Abigail Butler

5th Period
Advanced World History
December, 2021

History of Viruses

As a species, humans have grown along with civilizations over time and
evolved to become the most dominant species on planet earth. We have almost
always been able to overcome challenges that come between us and our success.
That being said, viruses have existed long before humans came along,
approximately 3.5 billion years ago. Viruses have and will continue to play a
strong role in society. History has been greatly affected by viruses.
A virus is essentially a tiny parasite made up of genetic material that infects
a human which is known as the host in order to reproduce. Oftentimes when
viruses are mentioned people think of viruses such as the common cold or
chickenpox, and while yes viruses are bad, they also provide and perform many
important functions for your body. "For example, some viruses protect the host
against other infections."1 While other "viruses also participate in the process of
evolution by transferring genes among different species, and in biomedical
research, scientists use viruses to insert new genes into cells."2 Overall infectious
diseases are one of the major causes of death responsible for a quarter to one-third
of the mortality worldwide. The covid-19 virus has been known to be more
contagious than both influenza and the swine flu. But the reference of how viruses
grow and spread is through pandemics and epidemics.

1
"What's a Virus? Viral Infection Types, Symptoms, Treatment". Davis, October 6th, 2020
2
"What's a Virus? Viral Infection Types, Symptoms, Treatment". Davis, October 6th, 2020
 A pandemic occurs when there is an outbreak of an infectious disease that
spreads and affects a widespread group of people, usually, that will entail various
countries and continents. Pandemics typically start to spread over a shorter period
of time, about a few months. The most common ways for a global pandemic to
spread are through unintentional natural agents, laboratory experiments, and even
biological warfare between countries.
While an epidemic is similar to a pandemic, it doesn't affect countries or
continents. An epidemic rather infects a large group of people in a certain area or
community. Along with the spreading of an epidemic, it can be spread through
infectious and non-infectious diseases.
While a virus might come across as just being a health crisis, it truly isn't. A
virus has many other effects on communities of the world. In addition to health
issues, things such as social impact, economic impact, and a humanitarian crisis are
all things that come together when a virus outbreak occurs. A virus is collectively
spread to all age groups, disabilities, and economic statuses. Social impact takes a
hard toll on homeless people because they might be unable to seek shelter, thus
leaving them to be at a higher risk for contracting a virus. Refugees and
immigrants don't have the same amount of care as someone who has a home to live
in or even money. Regardless, the social impact also extends to the end of a
pandemic or epidemic, meaning the after-effects are different for everyone.
Additionally, it can be hard for many people to find jobs after the economy has
been hurt and damaged. "The recent virus outbreak Covid-19 shows that infectious
diseases spread easily due to open economies and easily threaten nations' economic
stability. Previous infections such as Black Death, SARS, Influenza H1N1, and
Swine Flu had caused similar economic impacts worldwide."3 Out of the economic
impact caused by all of the above-mentioned viruses, covid-19 has had the biggest
global impact. Many hospitals, stores, and offices were immediately shut down and
workers were evacuated at the start of the global pandemic. After the first few
months, economies worldwide started to crash over the loss of jobs and businesses.
It took a long time for communities, business owners, and people overall to bounce
back despite still being in a global pandemic. Over the years, viruses have forced
civilizations to innovate and develop new ways to combat their spread and impacts
on our health. The patterns of the Black Death, Ebola, and Covid-19 demonstrate
the comprehensive changes viruses have had on civilizations throughout history.

The Black Death, also known as the bubonic plague, struck the continents of
Europe and Asia in the 1300s. While becoming a tragedy to many countries, it was
also a global epidemic. The plague originally arrived in Europe in October of 1347,
when a series of 12 ships docked at the Sicilian port of Messina. Many people who
were standing on the docks were met with a gruesome discovery; many sailors on
the ships were found dead and the few who were still alive were severely ill and in
bad condition. The men who made it off the ships alive were found covered in
what was described as "black boils" that were filled with oozing blood and puss.
The ships were immediately forced out of the harbor, however, the disease was
already starting to spread. "Over the next five years, the Black Death would kill
more than 20 million people in Europe—almost one-third of the continent’s
population."4

3
"Effects of Pandemic Outbreak on Economies: Evidence From Business History Context".
Shang, Li, Zhang, March 12th 2021
4
"Black Death". History.com Editors, September 17th 2010
 The symptoms coinciding with the virus's impact were brutal. Many
symptoms are common symptoms found today with a common cold, but there were
also symptoms specific to this virus. Fevers, chills, vomiting, diarrhea, and terrible
aches and pains are all common symptoms in current times, but receiving "certain
swellings, either on the groin or under the armpits…waxed to the bigness of a
common apple, others to the size of an egg, some more and some less, and these
the vulgar named plague-boils.”5 were not only painful but a mixture of blood and
puss was known to seep out of these swellings at times. The black death
specifically targets your lymphatic system, which can lead to swelling of a person's
lymph nodes. If this is left untreated, it can quickly spread to your lungs and
throughout your blood, before triggering death.
This virus was not only incredibly contagious, but it was also terrifying for
many because of how efficient and fast the virus was able to spread. "People who
were perfectly healthy when they went to bed at night could be dead by morning."6
This just shows how badly people were impacted when this virus showed up. There
is a debate on just how the virus was originally carried and transmitted. Many
sources claim that the virus was spread through rats, but a study done in January
2017 says otherwise. This specific study was published by the Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences and a simulation was conducted on the three
possible agents of infection. These included airborne transmission, rats, and fleas,
and ticks that can be found on a person's body or clothes. The reached conclusion
was that "if rats really were a main cause of the plague, there would be more
archaeological evidence of dead rats."7 Just by this single study being done and
then published, we now know that rats were not the main cause of the plague.
According to the world health organization the plague is actually caused by
5
"Black Death". History.com Editors, September 17th 2010
6
"Black Death". History.com Editors, Spetember 17th 2010
7
"Rats Didn't Spread the Black Death- It Was Humans". Little, January 17th 2018
bacteria. Yersinia pestis is a zoonotic bacteria that are typically found within fleas
on small mammals and is responsible for the plague transmission to humans.
The economic impact of the black death caused two important
problems. The first was a decline of systematic equality. After the catastrophic era
of the black death, the richest 10% of people found that they had lost anywhere
between 15 and 20% of their overall wealth. This decline in equality became
long-lasting. This caused a drastic reduction of inequality and was caused by two
things: first, an increase in wages of both unskilled and skilled workers, and for
some "generally more favourable conditions experienced by labourers."8 The
second was "the fragmentation of large patrimonies caused by extremely high
mortality in the context of the partible inheritance system."9 The result of this
became an issue because many people inherited more properties than they wanted
let alone needed. Which led to a plentitude of property listings on the market. But
in the end "with higher real wages due to the scarcity of labour, this situation
helped a larger part of the population gain access to property."10
The societal impact of the black death largely happened out of fear and not
knowing what to do towards the beginning of it all. Many people panicked and
struggled at the loss of loved ones. The mass of dead bodies never slowed and so
they dug massive holes in the ground and piled body after body on top of each
other. While this tactic was indeed gruesome, they really had no other choice. "As
people "died by the hundreds, both day and night," anguished families "brought
their dead to a ditch as best they could" without help from anyone."11 As the holes
were filled to the brim, new ones were dug when necessary. As people fled from
the horrifying virus every day, there were cases where fathers would leave both

8
"The economic consequences of plague: lessons for the age of Covid-19". Alfani, June 29th, 2020
9
"The economic consequences of plague: lessons for the age of Covid-19". Alfani, June 29th, 2020
10
"The economic consequences of plague: lessons for the age of Covid-19". Alfani, June 29th, 2020
11
"The Black Death". Gale In Context, Summer 2020
their wives and their children. In fact, when the time came, a father with 5 children
reportedly said that he "Buried my five children with my own hands. And so many
died that all believed it was the end of the world."12 People dying daily was a
normal occurrence, and it sadly became a new normal for people everywhere
experiencing the plague. People would be found dead on the streets as if they
suddenly just collapsed and it was over for them. It was sadly said that "A dead
man was then of no more account than a dead goat."13
As things arrived abruptly and came out of nowhere, every normal business
along with churches immediately stopped and shut down. Mansions were cleared
of residents and found empty. Those who chose to stay, never left their houses until
they eventually contracted the virus and later died. "The houses of the dead stood
open, with all the jewels, money, and treasures in full view, and if someone wanted
to enter there was nothing to stop them."14 Places and towns had no laws with the
being of no officers or officials to enforce said laws. As people fled and panicked
to find any shelter to stay safe, there were also people who had decided it was best
to just give up and party until their death, there was "singing and free-living and
gratification of the appetite in every possible way... Day and night they went from
one tavern to another, drinking and carousing unrestrainedly."15 At first, the black
death was only in Europe but the same occurrences and issues regarding the virus
soon grew elsewhere. Studies show that close to one-third of Europe's individuals
became deceased over the span of five years, and it became worse in other areas
which reached anywhere from fifty- seventy percent of their total population dying
off.

12
"The Black Death". Gale In Context, Summer 2020
13
"The Black Death". Gale In Context, Summer 2020
14
"The Black Death". Gale In Context, Summer 2020
15
"The Black Death". Gale In Context, Summer 2020
 Eventually, in 1897, a vaccine was created to treat the black death. A man by
the name of Waldemar Haffkine, who was a bacteriologist and trained with Louis
Pasteur at his Paris institute. He then created a vaccine quickly and tested it on
himself so it could be used on a new bubonic plague epidemic in Bombay at the
time.

The modern virus that spread across countries and continents provoking
outbreaks everywhere is the Ebola Virus. Ebola was originally discovered in 1976
by the Ebola River in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The virus sporadically
sparks outbreaks and infects people every so often, but is not as largely
problematic to the global atmosphere today. Outbreaks of the Ebola Virus have
mainly taken place and been contained in African countries. Scientists currently
don't know exactly where the virus originates, but "Based on similar viruses, they
believe EVD is animal-borne, with bats or nonhuman primates being the most
likely source. Infected animals carrying the virus can transmit it to other animals,
like apes, monkeys, duikers and humans."16
Symptoms of the Ebola virus can arrive anywhere from 2-21 days after
coming in contact with the virus, but most commonly occur between the range of
8-10 days. The most common symptoms are muscle and joint pain, severe
headaches, loss of appetite, fatigue, sore throat, abdominal pain, diarrhea,
vomiting, and a fever at or above one hundred and one degrees. Some more severe
symptoms are skin rash, bleeding, hiccups, and unexplained hemorrhaging. "The
course of the illness typically progresses from 'dry' symptoms initially (such as
fever, aches and pains, and fatigue), and then progresses to 'wet' symptoms (such as
diarrhea and vomiting) as the person becomes sicker."17 Overall the virus is

16
"What is Ebola Virus Disease?". CDC, April 27th, 2021
17
"Signs and Symptoms". CDC, May 4th, 2021
becoming rarer but it can be very severe, and deadly for some. If you are able to
recover from the virus it is heavily based on the state of your immune system, as
well as good medical care. Recovery can be different for everyone, but scientists
have found that if you have had Ebola, your body now has antibodies toward the
virus.
As far as contracting the virus, "Scientists think people are initially infected
with Ebola virus through contact with an infected animal, such as a fruit bat or
nonhuman primate. This is called a spillover event."18 Once a person is infected
with the virus, it quickly spreads to other people, which can lead to an epidemic or
even the possibility of a pandemic. The transmission is a different story. The virus
is transmitted to someone else through direct contact, whether that is through
broken skin, mucous in the nose or eyes, or even various bodily fluids, such as
blood, saliva, urine, or vomit. As mentioned above, the virus is directly transmitted
but does so from a sick or dead individual's bodily fluids to an individual who is
healthy. Objects that have been touched by a sick individual also cause
transmission from one person to another, which can include clothes and medical
equipment.
There are several economic aspects and issues that tie into the severity of the
Ebola virus. One of the issues being jobs. "In addition, its high mortality rate
directly affects the availability of labor as an unprecedented number of people are
permanently extracted from the labor force."19 Along with the struggle for jobs,
another important issue is the panic it caused. Ebola has devasted many families
and individuals everywhere. "Indeed, the fear of contagion has caused many
stakeholders (including governments and private businesses) to restrict movement
of people and goods, thus halting trade and business transactions in the crises
18
"Transmission". CDC, January 14th, 2021
19
"Ebola Viral Disease in West Africa: A Threat to Global Health, Economy and Political Stability". J
Public Health Africa, August 17, 2017
countries. Seemingly, the economic cost, resulting from panic, clearly outweighs
the mortality tolls of the epidemic."20
The impact that outbreaks have on society is great. When the 2016 Ebola
Virus outbreak occurred, it had a huge impact on society. The places and countries
affected by this outbreak all took action by effectively using contact tracing,
treating those who were sick, and isolating those who were possibly infected. Just
with this one outbreak four years ago, the virus managed to reach three different
continents, which meant precautions were put in effect, safety measures were
taken, and panic struck many people. Many social and normal economic
normalities were either changed or put on a temporary hold. Governments
immediately took action after many people suffered from the virus by attempting to
eradicate the virus or find a solution such as a vaccine. "Several governments and
close to 40 non-governmental organizations have invested hundreds of millions of
US dollars to curb the disease. Yet, funds are running out while the disease
continues to soar, spreading to other regions."21
While there is currently no vaccine that works against the Ebola virus right
now, greater effort is being put into research and the development of a vaccine for
future use. However, "technically speaking, much remains unknown about the
biology and pathogenesis of EVD."22 But the biology and pathogenesis of the virus
is not the only thing that is halting the making of a vaccine. "From an economic
perspective, the epidemiology of the disease, rare and sporadic outbreaks that
occur in regions with very weak purchasing power, offers comparatively little or no
market incentives for industries to invest millions of dollars to develop products

20
"Ebola Viral Disease in West Africa: A Threat to Global Health, Economy and Political Stability". J
Public Health Africa, August 17, 2017
21
"Ebola Viral Disease in West Africa: A Threat to Global Health, Economy and Political Stability". J
Public Health Africa, August 17, 2017
22
"Ebola Viral Disease in West Africa: A Threat to Global Health, Economy and Political Stability". J
Public Health Africa, August 17, 2017
against EVD."23 In the past few years, the views and opinions on the need for the
vaccine have also changed. A vaccine against Ebola is needed for the health of aid
workers, healthcare workers, and military personnel. Today, scientists have begun
clinical testing on drugs for potential use, and have worked when tested on
animals.

Covid-19 has had such an impact globally and at a pandemic level for almost
two years now. Everyone has had their own personal and traumatic experiences
regarding this pandemic. Many people struggled with the loss of family members,
some who never got to see them before their death, and some who are still dealing
with their losses. While the pandemic is not over yet, we as a whole are working to
move through it as positively as possible. This pandemic made history and is
important in many ways, but first a backstory on the virus as a whole.
Covid-19 stands for the coronavirus disease 2019 and is caused by an
already existing disease named SARS-CoV-2 which was also discovered in
December of 2019 in Wuhan, China. This virus is highly contagious and spreads
quickly. The virus "causes respiratory and lung issues and symptoms, can feel like
a cold, the flu, or even pneumonia".24 In most cases among young people, only
mild symptoms develop but symptoms can become more severe in older people
which ultimately can lead to death. "Long COVID" is when you have contracted
the virus, but even after testing negative you still experience symptoms of the
virus. Anyone can develop "long COVID" even if your initial symptoms for the
virus are mild. The elderly community all over the world are at the highest risk for
contracting the virus given they have weaker immune systems. Also, others with
23
"Ebola Viral Disease in West Africa: A Threat to Global Health, Economy and Political Stability". J
Public Health Africa, August 17, 2017
24
"Basic of COVID-19". CDC, November 4th, 2021
medical issues or other health conditions are at greater risk of contracting the virus.
In the United States over the past two years, over eight hundred thousand people
have died due to the effects of covid-19, and people continue to die. "Like many
other respiratory viruses, coronaviruses spread quickly through droplets that you
project out of your mouth or nose when you breathe, cough, sneeze, or speak."25
There is more to the virus than just how it affects people; the genetic makeup of the
virus itself is how everything happens. "The word corona means crown and refers
to the appearance that coronaviruses get from the spike proteins sticking out of
them."26 The spikes in each cell of the virus are specific to the genetic makeup of
the virus itself. While you don't know you have been infected with the virus until
you test positive, the spikes are what allow the virus to inject itself into your
system to spread and reproduce. There are few antibodies that can actually protect
your immune system from SARS-CoV-2 by targeting the spike proteins of
Covid-19 cells. However, "because of the importance of this specific part of the
virus, scientists who sequence the virus for research constantly monitor mutations
causing changes to the spike protein through a process called genomic
surveillance."27
The symptoms of the virus have a different effect on everyone. Your
symptoms might be mild, or they could be life-threatening, but symptoms in
general can show up anywhere from two to fourteen days. A few of the symptoms
can include shortness of breath or difficulty breathing, coughing, fever or chills,
head/ muscle aches, fatigue, sore throat, loss of taste or smell, nausea or vomiting,
and congestion. More severe symptoms that are cause for medical attention are if
you have developed trouble breathing, persistent pain or chest pressure, inability to
stay awake, and confusion. "The virus can spread from an infected person’s mouth
25
"Basic of COVID-19". CDC, November 4th, 2021
26
"Basic of COVID-19". CDC, November 4th, 2021
27
"Basic of COVID-19". CDC, November 4th, 2021
or nose in small liquid particles when they cough, sneeze, speak, sing or breathe.
These particles range from larger respiratory droplets to smaller aerosols."28 The
CDC recommends staying at least six feet apart in distance from one another as a
precaution because the virus can spread when people are in close contact with each
other. Also, touching contaminated surfaces can spread the virus to the mouth,
nose, and eyes. "Further research is ongoing to better understand the spread of the
virus and which settings are most risky and why. Research is also under way to
study virus variants that are emerging and why some are more transmissible."29
Arguably the biggest impact the pandemic has had globally is on the
economy. Among death, and social aspects, the economy was hit the hardest
overall. "The COVID-19 global recession is the deepest since the end of World
War II"30 Just in 2020 alone, it was reported that the global economy had
contracted a total of 3.5 percent. In April of this year, a report was published by the
IMF saying, "a 7 percent loss relative to the 3.4 percent growth forecast back in
October 2019."31 Out of almost every country mentioned in the report, the places
that were by far hit the hardest were the poorer countries.
Individually, we are all still picking up the pieces and recovering from the
pandemic. Globally, it has been said that the effects the virus has had on us as a
whole will likely be long-lasting. Overall, the economy is projected to recover by
the end of 2021. However maybe not to the pre-covid standards. "The level of
GDP at the end of 2021 in both advanced and emerging market and developing
economies is projected to remain below the pre-virus baseline."32 With this news,
"The IMF (2021) projects that in 2024 the World GDP will be 3 percent."33 Which

28
"Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): How is it transmitted?". WHO, December 13th, 2020
29
"Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): How is it transmitted?". WHO, December 13th, 2020
30
"Social and Economic impact of COVID-19". Yeyati & Filipini, June 8th, 2021
31
"Social and Economic impact of COVID-19". Yeyati & Filipini, June 8th, 2021
32
"Social and Economic impact of COVID-19". Yeyati & Filipini, June 8th, 2021
33
"Social and Economic impact of COVID-19". Yeyati & Filipini, June 8th, 2021
is a healthy and steady GDP rate. If this prediction by the IMF is true, the economy
will have bounced back to a healthy level. This prediction relates to higher-income
countries. The recovery for lower income countries will be closer to 6 percent.
"Along the same lines" an "estimate that African GDP would be permanently 1
percent to 4 percent lower than in the pre-COVID outlook, depending on the
duration of the crisis."34
The pandemic triggered a major health crisis all over the world, and on "a
global scale, the fiscal support reached nearly $16 trillion (around 15 percent of
global GDP) in 2020."35 However, each country took measures of this matter
differently, based on three things: fiscal space, state capacity, and labor market
structure. The amount of fiscal space was determined on the ability for access to
various international financial markets in order to help support households. While
state capacity was dependent on "fast and efficient implementation of policies to
support household and firms"36 which "requires a substantial state capacity and
well-developed tax and transfer infrastructure "37 Lastly, the labor market structure
was "a large share of informal workers facing significant frictions to adopt remote
working, and high levels of poverty and inequality, deepen the deleterious impact
of the crisis."38 Vaccines are what we need now, and are dependent on if we want to
overcome this virus.
The Covid-19 vaccine has proven to be safe and effective in reducing the
risk of contracting the virus. Vaccines have been approved for kids as young as age
five. Originally the vaccine was only available to people sixteen and older, before
being extended to twelve and older, and now five and older. "There are
approximately 28 million children between the ages of 5 and 11 years old in the
34
"Social and Economic impact of COVID-19". Yeyati & Filipini, June 8th, 2021
35
"Social and Economic impact of COVID-19". Yeyati & Filipini, June 8th, 2021
36
"Social and Economic impact of COVID-19". Yeyati & Filipini, June 8th, 2021
37
"Social and Economic impact of COVID-19". Yeyati & Filipini, June 8th, 2021
38
"Social and Economic impact of COVID-19". Yeyati & Filipini, June 8th, 2021
United States, and there have been nearly 2 million cases of COVID-19 within this
age group during the pandemic."39 Vaccinations for young children are important
because if they contract the virus they are also likely to contract long-term health
complications. Someone needs to receive two doses of the covid-19 vaccine in
order to be fully vaccinated. One is considered fully vaccinated two weeks after the
second dose. The FDA approved covid-19 vaccines are Pfizer-BioNTech,
Moderna, and the Johnson and Johnson's Janssen vaccine. While vaccines have
proven to be safe and effective, "none of the COVID-19 vaccines contain the live
virus that causes COVID-19, so a COVID-19 vaccine cannot make you sick with
COVID-19."40

The historical impact each of these viruses have had in the past to present is
large, and the information we've gathered allows for a better attempt to combat
viruses now and in the future. Over time we have better understood viruses as we
have had the information to do so. With each virus that comes our way we learn
new things and face new challenges. New challenges we have faced with viruses
include the public's responses to the covid-19 pandemic, and how we fight
pandemics overall. "Pandemics have been afflicting humans for millennia,
probably for as long as we've lived in large groups. Outbreaks struck the ancient
Greeks, the Byzantines, the Incas and the Native Americans, among others."41
Pandemics are not new; they have evolved just as we have over the years. If we
compare how people reacted to viruses in the 17th century to now, our reactions as
humans are not much different. "The bubonic plague that struck Britain in 1665,
killing at least 200,000 people, including about 15% of the population of London.

39
"Benefits of Getting a COVID-19 Vaccine". CDC, November 29th, 2021
40
"Benefits of Getting a COVID-19 Vaccine". CDC, November 29th, 2021
41
"Pandemics come and go. The way people respond to them barely changes". Fissell, May 7th, 2020
As we struggle to deal with the coronavirus pandemic, what strikes me most is how
similar our experiences and responses are to those of the people living in England
more than three centuries ago."42
The human response and behavior towards viruses and pandemics are
similar. People freaked out, and didn't know what to do, but adjusted and adapted
to the changes and losses that occurred. Today, the following four innovations are
all ways we have created to help us fight future epidemics. Messaging has proven
to be helpful with covid-19. By sending out messages and updates people are able
to stay up to date and aware of needing to take certain precautions to ensure the
safety of themselves and others. Training has an important technological impact
because "tools such as the Oppia browser and e-buddi from the MMEI have been
able to provide training directly to health workers on the ground."43 During an
epidemic, communication is needed to ensure the safety of citizens so we are able
to inform the public on what's going on. Real-time monitoring helps to monitor any
virus outbreak, so we can get a head start on containing a virus before it spreads.
Now and over the past two years with the covid-19 outbreak. We have picked up
telemedicine as a replacement for shut down doctor's offices. Telemedicine has
created a safer way for someone to receive basic healthcare. In conclusion, we as
humans have proven to be capable of overcoming obstacles that come our way,
whether that is the Black Plague, Ebola, or Covid-19. We have adapted to the
changes, and learned from each experience, so here we are in the present day
creating new concepts to help us now and in the future with combating viruses.

42
"Pandemics come and go. The way people respond to them barely changes". Fissell, May 7th, 2020
43
"4 ways technology cna help fight future epidemics". Beijma, June 4th, 2015
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