TEXT BOOK:

Books
(Title of the Book/Name of the author/Name of the publisher/Edition and Year)
1.Mike Tooley, ‘Electronic Circuits, Fundamentals & Applications’, 4th Edition,
Elsevier, 2015.
2. Digital Logic and Computer Design, M. Morris Mano, PHI Learning, 2008.
3.D P Kothari, I J Nagrath, ‘Basic Electronics’, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill
Education (India), Private Limited, 2018.
 Module-2 (8 hours )
Oscillators
Barkhausen criterion, sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal oscillators,
Ladder network oscillator,
Wein bridge oscillator,
Multivibrators, Single-stage astable oscillator,
Crystal controlled oscillators
Operational amplifiers
Ideal op-amp; characteristics of ideal and practical op-amp;
Practical op amp circuits:
Inverting and non-inverting amplifiers,
voltage follower, summer, subtractor, integrator, differentiator.
(Text 1)

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 Introduction
• An oscillator is a circuit which basically acts as
generator, generating the output signal which
oscillates with constant amplitude and constant
desired frequency.
• Periodic fluctuation between two things based on
the change in energy.
• Which converts DC signal into periodic AC signal.
• Oscillator produces a continuous, repeated,
alternating waveform without any Input.
• Used in generating a Clock signal, frequency for audio
and video signal.

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 Positive Feed back
• Where the output is fed back in such a way as to reinforce the input
(rather than to subtract from it), is known as positive feedback
• Fig. shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with positive
feedback applied. Note that the amplifier provides a phase shift of 180°
and the feedback network provides a further 180°. Thus, the overall
phase shift is 0°.

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.

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 Barkhausen criterion

It states that
1. The total phase shift around a loop as the signal proceeds from
input through amplifier, feedback network back to the input again,
completing a loop, is precisely 00 or 360 degree or of course an
integral multiply of 2π radians.
2. The magnitude of the product of the open loop gain of the
amplifier (A) and the feedback factor β is unity i.e. |Aβ|=1

The circuit adjusts itself to get |Aβ| =1 and with a phase shift of 3600 we get
sustained oscillations.

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 Cont…

(i). Aβ <1 damped Oscillation

(ii) Aβ >1 Overdamped Oscillation
(iii) Aβ =1 Undamped Oscillation

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 Classification of Oscillators:
Electronic oscillators may be broadly divided into following two groups :
(i) Sinusoidal (or harmonic) oscillators—which produce an output having
sine waveform;
(ii) Non-sinusoidal (or relaxation) oscillators—they produce an output
which has square, rectangular or sawtooth waveform or is of pulse shape.

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 LADDER NETWORK OSCILLATOR

❖ A simple phase-shift oscillator based on a three- stage C–R ladder network is shown in Fig.
❖ TR1 operates as a conventional common-emitter amplifier stage with R1 and R2 providing
base bias potential and R3 and C1 providing emitter stabilization.
❖ The total phase shift provided by the C–R ladder network (connected between collector and
base) is 180° at the frequency of oscillation.
❖ The transistor provides the other 180° phase shift in order to realize an overall phase shift of
360° or 0°.

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 Example

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 WIEN BRIDGE OSCILLATOR

❖ An alternative approach to providing the phase shift

required is the use of a Wien bridge network (Fig. 1).
❖ Like the C–R ladder, this network provides a phase
shift which varies with frequency.
❖ The input signal is applied to A and B while the output
is taken from C and D. At one particular frequency, the
phase shift produced by the network will be exactly
zero (i.e. the input and output signals will be in-phase).
❖ If we connect the network to an amplifier producing 0°
phase shift which has sufficient gain to overcome the
losses of the Wien bridge, oscillation will result.

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 Example

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 MULTIVIBRATORS
❖ There are many occasions when we require a square wave output from an oscillator
rather than a sine wave output.
❖ Multivibrators are a family of oscillator circuits that produce output
waveforms consisting of one or more rectangular pulses.
❖ The term ‘multivibrator’ simply originates from the fact that this type of waveform
is rich in harmonics (i.e. ‘multiple vibrations’).
❖ Multivibrators use regenerative (i.e. positive) feedback; the active devices present
within the oscillator circuit being operated as switches, being alternately cut-off and
driven into saturation.
The principal types of multivibrator are:
❖ astable multivibrators that provide a continuous train of pulses (free-running
multivibrators)
❖ monostable multivibrators that produce a single output pulse (they have one stable
state and are thus sometimes also referred to as ‘one-shot’)
❖ bistable multivibrators that have two stable states and require a trigger pulse or
control signal to change from one state to another.

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 SINGLE-STAGE ASTABLE OSCILLATOR

❖ A simple form of astable oscillator that produces a square wave output

can be built using just one operational amplifier, as shown in Fig. 9.10.
❖ The circuit employs positive feedback with the output fed back to the
non-inverting input via the potential divider formed by R1 and R2.
❖ This circuit can make a very simple square wave source with a frequency
that can be made adjustable by replacing R with a variable or preset
resistor.
❖ Assume that C is initially uncharged and the voltage at the inverting input
is slightly less than the voltage at the non-inverting input.
❖ The output voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC and the voltage at the
inverting input will begin to rise exponentially as capacitor C charges
through R.
❖ Eventually the voltage at the inverting input will have reached a value
that causes the voltage at the inverting input to exceed that present at the
non-inverting input.
❖ At this point, the output voltage will rapidly fall to −VCC. Capacitor C
will then start to charge in the other direction and the voltage at the
inverting input will begin to fall exponentially.
❖ Eventually, the voltage at the inverting input will have reached a value
that causes the voltage at the inverting input to be less than that present at
the non-inverting input.
❖ At this point, the output voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC once again and
the cycle will continue indefinitely.

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 CRYSTAL CONTROLLED OSCILLATORS

❖ A requirement of some oscillators is that they accurately

maintain an exact frequency of oscillation.
❖ In such cases, a quartz crystal can be used as the frequency
determining element.
❖ The quartz crystal (a thin slice of quartz in a hermetically
sealed enclosure, see Fig. 1)vibrates whenever a potential
difference is applied across its faces (this phenomenon is
known as the piezoelectric effect).
❖ The frequency of oscillation is determined by the crystal’s
‘cut’ and physical size.
❖ Most quartz crystals can be expected to stabilize the
frequency of oscillation of a circuit to within a few parts in a
million. Figure 1 A quartz crystal
❖ Crystals can be manufactured for operation in fundamental
mode over a frequency range extending from 100 kHz to
around 20 MHz and for overtone operation from 20 MHz to
well over 100 MHz
❖ Fig. 2 shows a simple crystal oscillator circuit in which the
crystal provides feedback from the drain to the source of a
junction gate FET

Figure 2 A simple JFET oscillator

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 1) Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three stage ladder network oscillator in
which C = 10 nF and R = 10 kΩ.

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2. Figure shows the circuit of a Wien bridge oscillator based on an operational amplifier.
If C1 = C 2 = 100 nF, determine the output frequencies produced by this arrangement
(a) when R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ and (b) when R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ.

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 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

Symbols and connections

❖ The symbol for an operational amplifier is
shown in Fig.
❖ The device has two inputs and one output and
no common connection. In Fig., one of the
inputs is marked ‘-’ and the other is marked
‘+’.
❖ The ‘+’ sign indicates zero phase shift while
the ‘-’ sign indicates 180° phase shift. Since
180° phase shift produces an inverted
waveform, the ‘-’ input is often referred to as
the inverting input. Similarly, the ‘+’ input is
known as the non-inverting input.
❖ Most (but not all) operational amplifiers
require a symmetrical supply (of typically ±6
V to ±15 V) which allows the output voltage
to swing both positive (above 0 V) and
negative (below 0 V).

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❖ Fig. shows how the supply connections
would appear if we decided to include
them.
❖ Note that we usually have two separate
supplies; a positive supply and an equal,
but opposite, negative supply.
❖ The common connection to these two
supplies (i.e. the 0 V supply connection)
acts as the common rail in our circuit.
❖ The input and output voltages are usually
measured relative to this rail.

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 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER PARAMETERS

Open-loop voltage gain

❖ The open-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output
voltage to input voltage measured with no feedback applied.
❖ In practice, this value is exceptionally high (typically greater than 100,000) but is liable to
considerable variation from one device to another.

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 CLOSED-LOOP VOLTAGE GAIN

❖ The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of

output voltage to input voltage measured with a small proportion of the output
fed-back to the input (i.e. with feedback applied).
❖ The effect of providing negative feedback is to reduce the loop voltage gain to a
value that is both predictable and manageable.
❖ Practical closed-loop voltage gains range from one to several thousand but note that
high values of voltage gain may make unacceptable restrictions on bandwidth.

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 INPUT RESISTANCE

❖ The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of input voltage
to input current expressed in ohms.
❖ It is often expedient to assume that the input of an operational amplifier is purely
resistive, though this is not the case at high frequencies where shunt capacitive reactance
may become significant.
❖ The input resistance of operational amplifiers is very much dependent on the
semiconductor technology employed.
❖In practice ,values range from about 2 MΩ for common bipolar types to over 1012
for FET and CMOS devices.

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 INPUT OFFSET VOLTAGE

❖ An ideal operational amplifier would provide zero output voltage when 0 V

difference is applied to its inputs.
❖ In practice, due to imperfect internal balance, there may be some small
voltage present at the output.
❖ The voltage that must be applied differentially to the operational amplifier
input in order to make the output voltage exactly zero is known as the Input
offset voltage.
❖ Input offset voltage may be minimized by applying relatively large amounts
of negative feedback or by using the offset null facility provided by a
number of operational amplifier devices.
❖ Typical values of input offset voltage range from 1 mV to 15 mV.

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 Full-power bandwidth :
❖ The full-power bandwidth for an operational amplifier is equivalent to the frequency
at which the maximum undistorted peak output voltage swing falls to 0.707 of its
low-frequency (DC) value.
❖ Typical full-power bandwidths range from 10 kHz to over 1 MHz for some high-
speed devices.
Slew rate:
❖ Slew rate is the rate of change of output voltage with time, when a rectangular step
input voltage is applied.

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 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CHARACTERISTICS

The desirable characteristics for an ‘ideal’ operational

amplifier:
❖ The open-loop voltage gain should be very high
(ideally infinite).
❖ The input resistance should be very high (ideally
infinite).
❖ The output resistance should be very low (ideally
zero).
❖ Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as
possible.
❖ Slew rate should be as large as possible.
❖ Input offset should be as small as possible.

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 Table : Comparison of operational amplifier parameters for ‘ideal’ and
‘real’ devices

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 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CONFIGURATIONS

❖ The three basic configurations for operational voltage amplifiers, together with
the expressions for their voltage gain, are shown in Fig.
❖ Supply rails have been omitted from these diagrams for clarity but are assumed
to be symmetrical about 0 V.
❖ All of the amplifier circuits described previously have used direct coupling and
thus have frequency response characteristics that extend to DC
❖ This, of course, is undesirable for many applications, particularly where a
wanted AC signal may be superimposed on an unwanted DC voltage level or
when the bandwidth of the amplifier greatly exceeds that of the signal that it is
required to amplify.

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Inverting amplifier with feedback
Figure shows the circuit of an inverting amplifier with negative feedback applied.
For the sake of our explanation we will assume that the operational amplifier is
‘ideal’. Now consider what happens when a small positive input voltage is applied.
This voltage (VIN) produces a current (IIN) flowing in the input resistor R1.
Since the operational amplifier is ‘ideal’ we will assume that:
(a) the input resistance (i.e. the resistance that appears between the inverting and
noninverting input terminals, RIC) is infinite
(b) the open-loop voltage gain (i.e. the ratio of VOUT to VIN with no feedback applied)
is infinite.

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 SUMMING AMPLIFIERS

❖ A summing amplifier using an operational

amplifier is shown in Fig.1.
❖ This circuit produces an output that is the
sum of its two input voltages. Figure 1 A summing amplifier
❖ However, since the operational amplifier is
connected in inverting mode, the output
voltage is given by: VOUT = – (V1 + V2)
❖ where V1 and V2 are the input voltages
❖ Typical input and output waveforms for a
summing amplifier are shown in Fig.2.
❖ A typical application is that of ‘mixing’ two
input signals to produce an output voltage that
is the sum of the two.

Figure 2 Typical input and output waveforms for a

summing amplifier
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 INTEGRATORS

❖ An integrator using an operational amplifier is shown in

Fig.1.
❖ This circuit provides the opposite function to that of a
differentiator in that its output is equivalent to the area
under the graph of the input function rather than its rate
of change.
Figure 1 An integrator
❖ If the input voltage remains constant (and is other than
0 V) the output voltage will ramp up or down according
to the polarity of the input.
❖ The longer the input voltage remains at a particular
value the larger the value of output voltage (of either
polarity) will be produced.
❖ Typical input and output waveforms for an integrator
are shown in Fig.2.
❖ Notice how the square wave input is converted to a
wave that has a triangular shape. Once again, note that
the output waveform is inverted.

Figure 2Typical input and output waveforms for an

integrator
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 DIFFERENTIATORS

❖ A differentiator using an operational amplifier is

shown in Fig.1.
❖ A differentiator produces an output voltage that
is equivalent to the rate of change of its input.
❖ If the input voltage remains constant ,the output also Figure 1 A differentiator
remains constant. The faster the input voltage
changes, the greater will the output be. In
mathematics this is equivalent to the differential
function.
❖ Typical input and output waveforms for a
differentiator are shown in Fig.2.
❖ Notice how the square wave input is converted to a
train of short duration pulses at the output.
❖ Note also that the output waveform is inverted
because the signal has been applied to the inverting
input of the operational amplifier. Figure 2 Typical input and output waveforms for a
differentiator

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 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS

Voltage followers:
❖ A voltage follower using an operational amplifier
is shown in Fig.1.
❖ This circuit is essentially an inverting amplifier in
which 100% of the output is fed back to the input.
Figure 1 A voltage follower
❖ The result is an amplifier that has a voltage gain of
1 (i.e. unity), a very high input resistance and a
very high output resistance.
❖ This stage is often referred to as a buffer and is
used for matching a high-impedance circuit to a
low-impedance circuit.
❖ Typical input and output waveforms for a voltage
follower are shown in Fig.2.

Figure 2 Typical input and output waveforms for a

voltage follower
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 COMPARATORS
❖ A comparator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig. 1.
❖ Since no negative feedback has been applied, this circuit uses the
maximum gain of the operational amplifier.
❖ The output voltage produced by the operational amplifier will Figure 1 A comparator
thus rise to the maximum possible value (equal to the positive
supply rail voltage) whenever the voltage present at the non-
inverting input exceeds that present at the inverting input.
❖ Conversely, the output voltage produced by the operational
amplifier will fall to the minimum possible value (equal to the
negative supply rail voltage) whenever the voltage present at the
inverting input exceeds that present at the non-inverting input.
❖ Typical input and output waveforms for a comparator are shown
in Fig.2.
❖ Notice how the output is either +15 V or –15 V depending on the
relative polarity of the two inputs.
❖ A typical application for a comparator is that of comparing a
signal voltage with a reference voltage. The output will go high
(or low) in order to signal the result of the comparison.
Figure 2 Typical input and output
waveforms for a comparator
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 THANK YOU!

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