LESSON 7

HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

1. What comes to mind when you think of the earliest "computers"? What do you imagine they looked like,
and how do you think they functioned?
2. Can you name any pioneering figures in the history of computers and their significant contributions?
3. Why is it essential to study the history of computers in today's world?
4. How do you think the history of computers in your country may differ from that of other countries, and
why?

"The history of computers is a story of individuals who loved what they did, of machines that had a sense of
humor – and of the world that would never be the same again." - Dr. Donald D. Knuth

This quote captures the passion, innovation, and transformative nature of the history of computers, setting the
tone for an engaging exploration of this fascinating subject.

The history of computers is important because it offers essential context for understanding the world we live in,
the skills we need to navigate it, and the challenges and opportunities we face. It provides a foundation for
technological literacy and critical thinking, equipping students with the knowledge to engage with an
increasingly digital and tech-driven society.

Use of counters to aid calculations: 3rd - 6th century B.C

We have been using the computers for the past 40 years. But the origin of the concepts, algorithms and the
developments in computations date back to the very early cultures.
In very early days, that is in B.C period, when there were no computational devices, people used pebbles, bones
and the fingers of hands to count and calculate. They even used ropes and shapes for some measurements.
All these tools were called counters. We can find many versions of the abacus now with more complicated
calculation abilities.
 Many such algorithms were developed around the world by early mathematicians
like Panini, Euclid, Leibniz and others. By the middle of 16th century explorations
of various continents and trading brought in the requirements of precise calculations
of sea routes, accounting, etc. Some mechanical devices were also developed to
assist in tedious and repetitive calculations like generating calendars of a year,
taxing, trading.

The first computers were people. This was a job title given to people who did
repetitive calculations for navigational tables, planetary positions and other such
requirements. Mostly women with mathematical proficiency were employed for the
job.

Simple devices to aid human calculations- 16th century

Napier bones- Numbers 0 to 9 were marked on a set of ivory sticks

Devices with gears and flutes for calculations- 16th-17th century

Automation with punched cards 18th-19th century

Trade, travel, and increase in population (which demanded increase in requirements like clothing, food
etc.), led to automation of machinery in 18th-19th century. The Jacquard loom invented by Joseph Marie
Jacquard used punched cards to control a sequence of operations. A pattern of the loom’s weave could be
changed by changing the punched card. In Scratch programming, the computer takes the blocks one by one and
executes them. The loom too weaves line by line in a sequence the design on the punched card. In computers we
use some input device like keyboard to input data. The punched card is like an input to the loom. Babbage used
the punched card idea, to store data in his analytical machine. Boolean algebra which is extensively used in
computers was also developed in 19th century by the mathematician George Boole.

Mechanical computation machines- 19th century

Developments in logic and need for more complicated calculations led to mechanical computation
devices which were designed and implemented for wide-ranging degree of computations. But, accuracy, speed
and precision could not be ensured due to the wear and tear of the mechanical components.

Early 20th century saw many analog computers which were mechanical or electrical or electro
mechanical devices. These were for limited purpose like solving some mathematical equations, decoding
messages, or for tables of firing artillery in World War II. These computers were based on binary representation
of data and Boolean algebra.

Analog computers- First general purpose computers- first half of 1900-1940

The war time requirements for artillery firing, communication of strategies using complicated codes led to
electromechanical computers where magnetic storage and vacuum tubes were first used. Babbage’s punched
card was used to input data.
Next there was something called the “Stored program architecture” of Von Neumann in 1945. With this
architecture rewiring was not required to change a program. The program and data were stored in memory and
instructions were processed one after the other. The input was typed on a terminal which looks like a monitor
with keyboard in the front or on cards. Each instruction was typed on one card and the deck of cards was read
by a card reader and stored in memory. And those who submitted the program had to wait till their program was
processed and output printed and given to them. If they had to change the program, they have to type in another
card and insert in the deck of cards.

Digital computers- 1940 to 1970

Census, elections, research in various fields and many more such advances in every field required increased
speed, precision, immediate results. Stored program digital computer architecture was designed with CPU,
memory to hold instructions and data around 1946. These computers were built using vacuum tubes, transistors,
integrated circuits which are classified into the first three generations of computers. The classification of
generations has been done based on technology, speed, storage, reliability and cost.
 Computers with Microprocessors- 1970 onwards

Microprocessor revolution brought in the explosion of usage of computers in every field. The size of computers
started decreasing and the speed started increasing. The storage space also started increasing. Most importantly,
the reliability of computers increased and the cost started decreasing. Invention of microprocessors
revolutionised the computer development and due to the reduction of cost, by 1990 students could own a
personal computer.

Computer are also being used in many devices like the phones, household machines like washing machines.
These are very small computers which cannot be programmed but are meant to help in the operation of these
devices. These are called embedded devices.