inaccurate mental models,
limited understanding of the concepts involved, and prone to rapid forgetting.
In contrast, deep learning involves the following EBT core principles of learning:
• Intrinsically motivated to learn the topic and prepared to put in the necessary
retrieval and deliberate practice to achieve mastery
• High cognitive involvement and awareness that effective learning involves the
need to activate specific types of thinking (e.g., analysing, comparing, making
inferences and interpretations) concerning the new knowledge presented and prior
knowledge to build and extend understanding and skills.
To reinforce the point—call it retrieval practice—deep learning is a product of high
MC in students. Students with high MC have a clear understanding of the learning
process, how it works and what needs to be done to meet learning goals (e.g., employ
appropriate task-related cognitive strategies, maintain volition and effort, and do the
required practice as necessary). That’s not to say that all students with metacognitive
knowledge will adopt a deep learning approach; as we know motivation plays a
key part in whether-or-not they will activate the necessary regulatory processes—as
this takes effort and creates cognitive strain. Some may genuinely not have the time
and/or not place such high value on a particular learning task.
8.3 Assessment from an Evidence-Based Approach
Assessment is more than the measurement of what has been learned (e.g., knowledge,
skills, attitudes), but an essential component of the learning process, as reflected in
the Core Principle of Learning: Assessment practices are integrated into the learning
design to promote desired learning outcomes and provide quality feedback.
Irrespective of the framing of twenty-first century Competencies, this core prin-
ciple, and the methods and activities that facilitate it, is central to the instructional
strategies employed and applies to all contexts and modes of delivery. It is cer-
tainly the case that the use of technology will play an increasingly prominent role
in doing this effectively and efficiently. I am now seeing most academic faculty
using free EdTech tools such as Kahoot and Socrative to integrate formative assess-
ment into their everyday teaching. Those who have strong pedagogic competence in
applying EBT practices and principles are creating effective ‘Russian Doll’ strate-
gies (remember the analogy?) in their teaching. They combine and integrate high
effect methods and appropriate e-tools to create impactful instructional strategies
and learning experiences tailored to student profiles and learning outcomes. For
example, at the beginning of a session, they may use Kahoot as an advance organizer
to check key conceptual understanding from a previous session (i.e., activating prior
knowledge and stimulating thinking). From such activities, they can then address
any knowledge gaps and misconceptions through two-way feedback. New knowl-
edge can then be introduced using appropriate methods/e-tool blends. Furthermore,
such technology-based assessments have the potential to provide immediate and
precise descriptive feedback relating to student performance, enabling both diag-
nostic capability and personalization/differentiation of formative assessment. It also
automates much of the assessment process, freeing up instructional time for teach-
ing faculty. Similarly, in terms of assessing more complex technical and cognitive
skills, computer-based simulations can increasingly provide data that facilitates more
complex real-world performance assessment. The Towards Defining 21st Century
Competencies, Foundation Document for Discussion, Ontario (2016) identified:
Technology can support assessment for, as, and of learning, providing real-time assessment
information that deepens our understanding of student learning gains and challenges. Tech-
nology can also support the tasks of gathering and analysing assessment information about
student learning, thereby facilitating instructional decision making. (p. 35)
Assessment approaches are incorporating more performance-based/authentic

assessment tasks, which focus on assessing complex performances in real work
(or simulated contexts). This will often involve the assessment of a range of skills
across competency areas in an integrated performance or set of performances. Assess-
ments, particularly formative assessment, will involve more collaboration and trans-
parency between both faculty and students, as well as among students. Peer Instruc-
tion (e.g. Mazur 1996) and Team-Based Learning (e.g., Sibley and Ostafichuk 2014)
are becoming popular, as they offer many EBT affordances, especially retrieval prac-
tice and immediate, collaborative, specific two-way feedback. The learning benefits
of such approaches are well summarized by Knight (1995):
The key to the use of assessment as an engine for learning is to allow the formative function
to be pre-eminent. This is achieved by ensuring that each assignment contains plenty of
opportunities for learners to receive detailed, positive and timely feedback, with lots of
advice on how to improve. (p. 81)
From this perspective, teaching and assessment are simply two sides of the same
coin. Through collaborative formative assessment, we can get to know our students
better, their learning preferences, and forge the essential communication links that
foster a supportive learning relationship and build trust. However, assessment is not
an exact science and the assessment of complex real-world performances, which
8.3 Assessment from an Evidence-Based Approach 267
involves the integration of a range of knowledge and skill bases, provides real chal-
lenges in terms of achieving high validity and reliability of assessment in a realistic
efficiency context. As Gray (2007) pointed out:
Finding or creating reliable, valid and appropriate assessment methods and tools matched to
all learning outcomes remains a challenge. (p. 165)
Furthermore, assessment is a time-consuming process, and it is unlikely that

additional resources will be available in the present context of cost-consciousness
and already heavy workloads. As Boud (2000) warns:
One of the traps in arguing for a shift in assessment practice is to propose an unrealistic ideal
that can never be attained. (p. 159)
The reality, therefore, will be one of working smarter with existing resources. To
achieve this teaching professionals will need to have a clear frame on what consti-
tutes good assessment, the assessment formats, methods and strategies available, as
well as the compromises that may need to be made and their impact on assessment
quality. The following sections consider three essential questions which are central
to achieving the quality of assessment practice:
1. What is quality assessment?
2. What specific strategies can be used to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency
of assessment practices?
3. How to develop valid and practical assessment instruments for twenty-first
century Competencies.
1. What is Quality Assessment?
Firstly, it is important to recognize that there are many different purposes for assess-
ing student learning, and these reflect different stakeholder interests. For example,
as Rowntree (1987) pointed out, the assessment may serve any of the following
purposes:
• Selection and grading
• Maintaining standards
• Diagnosing learning difficulties
• Providing feedback to support the learning process
• As a source of information for evaluating the effectiveness of the teaching/learning
strategy.
Furthermore, these purposes are not necessarily complementary and may conflict
in practice. For example, while grades and standards may be of prime interest to
employers, grading may do little to help students learn more effectively in the qual-
itative sense. In this context, it is important that the assessment approach effectively
and efficiently addresses these stakeholder interests in a balanced manner. Courses,
however, structured and delivered, must enable the validity of the summative outcome
standards as well as supporting the learning process through formative assessment.
Principles of Good Assessment

In terms of quality of the assessment approach, there are certain general principles
of good assessment that need to be appropriately applied in the design and conduct
of assessment practices, these are:
• Validity
• Reliability
• Fairness
• Flexibility
• Sufficiency
• Authenticity.
The principles of good assessment are well documented in the literature (e.g.,
Haladyna 1997; Osterlind 1989; Rowntree 1987), hence only a summary reference
will be made here.
Validity
This refers to the capability of a test in measuring accurately what it is we intend to
measure, whether this is the recall of factual knowledge, understanding of concepts,
competence in performance, or combinations of these learning outcomes. A major
consideration in determining the validity of a test is the extent to which the evidence
generated by the assessment items supports an accurate interpretation of the test
scores in relation to desired learning outcomes. This is typically unproblematic in
the assessment of factual knowledge though becomes more challenging in the case
of assessing more complex performances involving the integration of a range of
knowledge bases, skills and attitudinal components.
Reliability
This refers to the capability of a test to produce the same scores with different exam-
iners, resulting in consistent and stable scoring of students over time. Fixed response
items (e.g., MCQ’s) are typically reliable as the answers are factual and scoring
is a relatively simple process. However, in more complex assessments, reliability
becomes problematic, as Banta et al. (2009) note:
As faculty members increasingly rely on applying rubrics to student work, interrater relia-
bility becomes another matter to address. Although multiple raters may use the same rubric
to assess student work, assessment leaders should carefully determine how consistently
individual assessors are judging student work. (p. 23)
Fairness
Fairness relates to a range of considerations in the assessment. However, they are all
concerned with ensuring that learners, when being assessed, are provided with appro-
priate access to the assessment activities and are not unfairly discriminated against in
the assessment process. Unfair discrimination typically means discrimination based

on criteria unrelated to the assessment activity itself, for example, gender or racial
characteristics. Fairness is a general concern throughout the assessment, relating
as much to providing learners with the correct knowledge and time allowances for
assessment, to non-discriminatory processes in marking their work.
Flexibility
Flexibility is concerned with the process of assessment, not the standard of the assess-
ment. Learners can display their learning in a range of ways (e.g., orally, written,
demonstration), provided the evidence is validly demonstrated. Flexibility typically
becomes a consideration for learners with special needs (e.g., visual/auditory impair-
ment, second language) or untypical situations (e.g., sickness on exam day). The
arrangements for flexibility are usually specified by exam boards.
Sufficiency
Sufficiency is perhaps the most challenging of the principles of good assessment. In
most basic terms it refers to deciding how much assessment evidence is needed to
feel confident that a student is competent in an assessment task and context. This
can refer to both the amount of evidence that needs to be generated or the range
of applications of the competence in different performance situations/conditions For
example, how many times would a student need to demonstrate mastery of a complex
and critical procedure, and in what range of contexts, before we would deem him/her
competent? There are no absolute answers here, and good professional judgement
and collaboration with other professionals in the field are essential for establishing
realistic benchmarks. I would hope that pilots flying planes do sufficient spaced and
deliberate practice.
Authenticity
Quite simply this refers to how sure we are that the work produced by students has
been done by them. In formal examination formats, we can be reasonably confident
of authenticity, though with assignments being increasingly done by students in their
own time, authenticity is a significant concern. Of course, internet resources further
compound this concern.
Assessment Standards
Well constituted Assessment Standards provide a practical quality assurance frame-
work for developing, monitoring and evaluating assessment practices and processes.
It is to be noted that while such standards are generic to the overall processes, meth-
ods and procedures of assessment practices, there is always a need to contextualize
them to the specific assessment context. The following are an exemplar of standards I
contextualized for the adoption of the Conceive-Design-Implement-Operate (CDIO)
engineering education framework in Singapore (Sale 2014). They were modelled
on the well-established National Vocational Qualification standards in the UK and
related to the 3 main interrelated stages of the typical competency-based assessment
process:
Fig. 8.1 Summary of an

aligned curriculum
(a) Producing and reviewing an assessment plan

(b) Judging evidence and making assessment decisions
(c) Providing feedback on assessment decisions
(a) Producing and reviewing an assessment plan
Essentially an assessment plan identifies the why, what, when, where and how of the
assessment process for a module or unit of study. When well-constructed, it provides
a concise guide of the whole assessment process and components for both assessing
faculty and the students involved. In congruence with an aligned curriculum frame-
work (e.g., Biggs 1996), as summarized in Fig. 8.1, it should result in assessment
methods, instruments and procedures that both effectively develop the defined student
learning outcome (formative assessment) and measure them (summative assessment)
for any specified programme.
The following criteria, which incorporate the principles of good assessment iden-
tified earlier, frame the key considerations that need to be addressed in producing a
well constituted assessment plan:
• The assessment plan specifies the assessment methods to be used, their purpose,
the marks to be allocated, and the timing of assessments
• The selected assessment methods are valid for assessing the knowledge, skills and
attitudinal components specified, and at the appropriate levels
• The assessment methods are well constructed and sufficiently varied to enable
learners to display understanding/competence through different mediums
• The assessment methods are planned to make effective use of time and resources
in producing sufficent evidence
• The assessment methods provide fair and reliable assessment opportunities
• The key aspects of the assessment plan are explained to learners
• Opportunities are provided for learners to seek clarification on assessment
requirements
• Ways to ensure the authenticity of assessment evidence are identified
• The assessment plan is reviewed at agreed times and modified where necessary.
Of note, it is important to recognize that in practice there is often a trade-off
in terms of meeting the various principles of good assessment. For example, suffi-
ciency is typically problematic in that what constitutes a ‘sufficient’ range and depth
of assessment evidence (derived from a variety of methods) is open to judgement,
as noted prior. However, addressing the sufficiency questions are crucial in areas
involving safety issues. It is here that significant problems may be encountered,
especially with an emphasis on more complex and interrelated competencies. Assess-
ment is time-consuming, resource-intensive, especially for high inference assess-
ment—where there is increasing subjectively involved in making valid and reliable
assessment decisions (e.g., creativity, leadership). As Knight (2006) highlighted,
reliable judgement can only be made where there have been several observations
from multiple observers in a range of contexts, which is not very practical in terms
of resources.
(b) Judging evidence and making assessment decisions
Being an assessor is in many ways akin to that of a ‘caring’ detective. The assessor
is responsible for maintaining the standards and ensuring that assessment decisions
are based on the specified performance criteria and the range of evidence sources
required, but at the same time show empathy and make fair and thoughtful judgements
relating to flexibility where appropriate. Flexibility can be used to accommodate
individual student’s special needs and circumstances through providing alternative
assessment methods (e.g., oral rather than written responses) without compromising
the essential knowledge and skills embedded in the standards.
One of the most significant challenges in making valid assessment decisions
revolves around considerations of appropriate standard or level of proficiency. While
we would all like to have clear standards from which to base assessment decisions,
this is often difficult to achieve in practice. Certainly, the explicit and valid iden-
tification of performance criteria is important here. Failure to appropriately make
explicit the key constructs/elements that underpin the performance areas will seri-
ously undermine the validity of the assessment, as well as create difficulty for asses-
sors, affecting inter-rater reliability. This, in turn, inevitably results in disagreement
between assessors, as well as between assessors and those being assessed. In the
worse scenario, this can lead to appeal situations and legal scenarios. In the final
analysis, summative assessment involves making a judgement concerning a person’s
worth or capability in a certain performance area. Getting this wrong through a deci-
sion of non-competence or grading lower than the criteria indicates can have severe
consequences for a learner in terms of employment or educational career access. Of
note, rarely do students appeal against a top grading, suggesting that it should be
lowered.
It is also the case with high inference assessment areas, that even when criteria are
well derived and delineated, actual judgment in terms of how well students perform
requires interpretation, and this can vary across markers. Much of the problem is
identified by Knight (2006) who argues that complex learning cannot be reduced to
something simple enough to measure reliably: the more complex the learning, the
more we draw on connoisseurship (Eisner 1985) rather than measurement to make
our judgment (p. 38). Connoisseurship refers to the ‘art of appreciating something’,
and is typically used in ways to depict a person’s deep awareness of, especially the
subtle aspects, in an area of experience (e.g., music or art). In terms of assessment,
having deep knowledge and experiences over many situations (e.g., expertise) helps
to get a better holistic view of the performance; rather than just aggregating discrete
elements into a final grade. In practice, breaking down complex performances into
highly detailed and specific criteria can result in a level of reductionism that both fail
to capture the holistic contextualized performance as well as encouraging students
to focus on these more atomistic components. In consequence, this can also mitigate
students adopting a deep approach to learning and the capability to transfer learning
across a range of similar performance situations.
A final important consideration in this context relates to the authenticity of assess-
ment evidence provided by students, as documented earlier. In today’s globally wired
world, plagiarism is a serious assessment concern.
Bearing in mind the considerations identified above, the following criteria identify
the key areas of practice for making the best judgments we can:
• Learners are provided with clear access to assessment
• The assessment evidence is judged accurately against the agreed assessment
criteria
• Only the criteria specified for the assessment are used to judge assessment evidence
• The assessment decisions are based on all relevant assessment evidence available
• Inconsistencies in assessment evidence are clarified and resolved
• The requirements to ensure authenticity are maintained.
(c) Providing feedback on assessment decisions
The importance of feedback is fundamental to the learning process as documented

earlier—especially for formative assessment. As Gibbs (2008) highlights:
Research in schools has identified that the way teachers provide and use feedback, and engage
students with feedback, makes more difference to student performance than anything else
that they can do in the classroom. (p. 6)
It is also important to ensure sound recording, collation and security procedures

in conducting an assessment. The following criteria identify the key areas of practice
for providing feedback and securing assessment outcomes:
• The assessment decisions are promptly communicated to learners
• Feedback to learners is clear, constructive and seeks to promote future learning
• Learners are encouraged to seek clarification and advice
• The assessment decisions are appropriately recorded to meet verification require-
ments
• Records are legible, accurate, stored securely and promptly passed to the next
stage of the recording/certification process.
2. Strategies to enhance assessment practice

Firstly, it is important to be clear that whatever strategies are employed, the actual
design of assessment items and conduct of assessment activities must be congru-
ent with the principles and standards documented earlier. Secondly, standards are
not necessarily prescriptive about the use of specific assessment methods; what is
important is that the methods used should be as closely calibrated to the types of
learning outcomes being assessed as is viable. The emphasis on real-world projects
and tasks, which require the integration of knowledge and skills across subject and
domain fields, will feature increasingly in the facilitation and assessment of twenty-
first century Competencies. While students learning of key content knowledge and
understanding can be effectively and efficiently assessed in written and other paper
and pencil tests, this needs to be increasingly augmented by integrated real-world
projects and authentic learning experiences.
All assessment methods have strengths and limitations in terms of the types of
assessment evidence they can generate, and their usefulness will be largely dependent
on the learning outcomes being assessed. For example, while multiple-choice items
can be very effective and efficient for assessing knowledge and understanding (e.g.,
specific types of thinking such as analysis, comparison and contrast, inference and
interpretation, and evaluation), they have little validity for assessing integrated skills
in complex problem-solving activities. Similarly, performance-based items, often the
most valid means for assessing more complex real-world performances, emphasized
in the twenty-first century skills frameworks, are much more time and resource
consuming, inevitably provide challenges both to the sufficiency of the evidence and,
as they involve higher levels of inference than traditional testing methods, reliability.
Within this context, it is suggested that combinations of the following strategies
can contribute to the effectiveness and efficiency of assessment practices in given
assessment situations. The strategies are not meant to be exhaustive or summative,
but represent practical frames from which assessment decisions can be thoughtfully
made and practically customized to the range of assessment situations:
(a) Produce assessment activities that are interesting and challenging
(b) Integrate a range of learning outcomes in assessment activities
(c) Provide as much transparency as possible in the assessment process
(d) Utilize student collaboration in formative assessment.
(a) Produce assessment activities that are interesting and challenging
One of the central themes of enhancing learning is through learning experiences that
are more intrinsically motivating for students. A major means for achieving greater
engagement as well as aspects of metacognitive capability and other twenty-first
century competencies is through well contextualized real-world learning tasks. Just
as a well-constituted syllabus is of limited value in the hands of faculty who lack
competence in pedagogic practices and the ability to create interesting and engaging
learning experiences, the same logic applies to our assessment activities. If they
lack interest and purpose for students and encourage rote learning, we should not
be surprised to see them adopt the surface approaches to learning, as explained
prior. In these situations, students will learn what is necessary for assessment but
are unlikely to derive both a real understanding of the subject or a genuine interest
in it. Once the assessment process is finished, much of what was learned will soon
be forgotten. In contrast, where students find the assessment activities interesting
and sufficiently challenging, they are more likely to develop a genuine interest in
the learning involved (Struyven et al. 2002). It is motivation for mastering the tasks
set that leads to a desire for understanding the important concepts and principles of
a subject and makes possible the transfer of learning (e.g., McTighe and Wiggins
2000).
(b) Integrate a range of learning outcomes in assessment activities
There is an old English metaphor, “kill two birds with one stone”. In the context
of assessment, this means getting the best efficiency from assessment activities and
situations. The more assessment activities enable coverage of a range of learning
outcomes, especially if they integrate knowledge and skills across topic and domain
areas, more efficient is the assessment task. This will be increasingly necessary for
the assessment of twenty-first century competencies, as they are typically employed
simultaneously in expert performance in many situations. For example, an expert
in almost every field will often need to combine good thinking with good commu-
nication skills and teamwork as part of a seamless performance. In doing so, MC
conducts the orchestration of skills needed for the complex work activities that we
now need to enact. As emphasized prior, many twenty-first century skills are mainly
‘souped-up’ first century skills, and they are certainly interrelated in real-life applica-
tions. However, MC, while evolutionary hatched as a potential capability for primate
mankind in terms of brain morphology, it would be far less required in yesteryear,
as compared to the information overload and breakneck change of today’s world.
For primitive man, though with milieu variation, most aspects of life were highly
predictable from year to year, and the need for thinking quite limited (at least in
terms of System 2 thinking, Kahneman 2012).
The interconnectivity of twenty-first century skills, from the main competencies,
will, as Lai and Viering (2012) suggests, create a need for:
…multiple measures that either 1) represent multiple assessment modes or 2) sample from
multiple content domains to permit triangulation of inferences. (p. 43)
As twenty-first century competencies have multiple sub-components of skill sets

and underpinning knowledge bases—multiple measures are essential for authenticity
and validity. It is for this reason that we may move more and more towards work-place
assessment as a major means to attain the range of evidence-sources to make useful
assessments of these competencies. For example, in assessing competence, it is essen-
tial to see how people perform in a range of work functions and situations, especially
in those that are challenging, requiring high MC and technical skills applications.
This can be time-consuming and requires expertise in making such assessments, both
at the technical subject level as well as using cognitive, intrapersonal and interper-
sonal skills competently in a multi-disciplinary manner. Assessment of competence
will also require high levels of skill in such areas as sensory acuity, questioning and
mediating two-way feedback.
It is not surprising, therefore, that this raises significant challenges, including, as
Lai and Viering (2012) note:
the feasibility of implementing such assessments at scale in an efficient and cost-effective
manner. (p. 49)
There is little doubt that this will be problematic in these times of austerity. As I
remember it, quality was a big issue and focus in the 1980s and 1990s, whereas today,
this seems to be a given, and the focus is on cost-saving as the competitive advantage.
The question is how far does this high quality—low-cost paradigm go? This could
mean more and more people working longer, harder, for less and less. In terms of
assessment, we are wanting more and more quality and fidelity of measurement of
highly complex interrelated skills—but attained with fewer resources.
This is an area in which technology may play a significant role in future, as it
is presently providing the means for testing content knowledge and understanding
(which requires types of thinking) as well as increasingly personalized specific feed-
back and guidance for future learning pathways and strategy use. Interactive videos,
augmented reality, virtual reality, and the newer concept of mixed reality may offer
useful affordances and mitigate the costing involved in expert human observation,
as identified prior.
Metacognitive, cognitive and affective skills and attitudes are typically learned
within the context of domain-specific knowledge. Similarly, where issues of a value-
laden and ethical nature are involved, there is a need for both learning and assessment
to be contextualized to the subject domain. Teaching ethics and values separate
from real-life contexts is akin to teaching thinking without reference to a knowledge
domain. De-contextualized knowledge is difficult to transfer and may not even be
perceived as meaningful by learners. Nucci’s (2001) observation about the teaching
of values, is relevant in this context:
The greatest challenge for a teacher wishing to engage in domain appropriate practice is
to identify issues within the regular academic curriculum that will generate discussion and
reflection around a particular value. (pp. 178–79)
Students are firstly more likely to understand and internalize learning in the affec-
tive domain when it is contextualized to specific work-related contexts and issues.
Secondly, in terms of assessment, there is more likely to be authentic assessment
opportunities and greater validity in the assessment of this knowledge and skills in
such situations. For example, in the world of engineering practices, as in any pro-
fessional domain, there are ample opportunities to naturally infuse the full range
of types of thinking as well as areas of ethical concern—both in terms of personal
values and wider societal issues that involve professional ethics. I have developed
and conducted programmes on ethical reasoning through an exploration of specific
ethical dilemmas that can manifest themselves in different work contexts. These can
be structured in terms of variation of situation, emphasis, and levels of complexity.
Technology can be useful here, especially short role-play videos, as suggested in
Chap. 6. I produce my videos in this area, which seem to work well, and are easy to
produce with free (or very reasonably priced) video editing software tools. Also, this
avoids issues of plagiarism and seeking permission for reproduction, which is time-
consuming. One does not need to employ ‘National Geographic’ video production
quality—it’s all about good content, and make sure the audio is clear and focused.
You can also embed questions or reflection points into the video structure. When
done with creativity and this is not so difficult, you are developing Creative Teaching
Competence, and as you improve, it gets easier and easier.
(c) Provide as much transparency as possible in the assessment process
Assessment should not be designed to mystify students about what they are expected
to learn; rather it should make explicit what is to be assessed, the specific criteria
involved in making the assessment decision, and the standard of the assessment
evidence required in behavioural terms—as far as is viable. For example, when doing
a driving test, you know exactly what is expected both in terms of knowledge (i.e., the
highway code for that country) and skills (e.g., parking the car, emergency stop, 3-
point turn). You are unlikely to be asked the capital of Bulgaria in doing your test, even
if you live there. There is full transparency as to what constitutes a competent driving
performance. It is also equally clear as to what gaps in knowledge and competence
will lead to failing the test. Other things being constant, such as assessor reliability
and fairness, etc., passing or failing will depend on the performances exhibited in the
test situation. However, there is disturbing evidence that factors such as mood, fatigue
and hunger can influence judgements. For example, Kahneman (2012), Referring to
research reported in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, in which
parole requests were studied in terms of the time of day they were granted or not
granted (the exact time of each decision was recorded, as well as the times of the
judges’ three food breaks), found that after each meal the proportion of requests
spiked upward with 65% of requests granted. However, during the two hours or so
until the judges’ next feeding, the approval rate dropped steadily, to about zero just
before the meal. As Kahneman concludes:
The best possible account of the data provides bad news: tired and hungry judges tend to fall
back on the easier default position of denying requests for parole. Both fatigue and hunger
probably play a role. (pp. 43–44)
Similarly, the Halo effect, which is the tendency for positive impressions of a
person in one area to positively influence one’s opinion or feelings in other areas.
For example, attractive-looking people are sometimes perceived as more outgoing,
socially competent and powerful, sexually responsive, intelligent, and healthy (e.g.,
Eagly et al. 1991; Zebrowitz and Rhodes 2004). Moreover, these trait impressions are
accompanied by preferential treatment of attractive people in a variety of domains,
including interpersonal relations, occupational settings and the judicial system (e.g.,
Langlois et al. 2000; Zebrowitz 1997). The Halo effect is a cognitive bias and explains
why many people try to make themselves as attractive as possible. It also explains
why people try hard to make good first impressions—the Primacy effect—as a good
Primacy effect, with a positive Halo effect (one can of course also suffer from a
negative Halo effect)—gets one off on a ‘good foot’—so to speak—with persons we
are trying to impress in some way. In the context of assessment, the Halo effect can
be influential in assessment decision making in 2 main ways. Firstly, for the students
that we like, there may be a tendency (and this typically occurs sub/unconsciously)
to be more generous or lenient in the assessment process. Secondly, if they generally
produce high-quality work, and then on occasion submit lower standard work, we
might still give them a higher grade than the work merits.
Given that assessments typically involve human perception and mood, and other
attribution biases, you may simply just be lucky or unlucky in an assessment situation.
To mitigate such systemic biases, we need to establish robust checks on the assess-
ment process; this is typically referred to as verification. Verification, in the context
of assessment, is about ensuring that the agreed processes, procedures and practices
are carried out by designated personnel, as prescribed. It is not about duplicating the
assessment process—through a sampling of assessment evidence and assessment
decisions made is part of the overall verification role. An essential component of the
verification process in the Internal Verifier (IV) for an educational institution. This
person is typically an experienced and accredited assessor, who takes on the role of
developing, monitoring and reviewing assessment practice at an institutional level,
and will conduct internal quality assurance of the assessment process by:
• Carrying out and evaluating internal assessment and quality assurance systems
• Supporting assessors
• Monitoring the quality of assessors’ performance
• Meeting external quality assurance requirements.
This typically involves:
• Comparing own organizations requirements with those of the external awarding
body
• Identifying the outcomes needed by the agreed standards and their consequences
for internal auditing
• Auditing existing administrative and recording arrangements—modify/change if
necessary—to meet external audit requirements
• Carrying out assessment standardization arrangements (e.g., sampling strategy)
• Ensuring a procedure for complaints and appeals is in place (note: consider this
in the local context)
• Identifying problems and developing improvement plans.
There is a range of functions, though most important is ensuring the standard-
ization of assessment decisions and supporting teachers who have assessment roles.
Key areas include:
1. Ensure that assessors consistently make valid decisions
2. Ensure that assessors make the same decision on the same evidence base
3. Ensure that all candidates are assessed fairly.
This involves conducting moderation activities (e.g., different assessors judging
the same candidate’s evidence and comparing their perceptions and decisions). This
is an effective way to ensure that there is a common (as far as is possible) concep-
tion of standard in terms of the type, level of knowledge and skills that need to be
demonstrated for an element of competence. In terms of professional development
and support for assessors, the following are essential:
• Ensuring assessors have appropriate technical and vocational experience.

• Ensuring that assessors are competent to assess.
• Identifying the developmental needs of assessors and facilitating any necessary
training.
• Monitoring progress and development of assessors.
The internal verification system should ensure transparency in all aspects of the
assessment process, the assessment methods and tools being used, and the deci-
sions made for all candidates. Essentially internal verifiers are the guardians of the
assessment arrangements for the institution or a course of study; ensuring the prin-
ciples of good assessment are applied thoughtfully from the planning of assessment
approaches to recording of assessment decisions and maintaining security. Trans-
parency is further enhanced when students are explicitly made aware of, and have
opportunities to seek clarification on the syllabus learning outcomes and the assess-
ment requirements. It also helps if the learning outcomes are written and the assess-
ment criteria fully aligned to them. They should be if the interval verifier(s) is doing
the job well.
Bloxham and Boyd (2007) summarize this in terms of a module context:
Many researchers are now concluding that preparing students for assessment is not a distinct
stage in a module but should be part of an integrated cycle of guidance and feedback,
involving students in active ways at all stages. Price and O’Donovan (2006) describe a cycle
commencing with providing ‘explicit criteria’ followed by ‘active engagement with criteria’,
self-assessment with the submission of work’ and ‘active engagement with feedback’. (p. 71)
Smart students have long worked out that the secret to success in assessment boils
down to basic logic, ‘know what needs to be learned, learn it and know that you have
learned it’. However, simply knowing this does not mean success either in learning
or assessment outcomes. Within this simple maxim is an implicit essential added
element, its called effort. Learning, at a high proficiency level typically involves
considerable effort and time on task, which many students may not be prepared to
do. Students who make the necessary effort and develop a high level of competence
deserve to be successful—don’t they? Metacognitive Capability is the best prepara-
tion we can offer our students, but, ultimately, they must take responsibility for their
learning—become agentic—which is a key part of being a Self-Directed Learner.
(d) Utilize student collaboration in formative assessment
As assessment is fundamentally linked to learning and teaching, it makes sense to uti-
lize the main stakeholders (faculty and students) to collaboratively make this ‘system’
work to the best advantages of both. For example, from a student’s perspective, the
ideal would be to use assessment to optimally support the learning process through
the various processes of formative assessment. Similarly, from a faculty perspective,
we would like to be able to identify student learning concerns/problems quickly and
be able to effectively and efficiently deal with them—whether through instructional
design or other learning support means. How then, might we create the kind of
symbiosis that makes possible the best collaboration between faculty and students,
without compromising the quality and credibility of final summative assessments?
Ultimately, the most fundamental way to utilize this collaboration is to help stu-
dents to develop their own self-assessment capability, as emphasised prior. Students
who are able, in large part, to identify what they know and don’t know are already a
long way to becoming independent learners and reduce the load off faculty in terms
of instructional and remediation time. Time spent in developing student’s capabil-
ity to self-assess will result in better learning for students as well as making the
instructional process more efficient.
Secondly, having students involved in peer assessment is especially important, and
has a higher single Effect Size than self-assessment (0.63 as compared to 0.54, Hattie
2009). However, feedback effects from various sources (e.g., tutor–student; student–
student; other credible sources) will have synergistic impacts. In summary, good
feedback from good sources, and students taking an agentic approach to learning is
what we want to facilitate. It must be emphasized that students will initially need
direct instruction and plenty of deliberate practise to develop skills of assessment,
for example:
• Analysing goals, outcomes, and tasks to ascertain what knowledge and skills are
involved
• Analysing and deriving performance criteria for making judgements of worth
• Making inferences and interpretations from performance evidence to ascertain
competence or otherwise, and on what basis.
If the teaching of Good Thinking has been initiated and ongoing in the earlier
instruction—this should be a transfer activity for students, as this is good thinking
applied to the domain of assessing performance from evidence.
3. Develop valid and practical assessment tools
Good design is fundamental to all assessment items, whether a fixed response, essay
type or performance-tests. This is well documented in the literature (e.g., Osterlind
1989; Haladyna 1997). However, different assessment items, apart from offering
different assessment evidence on students’ learning, also provide different chal-
lenges in turns of making assessment decisions. For example, while multiple-choice
items require skill in design, and the production of a large bank of useful items
is time-consuming, marking is easy and efficient. Open response (essay-type) and
performance-based items, in contrast, require a more elaborate marking system and
are prone to subjectivity.
Performance-based assessments, however, are potentially the most valid forms
of assessment as they provide assessment opportunities where students can dis-
play key competences in the real world or simulated activities. Such tasks provide
more authentic and valid assessment opportunities, offering the following assessment
advantages over more traditional pencil and paper-based approaches:
• Greater validity as the focus is on real-life performance
• Measures a range of complex skills and processes in real-world or authentically
simulated contexts
• Links clearly with learning and instruction in a planned developmental manner

• Motivates students through meaningful and challenging activities.
These tasks can also encompass a wide range of activities, for example:
• Real work projects and tasks
• Simulations
• Problem-solving through case studies
• Presentations
• Any activity that essentially models what would be done by professionals in the
world of work.
However, performance-based assessment poses challenges for faculty in terms of:
• More time consuming than paper and pencil type assessment
• Where courses focus on underpinning knowledge, there is less opportunity for
performance-based assessment
• Subjectivity in marking, as these items often involve assessments that are high
inference and therefore involve professional judgement.
The issue of subjectivity in marking is problematic, especially in project activi-
ties that integrate a range of competency areas across modules and subject domains.
For example, assessing MC involves an extensive range of skills, with some being
more high inference than others. Assessing student’s capability for goal setting, using
cognitive strategies and evaluating their learning can be assessed through a range of
product evidence, focused questioning, and observation. Similarly, growth mindset
and self-efficacy can be assessed through established validated psychometric tools,
incorporating focused questions relating to the key underpinning constructs, self-
report journals, as well as interviews exploring students’ perceptions and experiences,
about the work they are doing. The framework presented in Chap. 3 identifies the key
components of MC, which can then be framed in terms of elements of competence,
performance criteria and range statements—and subsequently packaged and contex-
tualized to different learner contexts (e.g., levels of competence, vocational field).
Invariably, there is much work involved here, and that includes time and resources,
apart from expertise. As Bloxham and Boyd (2007) precisely note:
…the research suggests that providing fairness, consistency and reliability in marking is
a significant challenge caused by the inherent difficulty of reliably marking complex and
subjective material combined with our marking dispositions. (p. 87)
Will technology enable the assessment of types and levels of thinking and voli-
tional aspects of mind related to emotional regulation at the neural level through arti-
ficial intelligence networks connected to brain imaging technologies in the future? Is
‘Radical Evolution’ as Garreau (2005) and Kurzweil (2005) document possible, and
is it likely to happen soon? Well, as indicated prior, I don’t think it will happen in the
next couple of decades, and it may not be as radical as being prophesied—or desired.
In the absence of such technology-aided assessment tools, we must develop marking
systems for performance-based assessment tasks, especially where high inference
assessment is involved, through thoughtfully addressing the following assessment

considerations:
• Assessment areas
• Performance criteria
• Assessment evidence
• Assessment rubrics.
8.4 Assessment Areas
Assessment areas constitute the main performances that are to be assessed in any
performance-based activity, and typically more than one assessment area can be
validly assessed. For example, in a project-based activity, there are usually opportu-
nities to assess critical and creative thinking, teamwork and communication, ethical
issues, as well as the technical subject content areas. However, just because a perfor-
mance test offers such opportunities for assessment, this does not automatically mean
that all possible performance areas must be assessed, especially in summative terms.
What is assessed from such an activity should be considered with other assessment
components for the module or unit of study. For example, if an area has been suffi-
ciently assessed elsewhere, it may be more practical to assess other important areas
that have not been previously assessed in the overall assessment scheme. However, it
is, of course, useful, whenever feasible, to provide appropriate formative assessment
in all the significant performance areas.
Once the summative assessment areas have been identified for the learning activ-
ity, it is then necessary to identify the marks allocation or weighting for each of
the designated areas. This should reflect the learning outcomes and their relative
importance within the module or unit context, as well with other components of the
assessment plan. Table 8.1 summarizes the assessment areas and mark weightings.
Table 8.1 Assessment components for a design-implement project

Assessment components Mark weighting in %
Production of car chassis components (based on practical work done in 30
the workshop)
Assembly of car chassis components (based on practical work done in 10
the workshop)
Performance of the Model F1 car in the racing challenge (speed and 20
stability under test conditions)
Teamwork (e.g., goal setting, management of team-roles and 30
responsibilities, dealing with conflict/challenges, etc.)
Oral presentation 10
(e.g.. organization, clarity, and effectiveness of oral communication)
Total 100
Performance Criteria
Performance criteria are the more specific and measurable elements/behaviours that
underpin the wider performance area to be assessed. For example, in assessing
Demonstrate Effective Written Communication (a component of Communication
Skills) the performance criteria may include ‘write with logical organization and
clear language flow’, ‘use concise and precise language’, ‘use correct grammar,
spelling and punctuation’, etc.
From my experience, the process of generating performance criteria for assess-
ing the performance areas of a course syllabus can be enhanced when educational
development specialists work with subject specialists, as this can ensure clarity and
validity, as well as faculty buy-in. Developing highly detailed lists that have a pristine
appearance but are seen as unnecessarily wieldy and obtrusive by the faculty that are
required to use them are rarely used in the ‘intended way’ in practice.
Performance criteria should provide the necessary guidance to enable assessing
faculty to make the most valid assessment decisions possible (in the context of time
and resource allocation) about the learning outcomes, based on the performance
evidence generated by the task activities. In designing performance-based assessment
tasks, I find it useful to ask the essential question below, and answer it as best as
possible:
Will this performance task offer the student a realistic opportunity to demonstrate that he/she
can meet these learning outcomes?
Table 8.2 shows how one school chose to organize their marking system for a third-
year capstone project. From an analysis of the range of activities that the students were
going to engage in throughout the project, and with the syllabus learning outcomes,
they derived the following performance criteria that would form the basis and focus
for the assessment areas.
8.5 Assessment Evidence
Assessment Evidence refers to the range of performances and products that can
be validly and efficiently considered in making an assessment decision. In making
assessment decisions, it is necessary to consider what the range and types of evidence
are that can be generated by the various activities concerning the performance areas
and criteria. For example, in assessing teamwork, a wide range of evidence sources
can be generated and used to make a valid assessment decision. These could include
the following:
• Feedback from students (e.g., peer assessment)
• Lecturer observation of student interactions
• Questioning
• Meeting deadlines and objectives
• Students logs/journals.
8.5 Assessment Evidence 283
Table 8.2 Raw mark form—projects with physical deliverables

Project no. _________________________ Name and
adm. number
of students
Assessment areas Performance criteria
1. Conceiving 1.1 Eliciting market needs and
(Default 15%) opportunities
[Range: 10–25%] 1.2 Defining functions and concepts
Selected weightage: ____ of the system
1.3 Modelling system to verify goals
1.4 Development of project plan
2. Designing 2.1 Formulation of design plan
(Default 25%) 2.2 Selection of final design
[Range: 15–35%]
Selected weightage: ____ 2.3 Consideration of project costs
2.4 Evaluation of selected design
3. Implementing 3.1 Designing the implementation
(Default 15%) process
[Range: 5–25%] 3.2 Planning for hardware (or
Selected weightage: ____ software) realisation
3.3 Testing, verifying, validating and
certifying
4. Operating 4.1 Planning training and operating
(Default 5%) procedures
[Range: 5–10%] 4.2 Suggesting improvements to
Selected weightage: ____ project
4.3 Planning for project disposal
5. Teamwork (10%) 5.1 Identification of goals and work
agendas
5.2 Utilisation of team strengths
5.3 Application of ground rules and
management of conflict
6. Effective communication (15%) 6.1 Logical organisation of content
and language flow in the project
report
6.2 Using correct language and
grammar in the project report
6.3 Producing engineering drawings
6.4 Using effective oral
communication
7. Personal and professional skills 7.1 Using a range of critical and
and attributes (15%) creative thinking skills
7.2 Monitoring and reviewing the
quality of own thinking
(continued)
Table 8.2 (continued)

7.3 Managing learning
7.4 Acting in a manner consistent
with professional codes and ethics
CDIO skills 80% (For the above raw marks, items 1–4 = 60%, items 5–7 Score 5 to 1
= 40%) in the boxes
Exhibition 10% (Duty/Exhibited = 5, Bronze = 6, Silver = 8, Gold = above
10) Key: 5 =
Deadline 10% (Project deadline—as per page 6 of logbook) Consistently
Marks ratio between supervisor and co-examiner = 2:1 met to a very
high standard
4 = Mainly
met to a high
standard
3 = Mainly
met to an
acceptable
standard
2 = Partially
met to an
acceptable
standard
1 = Very poor
performance
For projects, the following generic types of assessment evidence are typically
produced:
• Reports
• Progress reviews
• Logbook
• Scheduling documentation
• Engineering drawings
• Artefacts (e.g., models, prototypes, programmes, operating manuals, etc.)
• Presentations
• Responses to questions (e.g., oral, written).
Invariably, the greater the range of evidence sources that can be accessed (provid-
ing they are sufficiently valid and authentic), the more likely it is that we can make
accurate assessments of performance.
Assessment Rubrics
Assessment Rubrics are rating scales in which a prepared scoring system is used for
assessing learner performance for a specific task or assessment area across different
levels of that performance (usually 1–5, in which 1 denotes a very poor performance
and 5 denotes a very good performance). Assessment rubrics are most useful when
assessing complex activities where the assessment of performance is of variation,
and involving a high level of inference. For example, in assessing teamwork, it is
often not a clear case of being either effective or ineffective in this performance
area, but rather variation along a continuum from very effective to very ineffective.
Furthermore, as there are many aspects and potentially different interpretations of
what constitutes effective teamwork, it is open to different inferences by different
assessors. The extent to which assessors are likely to differ in terms of assessment
decisions relating to an area of performance determines the level of inference.
In performances where all assessors, assuming expertise in the area, would consis-
tently agree on the level of performance, we can say that assessment is low inference.
This would be the case in most procedural aspects of a performance in which there
are clear and established, almost algorithmic, standards relating to effective perfor-
mance. In these assessment situations, a checklist is a more appropriate tool and
easier to use marking system. However, in areas such as creativity and aesthetics,
while certain features can be identified as criteria of quality, there is still a high level
of subjectivity in terms of personal interpretation of what this looks like overall. Such
areas constitute high inference assessment, where assessors may have quite diverse
perceptions of what is good and poor performance. In these assessment situations, the
descriptors of different levels of performance are useful in mitigating the variation
of assessment decisions and enhancing reliability. It only requires watching a few
episodes of popular singing competitions in which one judge may see a competitor’s
performance as ‘brilliant’ but another judge (and remember these are supposed to be
top experts in the field) see’s it ‘as self-indulgent rubbish’. I feel like it’s the latter
when subjected to listen (of course I try to avoid it) to much of modern music. Don
Mclean who famously sang American Pie, on a visit to Singapore a decade or so
back, was asked when he thought was the day the music died (an emphatic line in
the song). He replied, in the interview, and I hope I get this right, ‘some 40 years
ago’. I liked his song, and his judgement on musical quality is exemplary—here’s
subjectivity for you. Now, would you like me assessing you’re rap or techno song?
In using rubrics, decisions need to be made on whether to assess more holisti-
cally or analytically about performance areas and criteria. Essentially this relates to
whether to assess the performance area overall e.g., oral communication and give a
score; or break it down into key components/constructs, score these individually, then
derive the overall score. There are merits in both approaches (Biggs 2003; Gosling
and Moon 2003). Holistic rubrics enable a focus on the overall performance and are
more economical in terms of assessment time. They are typically used for summative
assessment and where some variation in reliability in parts of the assessment com-
ponents can be accepted, provided the overall assessment decision has justifiable
validity and reliability. In contrast, analytical rubrics enable a much greater focus
on the specific elements of the areas of learning involved and make possible a much
better utilization of formative assessment in the assessment process. One type of
rubric is not inherently better than another (Montgomery 2001); it depends on the
assessment purpose and context in which rubrics are used.
What is of primary importance is that the rubric does not make the assessment
decision. Rubrics provide a guiding framework for focusing attention on the key ele-
ments/constructs (performance criteria) of the assessment area and summary descrip-
tors of a range of performances. A good rubric offers sound heuristics, bringing the
most important aspects/features of the task requirements to the foreground of the

mind; the assessor must use expert professional judgement in making the assess-
ment decision. Rubrics can be shared with students to further enhance transparency.
While there are different opinions here, from an EBT perspective openness and trans-
parency are consistent with sound reasoning. I don’t agree that transparency of what
constitutes an exemplary performance, and its components, compromise standards
for assessment. I know exactly what constitutes expert tennis, and exactly what to
do—I have an excellent rubric in my mind—but mediocrity still dominates my game,
and there is a reason for this. With more time, good coaching, spaced and deliberate
practice, and effort on my part, I would improve, and the rubric would assist in my
self-regulation and self-assessment. What’s wrong with that?
Designing effective and efficient rubrics can be a difficult and frustrating activity
for faculty not familiar with such assessment tools. It is essential that training and
support are provided by experienced educational development faculty well versed in
rubric design. In my experience, educational development faculty working collabo-
ratively with school-based faculty has proved most productive in terms of acceptance
and ownership of the scoring systems developed.
There are many established texts on how to construct various rubrics (e.g., Butler
and McMunn 2006; Stiggins et al. 2006). Some of the more salient considerations
are summarized in Table 8.3.
In scoring student performance, it is often the case that some students do not
nicely ‘fit’ all the behavioural indicators in any one description of performance
(e.g., they may fit most indicators quite well but are better or worse on the others).
In this situation, it is practical to choose the description that you feel is the most
appropriate in terms of the score to be given for that performance area This can be
moderated and/or adjusted holistically at the end of the assessment process for the task
(especially in borderline cases). My experience, as stated earlier, is that there may be
Table 8.3 Key considerations in rubric design

Rubric design
Identifying and writing Writing descriptions of Guide to scoring
criteria performance performance
• Criteria identify the most • Descriptors are clear and • Performance areas and
important concise criteria are differentiated
constructs/elements of the • Descriptors use language in the weighting of marks
performance being assessed that is familiar and allocated where
• Criteria are clearly aligned understandable by assessors appropriate (e.g.,
to the learning outcomes for and students being assessed importance, complexity)
the performance area • Descriptors provide • The scoring system makes
• Criteria are explicitly stated accurate descriptions of the clear how rubric scores
and measurable based on the performance at the are translated into grades
evidence that can be designated level
generated by the assessment • Qualitative terms (e.g.,
method(s) employed many, some, few) are
clarified and understood by
assessors and students
limited assessment value in highly detailed marking systems that are burdensome in
practice, as faculty won’t have (or make) the time for what they see as an unproductive
activity—they have enough to do already. For purposes of summative assessment, a
holistic rubric format usually works well, when used thoughtfully. Table 8.4 shows a
typical rubric design that has been used in a range of contexts for scoring performance
in Oral Presentation Skills.
This is a standard rubric design in which a performance area (in this case Oral
Presentation Skills) is broken down into key behavioural indicators relating to the
Table 8.4 Rubric template for oral presentation skills

Scoring rubric for oral presentation skills
The scoring rubric provides descriptions of five levels of student performance relating to Oral
Presentation (where a score of 5 represents very good performance and a score of 1 represents
very poor performance)
The rubric is underpinned by specific behavioural indicators of oral presentation, these are:
• Clarity of voice, tone and modularity
• Appropriateness of presentation structure and style to specific audience
• Calibration of non-verbal communication to the spoken words (e.g., posture, eye contact and
gestures)
• Answering questions in a clear, concise and focused manner
In scoring student performance, it is often the case that some students do not nicely relate to all
the behavioural indicators in any one description of performance (e.g., they may fit most
indicators quite well but are better or worse on the others). However, choose the description that
you feel is the most appropriate in terms of the score to be given for the individual student
Score Description of performance
5 Voice is consistently clear and effective in terms of tone and
modularity
Presentation structure and style fully relates to audience
Non-verbal communication is highly calibrated to spoken word
All questions answered in a clear, concise and focused manner
4 Voice is generally clear and effective in terms of tone and
modularity
Presentation structure and style mainly relates to audience
Non-verbal communication is calibrated to spoken word
Most questions answered in a clear, concise and focused manner
3 Voice is occasionally clear and effective in terms of tone and
modularity
Presentation structure and style relates to audience in part
Non-verbal communication is sometimes calibrated to spoken
word
Some questions answered in a clear, concise and focused manner
2 Voice has limited clarity and effectiveness in terms of tone and
modularity
Presentation structure and style rarely relates to audience
Non-verbal communication is mainly not calibrated to spoken
word
Few questions answered in a clear, concise and focused manner
1 A very poor performance in this area of competence
curriculum syllabus. These become the basis for the five levels of descriptive perfor-
mance. Marks can then be allocated to these broadband descriptors in terms of wider
assessment weightings and grading formats. Converting rubric scores into grades is
more a question of logic than any specific mathematical formula. What is essential is
that the marks allocation calibrates to what has been decided in the overall assessment
plan for the module or unit of study.
Note: the behavioural descriptors can both reduced or added to, or further refined,
depending on the learning outcome focus and level of elaboration required. Also,
range statements can be specified to meet the demands of different professional
contexts. In teaching, for example, I am reluctant to accredit teaching competence,
based only on teaching highly motivated adult learners, unless of course, this is the
specific range for a given teacher training programme.
8.6 Summary
While assessment is not an exact science, much is known about good assessment
practices in terms of the principles and standards as documented in this chapter.
Hence, we can explore, from a sound evidence base, the underpinning issues in
assessment quality and subsequently frame assessment approaches, strategies and
methods to address the challenges of assessing twenty-first century competencies.
However, as identified, developing assessment approaches and conducting a high-
quality assessment of more complex interrelated real-world performance-based tasks
for twenty-first century competencies, and making this cost-effective, will require
much by way of teacher expertise, leadership and resource provision.
Issues and practices relating to enhancing professional development in teaching,
as well as reframing aspects of educational policy and direction, will be explored in
the next and last chapter of this work.
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Chapter 9
Framing Professional Development Now
Abstract This chapter offers an evidence-based approach to framing and imple-

menting a professional development approach to address both issues of perceived
usefulness by teaching professionals themselves, as well as viability in the real world
of educational institutions. While we know what knowledge, strategies and methods
are most likely to enhance teaching expertise, and how to conduct the professional
development process to achieve positive outcomes, good professional learning comes
at a cost in terms of time and resources. Hence, both individuals and institutions have
to decide what is most viable in their personal and professional contexts.
9.1 Introduction
In the preceding chapters, I framed the context and challenges that many teachers are
increasingly facing now, and these will certainly dominate the educational landscape
for the next decade or so. Notions of accurately predicting teaching challenges and
context for the whole of the twenty-first century are highly speculative and probably
erroneous.
Debates about human learning are still prevalent in terms of framing cohesive
educational programmes for teacher professional development. Darling-Hammond
and Rothman (2015) captured the problem clearly:
While educators and policymakers agree that enabling teachers to improve student learning is
one of the most significant ways to raise student achievement, there are heated disagreements
about the most useful ways to do this. (p. 1)
Similarly, Reimers and Chung (2016) argue that:

…teacher education programmes and educational leadership preparation programmes in
many of the world’s developed and emerging economies are not only based on theories of
the past but are delivered in outcome ways such as rote classroom instruction. (p. 12)
Using an EBT approach I have argued that Pedagogic Literacy (PL), Metacog-
nitive Capability (MC) and Creative Teaching Competence (CTC) are three major

292 9 Framing Professional Development Now
areas for framing teacher expertise and addressing the challenges of facilitating Self-
Directed Learning (SDL)—both for students and for teachers. Certainly, teachers
high in MC will have the capability to be self-directed in their professional devel-
opment as they will be effective evaluators of their ability to self-regulate—it goes
with the territory so to speak. As Costa and Garmston (2016) made explicit:
Self-directed evaluators use structures and skills that engage the professional’s thinking
about his/her performance. In self-directed evaluation, intentionally builds the capacity of
the professional for self-management, self-monitoring and self-modifying behaviors. (p. 82)
Furthermore, and equally important, they will also have the necessary competence
to teach these skills to students. As Powell and Kusuma-Powell (2015) point out:
Teachers who demonstrate self-directedness are much more likely to demonstrate emotion-
ally intelligent classroom behaviour. They look for cause and effect relationships between
their teaching and their students’ learning. Their emotional intelligence contributes to
the construction of powerful learning relationships with students as well as colleagues.
Self-regulation is all about controlling our impulses, particularly disruptive ones, delaying
gratification, thinking before acting, and suspending judgement. (p. 41)
9.2 Organizational Intelligence and Professional Capital:

Two Desirable Bedfellows
MC provides the executive functions for how teachers conduct themselves as

professionals and behave more intelligently. Collectively, this has the potential
for developing what Powell and Kusuma-Powell (2013) refer to as Organization
Intelligence:
…the emergence of understood and agreed patterns of effective interaction. (p. 22)
Schools possessing a high level of organizational intelligence—‘intelligent

schools’—typically have the following key defining characteristics:
Teachers in intelligent schools are enthusiastic consumers of new knowledge. School leaders
and faculty attempt to stay abreast of recent research and developments in the field. Members
attend conferences, present workshops, read and discuss articles, and write for professional
publications. Teachers are keen to discover what other colleagues may be engaged in as
‘works in progress’ and are eager to share and critique new ideas. In short, intelligent schools
are inhabited by teachers who are learning and growing. (p. 24)
In many ways, organizational intelligence is very much related to the psycholog-

ical climate of the school and the quality of the relationships formed across faculty
members which, when highly positive, will result in not just increases in individu-
als’ intelligence but the ‘collective intelligence’ of all participating. Quite simply, a
positive psychological climate is equally good for both teacher and student learn-
ing as it relates to human needs and preferred norms of conduct. As Powell and
Kusuma-Powell documented:
9.2 Organizational Intelligence and Professional Capital … 293
Groups that have high collective intelligence are more innovative, more likely to find creative
solutions to problems, more likely to engage in reflection and therefore more likely to transfer
their learning to new and novel situations. (p. 15)
However, according to the authors, high levels of organizational intelligence are

not that prevalent in educational institutions. They argue:
…knowledge management in schools remains to a large extent in the Stone Age…
Schools are organizations that specialize in learning and, as such, should be very smart
organizations. Frequently, however, they’re not. (p. 16)
Furthermore, as we explored in some detail, these skills are extrinsically linked in

that critical and creative thinking are part of Good Thinking, in which metacognition
is the executive function. Equally, good thinking and the ability to self-regulate are
highly linked to effective collaboration and communication, as epitomized by the
old sayings (I do like these), ‘think before you talk’, ‘think before you act’. We
may say that these competencies and their underpinning skill sets and knowledge
bases, in conjunction with core values (as explored prior) do provide the elements
for facilitating our best educational framing for the twenty-first century at this point
in time. It is then a question of having the teaching force who can do this, and the
political and managerial will, policy and commitment to support them in achieving
success. Reimers and Chung (2016) are correct in making what should be an obvious
assertion:
…the ability of leadership to support the development of student’s twenty-first-century
competencies is one of the key levers to improving student learning. (p. 13)
However, they go on to argue, what seems very worrying, that:

the innovation gap in education leadership preparation is dire, and that a knowledge gap
hinders educational practice and policy worldwide, as no trusted source exists of which
leadership approaches are most effective. (p. 13)
Teaching professionals with high MC and CTC, as well as leadership person-

nel that foster organizational Intelligence, offers the possibility of developing what
Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) refer to as ‘Professional Capital’:
… the confluence of three other kinds of capital: human, social, and decisional. It is the
presence and product of these three forms of capital that is essential for transforming the
teaching profession into a force for the common good. (p. 88)
Human capital in teaching is specifically about the framing and possession of

the requisite knowledge and skills for the job at hand (in this case teaching). This
includes knowing your subject, how to teach it, understanding students and how they
learn—as well as being able to apply such knowledge effectively and efficiently in the
contexts of practice. At the individual level, a high capability in human capital may
constitute expertise. However, the problem here is that this is only at an individual
level, and such capability may not be shared with others in the institution—not even
known by others.
Social capital refers to the shared cultural aspects of human conduct and
communication in the institution. The authors refer to it in terms of:
how the quantity and quality of interactions and social relations among people affects their
access to knowledge and information; their sense of expectation, obligation and trust; and
how far they are likely to adhere to the same norms or codes of behaviour…Social capital
increases your knowledge – it gives you access to other people’s human capital. (p. 90)
Decisional capital can be seen in congruence to organizational intelligence as

it comes about through the communication and collaboration of colleagues who
are sharing their human capital, analysing and evaluating it, making refinements,
modifications and improvements, which enhances the competence of all participants,
especially in making more confident decisions about practice. Indeed, as Costa and
Garmston (2016) hypothesize, “the basic teaching skill is decision making” (p. 147).
Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) frame it in terms of:
…the capital that professionals acquire and accumulate through structured and unstructured
experience, practice and reflection—capital that enables them to make wise judgements in
circumstances where there is no fixed rule or piece of incontrovertible evidence to guide them.
Decisional capital is enhanced by drawing on the insights and experiences of colleagues in
forming judgements over many occasions.
Invariable, these kinds of capital are mutually supporting and synergistic in that
as more and more faculty work collaboratively in the development of knowledge and
expertise in teaching, there are benefits to all participants, and this will have positive
impacts on other stakeholders, especially the student learners.
As the authors sum up:
collaborative cultures build social capital and therefore also professional capital in a school
community. (p. 115)
9.3 The Pedagogy—Andragogy Debate
Firstly, here’s some context on what is still an area of contention in terms of human
learning, epitomised in a question I am frequently asked: “Do adults learn differ-
ently from children, and do we need to teach them differently? In Edu-speak this is
sometimes referred to as the ‘Pedagogy—Andragogy’ debate.
Pedagogy, as identified in Chap. 2, has been contrasted with the term Andragogy
(Knowles 1984), which focuses on the teaching of adult learners. However, knowl-
edge from cognitive science generally throws doubt on the notion that the underlying
learning processes of adults are structurally different from that of children who have
attained the stage of formal operational thought (Piaget 2001), typically around 12–
15 years of age. At this stage of brain maturation, children can reason logically and
use a range of thinking skills (e.g., analyzing, comparing & contrasting, making
inferences and interpretations, and evaluating). There is, however, evidence from
cognitive neuroscience that the prefrontal cortex which, apart from other things, is
responsible for the control of our impulses, complex actions, planning and organiza-
tion, doesn’t fully mature until a person is in his or her twenties (e.g., Swaab 2015).
9.3 The Pedagogy—Andragogy Debate 295
This means that mature adults are likely to be more organized and determined in
their learning efforts (e.g., higher MC) than younger learners who will need more
structure and support in these aspects of learning. This does not limit the usefulness
of developing MC in younger learners, but maybe not to expect self-directedness to
be fully achieved by all students on high school graduation day. There is much to
being self-directed, as Powell and Kusuma-Powell’s (2015) frame implies:
Self-direction is choosing one’s own way; increasingly becoming the author of who we are
coming to be; constructing an internal sense of personal meaningfulness that is founded on
examined beliefs and values. Self-direction is the process by which we continually become.
We perceive identity not so much as a static entity, but as a continual process of becoming.
(p. 32)
Furthermore, in teaching adults, there are certainly important areas of focus that
need to be attended to in qualitatively different ways. For example, there are signif-
icant differences in the level of prior experience of adults, as compared to children;
the former usually having more. Adults also choose what they want to learn, and this
is typically consciously directed to meet work or personal learning goals. In contrast,
pupils in a school are largely told what to learn, at least in the earlier years. Knowles
(1984) saw adult learners, as compared to younger learners, having the following
qualitative differences:
1. Concept of the learner. Adults need to be self-directing and be treated by others
as able to take responsibility. They resent others imposing their will and desire
participation in decisions that affect them
2. Role of the learner’s experience. Adults have a wide experience which serves to
determine who they are, to create their sense of self-identity. When this experience
is devalued or ignored by the teacher, this implies a rejection of the person, not
just the experience
3. Readiness to learn. Adults become ready to learn when they experience a need
to know or do something as a result of changes in their lives
4. Orientation to learning. Adults enter an educational activity with a life task or
problem-centred orientation to learning. They are less bothered by underpinning
knowledge or theory
5. Motivation to learn. Adults are motivated more by internal rather than exter-
nal agents (e.g., self-esteem, recognition by peers, a better quality of life,
self-actualization).
Based on these assumptions, it can be argued that there are certain key implications
for teaching adults:
• Adults want more involvement in the planning/decision-making and facilitation
of their learning. This may involve more flexibility in the learning arrangements
to accommodate the various demands of their life contexts.
• Adults are more interested in/focused on seeing relevance/purpose in what they
are learning (e.g., how it relates to a felt need or problem they are trying to address
in their professional and/or personal life).
• Adults expect their adult status to be recognized and this has important human
conduct issues of equity and communication style in the process of teaching and
management of the learning environment.
These features of the Adult Learner, in contrast to younger learners, has been
aptly captured by Rogers (1998):
An instructor of adults is quite unlike a teacher of children or adolescents.
The person is an adult among adults. He or she cannot count on the customary
advantages of age, experience, and size … Many adults will have had experiences
that far surpass the background of the particular instructor. As a group, they have out-
travelled, out-parented, out-worked, and out-lived any of us as individual instructors.
Collectively, they have had more lovers, changed more jobs, survived more accidents,
moved more households, faced more debts, achieved more successes, and overcome
more failures. It is highly unlikely that we can simply impress them with our title,
whether it be a trainer or professor.
The dominant question and request of adult learners to anyone who instructs them is, “Can
you help me?” (p. 27)
However, it could be argued that many of these implications apply, at least in part,
to younger learners. It is unlikely than many of our students like to learn content
that they see no purpose or relevance in and would resent being denied choice and
some equity in human conduct issues. Similarly, the notion that adult learners prefer
to learn more independently and self- discover has also been challenged by recent
research. For example, Dickinson (2015) noted:
I find that time-pressed adult workers often just want someone to tell them what to do. They
have neither the time nor inclination to explore. (p. 157)
It is important therefore that teachers involved in adult education and training are
aware of these different orientations and apply EBT to the adult context. Teaching
adult learners requires much by way of contextualization, but the core principles
of learning still apply for their learning. For example, having taught adults from
many countries and cultural contexts for over 30 years, the differences in terms of
motivation and orientation identified above often apply, but I am more apt to agree
with Dickinson’s observation, and this is important. Adult learners, and increasingly
so, are doing busy workloads and often come to class tired, and their participation
may be more extrinsic than intrinsic (e.g., keeping their jobs, promotion, being told
they need this new accreditation as its now mandatory). Asking adult learners in the
classroom environment to spend their time doing online searching on a specific topic,
for purposes of later sharing and discussion may not go down well with many. Adults
do like to share and learn from each other, but they could do this online research at
home or in a coffee shop; they don’t need to rush to class for such experience. Also,
they expect, and rightly so, that you provide then with relevant new knowledge, skill
applications, and facilitate their thinking in ways to build the level of understanding
necessary to extend their work-related competencies. Yes, they do like spoon-feeding
of this key information, but also expect skilful facilitation in making it useful.
9.3 The Pedagogy—Andragogy Debate 297
The following sections will explore what this means for teacher professional
development, both at individual and collective levels, in terms of developing Creative
Teaching Competence and that superordinate competency—Metacognitive Capabil-
ity. The good news is that we are becoming increasingly aware of how best to achieve
this. Invariably, like the development of expertise in any domain or field, it involves
much learning, persistence and hard work—but what of real value does not?
9.4 Professional Development that Does Not Work Well
There can be little argument that professional development must be central to enhanc-
ing professional practice, and much is made of the need for lifelong learning in
a world of exponential knowledge production and rapidly changing occupational
structures. Unfortunately, professional development in enhancing teaching quality
has typically been tempered by the strong, mostly anecdotal, evidence that much
professional development is not effective in terms of improving teacher practice and,
most significantly, in enhancing student attainment (Timperley et al. 2008). I recall
seeing a quote many years ago that is not inconsistent with the perception of many
teachers that I have worked with regarding the usefulness of attending professional
development workshops:
When I die, I hope it’s in a professional development workshop, as the difference will be
hardly noticeable (a teachers comment, anon).
More specifically, Darling-Hammond et al. (2009), from an extensive research

base, found that while 90% of teachers participated in professional development,
most of those teachers also reported that it was useless. The report shows that:
…in education, professional learning in its current state is poorly conceived and deeply
flawed. Teachers lack time and opportunities to view each other’s classrooms, learn from
mentors, and work collaboratively. The support and training they receive are episodic,
myopic, and often meaningless. (p. 2)
Research Alert (2014) posed the question:

What form of professional learning has the most abysmal record for changing teachers’
practice and student achievement? Clue: it’s the kind that 90 percent of teachers normally
engage in at school. If you answered, “the workshop-style training session,” you’re right.
Despite its ineffectiveness, it still soldiers on. (p. 8)
I am guilty here, but fortunately, there will be many joining me should there
be a retrospective inquisition and such practices become indictable offences. I still
conduct professional development workshops in many aspects of curriculum, teach-
ing and assessment, but I am honest with participants about what is realistically
possible in such learning events. Sadly, there are still some who think that compe-
tence in a complex skill can be a realistic outcome from a short workshop involving
explanation and a little ‘hands-on’ simulated practice. Similarly, having spent many
years working out in gyms, I occasionally find it amusing when people express such
disappointment that they have not achieved significant weight loss or enhancement
in muscle bulk or fitness when they have only spent a few hours over a couple of
weeks in the gym (and often doing very little in terms of actual exercise). There are
evidence-based reasons for both of these scenarios, as we know. While I have often
received positive feedback on many of my workshop programmes (and I am thankful
for this), I remain reticent in believing that I have significantly influenced teaching
practices to the extent that this has led to significant gains in student attainment. Over
the years I have received feedback from some participants, post-workshop, claiming
that they had changed aspects of practice, and this has transferred to better student
learning and attainment (e.g., better student feedback relating to their teaching and
improved student performance or grades). However, these are not the majority, and
it seems that such individuals are doing something else, which is not the typical
behaviour of participants who attend workshops without other supportive follow-up
arrangements. We will explore what this is and what the implications are later in the
chapter.
It seems that the most prevalent characteristic of educative professional develop-
ment is that it is often met with resistance (Duffy 1993). According to Duffy et al.
(2010), there are two reasons for this. First, educative professional development usu-
ally emphasizes teacher thoughtfulness, and teachers often resist being thoughtful.
They do so because it is easier to operate from routines, and because their “apprentice-
ship of observation” (Lorte 1975) as students themselves for 13 years causes them to
think that they already know how to teach (Kanfer and Kanfer 1991; Kennedy 1999).
The result is often what Windshitl (2002) called “additive” change or what Huber-
man (1990) called “tinkering”, in which teachers insert minor changes into their
existing practices. Second, research indicates that learning to be thoughtful occurs
in erratic spurts and not as steady growth (p. 9). Certainly, the issue of the ‘lazy
brain’ (e.g., Kahneman 2012) and thinking being something we don’t like to do too
often (e.g., Willingham 2009) feature here also, but these are not peculiar to teachers
per se. However, there are specific contextualized aspects to teachers in educational
institutions that are both causes and the manifestation of much educational thinking
(or lack of it) relating to what is good teaching and, by association, to what is good
professional development. Powell and Kusuma-Powell (2015) argue that this is part
of a wider systemic problem, arguing that:
The field of education is changing with lightening-speed; schools are changing at a snail’s
pace. (p. 18)
They quote Caine and Caine (2001) as capturing the irony of the present situation:
Unfortunately, many countries and cultures are employing a late 20th-century political pro-
cess in an attempt to perfect an early 20th century model of schools, based on 17th-century
beliefs about how people learn, to prepare children for the 21st century. (p. iv)
This may explain, at least in part, that while we are amassing strong evidence
concerning what practices do work well and on what basis, it is not being widely
synthesized and practised. From my experiences of working in this field for over
30 years, I would tend to agree with the findings of Timperley et al. (2008) relating
to two extremes, but often used approaches to professional development:
9.4 Professional Development that Does not Work Well 299
• The first is that teachers should be treated as self-regulating professionals who, if

given sufficient time and resources, can construct their own learning experiences
and develop a more effective reality for their students through their collective
expertise. Unfortunately, we found little evidence to support the claim that provid-
ing teachers with time and resources is effective in promoting professional learning
in ways that have positive outcomes for students. (xxv)
• The alternative extreme is where outside experts develop recipes for teaching (typ-
ically based on research about what works for students) then present prescribed
practices to teachers with an underpinning rationale and monitor their implementa-
tion carefully to ensure integrity. The overall evidence is that these processes can be
effective in changing teaching practices, but either the changes have limited impact
on student outcomes or they are not sustained once the providers withdraw. (xxvi)
From an evidence-based approach, the above scenarios may seem to suggest a
parallel Educational Jurassic Park in terms of professional development to that of
teaching practices. Indeed, we would expect a lack of agreement and focus on what
constitutes highly effective teaching to reflect, as well as reinforce, the existing
psychological and educational paradigms relating to teaching and learning. As noted
previously, these have been both competing and confusing, and have done little
to advance teaching as a profession guided by a strong evidence base relating to
practice. Teachers are products of their biography and socialization experiences, and
this applies to teacher educators also. Furthermore, once a paradigm has established
itself, and members benefit from its prominence, there is little motivation to seek
evidence to dispute key tenets or challenge legitimacy, especially when careers and
funding opportunities are at stake.
However, apart from ideological and self-interest group influences on shaping
paradigms relating to practice, other more concrete practical situated factors have
contributed to teachers having negative perceptions and experiences concerning the
value and usefulness of much so-called professional development activity. Firstly,
given the lack of a clear evidence-based professional knowledge and practice frame-
work, the frequent reframing of what is good teaching, and increasing workloads, it
is not surprising that many teachers are reluctant to invest highly in such activities.
Furthermore, teaching is somewhat unique in that career progression typically entails
giving up teaching and taking on more administrative and managerial work, making
highly effective and creative teaching more an act of personal choice rather than a
route to genuine professional enhancement as a teacher.
Secondly, the mainstream approaches to professional development, which have
proved relatively unsuccessful, are not consistent with what we know about effective
learning of complex skills such as instructional strategies. Being introduced to new
knowledge, even with clear explanations, opportunities to ask questions, and some
simulated practice, is only effective as an advance organizer. It may provide the
teacher, as a learner, with an interesting new learning opportunity and there may
be intentions to try this out further down the line in classroom practice. However,
several inhibitors to effective learning can typically come into play. The most basic
is forgetting. Once a workshop has finished and a few days have passed by, much
of the information may be lost, and this in itself may lead to it not ever being tried
out. Also, preparing a new instructional strategy will most likely make some extra
demands on time. Again, there may be an intention to use the new strategy, but in
a busy schedule it’s always easier to go with what you have done prior and it may
have worked ok anyway. However, even if the strategy is tried out with good intent
fairly soon after the workshop, there is every likelihood that it may not work out
particularly well, and may even feel counter-productive. This is the learning process
at the level of skill acquisition.
A few decades ago, I decided to learn to play the guitar as this was something I
wanted to do at school but did not have the opportunity. My music lessons at school, as
mentioned in Chap. 1, were far from motivating. In retrospect, the teacher probably
violated every core principle of learning. I had no idea of what we were supposed
to learn, saw no relevance in any of it and was occasionally caned for transgressions
in reciting the musical scales. Despite my loathing of the weekly music lesson, I
remained interested in playing the guitar. Sometimes in life, serendipity provides an
excellent opportunity to learn something and this was the case in my mid-twenties.
I met a young lady who played the guitar and sang in local venues where I lived.
She was also studying for an Open University degree in psychology and asked me if
I would review some of her assignments before formal submission. Jokingly I said
something like, “Sure, but you will have to teach me how to play the guitar in return.”
This was partly in jest, but only partly. She readily agreed and the arrangement worked
well. However, I soon learned why most people who are initially motivated to play
the guitar typically give up within a few weeks. Learning the ‘C’, ‘G’ & ‘F’ chords
is easy conceptually, but not at the level of skilful practice. Making a noise like
a cat encased in an aluminium dustbin rolling down a steep hill, and having very
sore fingers on one’s left hand (I am right-handed), as well as housemates smiling
quizzically as they walk past is hardly encouraging. Quite simply, knowing how to
do something is far from being able to do it, when skills are involved.
In the professional development of teachers, the same scenario plays out. The real
challenge is when teachers apply newly introduced instructional strategies into their
classroom practise at the skill level, as they are unlikely to work on the first time,
or the next time, and perhaps for many times. In this context, many teachers will
give up, and this makes perfect sense. Apart from time constraints, some teachers
may also be concerned about negative feedback from students in such situations, as
students may experience the changes as confusing and not see the value in terms of
better-quality learning at this point. Solving the gap between knowledge acquisition
and understanding to one of eventual expertise, that enables transfer to other related
learning contexts, is a challenging scenario for professional development. Hence, the
big question, given the constraints of teacher’s professional lives, is how best to do
this?
9.5 Unpacking the Components of Effective Professional Development 301
9.5 Unpacking the Components of Effective Professional

Development
An interesting anchor point in understanding what approaches and methodology

of professional development works best and how stems from the extensive work of
Timperley et al. (2008). The authors summarize the purpose of their work in terms of:
…to unpack the ‘black box’ between the professional learning opportunities and teacher
outcomes that impact positively on student outcomes. (p. 7)
In essence, there are two interrelated black boxes, as depicted in Fig. 9.1. The
first concerns the necessary changes in teachers’ practice, but this must be of such
a nature that it brings about specific changes in student perception and behaviour
related to better learning.
The approach to the professional development of creative teaching professionals
outlined in this chapter is consistent with the evidence-based approach developed in
the preceding chapters. The core principles of learning are equally relevant to teacher
learning, as they are for student learning. While teachers, as adult learners, may have
certain advantages over younger learners in that they are likely to be more focused and
discerning in terms of identifying their learning goals and having greater expertise
to plan, monitor and evaluate their learning (e.g., greater MC), they are subject to
the same cognitive constraints of memory processing and cognitive overload as their
younger counterparts.
The notion of applying the same principles of learning for students to that of
teacher learning, invariably contextualized to the different tasks and contexts, is
fully supported by Powell and Kusuma-Powell (2015) who argue:
The answer to the quandary of improving learning for students lies squarely in improving
learning for teachers. As a result, teachers have a sacred obligation to become architects of
their own, on-going professional growth. (p. 18)
This is what we claim to want for students: independent critical thinkers who are enthu-
siastic life-long learners with the capacity for healthy and accurate self-assessment and
Fig. 9.1 The ‘Black Boxes’ of teacher professional development

self-modification. If these are desirable outcomes for students, why would we not want then
for teachers as well? (p. 22)
In summary here, it is now apparent that there are many evidence-based princi-
ples and practices clearly aligned to improving teacher learning and expertise and,
therefore, enhancing student learning opportunities and outcomes. This sounds good
news in terms of being able to establish a solid professional development approach
for enhancing teaching competence and expertise. However, the kinds of profes-
sional development activities that are effective require considerable resource time
and effort, which may not be congruent with present practice in many educational
institutions. For example, Gulamhussein (2013) emphasized:
The duration of professional development must be significant and ongoing to allow time for
teachers to learn a new strategy and grapple with the implementation problem. (p. 3)
Similarly, Joyce and Showers (2002), from extensive research, suggest that staff
development focused on student achievement must include the following essential
elements:
• A community of professionals put into practice what they are learning, and share
the results
• The content of staff development develops around curricular and instructional
strategies selected because they have a high probability of affecting student
learning—and, as important, student’s ability to learn
• The magnitude of change generated is sufficient that the student’s gain in
knowledge and skills is palpable
• The processes of staff development enable educators to develop the skill to
implement what they are learning. (p. 4)
However, as Levin (2008) noted:
To get good at a new practice takes time and effort in schools – whether as a teacher or prin-
cipal or superintendent – no tradition or organization supports carefully supervised learning
of this kind. (pp. 80–81)
There are no short-cuts to achieving expertise and piecemeal professional devel-

opment will do little to produce the kind of teaching professionals—Expert creative
teachers—needed in the present educational landscape, whether in schools or else-
where. Furthermore, there is much that needs changing in many educational insti-
tutions in terms of relationships and structures to foster organizational intelligence
and the development of heightened professional learning as framed above.
9.5.1 The Goals and Content of Professional Learning
Core Principle 2: Learning goals, objectives and proficiency expectations are clearly
visible to learners is as applicable to teacher professional learning and development
as it is for the students we teach. Timperley (2008) posed the core question:
9.5 Unpacking the Components of Effective Professional … 303
What do teachers need to know in order to deepen their professional understandings (e.g.
pedagogical content knowledge) and extend their skills so as to have a positive impact on
student outcomes? (p. 27)
I think much of the answer lies in an EBT framing of teacher expertise, which
provides the underpinning Pedagogic Literacy as well as useful heuristics for guid-
ing effective professional development. Of course, we could argue over terminology,
emphasis, and valuations are always embedded. Education is essentially an experi-
ment; one could argue, so is life. Hence, in relation to expert teaching, we can and
need to make certain contextualizing statements about what Powell and Kusuma
Powell (2015) refer to as “goodness” in the profession of teaching. They assert:
As a profession, we need to work on the search for goodness. As a general rule, teachers
are not skilled at deconstructing and analysing exemplary teaching and learning. And as we
have seen researchers and politicians focused primarily on what isn’t working in education.
(p. 8)
Of interest, in this context of focusing on what’s not working in education, Pent-

land (2014), director of MIT’s Human Dynamic Laboratory, approaches the topic
of effective social learning through the analysis of Big Data and through so-called
Reality Mining. He points out:
Mathematical models of learning in complex environments suggests that the best strategy for
learning is to spend 90% of our efforts on exploration, i.e., finding and copying others who
appear to be doing well. The remaining 10% should be spent on individual experimentation
and thinking things through. (p. 54)
Over the chapters, I have sought to establish much by way of what constitutes
‘goodness criteria’ relating to teaching and when fully articulated this may under-
pin much of Expert Teaching now—so to speak. For example, it would be good if
teachers had high MC—that ‘many-headed monster of obscure parentage’ and CTC
as organizing superordinate competencies. The functional and generic competencies
identified and discussed during the previous chapters would also be incorporated
within this ‘goodness framework’. Also, considerations of character traits, disposi-
tions and values, are important here. I think it’s good to have teachers with certain
broad trait configurations as identified prior, have values systems that include integrity
and fairness, and want to help people to learn and experience well-being.
The Gallup organization (2014), quoted in Powell and Kusama-Powell (2015),
studied the characteristics of exceptional teachers for over 40 years and have
identified three common attributes. Exceptionally effective teachers demonstrate:
1. Internal achievement motivation. These are teachers who are driven to reach
higher levels of mastery and learning. They enjoy setting challenging goals
for themselves, monitoring their progress and taking ownership of student
achievement.
2. Orchestration of classroom structure and flexibility. These are teachers who bal-
ance innovation with discipline. They are structured and deliberately organized
without sacrificing creativity and playfulness. They are risk-takers who view fail-
ure as an opportunity to learn. These teachers are constantly thinking about new
ways to present content and to engage students in learning and discovery.
3. Strong relationships with students, colleagues and parents. Highly effective

teachers understand that deep and meaningful learning takes place in a social
setting characterized by respect and trust. These teachers deliberately set out to
build strong learning relationships with their students and colleagues. They do
so by supporting others to feel more efficacious and empowered as learners both
independently and as a member of a community. (pp. 24–25)
Similarly, studies of expert teachers, while not focusing specifically on metacog-
nition, often provide characterizations closely aligned with metacognition. Berliner
(2004), for example, offered the following description of expert teachers:
Expert teachers are more sensitive to the task demands and social situation when solving
pedagogical problems; expert teachers are more optimistic and flexible in their teaching than
novices; expert teachers represent problems in qualitatively different ways than do novices;
expert teachers have fast and accurate pattern recognition capabilities; whereas novices
cannot always make sense of what they experience; expert teachers perceive meaningful
patterns in the domain in which they are experienced; and although expert teachers may
begin to solve problems slower, they bring richer and more personal sources of information
to bear on the problem that they are trying to solve. (p. 201)
Duffy et al. (2010) suggest that observations of exemplary teachers strongly sug-
gest that effective teachers regulate and control their thinking as they teach. How-
ever, and worryingly, they point out that while it is assumed that teachers can learn
to be metacognitive and that both cognitive and dispositional aspects of professional
development can be designed to intentionally encourage teachers to be metacognitive
professionals, the fact is that:
current efforts are based primarily in common sense and theories rooted in constructivism
and sociocultural thinking, and no empirical data substantiate that one or other kind of
professional development results in teachers who are metacognitive. (p. 10)
The professional development of teaching professionals must incorporate Ped-

agogic Literacy as a primary knowledge base, and this is becoming increasingly
diverse as new knowledge relating to human learning is probably increasing expo-
nentially. Invariably, for teaching, as in all professions, there is so much content that
may have relevance and usefulness to enhancing competency, expertise and creativ-
ity, there needs to be careful selection and prioritization of what is most relevant and
useful to the task in hand. Timperley et al. (2008) highlighted this fully:
The world is teeming with activities variously referred to as knowledge utilization, knowl-
edge dissemination, knowledge brokering, knowledge transfer, knowledge exchange, knowl-
edge mobilisation, and knowledge translation. Whatever the term used, the idea is to gather
together what the research tells us about a topic of interest and then to synthesise it into
practical usable knowledge. (ix)
What this means is that it is not just knowledge per se, but a deep understanding
of how these knowledge bases connect to the world of practice and what pedagogic
thinking and actions are necessary for situations to create and facilitate learning
experiences that result in better learner outcomes. Hence, there must be a high level
of teacher engagement in terms of good thinking, strategic application and ongoing
collaborative evaluation of teaching for the development of deep understanding (e.g.,

rich integrated mental schemata in long-term memory). As Joyce and Showers (2002)
made clear:
Understanding of the theory underlying specific behaviours enables flexible and appropriate
use of the behaviours in multiple situations and prevents the often-ludicrous following of
“recipes” for teaching…
Teachers who master the theory underlying new behaviours will implement those behaviours
in greater congruence with the researched and tested ideal and are more likely to replicate
results obtained in research settings with their students. (p. 81)
Hence, the importance of a sound Pedagogic Literacy in providing the theory

that underpins the understanding of such behaviours. In terms of enhancing cre-
ative teaching competence, a useful comparison has been made by Gulamhussein’s
(2013) differentiation of teachers in terms of ‘Teacher as Intellectual’ as compared
to ‘Teacher as Technician’. The latter denotes the key functional competencies out-
lined prior and, at best, a ‘routine expert’ (in the language of Hatano and Inagaki
1986). The notion of Teacher as Intellectual seems to possess similar attributes and
capabilities to a creative teacher (‘adaptive expert’) as framed in the context of this
book. Gulamhussein suggests that this requires:
…time and resources which allows teachers to think through and create innovative teaching
methods. (p. 23)
A crucial component in this process is practice, but not ad hoc practice. As we saw
practice is most effective when it is both spaced and deliberate, which was explained
in detail in Chap. 2. The same principles and procedures are appropriate in the context
of the teacher’s professional development. As Willingham (2009) argued:
Teaching, like any complex skill, must be practised to be improved. (p. 147)
Also, as Petty (2015) reminds us:

Deliberate practice is hard work, four hours a day is as much as anyone can manage. I suggest
up to one hour a week for teachers.
It further helps greatly, as Petty documented (2015), if the teachers themselves

respond in positive ways to the professional development experience. He specifically
highlights that teachers can proactively help the learning process if they:
• Practice the use of the new methods repeatedly in a relatively short period, say
five times a month
• Monitor the effects of the new methods on the learners—Did they learn? Could
they cope? What did they find most difficult? … What would help them cope
better?
• Ask students for their support during these experiments, for example, ask for their
opinions of the methods, and their suggestions
• Bring issues and difficulties to their peer coaching team for discussion
• Help and support the experimentation of other teachers in their team.
It is at this stage of the learning process that many institutional professional devel-
opment programmes typically experience the problems of implementation identified
earlier. Competence, let alone expertise, does not come easily in any area of life
that requires a high skill component. One may have a good understanding of a per-
formance area and speak very intelligently about it, but that’s not competence or
expertise. The world is full of expert ‘armchair pundits’, especially in the world of
sport. Most people can watch a sport and speak convincingly on what a team or player
should be doing or should stop doing. However, why are they (the actual players)
earning millions of dollars a year while the rest of us are paying television fees to
watch them? In all situations, early attempts at learning a new skill can be highly
disheartening especially when one is doing this publicly, and teaching is very much
a public situation.
It is for this reason that teachers need strong support systems if they are to do
the necessary professional learning to sufficiently master the range of strategies and
skills to eventually reach a stage of adaptive expertise. This is particularly the case
when teachers are grappling with the actual implementation of new practices as they
are in many ways like a novice in any performance situation, often experiencing their
performance as erratic and inconsistent, even anxiety-producing. In this context, it
is not surprising that many teachers stick within their comfort zone. However, in the
longer term, it is no comfort zone.
9.5.2 The Process of Effective Professional Development
There is a substantial evidence base of what works and on what basis. Petty (2015),
for example, drawing from the research of Joyce and Showers (2002), suggests, it is
essential to first consider what the training needs should focus on. He suggests the
following approach:
• Teachers democratically ascertain “their most pressing needs” and pose the
question, “What do our results tell us?”
• A set of improvements is drawn up, combined and prioritized until a common goal
(e.g., relating to curriculum, teaching and assessment) is identified, so as to raise
attainment.
(The common goal needs to focus on a process, designed to produce better
outcomes etc. It must affect the student experience if it is going to have an effect.)
Similarly, Timperley et al. (2008) use the term ‘catalyst’ as often being the origi-
nator for driving the direction for professional learning. Catalysts can take the form
of:
• Information showing that current teaching practices are not achieving the desired
outcomes for a group of students
• A lack of shared understanding of an area of practice
• Challenging or ‘problematizing’ current definitions of specific curriculum out-
comes.
On this basis, training can be devised and specifically tailored to achieving a

common goal. As Petty (2015) describes:
Training outcomes are agreed for knowledge, skills, and (the hardest part!) transfer to the
classroom.
Once, we have established an evidence-based approach and agreed learning

goal(s), we can then plan the best strategies for meeting these goals and, of course,
monitoring and evaluating them—this is Metacognitive Capability in action. He fur-
ther suggests that the training provided should be extensive (e.g., a dozen days) and
conducted using the following pattern:
• Knowledge—explaining theory and rationale etc. using lectures, reading, video,
etc.
• Demonstration and modelling—showing how, giving examples, seeing it done
on video or live, watching simulations etc.
• Practice this is mainly simulated practice usually.
The importance of sustained engagement over time was extensively confirmed by
Timperley et al. (2008) who concluded:
Changing practice in substantive ways is difficult. We have reached this conclusion from
evidence of the length of time involved, the depth of pedagogical content and assessment
knowledge typically addressed, and the multiple learning opportunities that appear to be
required. (xi)
Again, certain core principles of learning are essential here. Time must be spent
on the necessary retrieval, spaced and deliberate practice. Good understanding and
basic competence will enable motivated teaching professionals to then take a more
self-directed approach towards personal expertise. They suggest that the learning
processes engaged when developing new understandings and skills involve cycles of
(one or more of) the following:
• Process 1: Cueing and retrieving knowledge consolidated and/or examined.
Outcome: Prior knowledge consolidated and/or examined.
• Process 2: Becoming aware of new information/skills and integrating them into
current values and belief system.
Outcome: New knowledge adopted or adapted.
• Process 3: Creating dissonance with current position (values and beliefs).
Outcome: Dissonance resolved (accepted/rejected), current values and belief
systems repositioned, reconstructed.
A wide range of methods, activities and resources are useful in helping teachers
to go through the learning processes outlined above (e.g., Timperley et al. 2008).
These include:
• Listening
• Watching
• Being observed and receiving feedback
• Reading
• Discussing practice with an expert

• Discussing own theories of practice and their limitations
• Examining student understandings and outcomes
• Analysis of current practice and reconstruction of new practice
• An authentic experience of the subject in action
• Developing self or mutually identified issues. (p. 29)
All the above activities can be aligned to core principles of learning. They involve
enabling teachers to experience new concepts and practices through multiple modes
and mediums, supporting the activation of prior learning and dealing with ambiguity
and misconceptions, reframing on aspects of belief systems where necessary, and
building rich mental schemata to ensure deep understanding through good thinking.
A particularly effective technique for introducing a new concept to help teachers
understand a new practice is that of ‘modelling’ (Gulamhussein 2013, pp. 3–4).
Modelling reveals what is specifically involved in an area of learning, making the
knowledge and skill components visible. This can be further reinforced through
the use of video-recordings of teachers demonstrating good practices, encouraging
critical discourse on what specifically is working well that positively impacts the
learning process, and how best to develop these skill sets. The use of micro-teaching
can take the learning process even further by bridging the gap between understanding
and skilful application in practice. Microteaching typically involves teachers (usually
novices, but not always) conducting short focused lessons to a small group of students
(e.g., peers in training) in laboratory-type settings which are often video-recorded
for later reference. After the short lesson, there is a collaborate appraisal of the lesson
and its specific features. This can be done in a range of formats that usually involve
combinations of the following key elements:
• The observed teacher offers his/her perception of the lesson, in term of pluses and
areas for improvement, etc.
• Student participants offer their perceptions as above
• Professional development tutors and/or peer coaches offer a summary frame on
what was effective and why, and what could be improved and how
• Reference to key video segments are replayed and analysed in the context of
areas of practice (e.g., perceived as effective or otherwise) for illustration and
reinforcement
• Situated role play may be used by a coach to demonstrate effective use of a method
component or skill.
Hattie (2009) documented an effect size of 0.70 for microteaching activities con-
ducted in this broad format. This is not surprising as microteaching encompasses
many of the Core Principles of Learning in applied practice. It has also been my
experience, in some 30+ years of professional development with teachers/trainers,
that the microteaching activities are seen by participants as by far the most useful
aspects of teacher training programmes.
9.6 Key Structures Supporting Professional Development that Does Work 309
9.6 Key Structures Supporting Professional Development

that Does Work
As identified, certain key issues and considerations need to be effectively addressed

in framing professional development that works. A failure to do this well has led to the
kind of apathy that many teachers feel towards ongoing professional development,
and this is hardly surprising. Furthermore, effective professional development is more
than just the programme itself, but the wider context of learning at an institutional
level, and beyond—as identified in the early part of this chapter.
However, there is much that can be done in terms of professional development that
can lead to both better teaching capability and, in consequence, better student learning
outcomes. The reasons are quite straightforward as, (1) these practices are under-
pinned by the core principles of learning and, (2) are more likely to be experienced
as practically useful by teaching/training professionals themselves. The following
are three main approaches or structures that I have used extensively, which can be
highly effective in building teacher capability in most areas of pedagogic practice:
1. Reflective Practice
2. Coaching
3. Supported Experiments.
You may also be familiar with terms such as Lesson Study, Active Schemes of
Work and Action Research. These are also effective approaches, and I have subsumed
them within the above categorization.
9.7 Reflective Practice
Over some 30 years or so I have probably been involved in the appraisal of several
thousand teaching/training professionals in a range of educational, vocational and
cultural contexts, and many countries. It was once believed that goldfish, and maybe
other fish also, have a memory span of only a few seconds. However, new research
(not worth referencing) has challenged this and it may be more a question of months.
I sometimes feel like this in recalling my teaching activities. We know that memories
change in some way every time we evoke them, so I am beginning to worry about
the pristineness of some of my recollections. Now that’s over, catharsis not-excuses,
I feel that I can authentically recall a few useful reflections on Reflective Practice.
Many years back, in 1992, I completed a Master of Education degree at the University
of Exeter. During this programme, I remember being introduced to, as well as doing
considerable amounts of reading and thinking about reflective practice, especially
its usefulness as a professional development approach for improving one’s teaching.
Invariably, I read the definitive texts of the time, especially the work of Schön (1983,
1987). The notion that teachers should carefully reflect on their practice, how they
design, conduct and evaluate what they do in classrooms, on what basis, and the
actual impact on student learning made perfect sense. After all, this is what we
would expect professionals to do in any field of practice. In the literature, there are
many definitions on what constitutes reflective practice, for example:
Schön (1983) defined Reflective practice as:
thoughtfully considering your own experiences in applying knowledge to practice.
More recently, Clouder (2000) framed it broadly as:

the critical analysis of everyday working practices to improve competence and promote
professional development.
To repeat a quote used in a previous chapter, by the famous educationalist Dewey

(2016):
We do not learn from experience… We learn from reflecting on experience.
Even a short analysis and evaluation of these different definitions will inevitably
lead one to make certain obvious inferences and interpretations, as common heuristics
are underpinning all. Learning to do reflective practice is the same as learning to
be competent at any activity, albeit this is a complex activity. One must have the
knowledge bases (e.g., what is reflective practice, how it works, be knowledgeable
and competent/expert in the area of practice—in this case, teaching), as well as being
able to use types of thinking; especially analysis, comparison, making inferences and
interpretations, and evaluation. It also helps if one can generate useful possibilities
for future improvement if needed.
Schön (1983, 1987), is perhaps the person most accredited to the initial framing
of Reflective Practice. Table 9.1, introduces two of his key concepts and what they
entail in actual practice.
Schön saw Reflection-on-action as the more powerful of the two methods, as the
practitioner can take some time recalling the various activities of the lesson, and what
was noticed about the student response (e.g., attention, engagement, task completion,
problems encountered). This coupled with other sources of feedback (e.g., student,
peer observer) can then be subjected to scrutiny, to identify what seemed to work,
and what may need some change in pedagogy for a future lesson in this area.
Table 9.1 Summary of Schön concepts of reflection-in-action & reflection-on-action

Schön on reflective practice
Reflection-in-action Reflection-on-action
• This takes place when the teacher is • This takes place after the teaching session,
immersed in the learning environment, and and for him, is the most critical for
thinking about what is really going on now understanding and improving practice
• For example, a teacher may be posing • The teacher may be posing questions such
his/herself questions like, How much as, Did I manage the discussion effectively
more discussion should I now allow on this in the context of the lesson? How might I
topic area? Should I provide more examples improve the level of student
to help students understand the concepts we engagement—what strategies might I use?
are applying?
9.7 Reflective Practice 311
Reflection-in-action can also be very useful as the teacher can make situated
changes in the instructional strategy if he/she feels that the present method/activities
are not working as planned; hence making possible immediate improvements to the
student learning experience. Invariably, this requires a high level of sensory acuity,
quick thinking and pedagogic competence to do it consistently well.
In working with teachers in training I have always encouraged them to reflect on
their practice. It seemed a given method for self-evaluation and opening-up areas for
future improvement. Hence, asking teachers questions relating to what they thought
went well in the lesson and what areas were open to future development was standard
practice. Over many years of working with different teaching/training professionals,
there has been much variation in how they have responded to being asked (though
more often requested) to do reflective practice, usually as part of the professional
development curriculum they are undertaking. Some seem to find it useful; others
seem only to pay lip service to it. Being honest, in retrospect, in the early years, I
probably did not do much of it particularly well, and there were reasons for this.
Firstly, teachers are busy folk, and finding time for meaningful dialogue was often
difficult as they were more mindful of the next task to be done (teaching or otherwise)
rather than deep meditation and exploration about what has been done ( e.g., the
observed lesson), Often, unless there were serious issues, it was typically the case
previously that such meetings were more of an administrative activity rather than a
rigorous appraisal of different practices, challenges faced and exploration of options
for improvement. Furthermore, despite my background in psychology and many
years of teaching, I was quite frankly, until the past 20 years or so, pedagogically
illiterate in terms of possessing the kind of knowledge and understanding of human
learning that is prevalent across the research fields now. Earlier, we had our tour
in and out of Educational Jurassic Park, and the emergence of EBT as a means of
revolutionizing professionalism. As Powell and Kusuma-Powell (2015) summarized:
We have learned more about how the human brain learns in the last two decades than in the
rest of human history put together. (p. 19)
However, from my prior experience in using reflective practise in teacher educa-

tion, I did make some interesting observations, inferences and interpretations, that
seemed to have a degree of generality and are worth sharing in this context. It was
also a bit disturbing, but now I can use this as a resource in a new and better profes-
sional praxis. One consistent experience was that teachers, based on my observations,
who were showing good skills and attitudes towards students are also the most crit-
ical of their performance in the post-lesson tutorials, much more so than those who
failed to impress on those counts. The former group are typically able to identify
what could be improved and why and, through discussion with them, also seemed
to have employed better observational skills and empathy with what the students
were experiencing, noticing changes in student’s responses to different parts of the
instructional strategy. They displayed enthusiasm for teaching, recognized that teach-
ing was a complex and challenging activity, and were keen to receive feedback from
me, especially feedback that identified or explored areas for improvement. It was
also apparent that these teachers (those that stayed in the profession—sadly many
left quite early in their careers) did develop into excellent teaching professionals—
many winning teacher awards in their respective disciplines. I don’t take much credit
for this; they already had good communication skills and showed genuine care and
concern for students. I enjoyed my work with these teachers.
In contrast, the latter group of teachers, who seemed to have much less impact
in getting attention and engagement, as well as displaying a less organized and
contextualized instructional strategy, we’re often satisfied with what they were doing
and offered relatively little in terms of thoughtful analysis and evaluation. Many
examples capture the range of variation within this broad categorization, but one
lecturer was particularly striking in an almost archetypal framing of a ‘very poor
teacher’. In terms of the core principles of learning, he managed to violate most of
these in around 2-h of classroom observation. The student group comprised around
60+ students aged 16–17. Having observed this class with other teachers, I had
previously noted high levels of attention and engagement, and they seemed keen
to learn and fun to teach. In this situation, however, the majority were completely
disengaged from any participation in the lesson content. I was able to see most
of their laptops, and the screens bore no resemblance to the lesson content. The
boredom was tangible, I could almost feel it. Most worrying, however, was the
perceptions and interactions of the teacher in the post-observation tutorial. I always
invite teachers to offer their perceptions and feelings about the lesson, in the genre
of Cognitive Coaching (e.g., Costa and Garmston 2002). Much to my surprise, at
that time (though I am not surprised now), this teacher felt that the lesson went very
well and was pleased with the way he had taught it. When asked what he would
change if he taught the same lesson again, he responded very clearly—“nothing in
particular”. In such circumstances, emotional intelligence must come quickly in play,
as emotionally I felt somewhat annoyed at what seemed arrogance in that situation.
I asked questions to explore what he thought went well and how he knew this,
thinking this may open up an avenue for productive dialogue. This did not help the
communication process and I could see he was getting more agitated by the moment.
I quickly reassured him that the situation was not a problem, mentioning that this is
a learning experience, though we need to have a conversation about the teaching. I
did pass him my reflections and rationale on the standard teacher observation form
employed at the time and offered to go through this with him now or later. He curtly
replied, “not now”. In summary, I asked him to read through it, have a think, and
we’ll go from there.
I never saw that teacher again, and he may have left the institution soon afterwards.
Had I failed him in some way or was he just not suited to teaching?—I don’t know.
There are certainly people (for whatever reasons) who are just not suited for teaching,
and for the sake of both the students and themselves, are probably best outside of
the profession. In retrospect, I may have done better in terms of support. I am more
aware now that such wide variations in both competences, and reflective ability, can
be explained in large part by research into the differences between novice and expert
teachers (e.g., Timperley et al. 2008) and between experienced and expert teachers
(e.g., Hattie 2003). Timperley et al. (2008) make the following comparison between
novice and expert teachers:
The novice is someone who perceives the unfamiliar teaching situation in terms of discrete
elements and, in making use of new skills and knowledge, relies on rules rather than an
integrated vision of the practice. The primary focus is on the self and one’s performance.
As competence develops, the discrete elements become integrated into patterns, with some
aspects becoming automatic and the teacher less reliant on rules. In contrast, experts have
a more holistic grasp of relationships within a particular context and fluidly and efficiently
solve problems as they arise. The resources on which they can draw are much richer. (p. 11)
In summary terms, expert teachers see much more of relevance in the complex
dynamic situation of the classroom setting and the interactions that occur; make
better inferences and interpretations of what is occurring and what specifically needs
to be addressed if things don’t go as initially planned. Invariably, they are also better
at identifying the causes of classroom problems and, most importantly, can design
learning arrangements and experiences that foster better attainment. Many of such
teachers are creative teachers, within the framing heuristics of this book. Hattie
(2009) uses the term “with-it-ness” to summarize much of what such teachers do
differently and better than those less expert in the profession:
Teachers need to have the skills of ‘with-it-ness’ – that is, the ability to identify and quickly
act on potential problems and be aware of what is happening in the class (the proverbial
‘eyes in the back of the head’, or mindfulness). (p. 78)
Indeed, when exploring with the more open and critical faculty on the what and
how they perceive in the experience of teaching it seems to be the case that some
are seeing more and seeing this in better qualitative terms—more ‘with-it’, as Hattie
described. However, this is not surprising, as when I open the bonnet of a car, I see
metal, plastic and some wiring; nothing makes any sense at all. I can fondly recall
a neighbour of mine, who was adamant about fixing his car, even though he had
little knowledge of motor vehicle maintenance. He spent many a weekend in total
frustration, often with bloody fingers, trying to fix things that he had little idea as
to what was wrong and, inevitably, what to do to fix it. I have since learned not to
meddle with such things and ring a local mechanic.
While discovery learning may be fun, can lead to meaningful learning and has
pedagogic value for students in some learning situations, it is of limited value in a
typically busy working day. The mechanic always seems to be able to fix my car,
I guess he’s just lucky! However, I have a deep suspicion, that when he opens the
bonnet, it looks very different than what my neighbour and myself are seeing. Many
factors determine such differences in perceptual acuity and capability, but most stem
from prior learning and competence (or lack of it), as well as a human attribution
bias whereby we think we know more than we do. In most scenarios when there is
a lack of content knowledge and poor thinking, the result is a very limited framing
of that domain area. For many teachers, a lack of solid evidence-based pedagogic
knowledge and some ‘fuzzy’ thinking typically lead to both limited and inaccurate
perceptions and interpretations of what is occurring in their classrooms.
Asking many novice teachers (and some experienced ones also) to do reflective
practice is like asking students to do good thinking when they lack any prior useful
model of what this entails and how it works. Without such knowledge bases, this
is highly unlikely to occur. Several years ago, I conducted a 3-year longitudinal

evaluation on the student learning experiences during the implementation of large-
scale curriculum innovation in a major educational institution in Asia (Sale 2014).
One of the main areas of interest in the evaluation was how effectively had students
acquired key Graduate Attributes, one of which was good thinking (as framed prior).
While the evaluation generally showed positive results in terms of the intended goals
and objectives of the innovation, most students interviewed still had limited and
idiosyncratic perceptions relating to what constituted good thinking and how to do
it. This reinforces the view that good thinking will not naturally occur simply by
providing tasks that involve thinking (e.g., implicit instruction). Like other complex
skills, its development is subject to the same core principles of learning. Without,
explicit instruction and plenty of opportunities for deliberate practice in a range of
contexts, learning will be partial and fragmented. In summary, the evaluation revealed
that there had been a relative failure to sufficiently infuse an explicit model of good
thinking across courses as well as facilitate an effective professional development
approach to address this at that time.
In reflecting on one’s practice, the usefulness of the outcomes in terms of enhanced
teaching proficiency and gains in student attainment depends on what constitute the
content and processes that are analysed and evaluated in such reflection. The novice
tennis players I view from my gym window may reflect in some way on their perfor-
mance, but on what basis are they reflecting? Without a knowledge base on what con-
stitutes key skills in tennis playing and a systematic process of deliberative practice
with expert feedback, it is very unlikely that improvement will be significant—and
that seems to be verified in terms of the novice tennis who have shown only minimal
improvement in some 2 years of seeing them play, albeit from the gym window. In
terms of reflective practice in teaching, Hattie (2009) made the key point:
The current penchant for “reflective teaching” too often ignores that such reflection needs
to be based on evidence and not post-hoc justification. (p. 241)
Earlier in the chapter, I referred to Powell and Kusuma Powell (2015) notion of
“goodness” in the profession of teaching. In this context, the authors further point
out that:
…when school people do witness exemplary teaching and learning, we often tend to respond
with immediate adulation and subsequent dismissal…We must learn to ‘look for goodness’,
deconstruct it and most importantly learn from it. (p. 26)
In summary, the usefulness of reflective practice is in large part determined by 3

main (there are others) interrelated components:
1. A strong Pedagogic Literacy, that encompasses the most current knowledge on
how people learn and what teaching methods tend to work best, in what ways
and in what context. This is the underpinning base of EBT.
2. The ability to do Good Thinking (well at least most of the time). This requires
Metacognitive Capability, which was developed at some length (sorry if it got a bit
boring), but that’s the basis of Good Thinking from my framing and experience.
Unfortunately, I have only acquired this capability in the past two decades. As
Oscar Wilde said, sadly: “Youth is wasted on the young”, or the old adage,
“Hindsight is 20/20 vision”—if only!
3. A Disposition (e.g., motivation, mindset and integrity) for authentically helping
others achieve personal goals and develop the capability to be self-directed learn-
ers. This requires a high level of professional skills as well as genuine respect
and concern for learners.
Much of reflective practice has failed to recognize how this works, and that’s why
it hasn’t worked as intended. Furthermore, while institutional support and resources
help considerably, these are only—albeit important—support structures. As Levin
(2008) concluded:
…resources alone, however, will not change social practices. Teachers need to see not only
what they might do differently but how they could do it in the reality of their classrooms.
The key to developing this understanding is ongoing work with colleagues – seeing others
carry out new practices with students like yours and having others help you learn to do these
new practices. (p. 86)
Asking teachers to be more creative may be of little value if they don’t know
specifically what this entails in the context of actual teaching practices, and how to
do this effectively. Over the years I have been an observer in many workshops on
creativity. Sadly, while most have been interesting in part and well-intentioned, they
tend to offer generalities more than evidence-based heuristics. Having a passion and
a belief that one is naturally creative and it’s only a question of ‘switching on the
creative switch’ and hey presto ‘creative me’ emerges, is often the message. However,
this is akin to buying that expensive piece of exercise equipment, working out 10 min
a day, with no pain, and within a month or two you’re the ‘body beautiful’, or
whatever. Positive beliefs and thinking are an important aspect of effective learning,
but they don’t inevitably lead to successful learning. Also, while notions of ‘quick
fixes’ in terms of achieving rapid success are attractive, even seductive, it’s not how
successful learning and attainment of anything challenging works for some 99% of
the population. Creativity, as we saw in Chap. 5, is understandable, can be adequately
framed in the context of teaching, and it is a learnable capability. But it is subject to
the same core principles of learning as other human skills.
Reflection on, or in practice, then, without a clear evidence-based framework will
likely result only in partial and limited improvement at best. Willingham (2009)
made the key point concisely:
Education makes better minds, and knowledge of the mind can make better education.
(p. 165)
9.8 How to Do Evidence-Based Reflective Practice (EBRP)
I could equally pose the question—how do you fix cars well? Firstly, you must
understand how they work, know-how each part contributes to the working of the
sub-systems, and how these affect the functioning of the whole (we could call this
good analysis—of course, with the relevant content knowledge and understanding
of car workings). Secondly, it helps if you have experience across a range of motor
vehicle contexts, especially in solving mechanical problems (e.g., comparison and
contrast with previous experiences of similar problem scenarios) as this will draw out
prior knowledge in long-term memory, and ‘hey presto’, the solution comes to the
conscious mind. Experts often have the answer already nicely encoded neurologically
in those acquired mental models of motor vehicle defects. This helps to make correct
and quick inferences and interpretations of what is wrong and how to fix it. Finally, it
is just then an evaluative question—what are the ways to best fix it for the customer?
(e.g., effectiveness, efficiency, cost). There’s little need for creative thinking unless
the customer wants it to drive like a duck. Similarly, MC may not be a needed
capability in this context, providing the mechanic is well-disciplined to follow the
correct procedures and pay attention throughout—we could call this autonomous
learning and unconscious competence.
Hence, useful EBRP requires teaching professionals to possess Pedagogic Lit-
eracy, Metacognitive Capability and Creative Teaching Competence—to be able to
frame expertise, evaluate it accurately, and improve it. In the past 5 years or so, I have
developed and piloted a range of customized tools that facilitate effective reflective
practice. Do note that these tools are not algorithmic in that they unproblematically
capture all the components or constructs of effective teaching—or what Powell and
Kusuma-Powell (2015) referred to as, “Goodness Criteria”—noted prior.
Teaching is a complex activity, and classrooms are equally complex in terms of
a diverse range of student personalities, biographies and motivational status; the
latter having highly changeable features in the socio-psychological dynamics of
classroom interactions. My analogy with a car, whilst illustrative in context (he says
hopefully), has a major flaw in that the world of engineering is a closed system. It
can be highly complex, and when things go wrong at bad times, mechanical systems
(e.g., cars) can appear to ‘have minds of their own’, a bit like ‘Murphy’s Law’—but
it is still a closed system. John Cleese, a famous English comedian, who starred in
the television series Fawlty Towers, a British television sitcom broadcast on BBC2 in
1975 & 1979, cleverly and brutally demonstrates this non-rational perceived ability
of mechanical systems (in this case his car) to deliberately annoy him (i.e., break
down on the road) at the most inopportune time and circumstance. Cleese firstly
shouts at his car threatening it with punishment, but the car will not start on priming.
He eventually gets out of his car, finds a tree branch and beats the car with it. Did the
car subsequently decide to work? You may need to access the YouTube video to find
out. Similarly, when we see top tennis players smash their expensive rackets on the
court, it is as though they blame the racket for missing an easy shot. I have yet to meet
a metacognitive tennis racket. Mine made many errors, but I think it was all down to
9.8 How to Do Evidence-Based Reflective Practice (EBRP) 317
my lack of competence. Indeed, I did not possess a high-end expensive graphite racket
(or whatever they are now made of), so I have some leverage in terms of attribution
of blame. The same excuse may not work so well with the top professionals who,
without doubt, have access to the best tennis rackets that can be made. Teaching is
heuristic and it is an open system, which means that its components interact and create
synergistic effects, which are never completely predictable. Highly effective teams
are a good example of this, in that such teams are more than the sum of the parts, and
explains why teams, who are ‘on-paper’ not considered to be good enough to win
major championships, sometimes do win these. Leicester City winning the English
Premier League Championship in 2016 was a classic example. In the previous year,
they just avoided relegation from the Premier League in England and were 5000-1
with bookmakers for winning this title in 2016. However, as we know, real soccer
matches are not played on paper—its grass, right?
Useful heuristics are much better than fashion and fad, and the tools do not pre-
scribe a rigid method of application—they are flexible and designed to be used for
capturing interesting practice experiences—whether they are good, bad—even ugly.
They are certainly not form filling-in administrative activities—which turns teachers
off. However, they provide an essential structure and focus for capturing experience
that can subsequently be subjected to evidence-based pedagogic analysis—with good
thinking of course. Table 9.2, is an exemplar that focuses practitioners attention to
the employment of the core principles of learning as the organizing heuristics for
systematic reflection on practice.
The following example is an EBRP tool, used by 7 teacher-researchers over a
15-week module for a 2-year Ministry of Education, Singapore Tertiary Educa-
tion Research Fund project, which systematically applied Evidence-Based Teaching
(EBT) methods and learning principles to ascertain their impact on students’ intrinsic
motivation. The research used quantitative methods to measure levels of engagement
(e.g., behavioural, emotional, cognitive and agentic) and self-efficacy. Most impor-
tantly, it employed students as co-participants in the learning process to gain a deep
and ongoing insight into how students were experiencing their lecturers teaching over
an extended time duration (Sale et al. 2018). The research was able to make qualita-
tive comparisons between the teacher’s intent and pedagogic interventions with the
actual student learning experience. Table 9.3, is one used by a teacher-researcher for
2 weeks of the intervention.
The teacher-researchers in this project were all experienced teachers, including
4 who have the role of Academic Mentors, responsible for implementing pedagogic
initiatives at school level as well as collaboration in learning units across schools.
Most had received teaching awards and all were familiar with EBT. The following
are samples of their reflection on conducting EBRP and using the EBRP tool:
I have to admit that if not for the commitment to the research team, I would not be self-
disciplined enough to perform my weekly post-lesson reflective log. I can firmly state that
it was worth the effort and time. Because of the need to conduct ongoing reflective practice,
it was not just that I had to focus on my content delivery but at the same time constantly
trying to observe the responses of students at my interventions. The responses from students
are it in the positive or negative served as indicators for me to continue to adapt, modify
Table 9.2 Generic EBRP tool
318
Evidence-based reflective practice tool

In the learning experience (e.g., lesson/session plan) was there Evidence of effectiveness
What specific strategies—methods/activities and/resources were employed
to enhance this aspect of the learning process, and how effective were they?
(Based on your observation and any other feedback if available (e.g., peer
observation, student feedback)
Clear communication of the learning outcomes to the students? • What specifically is to be learned
• The purpose of this learning
• How this learning connects to the wider learning goals (topic areas, skills)
for this module
Activation of students prior learning and connections to new knowledge • Identifying what students already know/don’t know about the topic before
presented? the start of a session
• Helping students to fill important knowledge gaps/clear up misconceptions
• Making connections between what is to be learned now (e.g., new
knowledge/skills) to what has already been learned
Instruction focusing on the key concepts and principles for understanding • Identifying and illustrating the most fundamental concepts/principles to be
this topic or skill area? learned
• Explaining how these connect to the learning outcomes
• Methods and activities to help students to understand these
concepts/principles in real work/life contexts
(continued)
9 Framing Professional Development Now
Use of activities that involve good thinking to facilitate understanding? • Enabling students to engage in the types of thinking necessary (e.g.,
analysis, comparison & contrast, inference & interpretation, evaluation) to
connect new knowledge to what they already know
• Building the necessary mental models in long-term memory
Appropriate variety in the methods, activities, media used • Focused on the learning outcomes and the student profile
• Encouraging engagement and interest
• Maintaining good attention levels
Utilizing core principles of learning Evidence of effectiveness
In the learning experience, was there What specific strategies, methods and/or resources were employed to
enhance this aspect of learning, and how effective were they? (Based on
your observation and any other feedback if available (e.g., peer observation,
student feedback)
Application of practices consistent with human memory processes? • Chunking of content to minimize cognitive overload
• Periodic recap and review of key concepts and principles
• Doing Whole-Part = Whole analysis—showing how new parts of the
learning connect to the wider topic or skill area
Formative assessment of student learning and provision of quality two-way • Monitoring student learning through testing key concepts and skills
feedback? • Providing clear and specific feedback (e.g., task, process,
self-management)
• Encouraging two-way and peer feedback where possible and useful
(continued)
319
320
Opportunities for practice to enhance understanding and/or skill acquisition? • Retrieval practice to check key conceptual understanding
• Spaced practice across sessions to build understanding and competence
• Deliberate practice focused on specific skill development tailored to
student’s skill levels
Interactions/activities that foster a climate conducive for building rapport, • Use of growth mindset strategies (e.g., showing how effort impacts
encouraging success and a sense of fun? learning; sticking with students when they need help; mastery learning)
• Use of expressive language and supporting body language in
communication (e.g. expressive tone, smile, eye contact)
• Allowing/facilitating humour and fun to occur in the lesson
Table 9.3 Example of a completed EBRP tool
Weeks 1 & 2: Oct 16–27, 2017
In the learning experience was there Evidence of effectiveness
What specific strategies, methods and/or resources were employed, and how
effective were they? (Based on your observation and any other feedback if
available (e.g., peer observation, student feedback)
Use of autonomy supportive style strategies? Use expressive facilitating language—this takes a bit of effort initially
• Clear expressive facilitating language However, did use plenty (at least in my own mind) of explanatory rationales
• Provides explanatory rationales Acknowledge students feeling—they certainly do not like to read, so I
• Acknowledge & accepts negative affect elaborated on the use of jigsaw approach (see later) to spread out the
• Displays patience workload. Also emphasized that in an increasingly complex word, it is ever
• Explores and allows student choice in the overall instructional strategy more important to read and think critically to make sense of available
• Two-way feedback to support understanding and skill development information
Patience—working on this! Set ground rules about talking in class… so far,
manageable
Giving students choices—did clarify that some choices are available, esp. in
terms of doing extra reading and optional exercises. Emphasised if they
make the effort to do, I will make the effort to mark and give them feedback
2-way feedback: Informal chit-chat with those who came to class early on
how they feel about the module so far. Most said manageable—but this is
perhaps still early in the semester before the hardcore stuff kicks in
(continued)
321
322

Weeks 1 & 2: Oct 16–27, 2017
Use of high effect strategies/methods? Combination of strategies, Russian Doll design used—not elaborated here.
• Appropriate for learning outcomes See paper published on work done
• Appropriate for student profile A challenging one is “Student Profile”, as the content was initially pegged at
• “Russian Doll” design & facilitation Year 3 students, but now need to be delivered to Year 2 this academic year
(e.g., combinations of high effect methods; combinations of effective (AY17), who obviously had not learnt some modules yet. In fact, they are
e-tools; combination of both) learning them simultaneously with this module. The module will revert back
to Year 3 in AY18. As a result, example on more challenging applications
are dropped, to make room for classroom coverage of key concepts and
operation of “virtual” chemical plant (i.e. dynamic simulation of Amine
Treating Unit). This topic was previously a self-study component for Year 3
students
Did tell them since I had not taught them before, I have no clue who are the
‘good’ students or otherwise, and that IT DID NOT MATTER to me; and
that any student can do well in this module, if they follow my advice and
stay on top of their readings before class
Utilizing core principles of learning Evidence of effectiveness
In the learning experience, was there What specific strategies, methods and/or resources were employed to
enhance this aspect of the learning process, and how effective were they?
(Based on your observation and any other feedback if available (e.g., peer
observation, student feedback)
(continued)
Communication to students of the learning goal/outcomes, purpose and This was done at the beginning of a lesson, after a quick recap of previous
expectations? lesson. And again, at the end of the lesson (each lesson is 2 h)
In week 2, students are required to complete an (non-graded) dynamic
simulation assignment for Amine Treating process, with peer marking. A
rubric is shared. The assignment is to be completed by the end of Week 2,
with peer marking to take place in Week 3. Explain at length the class time
spent on purpose of familiarizing them with the Amine Treating process.
Marking rubric given to students
Outcome of this remains to be seen
Activation of prior learning and connections to new knowledge presented? Prior knowledge on general understanding of chemical hazards are tapped
into, to build a new concept of “hazards are intrinsic to a material or its
condition of use”. Students are asked to name some chemicals they are
familiar with, and the lecturer build on those chemicals named with
examples that illustrate the concept. This part seemed to work
Other than that, it is more of the case of giving them understanding of an
accident (Bhopal Gas Disaster) and a common industry process (Amine
Treating) to build up their “core knowledge” and provide context upon
which new knowledge of process plant safety (such as of inherently safer
design) can be added on at later weeks
Emphasis on key concepts and Principles that underpin understanding of this Week 2: Key concepts of inherently safer design (ISD) was emphasized
topic? repeatedly, in particular that it will be most effective when applied at the
R&D and process development stage before the chemical plant is built. This
is illustrated using the Bhopal Gas Disaster as a case study. Also the fact that
the chemical MIC was stored in excessive manner (as opposed to the ISD
strategy of MINIMIZE) appear to leave a strong impression among students,
especially when they were informed that the storage tanks measured 40-ft in
length and 8-ft in diameter—enough for an adult person to walk inside!
Some are able to recall the dimensions when asked!
(continued)
323
324
Use of activities that involved good thinking to facilitate understanding? “Slide show” of 10 real-world practices are shown one at a time, and
students are to discuss in their groups and provide an answer what inherently
safer design strategy is employed. In general, they did well. Some even
challenged—on 2 occasions—the answer given by lecturer. A lively
discussion ensued, which prompted the lecturer to consider an aspect of the
answer from the students’ viewpoint. Overall, they appear to develop a good
understanding of the subject
In the Google Slide mix-and-match case (how modifications made with
good intentions ended up introducing new hazards—intended consequences)
students need to identify the modifications made, link it to the rationale (at
the time decision was taken), and how it led to unintended consequences.
Overall, most of them got the linkages correct, with 1 or 2 groups with all
correct answers
Variation in the modes and methods of information presentation and Yes, first 2-h session: first students need to enter answers into Google Doc
interaction? (what went wrong at which stage of lifecycle, and what inherently safer
strategy can be used to address the issue), next the Google Slide
mix-and-match. Next 2-h, involve watching a short video to understand the
Amine Treating process, followed by more detailed “jigsaw” reading of more
detailed write-up of the process, and answer 14 TRUE/FALSE questions on
Socrative. Students are seen discussing among themselves in their respective
groups. All results are viewed in real-time; and it appears that most students
are able to answer most of them. Due to time running out, not able to do the
MCQs part in class, and students are asked to attempt them on their own
Application of practices consistent with human memory processes (e.g., Chunking done for online video of mini-lectures (each 3–5 min) focusing on
chunking of content to minimize cognitive overload; rehearsal/review one key concept per video. Lecturer first use a video to explain overall set-up
activities)? of Amine Treating process and the different units that made up the process.
Jigsaw reading was then carried out in-class where each student within a
group is given a unit (process description, and drawing) to understand, and
collectively they work together to answer the TRUE/FALSE Socrative
questions. Generally, results of class 04 better than class 03
(continued)
Incorporation of formative assessment to provide quality two-way feedback? Feedback given on Google Doc, Google Slide activities mentioned earlier.
Selected items were clarified in class, others were added to Google Doc after
class, and informed students during the next class. Follow-up explains given
Tue (to class 2B/03), and Wed (to class 2B/04) on queries noted on Mon (for
2B/03 and 04 present)
Use of deliberate practice to enhance understanding and/or skill acquisition? Not able to cover a Google Doc open-ended questions in class—14 in total,
designed to test/ enhance understanding of the Amine Treating Process. This
was left for students to try on their own. Explained that these exercises are
optional, and the benefits of trying them, i.e. able to build a stronger
foundation that helps tackling later topics. Will monitor the Google Doc
entry for any attempt at answering them
Interactions/activities to foster a climate conducive for building rapport, I think so—students sit with their groups (formed by themselves) for all
encouraging success and a sense of fun? lessons. These classes tend to be noisy already to begin with. FUN I think the
students certainly have. Students tend to offer witty remarks all the time in
the 2 weeks with them. A few attempts (covered elsewhere, or everywhere)
in these submissions was aimed at encouraging success; but may not be able
to quantify these—how to measure ‘success’ besides scoring well for tests
An aspect(s) of creativity (e.g., story, humour, activity, presentation style, Jokes used, and funny pictures embedded into PPT slides
example) that significantly enhanced motivation in this learning experience? Real world examples added as appropriate, either from case studies or from
own work experience
Overall class is lively, even boisterous. Thus far, able to manage ‘crowd
control’ and students do pipe down when important matters are discussed.
Not sure if these enhanced the learning experience though
325
or even drop certain style features or methods of teaching during this 15-week programme.
It was very fulfilling and encouraging when I came to know that the students were able to
understand the reasons or purposes of something I have done or created for them during
lessons. I also feel much more capable and confident in my role as Academic Mentor, in
that I can better understand more specifically what teaching challenges some of our faculty
are personally facing in their teaching and can provide specific and useful feedback on what
might help them meet these. It enables me to go beyond personal experience and have a
sense of scientific backing to what I am doing in a coaching/mentoring context.
In using the Evidence-Based Reflective Practice Tool, this provided a clear structure for
evaluating my teaching in very specific terms and being able to change/modify aspects of
strategy on the spot in the lesson context, if I felt it needed such action. I noticed that when I
taught the same topic 2–3 times in a week or so to different groups, I felt that I am improving
session by session. It made me very metacognitive to what I was doing, and over time it
becomes somewhat automatic.
The EBRP tool, which involved a bit more work initially, helped to focus my planning and
post-lesson reflection. It will be useful for teachers who genuinely want to improve their
practice. After a few sessions, it became less time consuming, and as it is a flexible tool, not
a form-filling in exercise – it was not burdensome.
Reflective practice using the EBRP tool kept me checking and thoughtfully planning the
lesson structure and sequences and ensuring that I was both focused on the learning goals
and the students’ needs weekly. Over time, this became easier and easier, as I become
increasingly familiar with the design process that is the basis of EBT – although it is still a
challenge to make all lesson parts interesting for students.
Doing reflective practice using the EBRPT was both easy to use and helped me to think
more carefully about the structure of my lessons and how I might make the learning both
easier for the students to deal with the content and get them more engaged and interested.
I also noticed that by using EBT the students were giving more comprehensive answers to
questions. Overall, I felt that I was able to get a good relationship with the students and that
they were learning better.
9.9 An Evidence-Based Frame on EBRP
A little knowledge can save one’s life or it can be a perpetual nemesis. For folk
who had prior knowledge, and especially experience, when the signs of a tsunami
become apparent, could take the quick evasive action of going upland and probably
be safe. In contrast, the unfortunate folk who had no knowledge (or did not believe
those who told them to run and go upland), especially if they went down to the
beach to explore this strange occurrence, would perish for the lack of this small bit
of factual knowledge. Similarly, parenting, which is a much-contested issue, raises
questions about useful and not-so-useful—even dangerous—knowledge. The so-
called ‘snowflake’ generation (e.g., Winget 2017; Piper 2017) are not the result of
brain mutation; numerous factors are impactful here, but certain parenting practices
are likely to contribute to such dispositions. I won’t pursue this further here, but it
will have implications for teaching, learning and well-being, especially for teachers
seeking to develop self-directed learners. SDL requires much in the way of volition,
9.9 An Evidence-Based Frame on EBRP 327
persistence, grit, or whatever is the vogue term at the time. Snowflakes don’t have
much of this if I read the analogy correctly.
The use of the EBRP tool, as noted, cannot capture all the important interactional
features in a classroom lesson. The teacher, even with the help of a trained observer,
may miss certain events that may be significant for enhancing understanding of the
learning experience for students. However, there is much of merit in expert peer
appraisal, in doing reflective practice, especially from an EBT perspective. There
is always subjectively, and the teacher must recognize this. Systemic perceptual
and attribution biases, as reinforced extensively in this work, abound in the case of
human apprehension (e.g., Kahneman 2012). There is a tendency to attribute blame
to external factors in the environment, including other people. Let’s be honest, how
often do we see people, when something has gone wrong, immediately stand up and
say, “it’s my mistake, I am responsible for this mess.” Most people will acknowledge
some personal blame if the evidence is striking, but the tendency to attribute some
of it elsewhere is prevalent. In 3 decades of coaching underperforming teachers
(defined in terms of consistently low feedback scores), few acknowledged their role
in producing such results. Only a handful said something akin to ‘Maybe I need to
improve my teaching’. In most cases, a range of external factors was identified as
the basis of their feedback. These included the students they had to teach (e.g., these
are ‘poor’ students); the curriculum they had to teach (e.g., not well written, obsolete
content); and time constraints (e.g., too much other work to do), etc. Changing
their attributions, apart from building trust and some rapport, was always the initial
challenging task.
EBRP does provide an approach and a methodology to both diagnose lesson
effectiveness and predict teaching and learning possibilities through a systematic,
focused and more objective base for understanding the experience of learning. It
applies both Reason and Science (e.g. Pinker 2019), as best as we can presently
frame it. As Treadwell (2017) summarizes in the wider context:
Our ability to reflect on our practice underpins all professional associations. If the medical
profession stopped looking for best practice, then the role of technologies and the realign-
ment of how hospitals met their purpose in the 21st century would not have resulted in the
transformation of hospital services over the last 20 years.
Education has just begun this process and it will take the same passionate determination to
ensure that every school is developing each learner’s competencies, enabling their ability to
learn – anything, anywhere, with anyone, at any time. (p. 195)
In the context of teacher education, EBRP makes possible more meaningful and
productive dialogues that can authentically change teachers’ mindsets—essentially
beliefs and perception, and eventually feelings. In using the EBRP tools, it is essential
that teachers who are asked/told to do reflective practise, for whatever reason (e.g.,
part of a formal course on teaching; been referred for mentoring/coaching due to
low student feedback scores; a new institutional requirement relating to performance
management goals) are inducted into the main tenets and practices underpinning
EBT. Without a strong knowledge base relating to what constitutes effective practice
and the underpinning learning science, there is likely to be a very limited analysis
of the lesson, invalid inferences and interpretations of what is being experienced by

students in a class, and subsequent poor evaluation of events.
EBRP also enables a more focused and meaningful dialogue about practice.
Instead of a dialogue which may comprise vagueness and misconceptions of ter-
minology and high inference judgement, it provides a structure—a set of guiding
heuristics—for focusing on specific aspects of the learning process and/or method
employment. This has face validity and there is nothing more valid than direct evi-
dence when dealing with teachers who are asked/told to change their perception
and practices (including the underlying beliefs) that they previously held ‘dearly’
for many years. For example, showing teachers examples and explaining how they
work in the context of a teacher’s subject context (especially how they can meet key
learning outcomes effectively and efficiently) is the most authentic and influential
strategy. I have observed that some teacher educators make judgements of worth
about practice, but lack the capability to offer practical specific instructional options
for improving what has been noted as ‘an area for development’. Giving feedback
to a teacher that the lesson needs to be more engaging is likely to be of no value if
the teacher knows little about types of engagement, and what are useful cognitive
and/or motivational strategies to achieve this pedagogic goal. Even worse, is when
the teacher educator cannot provide clear examples of what may work, and on what
basis, and how to do this.
9.10 EBRP, Lesson Study and Active Schemes of Work
Teachers using EBRP will be able to both better predict the likely outcomes from their
lesson planning, as well as make a more accurate diagnosis of them after the event.
They will be doing what Schön referred to as reflection on action; the difference now
is that such reflection will not be “post hoc Justification” as Hattie (2009) alluded.
This approach has certain similarities with Lesson Study (e.g., Stigler and Hiebert
1999), a Japanese innovation that has proved highly successful in terms of effective,
efficient and engaging lesson creation. The approach starts with identifying teaching
methods/activities that seem to work best with students (based on observations and
student feedback), followed by the design of instructional strategies incorporating
these proposed methods/activities. The lessons are then piloted with various teach-
ers over time with peer appraisal. The idea is that the best methods are scrutinized
over time, with changes/modifications, and improvements being made. This process
typically continues until the teachers involved feel that they have sufficiently vali-
dated the lesson in terms of its potential for being an effective, efficient and engaging
instructional strategy for that topic area, student profile, and the desired learning
outcomes to be met.
Even a basic pedagogic analysis of Lesson Study, reveals that it involves much
by way of EBT practices and principles of learning:
9.10 EBRP, Lesson Study and Active Schemes of Work 329
• Researching the behaviour, interests and experiences of the learning group, finding
out how well they are learning (as well as not learning), activating prior knowl-
edge, and asking their learning preferences in terms of instructional methods (e.g.,
Autonomy Supporting style)
• Identifying levels of attainment and engagement (e.g., behavioural, emotional,
cognitive and agentic) as a basis for instructional design
• Designing instructional strategies for topics/learning outcomes—based on this
research
• Using spaced and deliberate practice with expert feedback for evaluating the
various components of the lesson in terms of student attainment and engagement
• Encouraging metacognition through all stages of the implementation process
(e.g., setting clear challenging goals, planning strategy, monitoring and reviewing
strategy, as well as evaluation and extending learning).
A similar pedagogic structure is that of Active Schemes of Work where partic-
ipating teachers collectively produce a plan of a wider structure of learning for a
programme (e.g., module or unit) and continually improve the instructional design
of the various lesson components (e.g., method blends, activities, examples, tech-
nology supports) over time. Typically, a scheme of work is a structured summary
breakdown of the whole module or unit, focusing on:
• The specific learning outcomes relating to the key learning goals or topic areas
for the particular curriculum programme. These are organized in terms of the
best sequencing and appropriately allocated to each of the lessons comprising the
programme
• A preferred instructional strategy (e.g., methods, activities, resources) as well
as other supporting data for each of the lessons (e.g., details and timelines for
completion of assignments, notes relating to infusing related process skills such
as thinking, learning strategies)
• Details and necessary guidance on the assessment to be used at specific stages and
activities in the programme (both summative and formative).
Petty’s (2015) framing of Active Schemes of Work advocates that these essential
planning organizers should be used dynamically by all the teaching team not only to
initially identify best evidence-based instructional strategies but continually improve
them, similar to that of the Lesson Study approach. By explicitly making the schemes
of work dynamic and part of a collaborative improvement process, this energizes
all the teaching team to actively input into the lesson design, especially activities
likely to be most effective for enhancing engagement and attainment for the student
groups. This is an ongoing process, and when driven by an EBT approach, reviewed
by ongoing feedback and peer discussion, can significantly improve the learning
experience for students. Active Schemes of Work provide the perfect context for
faculty skill development and creativity, They also provide a great way to foster
relationship building and motivation for the faculty involved. Petty summarizes the
rationale and range of benefits as follows:
• Active learning works. Research shows that active learning is by far the best for
recall, student enjoyment, deep learning (full understanding), and for correcting
the learners’ misunderstandings.
• It improves results. School improvement research shows that teachers have about
three times the effect on achievement as their managers. So, achievement and
students’ life chances can only be improved if teaching is improved.
• It is likely to get a commitment to improvement. Subject centred discussion on
how to teach well is at the heart of a teacher’s role, teachers usually enjoy being
involved in practical development in their subject area.
• Teams share best practice. So, the best teaching methods are available to all.
• It raises expectations of teaching quality. Active schemes of work can raise
expectations of what it means to teach well, as well as showing how this can be
done.
• It ‘stores’ best practice. Good teachers who leave the college leave behind their
methods for others to benefit from and enjoy.
• It supports beginning teachers. Novice teachers are given effective methods to
adopt and to learn from.
• It promotes professional development. Writing the scheme promotes subject
centred discussion on effective teaching and so develops staff.
9.11 Coaching
Teachers as learners are subject to the same learning principles and constraints as
their students, especially when they are learning new knowledge and skills. In this
situation they have to deal with acquiring new knowledge, building understanding,
and doing the necessary practice, as well as dealing with their existing beliefs and
emotional responses to change. While they may have greater experience and maturity
in self-regulation and metacognitive strategies than many of their students, there is
still much cognitive and emotional effort needed to build the necessary understanding
and competence. The importance of being in a learning relationship and context that
is congruent with the Core Principle of Learning: A psychological climate is created
which is both success-orientated and fun is equally applicable to teachers as learners.
Coaching has become an increasingly popular term in the language of training
and professional development. Previously, the term was typically used in other fields,
especially in sport. We rarely hear terms like a teacher of soccer; soccer coach seems
to be the norm. However, does not a soccer coach also teach soccer? Definitely.
I have been coached in soccer and have coached soccer for many years. In both
situations, there is an emphasis on improving performance, which entails aspects
of learning. Furthermore, this learning is not just knowledge and skill-based, but
often involves attitudinal components such as states of mind, dispositions, emotions
and how to manage them. These affective components, such as emotional and belief
management (e.g., mindset formation and maintenance) may be as important as the
9.11 Coaching 331
skill components. How many times have we seen professional sportspeople massively
underperform (e.g., appear to freeze) at the most crucial stages in major events (e.g.,
championship point—even breakpoints—in a tennis match; miskick a penalty in a
world cup soccer tournament). Hence, coaching is more than skill development but
developing competence/expertise, and this is more than knowledge and skills per se,
as we explored in some detail in Chap. 5.
There are many terms in the literature relating to ‘helping people to learn’ and
‘enhancing performance’, one could easily write a significant text on this alone—
there are probably some already. For example, there is sometimes confusion over
the terms of mentoring and coaching. In practice, mentoring is a wide-ranging term,
which while focusing on helping a person to understand themselves better, usually
in relation to their professional field (e.g., dealing with a significant challenge in a
present role or decision-making on changing roles or career), it can involve a range
of sub-roles (e.g., model, sponsor, adviser, teacher, counsellor)—even coach. There
are similar points of comparison and contrast with notions of teacher, trainer—even
facilitator. Does not a teacher train, and a trainer teach? Much is an issue of framing
preferences, though the historical ‘baggage’ seems to have perceived training as
focusing more on specific skills development, whereas teaching is wider and more
holistic. There is a present saying, and I have no idea of its source, but it has become
somewhat of a vogue term, “The teacher is no longer the sage on the stage but
the guide in the guide”. Simplistic, naïve, and certainly not useful. Expert teachers
can train people, facilitate learning and mentor and coach—that’s how I see it. For
example, in the modern context, the full range of facilitation skills should be part
of the skill repertoire of expert teachers. For example, they should be competent in
using such technical skills as:
• Listening actively
• Observing carefully
• Using active learning methods and process tools
• Asking and responding to questions
• Paraphrasing
• Giving & receiving feedback
• Staying neutral
• Testing assumptions
• Staying on track
• Synthesizing ideas
• Providing summaries
• Collecting and organizing ideas/knowledge generated.
There are many definitions of coaching in the literature. I particularly like that of
Costa and Garmston (2002) as it offers a process orientated frame and is consistent
with my experiences over a few decades:
Coaching serves as a foundation for continuous learning by mediating another’s capacity to
reflect before, during and after practice. (p. 23)
Of specific importance in the professional development context, good coaching

enables the clarification of important knowledge, stimulates good thinking, structures
focused deliberate practice and provides quality feedback. Coaching acts as a key
organizing catalyst for facilitating deep understanding and sustainable competence
to enable learners (in this case teachers) to transfer learning across a range of related
teaching contexts in a fluent and contextualized way. For example, Joyce and Showers
(2002) found that:
A large and dramatic increase in the transfer of training – effect size of 1.42 – occurs
when coaching is added to an initial training experience comprised of theory explanation,
demonstrations, and practice. (p. 77)
Furthermore, their research revealed that coaching appeared to contribute to the

transfer of training in five ways, in that coached teachers:
• practised the new strategies more frequently and developed greater skill
• used the newly acquired strategies more appropriately in terms of curriculum
alignment
• exhibited greater long-term retention of knowledge and skill use with the strategies
• were more likely than uncoached teachers to explain new models of teaching to
their students, ensuring that students understood the purpose of the strategy and
the behaviours expected of them when using the strategy
• exhibited clearer cognition regarding the purposes and uses of the new strategies.
In coaching, as in teaching, language (the jargon) that is specific to what is being
learned must be made explicit and clear so that both coach and those being coached
have as accurate an internal representation of the thing (understanding, skill, attitude)
that is to be developed/improved. For example, in tennis, putting ‘slice on the ball’
refers to a specific technique that creates deception on the movement of the ball when
bouncing. This requires understanding the technique, its purpose in different game
situations and, of course, the skilful application of putting slice on the ball. Achieving
a high level of congruence of metal maps between coaches and those being coached
can be a massive challenge as tasks become more complex. It is for this reason that
coaching people to develop MC is difficult, challenging and takes lots of practice.
It takes skilful coaching and motivated learners. The reason is that there is a lot to
learn, and much thinking and volition are required—as I have emphasized across the
chapters. However, it is as it is, and we are helping no-one by pretending it can be
achieved by clicking some magic learning or creativity switch—which is no more
than either ignorance or lies. Expert teachers must be evidence-based on matters of
cognition, but equally on values and the behaviour that communicates those values.
If we genuinely want to promote SDL, we must be role models, and this involves
core values that underpin effective learning and well-being.
The framing of Pedagogic Literacy is the foundation of a language of learning,
derived from EBT, just as evidence-based practice in medicine derives from knowl-
edge domains in the biomedical sciences, and results in medical terminologies. This
is why when doctors talk to each other, I often don’t understand much of it—it is their
language for communicating accurately about medical conditions and how to treat
9.11 Coaching 333
then (call it their jargon if you like). Now don’t knock jargon, it may mean that the
operation your need will, in practice, be done properly. Somehow in teaching, even
using the term pedagogy scares some teachers, let alone that many-headed monster
‘metacognition’. Of course, we don’t want jargon for jargon-sake, but essential ter-
minology that captures key aspects of the learning process will facilitate rather than
hinder collaborative teacher learning and professional development.
For example, when I coach (train or mentor) teachers, I ensure that we have a com-
mon understanding of such terms as, activating prior knowledge, cognitive overload,
task and process feedback, retrieval, spaced and deliberate practice, interleaving,
mental models, specific types of thinking, etc.—and what is important about these
terms in the context of teaching practices and student learning.
The importance of an explicit content-specific language is what makes possible
the diagnosis and predictive capability of learning events from a more objective base.
In the context of coaching, as Downey (2003) summarized:
…language is what allows the client to be self-generating, and the practice that makes it
possible for the client to be a long-term excellent performer. (p. 9)
The goals of coaching can also be framed in either very specific terms or in wider
developmental terms, which depend on the goals/needs of the person being coached
and the context of learning. Using a personal example may illustrate the very specific
end of a continuum. As I do many overseas workshops often involving several days,
there is usually a closing ceremony that has a social/fun component to it—typically
a meal, speeches and some games, etc. I am often asked to do something as the
trainer/facilitator. Now doing a speech is not difficult, and I can tell jokes and stories
for some time—too long according to my wife. However, when asked to sing, and
this often happens in Asian countries, the alarm bells go off in my head—this scares
me. The reason is simple, I am a novice singer—ok, I’ll be honest—I am a dreadful
singer. Hence, I decided, over a decade ago, to have some singing lessons, but with
one specific objective: to sing one song not too badly. Let’s not get into what level of
competence this is, but I would not get through any first round of a singing contest
in this sector of the universe. In summary, I spent around $400 on being coached
to sing The Green, Green Grass of Home, a song made famous by Tom Jones. I
had no interest in developing self-directedness in learning or music appreciation,
but simply to get through any song without total embarrassment. Well, I did learn
to sing the song a bit better than prior, through some development in breathing and
voice control techniques, as well as spaced and deliberate practice. However, I have
yet to be offered a singing contract, and according to my wife, it still sounds “quite
dreadful”. I don’t lose any sleep over this, and my overall self-efficacy has not been
impaired. I accept that this is not a skill set that I have much by way of innate
aptitude. For me to develop even a foundational level competence (however defined)
would involve more practice and volition than I am prepared to give this goal. In
terms of intrinsic motivation and cost-benefit analysis—it’s not worth it to me. If
pushed into singing a song somewhere, I do my limited version of The Green, Green
Grass of Home, and generally, get away with a modicum of embarrassment. Positive
comparisons with Tom Jones are unusual.
In contrast to my singing development, working with teaching professionals who

are struggling with important aspects of practice and feeling personal stress, the
coaching role and process takes on a different level of learning considerations that
may significantly impact their future and well-being as a person. Teachers being
identified as underperforming and being sent to a supposed expert teacher is both
potentially daunting and stressful. While there is no one correct way to conduct
coaching activity, as in the case of teaching, there are useful evidence-based heuristics
and better practices in terms of helping people to achieve better outcomes, though
these may be defined in different stakeholders-terms. For persons being coached,
an immediate concern is often one of how to enhance their feedback scores and
not have to go through this ‘remediation process’. For management, there may be
multiple concerns; for the persons under their purview, key performance indicators,
complaints from students, parents, employers, etc. For faculty being coached, there
are serious concerns about negative impacts on their learning and well-being.
9.12 The Structure of Subjective Experience:

A Neurolinguistic-Programming (NLP) Approach
Before exploring the stages, strategies and techniques for achieving a productive
outcome in coaching relationships, it is useful to explore some fundamental under-
pinning assumptions about human interaction and communication. Coaching, like
teaching, involves an investment in terms of attaining a trusting relationship that
supports good rapport. All approaches to coaching place an important emphasis on
understanding the reality of the situation as perceived and experienced by the client.
This applies to teaching, mentoring and especially psychotherapy. The basic assump-
tion is that human behaviour is in no small part determined by a person’s perceptions
and that a change in perception and thought is a prerequisite to a change in behaviour.
Hence, in coaching teachers, it is essential to get a clear understanding of their per-
ceptions, thoughts and feelings about the learning situation they are involved in. This
is especially the case where teachers are referred to a coach for improvement, as this
can involve emotive aspects.
The field of neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) has provided much insight into
‘the structure of subjective experience’ (e.g., Bandler and Grinder 1990; Dilts 1980),
and how individuals make sense of their experience and interact with others, much of
this occurring subliminally. While neuroscience focuses on brain functioning at the
level of neuronal networks and neurotransmitters in the brain in response to different
environmental stimuli, NLP has sought to explain aspects of how the mind works at
the level of subjective experience. This is particularly interesting as there is often the
assumption that the mind is simply the result of what the brain is doing. This is far
from the case in terms of present understandings. Neuroscientists are increasingly
identifying correlations and causal links between electrical currents in the brain and
various subjective experiences, but how these billions of electrical signals result in
9.12 The Structure of Subjective Experience … 335
a mind that experiences a stream of consciousness that has specific feelings such as
I am angry or I am happy, is not known (Harari 2016). In his words:
As of 2016, we have absolutely no idea. (p. 128).
However, he goes on to argue that what we can be sure of is that the stream
of consciousness we directly experience in every moment is the surest thing in the
world. As he illustrates:
You cannot doubt its existence. Even when we are consumed by doubt and ask ourselves:
‘Do subjective experiences exist?’ we can be certain that we are experiencing doubt. (p. 123)
Hence, the study of subjective experience is of primary importance at the level of

human interaction and the construction of meaning. Coaching is very much engaged
in the meeting of two persons, each with their own ‘streams of consciousness’.
How these play out in terms of client perception and feeling are crucial in terms
of the learning that may result from such encounters—either positive or negative.
In most basic terms, if the resulting subjective experience for the client does not
result in perceptions and feelings favourable to learning (e.g., trust, understanding
of what needs to be done, self-efficacy for the task in question), outcomes may not
be conducive to learning and well-being.
NLP can be broken down to a relationship between 3 interrelated components of
human psychological functioning that affects the way we perceive the world around
us and subsequently interact in it. The essential components are:
Neuro This refers to the neurological processing of senses—seeing, hearing,

feeling, tasting and smelling—and how they shape our perceptions
and thinking about things in our world
Linguistic This refers to the language patterns (verbal and non-verbal), which
affect our understanding of the world and how we communicate with
others
Programming This refers to how we organize and orientate our thoughts, feelings
and beliefs to interact with the world in our personalized way.
A significant aspect of NLP is concerned with understanding how these compo-

nents interrelate internally to shape—even determine—the structure of subjective
experience. Dilts (1980) captures this important framing of NLP when he referred
to it as:
...the study of the components of perception and behaviour which makes our experience
possible. (p. 1)
While each person has his/her individualized inner view of reality (Map in NLP
terms), the essential processes of the way that the map is constructed is generic and
understandable. Dilts went so far as to argue that:
When the confusions and complexities of life experiences are examined, sorted and untan-
gled, what remains is a set of behavioural elements and rules that aren’t too difficult to
understand at all. (p. 5)
Fig. 9.2 Summary of the structure of subjective experience
For NLP then, a major focus is on understanding how the brain structures the
inner world of subjective experience and, from such understanding, how we might
influence human perception and action in more productive ways. The structure of
subjective experience from an NLP perspective is summarized in Fig. 9.2.
For purposes of translation, The Territory represents the external world, which
is experienced through our senses. However, the external world (The territory) does
not get represented as it is in our internal world—The Map. The external world
cannot be understood separate from the interpretations we put on it, as each individ-
uals’ interpretation of the external world is always mediated by existential Filters,
which process the sensory information from the territory—the main ones being our
belief systems, language, memory and personality traits. The result of this process
of interpretation is that we construct our inner world (map) along with the deletions,
distortions and generalizations that result from this filtering process. What is most
significant here is that the way we experience the world, and our actions about that
experience, gives us the feeling of objectivity (e.g., this is the real world), but in fact,
it is a very personalized subjective framing of the world. In NLP terms, the Map is
not the Territory, only our representation of it.
From an NLP perspective, beliefs are the most significant neurological filter deter-
mining how we perceive and experience external reality. Furthermore, our percep-
tions of reality will determine both our thinking and behaviour. In Chap. 3, we consid-
ered in some detail how beliefs impact student learning, motivation and well-being.
The same theoretical perspective applies to the learning, motivation and well-being
of teachers in a coaching situation.
Indeed, differences in beliefs may represent man’s biggest threat to survival. In
the context of teaching and learning, a major barrier to successful learning for many
students (and some teachers) are limiting beliefs about intelligence, self and the
nature of learning itself. It is to be emphasized that maps are not just theoretical
constructs, they are the internal realities of all of us as we try to make sense of the
world we live in and find personal meaning for living a life. Furthermore, maps can
both assist us in our search for personal success and meaning as well as constitute
the biggest barrier to such fulfilment and well-being. In a nutshell, some maps are
better than others—much better. As Hall (2001) argues:
The richer our map, the more accurate, adequate, and useful our menu, the more choices.
The more impoverished our model, the fewer choices. The richer and fuller our linguistic
map, the richer our mind…Maps induce states, and states govern perception and behaviour.
(pp. 26–27)
9.12 The Structure of Subjective Experience … 337
In Costa and Garmstons’ (2002) framework of Cognitive Coaching, working with

a persons’ subjective experience is fundamental, as they point out:
It mediates invisible, internal mental resources and intellectual functions. These resources
and functions include perceptions, cognitive processes, values, and internal resources.
Cognitive coaches focus on the thought processes, values and beliefs that motivate, guide,
influence, and give rise to the overt behaviours. (p. 13)
Costa and Garmston (2016) summarize the role of a cognitive coach:

As cognitive coaches, therefore, we are interested in operating on the inner thought processes
– in “coaching cognition”. Teachers possess wide and expanding bodies of information and
skills and they make decisions about when to use what from the extensive range of their
repertoire. Cognitive coaching assists teachers in becoming more conscious, efficacious,
precise, flexible, informed, and skilful decision-makers. Together, teachers and coaches
create greater student learning. (p. 147)
Hence, the coach is involved in helping clients better understand how they are
thinking, feeling and acting, to help them to enhance the capacity for better think-
ing, decision-making and self-regulation. The effective coach is the mediator in this
process, helping to “promote behavioural changes towards more effective practice”
(Costa and Garmston 2016, p. 9).
It is not surprising that human communication, thinking and behaviour is often
messy, confusing and not productive to effective learning and well-being. Rational-
ity seems to be largely trumped by unconscious biological processes that challenge
notions of free will (e.g., Harris 2010). However, while humans are individually
unique in terms of their personality configurations, biology and experiences, there is
much similarity, which is to be expected given our universal brain morphology, human
needs, and the way the mind works in terms of the dynamics of subjective experience.
Hence, while the content of streams of consciousness can vary greatly, and they may
be framed as productive or unproductive for learning and well-being, there will be
streams of consciousness that can be understood and dealt with. For Costa and Garm-
ston (2002) a cognitive coach can play the important role of helping another person
to take appropriate action toward his or her goals, while simultaneously helping that
person to develop expertise in planning, reflecting, problem-solving, and decision
making. (p. 13).
In coaching, as in all human interaction situations, there are key touchpoints in
which perceptions and feelings can be most poignant. Given the many ways in which
biases can affect perception, feelings and behaviour, awareness of such touchpoints,
and skillful communication, can mediate perception more favourably towards build-
ing trust and rapport—essential for getting productive results with other people. For
example, in customer service, a key touchpoint is the first encounter—the Primacy
effect—and we know what can happen here. Being ignored or having a curt tone of
voice, or ‘that look’ (I can’t be bothered-look) can frame the nature and form of what
is to follow. I have lived and worked in Singapore for over 24 years, and I am still
amazed at the courtesy and friendliness of most locals. It is encouraged in schools
and the local community, and cynics may call it social engineering. All of culture
and socialization is social engineering, and I would argue that some memes are better
than others—much, much better.
In coaching teachers, there are key touchpoints, which include the first meeting,
dialogues post-practice observations, helping clients solve problems and framing
future scenarios. How one conducts oneself is fundamental to how effective the
mediation of coaching is. The following are some reflections on key touchpoints
in the coaching process as well as key skills and techniques for building trust and
rapport in facilitating self-directedness in clients (teachers or others).
9.13 The Stages of Coaching
The terminology may vary, but the following represent broad interrelated stages that
may be reiterated over time, depending on outcomes and perceptions:
1. Planning Stage
2. Action Stage
3. Reflection Stage.
The Planning and Action Stages
This can vary in how it arises. For example, in coaching clients, you may have
had some prior experience with them, which may have created some preconceptions
about you, which may or may not be favourable, and also based on very idiosyncratic
data. I still find it amazing how people talk about celebrities, that they have never
met, and make detailed evaluative judgements about what they are like as people—
whether good, bad or ugly. It’s as though they don’t know that many celebrities hire
public relation professionals to manage their media image presentation. Terms like
‘fake-news’ are now part of media-speak. On what basis would the general public
know what is true and false on things that they don’t have any direct contact with.
It’s hard enough to know what is true and false even in one’s territory, as much will
be determined by our neurological filters and the various cognitive biases that are
systemic to human brain functioning. To push the point, but not too far in this context,
how well do we know ourselves, and what exactly is the self? Kahneman (2012) puts
this in stark perspective when he asserts that:
The notion that we have limited access to the workings of our minds is difficult to accept
because, naturally it is alien to our experience, but it is true: you know far less about yourself
than you feel you do. (p. 52)
Equally, they may know very little about you and will go through the Primacy
effect of first impressions, and a myriad of factors—both conscious and uncon-
scious—will come in to play in terms of how they perceive you at this point—also
potentially positive or negative.
As a teacher, coach, or mentor, the same processes play out; hence I am especially
mindful of my presence, voice, tone and manner to mitigate negative perceptions,
9.13 The Stages of Coaching 339
as the initial focus is always on helping clients to feel as comfortable as possible in

being in this situation with me. The goal is to establish rapport and trust, explore
through mediation their framing of the situation—their map of the territory. Once this
is established, if it is established, then I consider what information and examples—
often stories—that may help them reframe in ways that might produce action and
resources for meeting their goals, as well as personal self-directedness in their future
learning. If this is attained, helping them develop ways to enhance practice becomes
more of a technical issue rather than an interpersonal one. If a client is not comfortable
with you, and trust is not there, there will not be rapport, and the coaching encounter
may be benign and unproductive.
It trust and rapport are established, a meaningful continuation of the coaching—
client relationship can now work towards identifying personal goals that clients
frame as meaningful and useful to their professional learning and development. As
their coach, you can assist and facilitate the framing of these goals, helping them to
choose challenging but achievable targets. Clients must understand what is involved,
and what resources they may need, and finally must commit to the actions they have
identified as necessary for goal attainment. I ensure that clients can clearly articulate
what they need to do and how they intend to go about this action. Of course, I
will support and provide feedback as is necessary, but we must have clarity and
commitment on both sides.
If there are goals and there is clarity of strategy (always recognizing that these
can be modified based on new information and understandings), it is necessary to
identity specify key success indicators for the action to be taken, and the evidence
sources to be collected, to support its success or otherwise. For example, in the cases
of teachers who have been sent to me for consistent poor feedback scores, I avoid
any judgements on their teaching but ask if I can observe one of their lessons as a
starting point. As this is direct authentic evidence from which to have a meaningful
conversation and share perceptions of teaching in order to do useful analysis of
practices in terms of some criteria of effectiveness (e.g., engagement, attainment,
core principles of learning), it typically becomes the process, and the evidence base,
from which to work for future progress.
Finally, as this stage is about establishing a process for monitoring and review,
especially for supporting self-assessment, I use an EBT approach with the situated
use of the EBRP tool. This has been effective and productive as it provides both
a rationale and methodology for improvement and has credibility with clients. I
have noted, especially for those who genuinely want to improve, that many clients
experience quick positive results in terms of student engagement in lessons, which
fosters the development of a positive belief in the approach being employed. Also,
they usually feel a better sense of mastery in using effective strategies, which further
enhances confidence, self-efficacy and a better sense of well-being in their practice.
Reflection Stage
It is useful to conduct this stage as soon as possible after the teaching observation
and any other aspects of the action stage (e.g., collection and analysis of student
feedback, peer observation data) but giving sufficient time for clients to do their
evidence-based reflective practice as documented earlier—what Schön referred to

as reflection on action, but from the standpoint of a sound pedagogic literacy and
good thinking. In this way, clients can reflect on their practice using a systematic
diagnostic approach, valid data sources, and a tool to focus their pedagogic analysis.
If the planning stage has been effective, both in terms of understanding at the
technical level (e.g., pedagogic literacy) and in building trust and rapport, this stage
should prove less challenging and problematic (but not always).
Using the same basic model of understanding the client’s maps, and their expe-
rience, perception and feelings about the territory (the reality of teaching), I invite
their analysis, inferences and interpretations, evaluations of this teaching event, both
in terms of their cognition and feelings. In this situation, and this applies through-
out the coaching process (and most human interaction contexts), certain skills are
fundamental for facilitating successful outcomes. These are outlined in the next
section.
Key Coaching Skills
Effective coaching requires an extensive range of skills, both technical to the
professional field, as well as interpersonal and intrapersonal.
Firstly, in many coaching situations, coaches are likely to possess high-level com-
petence in the technical areas they are coaching, whether it be soccer, singing, or
teaching. However, they may not have been the very best, and in coaching the more
psychological aspects of human performance, may have little knowledge of the tech-
nical field. For example, the famous success coach Anthony Robbins coached Andre
Agassi, who subsequently achieved major success in the grand slam tournaments.
Robbins is no great tennis player, but it wasn’t Andre’s tennis that needed the coach-
ing, but other psychological attributes. In the context of teaching, however, it is
unlikely that a coach is not competent in teaching, especially if they are tasked with
improving teaching practices. The following are some key areas that I focus on:
Sensory Acuity and Mindfulness
Sensory Acuity refers to the ability to notice, monitor and make sense of the external
cues provided by other people’s communication style. This involves both good obser-
vation skills, especially of non-verbal behaviour (often referred to as paralanguage)
and empathic listening (putting oneself in the position of the other to extract the
essential meaning of what they are trying to communicate in their words, tone and
body language). Skill in recognising patterns in body language and voice character-
istics helps to understand clients states of mind, which provides essential feedback in
terms of how we communicate, and the questions we might ask, to help them clarify
their thoughts and get into a more productive state of mind—if this is needed. When
communicating with others, this means noticing the small but crucial signals (e.g.,
voice, tone, gesture, eye movement, colour changes that indicate state and mood
changes), which provide a window on their perceptions and feeling, and the basis of
how they are responding.
Mindfulness is a quality of consciousness in which humans are openly and non-
defensively aware of what is truly taking place. As Kabat-Zin (2003) summarizes:
It is very much an ‘allowing’ and receptive form of experiencing, such that when people are
more mindful, they are more accepting of what they experience without focusing, resisting,
or manipulating it. (p. 257)
Expertise in both sensory acuity and mindfulness (essentially a component of MC)

requires deliberate practice over time. Many humans tend to focus their listening more
on what they are going to say next, rather than on a deep understanding of what the
other is trying to communicate. If not convinced, do a simple social psychology
experiment of people watching in respect to this behavioural set over the next few
days. You may be doing it yourself—I do it sometimes.
Calibration of Communication Style
There is an old saying, “people like people like themselves” and there is a reason for
this; it’s because they have a good rapport. They have things in common like interests,
views on key aspects of reality, what constitutes fun, similar rules of engagement—
in the language of NLP, ‘similar personal maps about the territory’. Neuroscience
is increasing showing how different interpersonal experience trigger physical and
emotional changes in the brain, either promoting or inhibiting open and trusting
interactions with others (e.g., Glaser 2014). Costa and Garmston (2016) go as far as
saying:
In rapport, brains synchronize, crossing the skull and skin barriers to beat as one. (p. 46)
In terms of friendships, rapport typically occurs (or does not occur) naturally and
largely unconsciously. I have not seen (or should I say heard) people say, “Hey we are
building rapport here, and that’s because we are doing x, y, & z”. Quite simply, they
are sharing streams of consciousness from their experiences and their maps about
things in the territory and are being stimulated in some positive way cognitively
and/or emotionally—the latter often being it is fun and includes some humour.
In a coaching situation, rapport needs to be coaxed somewhat, and this takes skill.
As coaches, we want to get rapport, as we know we can be more useful to clients’
needs. However, clients must perceive us as trustworthy and an ally in helping them
meet their goals. Building trust and rapport can take time, though losing it can be
immediate and based on what may appear a trivial act or a misperception. There is
an analogy, that it only takes one cockroach in a bowl of beautiful cherries to ruin its
appeal; however, one beautiful cherry does nothing to reduce the disgust of a bowel
of cockroaches.
Another tenet of NLP that I have found useful relates to linguistic preferences,
and how one can understand aspects of a person’s subjective experience to cre-
ate synchronicity that facilitates communication ease and rapport building sublimi-
nally. For example, it postulates that people tend to have preferred Representational
Systems (See Table 9.4) which incorporate specific Linguistic Predicates in their
conversational language to convey meaning.
Skill in recognising patterns in linguistic terminology and body language helps
to understand people’s maps and state of mind. For example, people with a strong
visual preference will tend to use terms like, “let’s image”, “we are drawing a blank
Table 9.4 Examples of NLP linguistic predicates

Visual predicates Auditory predicates Kinesthetic predicates
Imagine Talk through Hold on
Focus Tune in Put finger on
Look at Listen to Strikes me
Point out Rings a bell Get a grip of
Seeing it Explains it Close fisted
Show it Deaf to Tingling
Blind to Crashing down No stomach for it
In a flash Hear me out Hanging on
An eyeful A little voice In touch with
Bright as day Lowering the tone A handful
Dark as night Harmony Touched me
Drawing a blank
here”, etc. In contrast, more kinesthetically orientated people are more likely to use
terms like, “let’s get a grip of”, “it strikes me”, etc. In a nutshell—am I revealing a
linguistic cue here? —people respond better to those who “speak their language”.
Also, this typically involves good sensory acuity and mindfulness.
It is through understanding clients’ representational system preferences and the
linguistic predicates used, that the coach can calibrate his or her communication
style in ways to facilitate better understanding. This is often referred to as Mirroring
the behaviour of the other person. By using similar linguistic predicates, tone of
voice, and calibrating body language (e.g., gestures and body language of the other)
providing it is not obvious imitation, helps in the rapport-building process. This has
neurological support in the notion that humans have certain types of neurons termed
Mirror Neurons (e.g., Rizzolatti and Sinigaglia 2008). The authors discovered unique
neurons in the frontal and premotor cortex while researching the neural representa-
tion of motor movements in monkeys. Unlike other motor neurons, these neurons
not only fired when engaged in planning a motor movement, but also through the
observation of a related movement in another person or other monkey. Such neurons
exist in humans, which can easily be understood in terms of how we respond to the
experiences of characters in films. Do you cry in sad movies? I do, even though I
know this is Hollywood fiction and the actors are being paid millions of dollars.
Whether we like it or not, our minds play over the actions we see around us, and we
feel the same or at least similar emotions. It’s also why laughter is often referred to as
contagious; once a person starts to laugh, others typically follow. In my experience
some join in who probably did not experience the basis for the original laughter, it’s
just how the mind works. Smiling works the same way, as we explored prior. It also
provides important feedback to others about your mood and approachability, both at
conscious and subconscious levels, and has contagion effects. For example, if you
smile at a student, he or she is likely to smile back at you and this can quickly spread
to his or her classmates. The skillful and natural use of the smile helps in building
rapport, and when used appropriately and calibrated to the communication style of
the client, it works especially well.
Questioning
The skillful use of questioning in promoting good thinking has been illustrated prior,
though Robbins (2001) view on the importance of questions is worth restating in this
context:
Thinking itself is nothing but the process of asking and answering questions
Questions immediately change what we focus on and, therefore, how we feel (pp. 179–8)
Good questioning, using the other skills of sensory acuity, linguistic predicates,
voice tone and paralanguage calibration, facilitates rapport and the mediation of
experiences towards the goals of helping teachers to be self-directed and capable
of their evaluation and professional development directions. NLP also uses a Meta-
Model of Language, that helps to clarify meaning and reduce miscommunications,
which Dilts (1980) refers to as:
an explicit set of questions as well as a model for asking questions. (pp 77–79)
This specifically focuses on how language works in and affects our neurological
states of mind, emotions, perceptions, relationships, and skills. This makes us aware
of how the Words we use, our Tone of voice and supporting Body Language makes
the difference in building rapport with other people. I have found this a useful set of
heuristics in terms of framing and using questions to clarify the meaning, uncovering
distortions, deletions and generalizations that are typically embedded in peoples’
maps that may be seriously impacting the quality of their cognition, and subsequent
action in the territory.
By asking certain questions, we can gain insight—enter-into—another person’s
model of the world (Map) and understand the world from their point of view.
Questions focus on:
• What
• How
• Who.
Such questioning structures facilitate the other person’s active involvement in
examining his/her maps and the mapping process to run Quality Control checks on
the mapping—enabling them to reframe and change meaning in the light of new
evidence. In many ways, this process has similarities with the Gallwey’s (1987)
famous work on the Inner Game. His pioneering work was in understanding what
goes on in the heads of tennis players that enhance or inhibit their performance.
This applies to all people in situations where performance is involved (especially
where it is high stakes and under observation from others) and many factors can
come into play in affecting it. Invariably, this is very noticeable in top-level sport,
for example, epitomized by a world-class soccer player failing to get the ball on
target when taking a penalty kick or a golfer missing a 6-inch putt. However, it can
also happen when actors/comedians get what is referred to as ‘stage fright’ or when
people doing a public speech get ‘lost for words’. Gallwey’s key point was that a
person’s performance at any time has what he referred to as ‘Potential’—their level
of actual capability/skills. Hence, if they truly played to their potential that would
be their best performance at this level of capability. For, example, have you ever
done something (e.g., taught a lesson, given a talk, played a sport) when you felt
that this was your best effort. Well, that would be near your potential. However,
as human beings, in our minds (hence the term inner game) there is much that can
significantly impact our thinking and feelings- both positively or negatively. Negative
aspects that can undermine performance he refers to as ‘Interference’. Interference is
anything that enters our mind (and sub/unconscious stuff is involved here) that creates
negative disturbance and, consequently, mitigate performance. Most documented
are feelings of anxiety and fear that seriously affect concentration and even bodily
control. However, it is our thinking and what beliefs and images flit through the mind
that are the typical causes of interference at the psychological level, which quickly
impact emotions, brain behaviour and psychomotor aspects, often epitomized in
the phrase ‘I feel like jelly’. For Gallwey, much of coaching is about improving
Potential and reducing Interference to increase Performance. In doing this, there is
also a synergistic effect, as increases in performance enhance belief and confidence,
which in turn builds a resource for managing interference.
I remember when Garbine Muguruza won the ladies Wimbledon Title in 1917,
referring back to her defeat in the same final two years prior, in the post-match
interview, saying something like she was a ‘different player now than then’, and this
wasn’t about the tennis, but her resources to manage the interference in her head
(Note: she did not use such terms, but the intended meaning seemed congruent with
such affect). Similarly, she reflected on how she played in this final, and her thinking
when faced with set-points that would have resulted in the loss of the first set:
When I had those set points against me, I’m like, ‘Hey, it’s normal. I’m playing Venus here.’
It’s so I just keep fighting. And I knew that if I was playing like I was playing during the two
weeks, I was going to have eventually an opportunity. So I was, like, calm. If I lose the first
set, I still have two more. Let’s not make a drama.
An important aspect of this process is generating the right questions for clients
needs at the right time, as they can use their metacognitive thinking to explore their
beliefs and feelings and get into a more productive state, focusing on what can be
done, rather than what negative outcomes could occur; this is using one’s inner voice,
so to speak (again no pun intended). Treadwell (2017) framed it succinctly:
Our unique capability to be able to talk to ourselves and use our ‘inner voice’ to question
and interrogate our world, is essential to our learning. (p. 39)
Muguruza executed it perfectly, as she won the final in straight sets, winning the
second set 6-0, against Venus Williams—which is no mean feat.
There is no use for the Why question in the meta-model. From an NLP perspective
why questions, at best, get justifications and do nothing to change the situation. I am
often amused when I see interviewers asking candidates why they want to teach. Do
they expect anyone to say, “I like the long holidays”? I have even heard of approaches
that advocate asking 5 why questions to probe deeply. Quite frankly after a second
or third why question, I think I might just become a tad annoyed. The skilful use
of what and how questions are particularly effective as it opens up the opportunity
to unpack aspects of practice and how it works or don’t work. Ask clients how they
felt things went, what specifically, how they know this, etc. The manner, tone and
calibration are of course crucial—I make it a conversation with a purpose, informal
but focused. We may even have a joke in between the dialogue. I usually do most
of the reflection stage in an informal setting over coffee if clients feel comfortable
with this. It has worked well for me over the years, though the cost of buying coffees
has put a few years on my working life. It has much in common with the open and
flexible approach of creative interviewing (Douglas 1984), which involves:
…the use of many strategies and tactics of interaction, largely based on an understanding
of friendly feelings and intimacy, to optimize cooperative, mutual disclosure and a creative
search for mutual understanding. (p. 24)
Creating such a relationship, has strong neurological correlates in terms of brain

responses, For example, Costa and Garmston (2016) referring to the work of Glaser
(2014) note that conversations trigger physical and emotional changes in our brains
and bodies, releasing either oxytocin, which fosters bonding and collaboration, or
cortisol, a hormone that evokes stress and fear (p. 41).
In using questions it is important to recognize that before people can make a
response, they need to process what has been asked and what it means; consider
whether or not they have a response that they are prepared to make; then actually
make the response. This can take some time. I have often observed teachers in many
countries and contexts, after a period of exposition, ask the class “any questions”, and
often within 1–2 s, say something akin to “no, good, we’ll move on”. Now this is a
double negative, as students will get used to such a communication set, and very soon
not even bother to go through the cognitive strain of thinking about having questions,
and will surely pick up on the verbal cue, and likely associated paralanguage, that
asking questions in some way is ‘not good’. Hence, we need to be mindful in question
use.
Another important skill in the process of questioning and related mediation is the
technique of Paraphrasing. Paraphrasing is seeking clarity on how a person feels in
response to a situation or a prior question, by communicating back to them what you
think they intended to communicate. This requires sensory acuity, quick thinking
and being able to say the right words in the right way at the right time. It’s intended
to make the person feel comfortable in making sense of the situation or event in their
terms and giving them the time, psychological space and necessary support to get
better clarity on their thinking. In this way, issues and concerns can be made explicit,
clear and tangible, which keep the conversation moving productively. In meeting
clients in a post-observation context, I typically make explicit that understanding
what is going on in classrooms often takes a bit of cognitive work in order to process
all the information and make meaning, and, therefore, it helps if we may both work
together to check our mutual understanding; I may say something like, “Let’s support
each other on this”. In other words, I make paraphrasing an explicit technique that we
can collaboratively utilize as we mediate the teaching experiences for better clarity
and outcomes. Once there is rapport and trust, this is not difficult to introduce in most
cases.
The importance of feedback in learning has been explored in detail. What is
important, apart from the communication manner, is that it is data-driven and focused
on the area(s) that may be high leverage in terms of improvement (e.g., task, process).
Furthermore, simply giving what you think is useful and clear feedback does not mean
that it will be interpreted in such terms. Bandler and Grinder (1990) make a poignant
statement in this context:
The meaning of your communication is the response you get. (p. 61)
9.14 Supported Experiments
Petty (2015) describes a Supported Experiment as “…a pilot or trial of a teaching

strategy new to that teacher”. Essentially, the teacher will use a strategy (ideally based
on evidence of what methods work) for a given period to adapt it where necessary
to the student group(s) and develop the necessary skills to use it effectively and
fluently. In this process, the teacher will have the support of other teachers, who will
be reviewing the experiment and its impact on student learning. As Petty summarizes:
This might include discussions with peers, advanced practitioners, mentors, managers, train-
ers, or some combination of these… As a rule, experiments do not work well-first time, and
that’s fine if we learn from them!
At a designated point, the experimenter will decide whether the experiment has worked or
not, in their particular context. This is reported back to other teachers who can also learn
from the experiment.
Supported experiments provide a clear structure for conducting professional

development activities. Furthermore, as an increasing number of teachers embark
on conducting supported experiments, openly sharing and thoughtfully appraising
each other’s work, there is a building of professional knowledge on effective teaching
customized to the situated context of the school and its learners (e.g., Communities of
Practice, Lave and Wenger 1993; Professional Capital, Hargreaves and Fullan 2012).
Petty (2015) suggests that there are many benefits in using supported experiments to
enhance professional development, as they:
• model and develop a culture of continuous practice
• include all teachers in continuous improvement
• provide a blame-free culture needed to encourage and support risk-taking and
development
9.14 Supported Experiments 347
• prevent teaching skills from ‘plateauing’ and becoming stale

• provide the blame-free support needed to really change classroom practice
• encourage the development of teaching strategies that respond to known difficulties
• are inspiring for staff and can even reinvigorate quite jaded teachers.
As in all learning, whether for students or teachers, there needs to be the necessary
time and support for competence to develop. Academic faculty will likely need to use
the new instructional strategies several times before they reach levels of proficiency
that achieve the high impact potential in terms of student attainment for particular
method use. Secondly, and equally important, students need to become comfortable
and see the relevance of the methods to their learning, which will also take some
time. As Petty emphasizes:
Students also need to learn how to respond to the new methods, as effective
methods are always more demanding of students than conventional teaching. They
need to know why these new methods are being used, what it demands of them, and
how to respond.
In my experience, this has been fully borne out over many years. During the
past 5 years, I have been using supported experiments with several academic faculty
on the use of flipped classroom learning (as documented in Chap. 6). The initial
supported experiments were primarily used to identify useful strategies in terms of
enhancing student engagement and attainment within the flipped classroom format,
and at a school-based level. However, the success of these supported experiments
led to an increasing number of academic faculty joining what is now an institution-
wide project in designing and facilitating flipped classroom learning using an EBT
approach. The interest continued and resulted in a two-year research project, with
the work being presented at the Redesigning Pedagogy International Conference,
National Institute of Education, Singapore (Sale et al. 2018).
In terms of involving students in the implementation process, as Petty suggested,
two students from each class were invited (not conscripted) to be “co-participants”
(Lincoln 1990, p. 78) in the research project to add a more authentic ethnographic
component. These students chose to participate and knew that the teaching faculty
were genuinely attempting to improve their learning experiences and attainment
opportunities at the institution. They were given a full briefing on the research purpose
and their role and responsibilities in participating in the research. For the flipped
classroom implementation, they were specifically required to:
• Communicate with classmates to identify significant experiences relating to the
new teaching approaches used
• Make personal notes and/or blog their experiences with both structured and open
questions in the designated student blog
• Meet with the researchers at least once a semester for group sharing.
Informing and involving students from the onset of the implementation of the
flipped classroom experiments provided many valuable insights into their learning
experiences, as well as the essential ‘buy-in’ for the important changes that were
being made in their classrooms.
Supported Experiments or Action Research?
In essence, supported experiments can be equally framed as mini action research

projects in that they are directed at understanding and/or improving an aspect(s)
of practice. One may ask, when does a mini-research project cease to be mini and
become large-scale research? For me, this doesn’t matter, it is the outcomes that
count, and as the saying goes, “start small”, and there’s a reason for this. However,
having identified specific pedagogic methods that might be of use and need some
implementation practice, a supported experiment provides the affordances identified
above without extensive time and resource commitments, which are often potential
barriers to such work. However, if this proves of interest and is seen as beneficial to
an important aspect of learning, especially if supported by management, a research
project can be framed to extend the work in a more formal way. Stringer’s (2004)
frame on action research captures the approach in practical and viable terms:
Action research differs quite significantly from the highly objective and generalizable exper-
imental and survey studies that continue to provide significant information about schools
and classrooms. It does, however, encapsulate the systematic qualitative research routines
now becoming commonplace in the educational arena and increasingly applied by teachers
and administrators as part of their work in schools. (p. 6)
What this means is action research is less likely to scare busy teachers away from
doing this essential activity, but at the same time necessitates the systematic applica-
tion of research methodologies used in qualitative research. As outlined above, it is
possible to start small in terms of specific practice in one’s own classroom, develop
strategy possibilities, try them out and share this with colleagues, and eventually
develop validated instructional approaches that impact beyond the classroom, the
institution, the local community, and even to the wider global educational community.
This potentially extending process of action research is summarized in Fig. 9.3.
Finally, I want to emphasize the motivated teacher’s capability to do this work
well. Given time and support, teachers with their specific professional training, MC
Fig. 9.3 Action research spiral of influence

9.14 Supported Experiments 349
and CTC are well equipped to excel as researchers investigating their practices. We
know that setting challenging goals leads to better learning for students; hence why
do we not see this as important for our teachers? Equally of note, such an approach
involves both teachers and students as collaborators involved in examining ways to
improve learning—now that’s a real focus on learning, not a debate about what are
teacher-centred or student-centred methods. All methods are centred on learning for
both students and teachers, and this would enable, as Hattie (2009) claims:
The ultimate requirement is for teachers to develop the skill of evaluating the effect that they
have on their students. (p. 36)
9.15 Institutional and Societal Features that Facilitate

Good Professional Development
The main components, activities and processes for effective professional develop-
ment have been identified and explained in the previous sections. This section sum-
marizes institutional and societal features that are likely to be powerful enablers in
both developing high impact professional development for teachers and, of course,
the best learning opportunities for our students in terms of attainment and well-being.
Valuing Good Teaching
Firstly, it is important to bear in mind that professional development approaches
will be largely ineffective without a strong motivational base and commitment from
teachers themselves. As Hargreaves and Evans (1997) stated:
…where educational change is concerned, if a teacher can’t or won’t do it, it simply can’t
be done. (p. 3)
Secondly, educational institutions seeking to build and retain a high performing

teaching force must create the conditions, platforms and support structures to bring
this about. As noted earlier in the chapter, institutions and other societal conditions
are often not always conducive to professional development that works (Powell and
Kusuma-Powell 2015). They further observed that even if such good practice comes
to some public attention in the institution, that:
…when school people do witness exemplary teaching and learning, we often tend to respond
with immediate adulation and subsequent dismissal. (p. 26)
They also quote Costa et al. (2014) in this context, who wrote:
While our media-rich culture places a high value on talent, the irony is that in most schools,
talent is underrated and often teachers remain silent about their own beliefs about talent.
(p. 75)
It is not surprising. Therefore, that Darling-Hammond and Rothman (2015) note

that:
While educators and policymakers agree that enabling teachers to improve student learning
is one of the most significant ways to raise achievement, there are heated disagreements
about the most useful ways to do this. (p. 1)
Hargreaves and Fullans’ (2012) framing of building Professional Capital (e.g.,

institution-wide expert capability) is interesting in this context:
If you concentrate your efforts on increasing individual talent, you will have a devil of a job
producing social capital. There is just no mechanism or motivation to bring all that talent
together. The reverse is not true. High social capital does generate increased human capital.
Individuals get confidence, learning, and feedback from having the right kind of people and
the right kinds of interactions and relationships around them. (p. 4)
The main issue, as the authors point out, is:

…good learning comes from good teaching…So, let’s concentrate our efforts not on bigger
budgets, smaller classes, changing the curriculum, or altering the size of schools – but on
procuring and producing the best teachers we can get. (p. 13)
This makes perfect sense from the perspective taken here. Firstly, the teaching
force is the most single important factor in terms of educational quality. After all,
they are the front line in the teaching and learning process, just as the team players are
the front line in professional team sports. Rarely do poor teams win major champi-
onships in any professional sporting arena. Also, it helps if there is good leadership,
and the same comparisons between school leaders and professional team coaches
equally apply. Having worked extensively in educational development in Singapore
for 24 years, as advisor, researcher and conducting workshops across the educa-
tional sectors, I was not surprised when the Economist Magazine (2018) referred to
the Singapore Education System as the “best in the world”, noting that the major
contributing factors included a focus on quality teaching and pedagogy being based
on educational research. What was increasing becoming ‘face-validity’ for me, has
taken on a wider empirical frame.
Darling-Hammond and Rothamn’s (2015) extensive analysis and evaluation of
high performing educational systems (e.g., Finland, Ontario and Singapore) have
spelt out the main features that seem to make the difference:
• Deep respect for the profession from the top levels of government and throughout
society
• Strong common training for all teachers and leaders around these shared goals
• Systemic mentoring and induction for new teachers by trained senior teachers
• Continual development of educational knowledge, skills, and talent through exten-
sive, governmentally subsidized professional development opportunities and a
career ladder offering roles that expand and share experience
• Significant scheduled time for teachers to collaborate and learn together through
lesson study, action research, and other reflections on practice.
Societal Commitment to the Importance of Learning

Referring specifically to Singapore, as I know it well, there are deep interrelated
systemic factors that have contributed to Singapore’s success, which is not only
9.15 Institutional and Societal Features that Facilitate Good … 351
globally noticed in terms of its educational system but also in its economy, recently
reported to be the most competitive in the world (Straits Times, October 2019).
Firstly, Singapore as long sought to develop a workforce that not only can learn
faster but also better (my interpretation). The development of personal attributes
relating to what are now referred to as twenty-first-century competencies, as long
been in the Singaporean educational and cultural landscape. For example, in 1995,
the Education Minister, Lee Yock Suan, highlighted the need for students to be able
to:
...learn to think independently and solve unexpected problems to survive and prosper in the
years ahead, when knowledge and skills will become obsolete faster than before. (Conference
to top civil servants on June 30)
A particularly salient landmark was the then Prime Minister of Singapore, Mr. Goh
Chok Tong’s (1997) framing of Singapore’s educational system in terms of “Thinking
Schools, Learning Nation” at the opening of the 7th International Conference on
Thinking. He stated:
We must get away from the idea that it is only the people at the top who should be thinking,
and the job of everybody else is to do as told. Instead, we want to bring about a spirit of
innovation, of learning by doing, of everybody each at his level all the time asking how he
can do his job better. (p. 1)
Educational systems, philosophy and practices inevitably reflect the societal con-
text in which they prevail. They are also likely to incorporate the interests and con-
cerns of dominant decision-making groups in that society. In Singapore, there is a
heavy reliance on the continuous development of its human resources to sustain and
enhance competitive advantage, which will only be possible in the future with a
workforce capable of responding to the enormity and complexity of economic and
technological change with both productiveness and creativity. As the Prime Minister
of Singapore, Mr. Goh Chok Tong (1997) stated:
The old formulae for success are unlikely to prepare our young for the new circumstances
and new problems they will face. We do not even know what these problems will be, let alone
be able to provide the answers and solutions to them. But we must ensure that our young
can think for themselves so that the next generation can find their solutions to whatever new
problems they may face. (p. 3)
The Thinking Schools, Learning Nation program was launched in 1997, with
quality in schools being highlighted as a key to ensuring student success. This is
often referred to as the Ability-Driven Phase, which focused on “the development of
every child to maximize his or her full potential through an education system tailored
to that purpose” (Tan and Low 2016, p. 31). The concept of thinking schools was
based on the notion that:
…the development of thinking and committed citizens would be crucial in ensuring that
future challenges would be confidently dealt with, ensuring the continued success of Singa-
pore. Learning was promoted as a national culture by encouraging creativity at every level
of society. The role of teachers was also redefined, so that each school would be perceived
as a model learning organisation. (Singapore Infopedia)
A Learning Nation envisions a national culture and social environment that promotes lifelong
learning in our people. The capacity of Singaporeans to continually learn, both for profes-
sional development and for personal enrichment, will determine our collective tolerance for
change. (Singapore Ministry of Education 2014, paras. 2–4).
Schools were encouraged to develop a spirit of creativity and innovation, in that

both students and teachers were to be involved in action research, scientific inves-
tigations, and entrepreneurial activities. Well-prepared and well-supported teachers
were seen as central to these aims.
Central to the vision was a comprehensive review of the curriculum in educational
institutions, undertaken by the Ministry of Education, to promote more creative and
critical thinking. As Tan and Gopinathan (2000) have commented:
It focuses on developing all students into active learners with critical thinking skills and on
developing a creative and critical thinking culture within schools. Its key strategies include:
(1) the explicit teaching of critical and creative thinking skills; (2) the reduction of subject
content; (3) revision of assessment modes… (p. 7)
At that time, I was Education Advisor at Singapore Polytechnic and was tasked
with developing a whole curriculum approach to promoting thinking, which I
euphemistically referred to as “The Thinking Curriculum: A Response to Think-
ing Schools, Learning Nation” (Sale 2004). Furthermore, while Singapore maintains
a strong adherence to developing cognitive capabilities and high educational attain-
ment levels, as necessary goals for its educational direction, it is also committed to
a holistic education that incorporates interpersonal and intrapersonal competencies
in the wider educational aims and curriculum goals. In 2011, what is referred to as
the Values-Driven Phase, sent a clear signal that the holistic education of individuals
was essential to survive in the twenty-first-century workplace and society? Mr. Heng
Swee Keat, Minister for Education, explained that values and character development
had to be placed at the core of the education system because parents and educa-
tors alike called for schools to develop students holistically in response to changing
demands in the global environment. As Tan and Low (2016) summarize:
The goals of this phase are “every school a good school,” “every student an engaged learner,”
“every teacher a caring educator,” and “every parent a supportive partner.” (p. 31) This values-
driven phase goes hand in hand with the ability-driven phase, where schools not only teach
academic and life skills but also help instil values and build character in students. (p. 31)
In this student-centric phase, clear desired goals and outcomes of schooling and
education were spelt out. The goal of the Singaporean education system is to nurture
every child, regardless of his or her ability or achievement level. The ecology of
educational reform is seen as resting on a set of shared values, The Desired Outcomes
of Education, which are attributes that educators aspire for every Singaporean to have
by the completion of formal education. These outcomes establish a common purpose
for educators, drive policies and programmes, and provide a means of determining
how well the education system is doing. They seek to develop:
• a confident person who has a strong sense of right and wrong, is adaptable
and resilient, knows himself, is discerning in judgment, thinks independently and
critically, and communicates effectively;
9.15 Institutional and Societal Features that Facilitate Good … 353
• a self-directed learner who takes responsibility for his learning, who questions,
reflects and perseveres in the pursuit of learning;
• an active contributor who can work effectively in teams, exercises initiative, takes
calculated risks, is innovative and strives for excellence; and,
• a concerned citizen who is rooted to Singapore, has a strong civic consciousness,
is informed, and takes an active role in bettering the lives of others around him.
How these outcomes are developed through key educational stages is summarized
in Table 9.5.
Most significant, in Singapore, policy quickly becomes active in practice, and new
thrusts are supported with comprehensive professional development and support for
teachers. I was astonished and delighted to have so much opportunity for professional
learning. It bore no resemblance to what I had experienced prior, and this is not in
any way critical of my prior workplaces. Teachers here have about 20 h a week built
into their schedule for shared planning and learning, including visits to one another’s
classrooms, as well as 100 h per year of state-supported professional development
outside of their school time. Furthermore, to create the space for critical thinking
in the classroom, the content of all subjects has been significantly reduced (by up
to 30%). Testing and assessments are increasingly being redesigned to encompass
critical thinking skills. Darling-Hammond and Rothman (2015) point out that the
purpose of the curriculum reduction was to free up space and time to focus on
Table 9.5 Key stage outcomes of education

At the end of primary school, At the end of secondary At the end of post-secondary
pupils should school, students should education, students should
be able to distinguish right have moral integrity have moral courage to stand
from wrong up for what is right
know their strengths and believe in their abilities and be resilient in the face of
areas for growth be able to adapt to change adversity
be able to cooperate, share be able to work in teams and be able to collaborate across
and care for others show empathy for others cultures and be socially
responsible
have a lively curiosity about be creative and have an be innovative and enterprising
things inquiring mind
be able to think for and be able to appreciate diverse be able to think critically and
express themselves views and communicate communicate persuasively
confidently effectively
take pride in their work take responsibility for their be purposeful in pursuit of
own learning excellence
have healthy habits and an enjoy physical activities and pursue a healthy lifestyle and
awareness of the arts appreciate the arts have an appreciation for
aesthetics
know and love Singapore believe in Singapore and be proud to be Singaporeans
understand what matters to and understand Singapore in
Singapore relation to the world
promoting thinking and self-directed learning, which are recognized as important

skills required for the global economy (p. 45). Furthermore, from their analysis of
high performing educational systems, notably Singapore and Finland, they identify
that while successful systems may differ in several ways, there are common systemic
features—in that they are systems for teacher and leader development. Key features
include:
Multiple components, not just a single policy, and these components are intended to be
coherent and complementary, to support the overall goal of ensuring that each school in each
jurisdiction is filled with highly effective teachers and is led by a highly effective principal.
(pp. 76–77)
The evidence shows that school leadership is second only to teaching in its effects on stu-
dent learning. About a fourth of the school-related variation in student achievement can be
explained by school leadership (Leithwood et al. 2004). (p. 88)
Similarly, Ryan and Deci (2017) concur with the above analysis of these systems
as well as capturing the essence and purpose of this chapter.
Despite massive differences in curricular approaches, they have one important thing in com-
mon: they treat and train their teachers as professionals. These nations have invested in
higher salaries and higher-quality training, to recruit the best and the brightest and help
them internalize and develop effective classroom practices. In turn, the more competent and
professional the population of teachers, the more they can be expected to benefit from, and
make good use of professional autonomy. (p. 378)
The primary focus is student flourishing – that is, not only growing in cognitive skills and
knowledge but also developing and strengthening personal and social skills and experiencing
psychological health and well-being in the process. (p. 380)
9.16 Epilogue
Teaching expertise (in terms of Martin’s (2009) Knowledge Funnel) is now less of a
Mystery and more understandable in terms of useful Heuristics. As a consequence,
we can now develop tools (e.g., highly effective, efficient and creative instructional
strategies) that will enhance competence and performance in teaching, of which
Drucker framed as only possessed by the ‘naturals’ who somehow know how to
teach. Invariably, teaching itself needs significant reframing. As Treadwell (2017)
points out:
The role of the educator is now far more dynamic and requires a deeper professionalism
and rigour in our understanding of the Learning Process, the concept frameworks within
the domains and the competencies in which we are operating, as well as the thoughtful and
reflective practices we are encouraging. (p. 156)
For me, the aim is to improve teaching quality globally, as I feel that’s something
worthwhile in terms of a moral landscape (e.g., Harris 2010). I also think that a
global teaching force, skilled in Metacognitive Capability and Creative Teaching
Competence, would help a generation of learners to be able to better understand the
9.16 Epilogue 355
world (the one inside their heads, and that external to self). It may also contribute to
better decision making for mankind’s future. This might represent a major existential
feature of human progress, akin to Pinker’s (2019) “Enlightenment Now”.
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Cognitive Science and Technology

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11554

ISSN 2195-3988 ISSN 2195-3996 (electronic)

In my previous book, Creative Teaching: An Evidence-Based Approach, I applied

Singapore Dennis Sale

Helene Leong (director of Educational Development at Singapore Polytechnic)

1 Making Sense of Teaching: From Mystery to Heuristics ......... 1

2.10 Core Principle 9: A Psychological Climate Is Created

5.4 Teaching as Skillful Creative Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

8 Assessing Twenty-First Century Competencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

To play football, at whatever level, requires the ability to function as a team-

1.2 What I Learned About Teachers: The Good, the Bad

At the school level, Rowe and Rowe (1993) argued:

Petty (2009) fully contextualized the importance of good teachers in real-life

As a pupil at school, a practising teacher, a parent, and a teacher educator in

enhancing teaching expertise as a priority goal in educational policy. It is shocking,

1.3 A Short Tour into Educational Jurassic Park

However, in the same address, he argued that:

As a result, to quote Hattie again in this context, this results in:

1.4 Moving Out of Educational Jurassic Park

In terms of paradigms, there is a significant shift towards a more evidence-based

in useful dialogue about professional knowledge and practices in teaching from a

More recently, Darling-Hammond and Bransford (2005), from surveying the

Also, Hattie’s work was a definitive landmark in educational research, providing

• Advancing the learner’s achievement by one year

Fig. 1.1 Illustration of Hattie’s Russian Doll analogy

1.5 Moving Teaching from Mystery to Heuristics

In summary to this introductory chapter, I offer an analogy between recent devel-

Fig. 1.2 Martin’s

In terms of Martin’s knowledge funnel, I am suggesting that, as far as teaching

In many ways, this book represents a convergence on differing conceptions of teach-

Abstract This chapter provides a comprehensive synthesis of the extensive research

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 17

be explained as just another consequence of the periodic radical reframing of what

A similar frame is made by Goulston (2009), who argued that:

While philosophical discussions on how best to frame pedagogy will inevitably

In explaining and illustrating each of these core principles of learning, calibrations

Similarly (Apter 2001) describes the mind in these terms:

Bandler and Grinder (1990) make the summative point:

2.2 Core Principle 1: Learning Goals, Objectives

There is a strong evidence base supporting the importance of establishing clear,

Similarly, Schank (2011) reinforces the important outcome of student buy-in:

It is important therefore to be able to, as far as is possible, ascertain their prior

2.3 Core Principle 2: Learners Prior Knowledge Is

On the first day of my appointment at Singapore Polytechnic in 1985, I was asked

Our prior knowledge is stored in our long-term memory in organized mental

to create a psychological climate in which students feel comfortable sharing their

2.4 Core Principle 3: Content Is Organized Around Key

Understanding is about making personal meaning of knowledge and seeing how it is

mental models (deep understanding) of complex phenomena in the world requires

In summary, as Resnick (1989) summarized:

There should be a little surprise here, after all, “knowledge is power”—right?

Similarly, as Pugh and Bergin (2006) point out:

There is much we can do as teaching professionals to facilitate understanding. You

Basically, understanding is a difficult learning goal, as it involves much cognitive

He is famously noted for asserting that:

McTighe and Wiggins argue that a question is ‘essential’ if it can:

2.5 Core Principle 4: Good Thinking Promotes

Hattie and Yates (2014) offer the following analysis: