Lecture Presentation Law of Conservation of Mass

The total mass of substances present at the

Chapter 2 end of a chemical process is the same as the
mass of substances present before the
process took place.
Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions

Atoms,
Molecules,
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Early Discoveries and the Atomic Theory

• Lavoisier 1774 Law of conservation of mass

The total mass of substances present after a chemical

reaction is the same as the total mass before the reaction

(Matter cannot be created or destroyed.)

FIGURE 2-2
Mass is conserved during a chemical reaction
 Early Discoveries and the Atomic Theory
Atomic Theory of Matter

• Proust 1799 Law of constant composition

The theory that atoms
All samples of a compound have the same are the fundamental
composition (same proportions by mass of the building blocks of
constituent elements) matter reemerged in
the early nineteenth
e.g. Water is always made up of 2 H atoms (11.19 % century, championed
by weight) and 1 Oxygen atom (88.81 % by weight) by John Dalton.
no matter what the sample size

Atoms,
Molecules,
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Dalton's Postulates Dalton's Postulates

Each element is All atoms of a given

composed of extremely element are identical to
small particles called one another in mass
atoms. and other properties,
but the atoms of one
element are different
from the atoms of all
other elements.

Atoms, Atoms,
Molecules, Molecules,
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 Dalton's Postulates Dalton's Postulates

Atoms of an element Compounds are

are not changed into formed when atoms of
atoms of a different more than one element
element by chemical combine; a given
compound always has
reactions; atoms are the same relative
neither created nor number and kind of
destroyed in chemical atoms.
reactions.

Atoms, Atoms,
Molecules, Molecules,
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If two elements form more than a single compound, the masses of one Dalton’s Atomic Theory: Summary
element combined with a fixed mass of the second are in the ratio of
small whole numbers.

1. Each element is composed of small particles

called atoms.
• In forming carbon
monoxide, 1.0 g of carbon
combines with 1.33 g of 2. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in
oxygen. chemical reactions.

• In forming carbon dioxide, 3. All atoms of a given element are identical

1.0 g of carbon combines and differ from all other elements
with 2.66 g of oxygen.
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of
more than one element combine in simple
Consequences of Dalton’s theory
numerical ratios.
 Electrons and Other Discoveries in Atomic Physics

Electrostatic charges: Overall No charge:

no net charge (comb + paper) no forces Charged particles are deflected when they pass through
Like charges:
Attraction due to charge a magnetic field in a direction perpendicular to the field
repulsion Opposite charges:
separation
attraction
Effect of a magnetic field on charged particles

Towards the discovery of electrons

The Electron
Cathode rays are
generated here

• Streams of negatively charged particles were found to

emanate from cathode tubes, causing fluorescence.
• J. J. Thomson is credited with their discovery (1897).
Atoms,
Cathode ray tube Molecules,
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 Electron m/e = -5.6857 × 10-9 g coulomb-1
The Electron

Cathode rays are deflected by electric and magnetic fields in a Thomson measured the charge/mass ratio of
manner similar to negatively charged particles. By balancing the electron to be 1.76  108 coulombs/gram
these two fields a m/e rays
ratioandistheir
established. (C/g). Atoms,
FIGURE 2-7 Cathode properties
Molecules,
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The term electron finally appears

Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment

The cathode rays are fundamental particles

Once the charge/mass
and are independent of the cathode material. ratio of the electron
Cathode rays were later named electrons. was known,
determination of either
Electron m/e = -5.6857 × 10-9 g coulomb-1 the charge or the mass
Charge = -1.6022 × 10-19 coulomb of an electron would
Mass = 9.1094 × 10-28 g yield the other.

Atoms,
Molecules,
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 Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment Radioactivity

• Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of

Robert Millikan radiation by an atom.
(University of Chicago)
• It was first observed by Henri Becquerel.
determined the charge
on the electron in • Marie and Pierre Curie also studied it.
1909.

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Molecules, Molecules,
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The Plumb Pudding Model of the Atom

Radioactivity
• Three types of radiation were discovered by
Ernest Rutherford: J. J. Thomson realized the existence of electrons.
 particles
 particles
 rays He correctly assumed that positive charge must be
present in the form of a nebulous cloud in order to
counter-balance the negative charge.

He predicted electrons (plumbs) to be embedded

into the positive charge cloud (pudding)
Atoms,
Molecules,
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 The view of the Atom further refined
The Atom, circa 1900
Based on J. J. Thomson’s model positively charged
• The prevailing theory α-particles should pass through an atom mostly
was that of the “plum undisturbed.
pudding” model, put
forward by Thomson. However, Rutherford studied the scattering
• It featured a positive patterns of α-particles as they pass through an
sphere of matter with
atom.
negative electrons
imbedded in it.
Atoms,
Molecules,
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The view of the Atom further refined

Discovery of the Nucleus
Rutherford found the following:
Ernest
1. The majority of the particles were not deflected
Rutherford shot
 particles at a
2. Some particles were slightly deflected thin sheet of
gold foil and
3. Very few were severely deflected observed the
pattern of scatter
4. About the same number did not penetrate and of the particles.
were bounced back. Atoms,
Molecules,
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 • Most of the mass and all of
The discovery of the Proton the positive charge is
concentrated in a small The Nuclear Atom
region called the nucleus.

Since some particles

were deflected at
large angles,
Thomson’s model
could not be correct.
• There are as many electrons outside
the nucleus as there are units of
positive charge on the nucleus
Basically a small dense positive
Figure 2-12
nucleus and electrons occupy the space
The  -particle experiment
around them Atoms,
Molecules,
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The Nuclear Atom

Rutherford
protons 1919
• Rutherford
postulated a very
small, dense
nucleus with the
electrons around the
James Chadwick in 1932 outside of the atom.
discovered a penetrating • Most of the volume
neutral beam of radiation
he called neutrons.
of the atom is empty
Figure 2-13 space.
The nuclear atom – illustrated by the helium atom Atoms,
Molecules,
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 Other Subatomic Particles Subatomic Particles

• Protons and electrons are the only particles that

• Protons were discovered by Rutherford in have a charge.
1919. • Protons and neutrons have essentially the same
• Neutrons were discovered by James mass.
Chadwick in 1932. • The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it.

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Molecules, Molecules,
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Scale of Atoms

The heaviest atom has a mass of only 4.8 x 10-22 g

and a diameter of only 5 x 10-10 m.
Useful units:

• 1 amu (atomic mass unit) = 1.66054 x 10-24 kg

(exactly the mass of 1/12 of 12C)
• 1 pm (picometer) = 1 x 10-12 m
• 1 Å (Angstrom) = 1 x 10-10 m = 100 pm = 1 x 10-8 cm

Biggest atom is 240 amu and is 50 Å across.

Typical C-C bond length 154 pm (1.54 Å)
Molecular models are 1 Å /inch or about 0.4 Å /cm
 Symbols of Elements Symbols of Elements

Elements are symbolized by one or two

letters.

All atoms of the same element have the same

number of protons, which is called the atomic
number, Z.

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Molecules, Molecules,
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Symbols of Elements Chemical Elements

To represent a particular atom we use symbolism:

Chemical symbol

Electronic charge
The mass of an atom in atomic mass units
(amu) is the total number of protons and
A= mass number (number of Protons + number of neutrons)
neutrons in the atom.
Z = atomic number (number of Protons, same for all atoms of a given
element)
Atoms, E= Chemical symbol of the element (e.g. H, O, N, C, Ne, etc…)
Molecules,
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 If the Sum of the Parts is Greater than the Whole!
Isotopes
When protons and neutrons combine a very small
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with portion of their original masses is converted to
different masses. energy
• Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.
This is a result of the nuclear binding energy (the
incentive for these particles to come together in
the first place)

Thus simply adding up the individual weights of

the fundamental particles that make up atoms
Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
will not give us an accurate weight.
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Enter: Mass Spectrometry, a tool to weigh atoms!

Atomic Mass
In this device ions (positive or negative) are separated
and counted based on their mass and charge while they
pass through electrical and magnetic fields. Atomic and
molecular masses
can be measured
with great accuracy
using a mass
spectrometer.

A mass spectrometer and a mass spectrum Atoms,

Molecules,
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 Atomic Mass (Weight)*
Average Mass
Here we are technically talking about mass not weight even
though many scientist use the term loosely.
• Because in the real world we use large
amounts of atoms and molecules, we use Mass is actually a measure of amount of matter present in a
body and is an intrinsic property of the body. Mass of an
average masses in calculations.
object is the how much stuff it is made of and always remains
the same regardless where the object is located.
• Average mass is calculated from the
isotopes of an element weighted by their Weight on the other hand is the force which a given mass feels
due to the gravity at its place. Therefore the weigh of an object
relative abundances. would be less on the moon than on Earth, while in interstellar
space, where there is nearly no gravity, objects weigh almost
Atoms,
nothing at all.
Molecules,
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Atomic Mass (Weight)*

Think about your GPA!
Periodic Table
Weighted Average Atomic Mass of an Element (includes the
contribution of all isotopes of that element)
• The periodic
fractional atomic fractional atomic table is a
= abundance x mass of + abundance x mass of + …… systematic catalog
of isotope 1 isotope 1 of isotope 2 isotope 2
of the elements.
Equation (2.3) • Elements are
arranged in order
Aave = 1 x A1 + 2 x A2 + …… n x An of atomic number.

where 1 + 2+ .+ n = 1.0

Atoms,
Molecules,
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Periodic Table Periodic Table

• The rows on the

periodic chart are Nonmetals are
periods. on the right side
• Columns are of the periodic
groups. table (with the
• Elements in the exception of H).
same group have
similar chemical
properties.
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Molecules, Molecules,
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Periodic Table Periodic Table

Metalloids Metals are on

border the the left side of
stair-step line the chart.
(with the
exception of Al,
Po, and At).

Atoms, Atoms,
Molecules, Molecules,
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 The Periodic table
Group (members of a group have similar properties)
The Periodic table
Metals
Period (within a period, elements increase by atomic
mass and by atomic number when read from left to right)

Alkali Metals The Periodic table Noble Gases

Periodicity
Alkaline Earths Main Group
Halogens

Transition Metals

When one looks at the chemical properties of

elements, one notices a repeating pattern of
reactivities.
Main Group Lanthanides and Actinides Atoms,
Molecules,
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 Groups Chemical Formulas
The subscript to the right of
the symbol of an element tells
the number of atoms of that
element in one molecule of
the compound.

These five groups are known by their names.

Atoms, Atoms,
Molecules, Molecules,
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Types of Chemical Compounds and Their Formulas

Chemical Formulas
All compounds are composed of two or more elements
Molecular compounds are
composed of molecules and
Two types of bonds
almost always contain only
nonmetals.
Covalent bonds Ionic bonds
(sharing of electrons) (transfer of electrons)

Molecular Compounds Ionic Compounds

Atoms,
Molecules,
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Types of Chemical Compounds and Their Formulas
Diatomic Molecules

• Molecular Compounds • These seven elements occur naturally

Lets look at the chemical formula of water as molecules containing two atoms:

 Hydrogen
 Nitrogen
 Oxygen
 Fluorine
 Chlorine
 Bromine Atoms,
 Iodine Molecules,
and Ions
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Types of Formulas Types of Formulas

• Empirical formulas give the lowest whole-number • Structural formulas show

ratio of atoms of each element in a compound. the order in which atoms are
bonded.
• Molecular formulas give the exact number of atoms
of each element in a compound. • Perspective drawings also
show the three-dimensional
array of atoms in a
compound.
Atoms, Atoms,
Molecules, Molecules,
and Ions and Ions
 Molecular compounds
Molecular: Indicates
Empirical: types of atom the types of atoms and
and relative numbers the actual number.

Structural: Shows which atoms are bonded to

which and the types of bonds.
Visualizations of (a) butane, (b) methylpropane, and (c) testosterone

Several representations of the compound acetic acid

Ionic Compounds
• Atoms of almost all elements can gain or lose electrons to
form charged species called ions.
• Compounds composed of ions are known as ionic
compounds.

+ Metals tend to lose electrons to form positively

charged ions called cations.
- Non-metals tend to gain electrons to form
negatively charged ions called anions.

Color scheme for use in molecular models

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Inc.
 Ions Ionic Bonding (no electron sharing)
This type of ionic interactions is equally exerted
in all directions, this is called omni-directional
bonding which results in ordered 3-dimentional
networks.

• When atoms lose or gain electrons, they

become ions.
– Cations are positive and are formed by elements
on the left side of the periodic chart.
– Anions are negative and are formed by elements
on the right side of the periodic chart. Atoms,
Molecules,
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Ionic Bonds An extended array of Na+ and Cl- ions

A formula unit is the smallest electrically neutral
Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are collection of ions
generally formed between metals and
nonmetals. In this case it is NaCl

FIGURE 3-4
Atoms, Portion of an ionic crystal and a formula unit of NaCl
Molecules,
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 Writing Formulas Common Cations

• Because compounds are electrically neutral,

one can determine the formula of a
compound this way:
– The charge on the cation becomes the subscript
on the anion.
– The charge on the anion becomes the subscript
on the cation.
– If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole-
number ratio, divide them by the greatest common
Atoms, Atoms,
factor. Molecules, Molecules,
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Common Anions

Sections 2.8 and 2.9 are private study.

We shall hold a problem solving session on

these two sections

Atoms,
Molecules,
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Naming Compounds: Organic and Inorganic Compounds Names and Formulas of Inorganic Compounds

Nomenclature: a systematic method of assigning compound

names. Binary Compounds (two elements only) of Metals and Nonmetals

Organic compounds: composed of carbon, hydrogen and other

hetero atoms. (we will not deal with those in this course) If the binary compound is composed of only Metals and Nonmetals

Inorganic compounds: those that are not organic

 Then we usually have an ionic compound

 Write the name of the metal followed by the name of

the non metal ending with “ide”

Lead (IV) oxide Lead (II) oxide

Two oxides of lead

Names and Formulas of Inorganic Compounds

Inorganic Nomenclature
Remember the formula unit in this case the ionic compound must
• Write the name of the cation.
be electrically neutral
• If the anion is an element, change its ending to -ide if
the anion is a polyatomic ion then simply write the
name of the polyatomic ion.

– Two or more atoms are joined together by covalent bonds to

make a single ion e.g. Hg22+ , OH-, CN-, etc…

• If the cation can have more than one possible charge

then write the charge as a Roman numeral in
parentheses. Atoms,
Molecules,
and Ions
 Roman numbering is used
when you can have multiple
oxidation states

Binary Compounds of Two Non-Metals Binary Compounds of Two Non-Metals

Molecular compounds Molecular compounds

usually write the element with positive oxidation state first. usually write the element with positive oxidation state first.

e.g. HCl hydrogen chloride e.g. HCl hydrogen chloride

Some pairs of non-metals form more than one Some pairs of non-metals form more than one
binary molecular compound. To distinguish among binary molecular compound. To distinguish anong
them we use: them we use:
mono 1 penta 5 mono 1 penta 5 SO2 = sulfur dioxide

di 2 hexa 6 di 2 hexa 6 SO3 = sulfur trioxide

tri 3 hepta 7 tri 3 hepta 7 B2Br4 = diboron tetrabromide

tetra 4 octa 8 tetra 4 octa 8

 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature

• When there are two oxyanions involving the

same element:
– The one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite.
– The one with more oxygens ends in -ate.
• NO2− : nitrite; SO32− : sulfite
• NO3− : nitrate; SO42− : sulfate

Atoms,
Molecules,
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Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature

Increasing oxidation state of nonmetal

Hypo(anion)ite (anion)ite (anion)ate per(anion)ate

ClO - ClO2 - ClO3 - ClO4 -

Increasing number of oxygen atoms

• Central atoms on the second row have bond
to at most three oxygens; those on the third
row take up to four.
• Charges increase as you go from right to left.
Atoms, Atoms,
Molecules, Molecules,
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Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
Increasing oxidation state of nonmetal

hypochlorite chlorite chlorate perchlorate

Increasing number of oxygen atoms

Atoms, Atoms,
Molecules, Molecules,
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Binary Acids (two element compound composed

of a hydrogen and a non-metal Acid Nomenclature
Acids produce H+ when dissolved in water.
They are compounds that ionize in water. • If the anion in the acid
The symbol (aq) signifies aqueous solution.
ends in -ide, change
the ending to -ic acid
Naming: prefix “hydro” followed by the name of the and add the prefix
non-metal with “ic” at the end
hydro- .
H2S(aq) = hydrosulfuric acid – HCl: hydrochloric acid
HI(aq) = hydroiodic acid – HBr: hydrobromic acid
HCl(aq) = hydrochloric acid – HI: hydroiodic acid
HBr(aq) = hydrobromic acid
HF(aq) = hydrofluoric acid
Atoms,
Molecules,
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Acid Nomenclature Acid Nomenclature

• If the anion in the acid • If the anion in the acid

ends in -ite, change the ends in -ate, change
ending to -ous acid. the ending to -ic acid.
– HClO: hypochlorous acid – HClO3: chloric acid
– HClO2: chlorous acid – HClO4: perchloric acid

Atoms, Atoms,
Molecules, Molecules,
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Nomenclature of Binary Compounds

• The less electronegative

atom is usually listed first.
• A prefix is used to denote
the number of atoms of
each element in the
compound (mono- is not
used on the first element
listed, however) .

Atoms,
Molecules,
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Nomenclature of Binary Compounds Nomenclature of Binary Compounds

• The ending on the more • If the prefix ends with a

electronegative element or o and the name of the
is changed to -ide. element begins with a
vowel, the two
successive vowels are
– CO2: carbon dioxide often elided into one.
– CCl4: carbon tetrachloride

N2O5: dinitrogen pentoxide

Atoms, Atoms,
Molecules, Molecules,
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Nomenclature of Organic Compounds Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

• Organic chemistry is the study of carbon. The simplest hydrocarbons (compounds

• Organic chemistry has its own system of containing only carbon and hydrogen) are
alkanes.
nomenclature.
Atoms, Atoms,
Molecules, Molecules,
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 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

• When a hydrogen in an alkane is replaced with

The first part of the names just listed something else (a functional group, like -OH in
correspond to the number of carbons the compounds above), the name is derived from
(meth- = 1, eth- = 2, prop- = 3, etc.). the name of the alkane.
• The ending denotes the type of compound.
Atoms, Atoms,
Molecules, – An alcohol ends in -ol. Molecules,
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Sample Exercise 2.14 Relating the Names and Formulas of Acids Sample Exercise 2.15 Relating the Names and Formulas of Binary
Name the acids (a) HCN, (b) HNO3, (c) H2SO4, (d) H2SO3. Molecular Compounds
Name the compounds (a) SO2, (b) PCl5, (c) Cl2O3.
Solution
(a) The anion from which this acid is derived is CN–, the cyanide ion. Because this ion has an -ide ending, the
Solution
acid is given a hydro- prefix and an -ic ending: hydrocyanic acid. Only water solutions of HCN are referred
to as hydrocyanic acid. The pure compound, which is a gas under normal conditions, is called hydrogen The compounds consist entirely of nonmetals, so they are molecular rather than
cyanide. Both hydrocyanic acid and hydrogen cyanide are extremely toxic. ionic. Using the prefixes in Table 2.6, we have (a) sulfur dioxide, (b) phosphorus
(b) Because NO3– is the nitrate ion, HNO3 is called nitric acid (the -ate ending of the anion is replaced with an pentachloride, and (c) dichlorine trioxide.
-ic ending in naming the acid).
(c) Because SO42– is the sulfate ion, H2SO4 is called sulfuric acid.
(d) Because SO32– is the sulfite ion, H2SO3 is sulfurous acid (the -ite ending of the anion is replaced with an Practice Exercise
-ous ending). Give the chemical formulas for (a) silicon tetrabromide, (b) disulfur dichloride.

Practice Exercise Answer: (a) SiBr4, (b) S2Cl2

Give the chemical formulas for (a) hydrobromic acid, (b) carbonic acid.

Answer: (a) HBr, (b) H2CO3

Chemistry, The Central Science, 12th Edition © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Chemistry, The Central Science, 12th Edition © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
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 Sample Exercise 2.16 Writing Structural and Molecular Formulas Sample Exercise 2.16 Writing Structural and Molecular Formulas
for Hydrocarbons for Hydrocarbons
Assuming the carbon atoms in pentane are in a linear chain, write (a) the structural formula and (b) the molecular Continued
formula for this alkane.

This form of pentane is often called n-pentane, where the n- stands for “normal” because all five carbon atoms
Solution are in one line in the structural formula.
(a) Alkanes contain only carbon and hydrogen, and each carbon is attached to four other atoms. The name (b) Once the structural formula is written, we determine the molecular formula by counting the atoms present.
pentane contains the prefix penta- for five (Table 2.6), and we are told that the carbons are in a linear chain. If Thus, n-pentane has the molecular formula C5H12.
we then add enough hydrogen atoms to make four bonds to each carbon, we obtain the structural formula
Practice Exercise
(a) What is the molecular formula of butane, the alkane with four carbons? (b) What are the name and molecular
formula of an alcohol derived from butane?

Answer: (a) C4H10, (b) butanol, C4H10O or C4H9OH

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Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.; Bruce E. Bursten; Catherine J. Murphy; and Patrick Woodward Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.; Bruce E. Bursten; Catherine J. Murphy; and Patrick Woodward