Report of Biological

practical lesson

Professor: M.Narankhajid
Student: Amarlin Davaadorj

Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
2023

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 Table of context
Report 1 Experiment №2 DNA extraction from
sheep liver
Experiment №1 Examining cotton under
light microscope Report 5
Experiment №2 Examining hair under light Experiment №1 Development of the
microscope chicken
Experiment №3 Examining onion cell Experiment №2 Development of the
under light microscope chicken /embryo/
Experiment №4 Examining tomato cell Report 6
under light microscope
Practice problems in genetics I
Report 2
Karyotyping lab work
Experiment №1 Biuret test for protein
Report 7
Experiment №2 Osmosis in onion cell
Practice problems in genetics II
Experiment №3 Investigation of catalase
activity in plant tissues Report 8
Report 3 Parasites-50 species

Experiment №1 Mitosis in onion root tip Report 9

cell
Parasites-nematodes
Report 4 Report 10
Experiment №1 DNA extraction from
Experiment №1 Dissection of earthworm
broccoli
Experiment №2 Dissection of fish
Experiment №3 Dissection of mouse

Light microscope

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Definition: Microscopes are instruments that are used in science laboratories to visualize very
minute object such as cells, and microorganisms, giving a contrasting image that is magnified.
Microscopes are made of lenses for magnification, each with its own magnification powers.
Depending on the type of lens, it will magnify the specimen according to its focal strength.
Microscopes are generally made up of structural parts for holding and supporting the microscope
and its components and the optical parts which are used for magnification and viewing of the
specimen images. It consists of three main parts:
1.Head-This is also known as the body. It carries the optical in the upper part of the microscope.
2.Base-This part acts as microscopic support and also carries microscopic illuminators.
3.Arms-This part connects the base to the head, and eyepiece tube to the base of the microscope.
It gives support to the head of the microscope and it is also used when carrying the microscope.
Method: When light is focused through a condenser on a specimen placed on stage, the light
transmitted by the specimen is picked by the objective lens. A magnified image is formed at the
body tube. This is called the primary image. The light bends in the body tube and passes through
the ocular lens. When passing through the ocular lens, the image is magnified for the second
time. This is called the secondary image. Finally, a highly double magnified image is formed at a
distance of distinct vision.

Report1

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Experiment №1 Examining cotton under light microscope
Introduction: Cotton is made of many fibers which are entangled. Observing these fibers
under light microscope is a good way to familiarize yourself with experimental works utilizing
microscope.
Materials: Light microscope, piece of cotton, forceps, microscope slides, cover slip and
distilled water
Method: Remove a small piece of cotton using forceps and place it on the microscope slide as
thin as possible. Then place a drop of distilled water on top of that and cover it with cover slip
without any air bubbles. Lastly place the slide under light microscope then observe it under high
and low magnification.

Results: By naked eye cotton seems to be a whole piece, but if we see it under microscope we
can clearly see that the cotton is made of many singular fibers.

Picture 1 /10x10-high magnification/ Picture 2 /10x4–low magnification/

Conclusion: Things look different under light microscope because of its microstructure that is
not visible to naked eye. Cotton is made of many fibers intercrossing and that is why cotton is a
good water absorbent.

Experiment №2 Examining hair under light microscope

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 Introduction: Our hair grows from follicles located under the skin and has two main parts. Part
of the hair that remains under the skin inside the follicle is referred to as the root while the part
that protrudes to the surface is known as the shaft. The base of the root is referred to as the hair
bulb and is the part through which the base of the hair receives nutrients for the formation of new
cells.
Materials: Light microscope, hair strand, forceps, microscope slide, cover slip and distilled
water
Method: First, place a drop of water at the center of a microscope glass slide then using a pair
of forceps, place a few strands of hair onto the drop of water. Cover the slide with cover slip,
then place the it under the light microscope and observe under low and high magnification.
Results: Under the light microscope we can see the color of the hair as well as thickness which
are dependent on genetics of that person. But we can’t clearly see micro details such as hair
cuticle, cortex and medulla because it is not cross section of the hair strand and because of the
magnification.

Picture 3 /10x10-high magnification/ Picture 4 /10x4-low magnification/

Conclusion: Microscopes give us information depending on what section of the specimen we
see and in what section it is.

Experiment №3 Examining onion cell under light microscope

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 Introduction: Preparing onion cell slides is a convenient way to observe simple plant cells
under light microscope. In this activity we will use our practical skills to prepare and observe an
onion cell slide using the light microscope.
Materials: light microscope, onion, forceps, scalpel blade, microscope slide, cover slip, and
iodine
Method: After collecting all of the apparatus, peel off a thin layer of epidermis from the onion
using forceps. Lay the membrane on the microscope slide in a single flat layer. Then place a very
small drop of iodine on to the membrane. Place the slide on the stage after carefully covered it
with cover slips without air bubbles.
Results: Tissue from onion is a good exercise for examining under light microscope and
viewing plant cells. Even under low magnification at 100x, cell is visible with cell cytoplasm,
cell wall and its nucleus. /1-cell nucleus 2-cell cytoplasm 3-cell wall/

Picture 5 /10x40-high magnification/ Picture 6 /10x10-low magnification/

Conclusion: We can see onion cell nucleus clearly on high magnification because the nucleus
is around 0.3-0.8 micrometer in diameter. Even onion cells have membrane we can’t see it under
light microscope because of how small it is about 10nm.

Experiment №4 Examining tomato cell under light microscope

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 Introduction: Observing tomato pulp cell is a good way to know about how function of similar
structures of different plants could be different.

Materials: Light microscope, tomato, forceps, scalpel blade, microscope slide, cover slip, and
distilled water

Method: Peel off a thin layer of tomato skin using forceps and scalpel blade. Then place it on
the microscope slide, put a drop of distilled water and cover it with cover slip without any air
bubbles. Lastly observe it under light microscope.

Result: Tomato skin cells look different than its pulp cell due to the difference of their
function.

Conclusion: Single unit of life, cells are

structured different depending on the
function and role. We can see difference
between onion skin cell and tomato skin
cell. It is because their function is different
even though they are similar structures to
the specie.

Report 2
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Experiment №1 Biuret test for protein
Introduction: Biuret test is for compounds having peptide bond and is compound formed by
heating urea to 180oC. When biuret is treated with dilute copper sulfate in alkaline condition, a
purple colored compound is formed. The principle of this test is conveniently used to detect the
presence of proteins in biological fluids.

Materials: Egg, milk, salt solution, 40% NaOH, 1% CuSO4, tubes and pipettes
Method: Take 3 tubes and add 2ml of egg white, milk and salt solution to each tube. Add
500ml of 40% NaOH solution and 200ml of 1% CuSO 4 reagent to each tube and mix well. Lastly
observe and analyze the reaction results.
Result: In first test result, there is no violet color in the tube because salt solution does not
contain any peptide bond. But in picture VII and IX it has violet color in different shades. Egg
white has more peptide bond than milk and that is why the color in egg white biuret test is in
much deeper shade. But egg white is not in full color because of how poorly it mixed without
any tools.

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Picture 7 /Salt solution test/ Picture 8 /Milk test/ Picture 9 /Egg white test/

Conclusion: Biuret test results in color depending on how much of peptide bond that biological
fluid contains. Blue for non /Biuret reagent has that blue color itself/. Violet in different shades
depending on how much bond it has.

Experiment №2 Osmosis in onion cell

Introduction: For all living organisms to survive, nutrients, water and waste must be able to
move into and out of the cell. This process maintains homeostasis. The movement of materials
into and out of the cell is regulated by the membranes both the organelles within the cell and
outer plasma membrane. Water moves through membranes by diffusion in a process called
osmosis. Water will move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
Materials: Light microscope, red onion, forceps, pipettes, scalpel blades, microscope slides,
cover slips, salt solution and distilled water
Method: Tear a thing slide of red onion and place it on three microscopic slides using forceps.
Pour a few drops of distilled water, salt solution, and combination of the two on separate slides.
Cover it with cover slips, the place it on the microscope. Observe and analyze it after the
placement.
Result: In the first specimen with water, turgor will appear in the cell. The cell will be bigger in
size but not damaged because of the cell wall. In second specimen, cell will be shrunk due to salt
solution in the environment. In specimen with combination of salt solution and water will be just
fine due to neutralization of the two fluid. /1-cell wall 2-vacoule/

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Picture 10 /onion cell in isotonic solution/ Picture 11 /onion cell under low magnification/

Picture 12 /onion cell in hypotonic solution/ Picture 13 /onion cell in hypertonic solution/

Conclusion: Cell in hypotonic solution will be in turgor due to higher water potential in the
environment, water will go into the cell causing vacuole to get bigger and have turgor, but the
cell will not explode because of the cell wall.

Cell’s vacuole in hypertonic solution will be shrunk due to lower water potential in the
environment, causing the water to go out of the cell, but the cell will not be destroyed because of
the wall as well.

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Cell in isotonic solution will stay still, due to the same water potential in the environment,
causing water to not to move, or the same amount of water will go to the cell and will go out of
the cell.

Experiment №3 Investigation of catalase activity in plant tissues

Introduction: Catalase is an enzyme that breakdown a hydrogen peroxide. Observing the
levels of reaction with this enzyme breaking down the hydrogen peroxide with the help of
potatoes is a good example of how enzymes help the chemical reaction.
Materials: Potato, 3 test tubes, scalpel blades, hydrogen peroxide solution at 3%, 10% and 20%
Method: Slice the potato into 0.5mm 3. Add 3ml of each hydrogen peroxide solution to each
tubes separately. Put equal amount of potatoes to each test tube then swirl well to mix and wait at
20 seconds for bubbling develop.
Result: The bubbles that are accumulating inside the test tube is oxygen being released from
the reaction. Higher the concentration of H2O2 solution, higher the amount of oxygen release. /1-
Test tube with 20% H2O2 solution 2-Test tube with 10% H 2O2 solution 3- Test tube with 3%
H2O2 solution/

Picture 14 /sliced potatoes in H2O2 solution/

Conclusion: All living organisms contains some kind of enzyme. It is protein that help speed
up the metabolism or chemical reactions inside our body. Enzymes are one of the most necessary
compound.

Report 3
Experiment №1 Mitosis in onion root tip cell

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 Introduction: Observing onion root cell is a good way to see different stages of mitosis,
because cell division occurs rapidly in growing root tips.
Materials: Light microscope, onion root, acetocarmine stain, 1N HCl, scissors, forceps, scalpel
blade, microscope slides, cover slips, water bath and distilled water
Method: Cut the tip 5 to 8 mm from the tip of the freshly sprouted root. Discard the rest of the
root. Wash them in water on a clean microscope slide. Place one drop of IN HCL on the root tip.
Warm the slide gently over the alcohol lamp for 5 sec. (Do not allow the slide to get hot to the
touch; you don't want to cook either your fingers or the root. Do not let the root dry out). Later
gently warm the watch glass on a flame for about 5 sec. Expose the root tips in the acid for about
2 min. Give the root tips a couple of washings in distilled water. Warn the stain on the flame for
about 5 sec. and leave the root tips in the stain for about 5-10 min. Carefully blot the excess stain
with a blotting paper. After (10 to 20 seconds) put one or two drops of water and blot them
carefully using blotting paper. Again put a drop of water on the root tip and mount a cover slip
on it avoiding air bubbles. Using a sharp scalpel remove a millimeter of the root tip. And discard
rest the very tips of the roots are region with active cell division. Squash the slide with your
thumb using a firm and even pressure. (Avoid squashing with such force that the cover slip
breaks or slides). Observe it under a Light microscope.
Result: We can see every stages and phases of mitosis in onion root tip. /1-cell nucleus 2-cell
nucleolus 3-cell cytoplasm 4-cell wall 5-chromosome/
In picture XV we can see the cell’s cytoplasm, nucleus as well as with cell wall being in
interphase stage. Interphase-a cell spends most of its time in what is called interphase, and during
this time it grows, replicates its chromosomes, and prepares for cell division.
In picture XVI we can see chromosomes are releasing from the nucleus, starting the visible
mitosis in stage early prophase.
In picture XVII we can see the chromosomes are fully out and ready to be at the center of the cell
at stage late prophase. Prophase is the first phase of mitosis, the process that separates the
duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter
cells.
In picture XVIII we can see chromosomes are already states in the center of the cell at stage
metaphase. Metaphase- During metaphase, the nucleus dissolves and the cell's chromosomes
condense and move together, aligning in the center of the dividing cell.
In picture XIX we can see chromosomes starting to go to the two sides of the dividing cell at
stage early anaphase.
In picture XX we can see the chromosomes are fully at the two side of the dividing cell at stage
late anaphase. Anaphase is when replicated chromosomes are split and the newly-copied
chromosomes are moved to opposite poles of the cell.

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In picture XXI we can see the nucleus have been made with their chromosomes at stage early
telophase. Telophase is the fifth phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated
genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells.
In last, picture XXII we can see the cell is now fully dividing, forming the cell wall/plate at stage
late telophase also known as cytokinesis. Cytokinesis is the physical process of cell division,
which divides the cytoplasm of a parental cell into two daughter cells.

Picture 15 /Interphase stage/ Picture 16 /Early prophase stage/

Picture 17 /Late prophase stage/ Picture 18 /Metaphase stage/

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Picture 19 /Early anaphase stage/ Picture 20 /Late anaphase stage/

Picture 21 /Early telophase stage/ Picture 22 /Late telophase-cytokinesis/

Conclusion: All eukaryotic organisms grow through the process called mitosis. Because it is
the fundamental work of growth and development it has to have different stages and specific
criteria in order to keep the organism well. In onion root tip cells we can see different kind of
cytokinesis due to cell wall in plant cells. Which goes by forming cell plate between two
daughter cells.

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 Report 4
Experiment №1 DNA extraction from broccoli
Introduction: Extracting broccoli’s DNA would be a great example of DNA extraction since it
contains most.
Materials: Salt, broccoli paste, detergent, ethanol /70-90%/, glass container, test tube, filter
paper and distilled water
Method: Pour the broccoli-cell soup through a strainer into another container and pour it into
test tubes each about 1/3 full. Filter the prepared mixture into a 100ml glass container using
bandage. Add 1.5 grams of salt and add detergent about 3ml. Then stir the mixture carefully
without damaging the DNA and making it hard to see. Let it set for 5 minutes and cool it for
another 10 minutes. Then add 0.5 grams of salt and mix gently. At ethanol separation step, tilt
the test tube and slowly pour rubbing ethanol into the tube down the side so that it forms a layer
on top of the broccoli mixture. Lastly carefully observe the upper part of the prepared mixture.
Result: /1-ethanol 2-broccoli cell mixture 3-mixture of the two 4-clumps of tangled DNA
molecule/

Picture 23 /mixture right Picture 24 /mixture with Picture 25 /mixtures with

after the reaction/ visible DNA extract/ visible DNA extract/

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 Picture 26 /mixture with visible
DNA extract/

1. All organisms have DNA since it is the blueprint of life. Which means there is DNA in
living organisms including broccoli which contains most DNA than other vegetables.
2. Dishwashing liquid/detergent breaks down the cell, nuclear membrane and releases DNA.
3. Salt helps the DNA molecule to stick together.
4. Cooling the mixture helps it to protect DNA by slowing down the work of enzyme.
5. The ethanol pulls water from the DNA.
6. Cold ethanol will increase the yield of DNA. If the ethanol was in room temperature, not
much of DNA would appear.
7. We used soapy broccoli, enzyme power, and ethanol separation steps to extract the DNA
from broccoli.
8. Extracted DNA can be used for examination, identification of people, to check genetic
defects and so on.

Conclusion: Cells differentiate by turning on and off different genes. Inside the cell DNA is
found in the nucleus. Since DNA is the blueprint of life, all living things contain DNA. By doing
this experiment, we get to understand the fundamental knowledge of molecular biology and its
precise procedural steps.

Experiment №2 DNA extraction from sheep liver

Introduction: Extracting DNA from sheep would be a good example for extraction for us.
DNA supplies genetic information which determines as to what kind of creature and what
characters would be formed in any living organism. Deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating
material present in almost all living organisms as the main component of chromosome.
Materials: Light microscope, microscope slide, cover slip, prepared liver juice, acetocarmine,
glass bar, detergent, cold pure ethanol and droplets

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 Method: Add detergent to the strained liver juice in the glass bar. Mix it gently without any
damage and pour cold pure ethanol gently along the glass bar. After few seconds, stain the white
fibers which appear in the upper layer of the mixture with acetocarmine. And lastly obverse it
under light microscope.
Result: /1-sheep liver juice 2-ethanol 3-DNA stand/

Picture 27 /sheep liver juice and ethanol Picture 28 /mixture with visible DNA
mixture/ strand/

Picture 29 /DNA of sheep liver under LM/

Conclusion: We can extract DNA by doing various of experiments with different apparatus.
But DNA is easy to be cut by physical instinct, so we have to be quick and gently with the
apparatus and the experiment.

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 Report 5
Experiment №1 Development of the chicken
Introduction: Understanding the basic process of embryonic development and differentiation
of tissues will be the fundamental knowledge of anatomical and physiological aspects of animals.
Materials: Unfertilized egg and Petri dish
Method: Crack open the unfertilized egg onto the dish. Observe the anatomy of the egg.
Result: From unfertilized egg we can see:
-Cuticle is a protein layer that covers the surface of the egg and fills pores that allow air inside
for the growing chick.
-Egg shell is semipermeable membrane, responsible for protection, respiration and water
exchange.
-Shell membrane is an inside layer of the egg, which protects the egg and prevent moisture from
leaving too quickly.
-Air cell is in the bottom of the egg and provide the oxygen during development.
-Thin and thick albumin are first and second layer of albumin which rests around the yolk. It
helps the yolk to be stable in the center of the egg.
-Chalaza is a rope like structure holds yolk in place and attaches vitelline membrane to eggshell.
-Vitelline membrane is a multilayered structure surrounding the yolk which protects, gives shape
and also separate the yolk from the albumin.
-Egg yolk is the yellow part of the egg inside the vitelline membrane. It provides supply for the
development of the embryo.

Picture 30 /crack opening the egg/ Picture 31 /anatomy of unfertilized egg/

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 Picture 32 /eggshell from the inside/
Conclusion: Organisms consist of many important, functional parts. Even the egg is
unfertilized there are parts that are responsible for the egg.

Experiment №2 Development of the chicken /embryo/

Introduction: Observing chicken embryo would be a fundamental knowledge for more
efficient anatomical and physiological aspects of animal. The embryonic period consists of
gametes production, fertilization and the embryo development until its implantation in the
domestic mammal species as well as the different types of placentation. The embryonic
development of the bird embryo is also envisaged. An important chapter on the biotechnologies
of the mammalian embryo ends this first part. The fetal period consists of the development of the
various organs and systems as well as their abnormalities of development observed in our
domestic species.
Materials: Fertilized egg, forceps, Petri dish and distilled water
Method: Crack open the fertilized egg onto the plate with distilled water. Observe the chicken
embryo. Tale out the embryo very carefully and clean it with distilled water, then observe its
anatomy.
Result: From the appearance of this embryo we can say that this chicken embryo is around 9-
10 days old due to its mouth opening and toes started to appear, and the embryo started to look
like a bird.

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Picture 33 /crack opening the fertilized egg/ Picture 34 /chick embryo on plate/

Picture 35 /egg shell/ Picture 36 /chick embryo from close perspective/

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Picture 37 /separating the embryo/ Picture 38 /embryo separated with visible limbs/

Picture 39 /embryo with Picture 40 /embryo with visible carpus/

visible spine/

Conclusion: Animals have their own organ and organ system which work by their own
function as well. Even the lifespan and embryonic days are much shorter than human it has its

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own specific details and development.

Report 6
Practice problems in genetics I
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Karyotyping lab

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 Introduction: Scientists have developed several different tools and techniques for studying
chromosomes, genes and base pairs in humans and other organisms. One of the most useful
techniques is karyotyping. A karyotype is a photograph of all of an organism's chromosomes.
The chromosomes in the karyotype are arranged in homologous pairs according to size (largest
to smallest). Homologous pairs can be determined by centromere placement, equal length of top
and bottom arms as well as similar band placement on each arm. Karyotyping helps doctors
diagnose and treat genetic disorders. Doctors use a normal human karyotype and compare it to
the karyotype of a patient to determine if there are abnormalities. Some of the characteristics the
physician will compare are:
A. Total number of chromosomes - normal humans have 46 chromosomes (23pairs), so if the
number is higher or lower than an abnormality exists
B. Homologous pairs for the first 22 pairs of chromosomes - once centromeres are aligned, top
and bottom arms are of equal length and if not then an abnormality exists
C. Sex Chromosomes (23rd pair) - if female, then 2 homologous X chromosomes (XX) will be
present and if male, an X chromosome and a Y chromosome (XY) will be present, so if there are
additional or fewer sex chromosomes then an abnormality exists. The X chromosome is much
larger than the Y.
Method: From the chromosome scatter sheet you received, carefully cut out each of the
chromosomes into rectangles, so they will fit into the layout worksheet. Arrange the
chromosomes into homologous pairs, using your Karyotype Reference Sheet as a guide. Once all
chromosomes are laid down on the Reference Sheet begin gluing or taping each pair onto the
Karyotype Layout Worksheet. Upon completion of gluing or taping all chromosomes to the
Layout Worksheet, answer the Discussion Questions using the background information, your
karyotype and Explanation of Chromosome Disorders.
Result:
1. A karyotype is the general appearance of the complete set of chromosomes in the cells of
a species or in an individual organism, mainly including their sizes, numbers, and shapes.
2. Karyotypes can be used to identify chromosome abnormalities as the cause of
malformation or disease.
3. Normal human has 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs of chromosome.
4. 23rd pair of chromosomes determine our sex/gender.
5. The 23rd pair of chromosomes, or the sex chromosomes, in humans is not always
homologous. For males, the 23rd pair is XY and is not identical in size or gene structure,
and thus not homologous. For females, the 23rd pair is XX, which is identical, and thus
homologous.

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Picture 41 /Human karyotype 1/

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6. The gender of this baby is male.
7. This kid has Klinefelter Syndrome.
8. A condition occurring in 1/1000 male live births. Characteristics associated with this condition
are tall stature, small testicles, developed breasts, sterility and mental deficiency. Most men with
this syndrome appear normal in other ways. This syndrome only occurs in men and affects the
sex chromosomes.
Karyotype: 47XXY or 47XXXY (extra sex chromosomes)

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 Pic
ture 42 /Human karyotype 2/

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6. The gender of this kid is male.
7. This kid has Down syndrome.
8. Trisomy 21, one of the most common causes of mental retardation is due to an extra
chromosome 21. This results in a number of characteristic features, such as short stature, broad
hands, stubby fingers and toes, a wide rounded face, a large protruding tongue that makes speech
difficult and mental retardation. Individuals with this syndrome have a high incidence of
respiratory infections, heart defects and leukemia. The average risk of having a child with
trisomy 21 is 1/750 live births. Mothers in their early twenties have a risk of 1/1,500 and women
over 35 have a risk factor of 1/70, which jumps to 1/25 for women 45 or older.
Karyotype: 47XX or 47XY with 3 of the chromosome #21

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icture 43 /Human karyotype 3/
6. The gender of this kid is female.
7. This kid has Turner syndrome.
8. This condition happens when an X-carrying sperm fertilizes an ovum that lacks an X, or when
a sperm lacking an X or Y chromosome fertilizes an X-bearing egg. This syndrome only affects
girls and causes them to be missing an X chromosome (XC). These girls appear to be normal
before puberty, although they are shorter and have a chunky build. At birth, the distinguishable
characteristics include a webbed neck. At sexual maturity, the secondary sex characteristics are
not developed. There also is no menstruation or breast development and they are usually sterile.
The frequency is 1/2,500 live female births.
Karyotype: 45X or 45XO (affects sex chromosomes - missing an X)
9. Patau syndrome affects to the 13th pair of chromosome, resulting trisomy 13.
10. Examples of characteristics of Edward syndrome are elongated skull, and a very narrow
pelvis.
11. Examples of characteristics of Down syndrome are short stature, and a wide rounded face.
12. Among given 8 disorders’ explanation, the most common one is Down syndrome. The
average risk of having a child with trisomy 21 is 1/750 live birth, going up to 1/25
depending on the age of the mother.
13. Jacobs and Klinefelter syndrom affect to only males.
14. Triple X and Turner syndrome affect to only females.
15. Cri-du chat syndrome is caused by a missing piece of a chromosome, not an entire missing
or extra chromosome.
Conclusion: Genetic, chromosomes are really important for living organisms including humans.
A little damage, loss or excess of single chromosome can cause many disorders and diseases to
the organism. Even it is not a loss or excess of a whole chromosome, a missing piece of the
chromosome can cause disorders too.

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 Report 7
Practice problems in genetics II

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 Report 8
1. Macrophage W.M

Picture 44
Life Cycle: Macrophages are a type of white blood cell that forms a part of the immune system.
They are derived from monocytes and are found in various tissues throughout the body.
Macrophages can exist in two states: activated and resting. In response to infection or injury,
monocytes are recruited to the site, where they differentiate into activated macrophages to engulf
and destroy foreign pathogens or cellular debris. Macrophages can also present antigens to other
immune cells to initiate an immune response.
Pathogenicity: They play a crucial role in the body's defense against pathogens and foreign
substances. They help eliminate invading microorganisms by phagocytosis, produce
inflammatory mediators, and stimulate other immune cells. However, in some cases, pathogens
can evade the immune response and survive within macrophages, leading to chronic infections.
Diagnosis: Disorders primarily involves clinical evaluation and laboratory testing, such as
analyzing blood samples, evaluating imaging studies, or conducting specific tests for particular
diseases.
Treatment: It depends on the specific condition involved. It may involve the use of medications
to manage symptoms, control inflammation, or target underlying causes. In severe cases,
interventions like surgery or immunomodulatory therapy may be required.
Prevention: Mainly revolves around maintaining a healthy lifestyle, following recommended
vaccination schedules, practicing good hygiene, and avoiding exposure to known risk factors
such as environmental toxins or infectious agents. It is also important to manage existing medical
conditions and seek medical attention promptly if symptoms arise.

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 2. Macrophage W.M

Picture 45 /Macrophage/

3. Euglena W.M
Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Euglenozoa
Class: Euglenoidea
Order: Euglenales
Family: Euglenaceae
Genus: Euglena

Picture 46 /Euglena W.M/

Life cycle: Euglena reproduces asexually through a process called binary fission. In this process,
the Euglena cell divides into two daughter cells, both identical to the parent cell.
Pathogenicity: Most Euglena species are non-pathogenic and harmless to humans.
However, some species of Euglena can produce toxins that can cause harm to organisms in their
ecosystem. Cases of human infection or illness caused by Euglena are extremely rare.
Diagnosis: Typically done by observing the visual characteristics of the organism under a
microscope. The elongated shape, presence of a flagellum, and the absence of a cell wall are key
features for identification.

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Treatment: As Euglena is not generally pathogenic to humans, there is no specific treatment
required for Euglena infection or illness. In case of exposure to toxic species of Euglena,
supportive care may be provided to manage symptoms.
Prevention: Euglena is commonly found in freshwater environments such as lakes, ponds, and
other bodies of water. Preventing excessive pollution of these water sources and maintaining
their ecological balance can help prevent the overgrowth of Euglena. Regular monitoring of
water quality and cleaning up polluted water sources are essential prevention measures.

4. Amoeba W.M
Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Amoebozoa
Class: Tubulinea
Order: Euamoebida
Family: Amoebidae
Genus: Amoeba

Picture 47 /Amoeba W.M/

Life cycle: Amoebas reproduce asexually by binary fission or occasionally through sexual
reproduction. They can form cysts to survive in harsh conditions and can encyst to protect
themselves from unfavorable environmental conditions.
Pathogenicity: Some amoebas can be pathogenic and cause diseases such as amoebic dysentery
or amoebic keratitis. These pathogenic amoebas can invade tissues and cause inflammation and
damage.
Diagnosis: Typically done through microscopic examination of stool, blood, or tissue samples to
identify the presence of amoebas or cysts.
Treatment: Usually involves the use of specific medications, such as metronidazole or tinidazole.
In severe cases, additional medications may be required, along with supportive therapy.
Prevention: It is essential to maintain good personal and environmental hygiene. This includes
proper handwashing, safe handling and preparation of food, and avoiding the ingestion of
contaminated water or food.

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 5. Leishmania donovani
Classification:
Phylum: Euglenozoa
Order: Kinetoplastida
Family: Trypanosomatidae
Genus: Leishmania

Picture 48 /Leishmania donovani/

Life cycle: It involves two hosts: the sandfly vector and a mammalian host (usually humans). In
the sandfly, promastigotes are injected into the skin during a blood meal. In the host,
promastigotes are engulfed by macrophages and transform into the amastigote form. Amastigotes
replicate within the macrophages, eventually causing cell rupture and release of more
amastigotes. Sandflies become infected when they take a blood meal from an infected host.
Pathogenicity: Leishmania donovani is a parasitic protozoan. It exists as a flagellated
promastigote form in the insect vector (sandflies) and as an amastigote form in the host. The
amastigote form is oval-shaped with a nucleus and a kinetoplast (mass of circular DNA).
Diagnosis: It involves various methods, including microscopic examination of bone marrow or
lymph node aspirates to identify amastigotes. Serological tests, such as the rK39 rapid diagnostic
test, can detect specific antibodies against Leishmania. Molecular techniques, like polymerase
chain reaction (PCR), can detect and identify the DNA of Leishmania parasites.
Treatment: Often involves drug therapy using medications like sodium stibogluconate
(Pentostam) or liposomal amphotericin B (AmBisome). The specific drug regimen and duration
depend on the region and drug sensitivity of the parasite. Severe cases may require
hospitalization and supportive care, including management of complications.
Prevention: Involves vector control measures, such as using insecticide-treated bed nets and
wearing protective clothing to prevent sandfly bites. Reducing sandfly breeding sites, such as
stagnant water sources, can also help control the vector population. Treating infected individuals
promptly can help reduce the spread of the disease.

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 6. Entamoeba histolytica cysts W.M
Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Amoebozoa
Family: Entamoebidae
Genus: Entamoeba
Species: E. histolytica

Picture 49 /Etamoeba histolytica cysts/

Life cycle: There are two stages - the cyst stage (infective) and the trophozoite stage (invasive).
Infection occurs when the cysts are ingested, and they then transform into trophozoites in the
intestines.
Pathogenicity: Entamoeba histolytica can cause amoebic dysentery and amoebic liver abscesses.
It is an invasive parasite that can destroy the intestinal lining and invade other organs such as the
liver.
Diagnosis: The presence of Entamoeba histolytica cysts can be detected through a stool
examination using microscopy or through the detection of specific antigens in the stool.
Treatment: Usually involves drugs such as metronidazole to eliminate both the cyst and
trophozoite stages of the parasite.
Prevention: Proper hygiene, including handwashing and safe water and food practices, can help
prevent the transmission of Entamoeba histolytica.

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 7. Entamoeba coli trophozoite smear
Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Amoebozoa
Family: Entamoebidae
Genus: Entamoeba
Species: E. coli

Picture 50 /Entamoeba coli trophozoite smear/

Life cycle: Entamoeba coli has a similar life cycle to Entamoeba histolytica, with a cyst stage
and a trophozoite stage. However, Entamoeba coli does not cause disease in humans.
Pathogenicity: Entamoeba coli is considered commensal, meaning it lives in harmony with its
host and does not cause harm or disease.
Diagnosis: The presence of Entamoeba coli trophozoites can be observed in a stool examination
using microscopy.
Treatment: Usually not required for Entamoeba coli infection as it is non-pathogenic.
Prevention: Similar to Entamoeba histolytica, practicing good hygiene and following safe water
and food practices can help prevent the transmission of Entamoeba coli.

8. Balantidium coli cyst

Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Alveolata
Phylum: Ciliophora
Class: Litostomatea
Order: Vestibuliferida
Family: Balantidiidae
Genus: Balantidium
Species: B. coli
Picture 51 /Balantidium coli cyst/

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Life cycle: Balantidium coli has a simple life cycle, involving a cyst stage and a trophozoite
stage.
Pathogenicity: Balantidium coli can cause balantidiasis, an infection primarily affecting the large
intestine. It can cause symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, and sometimes dysentery.
Diagnosis: The presence of Balantidium coli cysts can be observed in a stool examination using
microscopy.
Treatment: Balantidium coli can be treated with drugs such as tetracycline or metronidazole,
which eliminate the cysts and trophozoites.
Prevention: It is important to practice good personal hygiene, particularly handwashing, and to
ensure the consumption of safe water and food.

9. Balantidium coli trophozoite

Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Alveolata
Phylum: Ciliophora
Class: Litostomatea
Order: Vestibuliferida
Family: Balantidiidae
Genus: Balantidium
Species: B. coli

Pic
ture 52 /Balantidium coli trophozoite/
Life cycle: Balantidium coli trophozoites are the invasive stage of the parasite that can cause
infection by colonizing the large intestine.
Pathogenicity: As mentioned above, Balantidium coli trophozoites can cause balantidiasis, with
symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, and dysentery.
Diagnosis: The presence of Balantidium coli trophozoites can be observed in a stool examination
using microscopy.
Treatment: Involves medications such as tetracycline or metronidazole to eliminate the
trophozoite stage.
Prevention: Similar to Balantidium coli cysts, prevention involves good personal hygiene and the
consumption of safe water and food.

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 10. Trichomonas vaginalis trophozoite W.M
Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Metamonada
Order: Trichomonadida
Family: Trichomonadidae
Genus: Trichomonas
Species: T. vaginalis

Picture 53 /Trichomonas vaginalis

trophozoite W.M/

Life cycle: The trophozoite form of T. vaginalis is responsible for the transmission and
reproduction of the parasite. It undergoes binary fission, dividing into two daughter cells. It does
not have a cyst stage. The parasite is transmitted sexually through sexual contact.
Pathogenicity: Trichomonas vaginalis is a sexually transmitted parasite that primarily infects the
urogenital tract. It can cause trichomoniasis, which may lead to symptoms such as vaginal
itching, burning sensation, abnormal discharge, and pain during urination or sexual intercourse.
Diagnosis: Can be done through microscopic examination of vaginal or urethral discharge, urine,
or cervical samples. Nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) are also commonly used for
accurate detection.
Treatment: Trichomoniasis is usually treated with antimicrobial medication, such as
metronidazole or tinidazole, which can effectively eliminate the infection. Sexual partners should
also be treated simultaneously.
Prevention: Preventive measures include using barrier methods, such as condoms, during sexual
intercourse, reducing the number of sexual partners, and practicing good personal hygiene.

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 11.Trichomonas hominis trophozoite W.M
Classification:
Kingdom: ProtistA
Phylum: Sarcomastigophora
Class: Zoomastigophorea
Family: Trichomonadidae.

Picture 54 /Trichomonas hominis trophozoite W.M/

Life cycle: The trophozoite form of T. hominis also reproduces through binary fission and does
not possess a cyst stage. It is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route by ingesting
contaminated food or water.
Pathogenicity: Trichomonas hominis is a nonpathogenic parasite found in the gastrointestinal
tract of humans. It is not typically associated with disease or symptoms.
Diagnosis: Usually not necessary for Trichomonas hominis since it is considered a
nonpathogenic organism. However, if needed, microscopic examination of stool samples may be
performed.
Treatment: Generally not required for Trichomonas hominis, as it does not cause any clinical
manifestations.
Prevention: Not necessary for Trichomonas hominis since it is not considered a pathogenic
organism.

12. Non-septate hypha

Classification:
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Zygomycota

Picture 55 /Non-septate hypha/

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Life cycle: Non-septate hyphae of fungi are involved in the vegetative growth and asexual
reproduction of the fungus. They can intertwine and extend to colonize new areas, obtaining
nutrients and resources required for growth.
Pathogenicity: Non-septate hyphae are typically associated with certain pathogenic fungi, such as
mucormycosis. These hyphae can invade and damage tissues, causing severe infections.
Diagnosis: Established through microscopic examination of clinical samples, such as tissue
biopsies or body fluids. Fungal culture and DNA-based tests may also be used for identification.
Treatment: Usually involves the use of antifungal medications, such as amphotericin B or
posaconazole. Surgical intervention may be necessary in some cases to remove infected tissues.
Prevention: Preventive measures include maintaining good hygiene, especially in
immunocompromised individuals, and promptly treating any underlying conditions that may
increase the risk of fungal infections.

13.Septate hypha
Classification:
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Ascomycota
Class: Ascomycetes

Picture 56 /Septate hypha/

Life cycle: Septate hyphae also perform vegetative growth and asexual reproduction in fungi.
The cross-walls (septa) help compartmentalize the hyphae, preventing the spread of cytoplasm
and organelles between cells.
Pathogenicity: Septate hyphae are commonly found in various pathogenic fungi, including those
causing infections such as aspergillosis or candidiasis. These hyphae can invade tissues and lead
to localized or systemic infections, depending on the host's immune status.
Diagnosis: Involves microscopic examination of clinical samples, fungal culture, and molecular
tests. Identification of the specific pathogenic fungus is crucial for targeted treatment.

65
Treatment: Depends on the identified fungus but generally includes the use of antifungal
medications, such as fluconazole, voriconazole, or amphotericin B. Surgical intervention may be
necessary in certain cases.
Prevention: Includes maintaining good hygiene practices, reducing exposure to fungal spores,
especially in susceptible individuals, and actively managing any underlying conditions that may
increase the risk of fungal infections.

14.Fasciola hepatica eggs

Classification:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Trematoda
Family: Fasciolidae

Picture 57 /Fasciola hepatica eggs/

Life cycle: The eggs of Fasciola hepatica are excreted by the adult fluke into the host's feces. The
eggs hatch in water, releasing a free-swimming larval stage called miracidium. The miracidium
infects a specific snail intermediate host, where it undergoes several developmental stages before
being released as a cercaria, an infective stage that can penetrate the skin of a mammalian host.
Pathogenicity: Fasciola hepatica is a trematode parasite that causes fascioliasis, a liver infection.
The eggs released by adult flukes can cause tissue damage and inflammation, leading to
symptoms like abdominal pain, liver enlargement, fever, and digestive issues.
Diagnosis: Usually based on microscopic examination of stool samples to detect parasite eggs or
antibody detection through serological tests. Imaging techniques, such as ultrasound, can help
identify liver involvement.
Treatment: Involves anthelmintic medications, such as triclabendazole, which can effectively kill
the flukes. Additional supportive measures may be required for symptomatic relief.
Prevention: Includes avoiding consumption of raw or undercooked freshwater plants or animals,
proper cooking of foods, and avoiding contaminated water sources.

15.Toxoplasma gondii oocyst W.M

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 Classification:
Kingdom: Protista
Phylum: Apicomplexa
Class: Conoidasida
Family: Sarcocystidae

Picture 58 /Toxoplasma gondii oocyst/

Life cycle: Oocysts of Toxoplasma gondii are produced in the intestinal epithelium of felids
(definitive host). They are excreted in the feces and can contaminate soil, water, or food.
Pathogenicity: Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular parasite that can infect humans through
ingestion of oocysts present in contaminated food or water. It can cause toxoplasmosis, leading
to flu-like symptoms in healthy individuals or severe complications in immunocompromised
individuals and pregnant women.
Diagnosis: Can be done through serological tests to detect specific antibodies, molecular tests
(PCR), or the presence of the parasite in tissues using biopsy or amniotic fluid analysis.
Treatment: Typically involves antiparasitic medications, such as pyrimethamine and
sulfadiazine, combined with folinic acid. In certain cases, treatment may be necessary to prevent
transmission to the fetus during pregnancy.
Prevention: Include thoroughly washing fruits and vegetables, cooking meat properly, avoiding
contact with cat feces, and maintaining.

16. Trichomonas gondii

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 Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Alveolata
Phylum: Apicomplexa
Class: Conoidasida
Order: Eucoccidiorida
Family: Sarcocystidae
Subfamily: Toxoplasmatinae
Genus: Toxoplasma
Species: T. gondii

Picture 59 /Toxoplasma gondii/

Life cycle: The life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii includes both sexual and asexual reproduction.
Cats serve as definitive hosts, where sexual reproduction occurs, while intermediate hosts
(including humans) become infected through the ingestion of oocysts shed in cat feces or tissue
cysts in raw or undercooked meat.
Pathogenicity: Toxoplasma gondii can cause toxoplasmosis, which is usually asymptomatic in
healthy individuals. However, it can lead to serious complications in individuals with weakened
immune systems and can cause congenital infections in pregnant women, potentially resulting in
birth defects.
Diagnosis: Toxoplasma gondii infection can be diagnosed through serologic testing, which
detects the presence of antibodies in the blood. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing can also
be used to detect the parasite's DNA in biological samples.
Treatment: Treatment is typically not required for healthy individuals with mild or asymptomatic
infections. In cases of symptomatic infections or for individuals with weakened immune systems,
antimicrobial drugs such as pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine may be prescribed.
Prevention: Preventive measures include avoiding the consumption of undercooked meat or
unwashed fruits and vegetables, practicing good hygiene (including frequent handwashing), and
avoiding contact with cat feces.

17. Plasmodium falciparum W.M

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 Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Alveolata
Phylum: Apicomplexa
Class: Aconoidasida
Order: Haemospororida
Family: Plasmodiidae
Genus: Plasmodium
Species: P. falciparum

Picture 60 /Plasmodium falciparum/

Life cycle: Plasmodium falciparum is the causative agent of the most severe form of malaria in
humans. It undergoes a complex life cycle involving a mosquito vector (typically Anopheles
mosquitoes) and human hosts. In humans, the parasite invades liver cells before infecting red
blood cells and reproducing asexually.
Pathogenicity: Plasmodium falciparum causes the most severe form of malaria, which is
characterized by high fever, anemia, organ failure, and can be life-threatening if not treated
promptly.
Diagnosis: Done through microscopic examination of blood smears, where the presence of the
parasite in red blood cells can be observed.
Treatment: Antimalarial medications such as artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs)
are commonly used for the treatment of Plasmodium falciparum infections. The choice of
medication depends on the severity of the infection and the geographical location.
Prevention: Include the use of insecticide-treated bed nets, indoor residual spraying to control
mosquito populations, and taking prophylactic antimalarial medications when traveling to
endemic areas.

18. Plasmodium vivax

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 Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Clade: Diaphoretickes
Clade: SAR
Clade: Alveolata
Phylum: Apicomplexa
Class: Aconoidasida
Order: Haemospororida
Family: Plasmodiidae
Genus: Plasmodium
Species: P. vivax

Picture 61 /Plasmodium vivax/

Life cycle: Plasmodium vivax follows a similar life cycle to Plasmodium falciparum, including
transmission by Anopheles mosquitoes and invasion of liver cells and red blood cells in humans.
However, Plasmodium vivax can also form dormant stages (hypnozoites) in the liver, leading to
relapses of the infection.
Pathogenicity: Plasmodium vivax causes milder forms of malaria compared to Plasmodium
falciparum but is the most widely distributed species of human malaria parasites, mainly found
in Asia and Latin America.
Diagnosis: It is also done through microscopic examination of blood smears, similar to
Plasmodium falciparum.
Treatment: Antimalarial medications, including chloroquine and primaquine, are commonly used
to treat Plasmodium vivax infections. The combination of chloroquine and primaquine is
effective against both the active blood-stage infection and the dormant liver-stage form.
Prevention: Preventive measures for Plasmodium vivax are similar to those for Plasmodium
falciparum and include the use of insecticide-treated bed nets, indoor residual spraying, and
prophylactic antimalarial medications.

19. Giardia lamblia trophozoite smear

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 Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Metamonada
Order: Diplomonadida
Family: Hexamitidae
Subfamily: Giardiinae
Genus: Giardia

Picture 62 /Giardia lamblia trophozoite smear/

Life cycle: Giardia lamblia has a direct life cycle, where infectious cysts are ingested from
contaminated food, water, or surfaces. Once ingested, the cysts release trophozoites in the small
intestine, where they multiply and attach to the intestinal lining.
Pathogenicity: Giardia lamblia causes giardiasis, a gastrointestinal illness characterized by
diarrhea, abdominal cramps, bloating, and nausea.
Diagnosis: Commonly done by analyzing stool samples under a microscope to identify the
presence of trophozoites or cysts. Alternatively, antigen detection tests or molecular assays may
be used for diagnosis.
Treatment: Giardia lamblia infection can be treated with medications like metronidazole,
tinidazole, or nitazoxanide. Treatment duration varies depending on the severity of symptoms
and may require repeating the course of medication.
Prevention: Involves practicing good personal hygiene, including thorough handwashing with
soap and water, particularly before handling food or after using the toilet. Avoiding ingestion of
contaminated water sources is also important for prevention.

20.Taenia siganata

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 Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Cestoda
Order: Cyclophyllidea
Family: Taeniidae
Genus: Taenia
Species: T. saginata

Picture 63 /Teania siganata/

Life cycle: Cycle involves two main hosts - humans as definitive hosts and cattle as intermediate
hosts. Humans become infected by ingesting raw or undercooked beef containing cysticerci (the
larval stage of the tapeworm). Once ingested, the cysticerci develop into adult tapeworms
residing in the small intestines of humans. The tapeworm releases eggs in the form of
proglottids, which are then passed in the feces.
Pathogenicity: Taenia saginata infection in humans is usually asymptomatic or causes mild
symptoms such as digestive disturbances. However, excessive tapeworm burden can lead to
abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss.
Diagnosis: Can be achieved through the identification of characteristic proglottids or eggs in the
feces. Proglottids are usually motile and can be seen in the stool or near the anus.
Treatment: The treatment of choice for Taenia saginata infection is the administration of a single
dose of the anthelmintic drug praziquantel. This medication effectively kills the tapeworm and
allows it to be expelled from the body.
Prevention: Involves proper hygiene and cooking practices. Thorough cooking of beef products
and proper handwashing after handling raw meat are essential preventive measures.

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21.Taenia saginata nit

Picture 64 /Taenia sigata nit/

22.Taenia saginata gravid proglottid W.M

The gravid proglottid is the mature, egg-
filled segment of the Taenia saginata
tapeworm. It is released from the
tapeworm's body and passed in the feces of
the infected individual.

Picture 65 /Taenia saginata gravid proglottid/

23. Taenia saginata immature proglottid W.M

73
 The immaturity proglottid is the young,
developing segment of the Taenia saginata
tapeworm. It is located close to the scolex
(head) of the tapeworm.

Picture 66 /Teania saginata immature proglottid

W.M/

24. Taenia saginata gravid

The gravid proglottid is the mature, egg-

filled segment of the Taenia saginata
tapeworm. It is released from the
tapeworm's body and passed in the feces of
the infected individual.

Picture 67 /Taenia saginata gravid/

25. Taenia solium scolex W.M

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 Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Cestoda
Order: Cyclophyllidea
Family: Taeniidae
Genus: Taenia
Species: T. solium

Picture 68 /Taenia solium/

Life cycle: It involves two hosts. The adult tapeworm resides in the intestines of humans as the
definitive host. Eggs are passed in the feces, and if ingested by pigs (intermediate host), the eggs
hatch and form larvae called cysticerci in the pig's muscles. Humans become infected by
ingesting undercooked pork containing cysticerci. In the human host, the cysticerci transform
into adult tapeworms, completing the life cycle.
Pathogenicity: The adult tapeworm in the intestines usually causes mild symptoms or may even
be asymptomatic. However, ingestion of the eggs can lead to cysticercosis, a condition where
larval cysts form in various tissues and organs. Cysticercosis can cause severe symptoms
depending on the affected organs, such as neurocysticercosis when cysts form in the brain.
Diagnosis: Usually done through microscopic examination of stool samples for the presence of
eggs or proglottids (segments) shed by the tapeworm. Imaging techniques like X-rays or MRI
may be used to detect cysticercosis in tissues.
Treatment: Involves the use of anthelmintic drugs like praziquantel or albendazole to kill the
adult tapeworm in the intestines. For cysticercosis, treatment may involve surgical removal or
drug therapy to address symptoms and complications.
Prevention: Involves proper cooking of pork to kill any cysticerci. Good personal and food
hygiene practices, such as washing hands properly, are important to reduce the risk of
contamination.

26. Taenia silium egg

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 Picture 69 /Taenia sillium egg/

27.Paraganimus westermanii nit W.M

Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Trematoda
Order: Plagiorchiida
Family: Paragonimidae
Genus: Paragonimus
Species: P. westermani

Picture 70 /Paraganimus wertermani nit

W.M/
Life cycle: Humans and other mammals are definitive hosts, while snails act as intermediate
hosts. The life cycle starts when humans consume raw or undercooked crustaceans (such as crabs
and crayfish) containing metacercariae. The metacercariae penetrate the intestinal wall, migrate
through various tissues, and eventually settle in the lungs, where they develop into adult flukes.
The adult flukes lay eggs, which are coughed up and passed through the feces. The eggs require
water to hatch into miracidia, which then infect snails. Inside the snails, the miracidia develop
into cercariae, which are released into the water, infecting crustaceans and completing the life
cycle.

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Pathogenicity: The migration of the larvae through tissues to reach the lungs may cause tissue
damage and inflammation. Once the flukes settle in the lungs, they can cause symptoms such as
chronic cough, chest pain, and bloody sputum.
Diagnosis: Can be challenging. It often relies on identifying eggs or adult flukes in sputum or
stool samples. Serological tests, chest X-rays, and imaging techniques (such as computed
tomography scans) can also aid in diagnosis.
Treatment: Antiparasitic medications, primarily praziquantel, are commonly used for treatment.
Supportive care to manage symptoms such as cough and chest pain may also be necessary.
Prevention: Never eat raw freshwater crabs or crayfish

28.Schistosoma japonicum /male/ W.M

Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Trematoda
Order: Diplostomida
Family: Schistosomatidae
Genus: Schistosoma
Species: S. japonicum

Picture 71 /Schistosoma japonicum-male/

Life cycle: Humans are the definitive host, while freshwater snails act as intermediate hosts. The
life cycle begins when humans come into contact with contaminated freshwater bodies, where
the cercariae penetrate the skin and migrate into blood vessels. Inside the blood vessels, they
mature into adult worms, which mate and lay eggs. The eggs are passed in the urine or feces,
contaminating the water. The eggs require contact with freshwater snails to hatch into miracidia,
which infect snails and undergo multiple developmental phases within the snail. Cercariae are
then released from the snails into the water, ready to infect humans, thereby completing the life
cycle.
Pathogenicity: The adult worms live in the blood vessels, especially in the gastrointestinal tract
and liver, and can cause inflammation, fibrosis, and organ damage. Chronic infection can lead to
various symptoms and complications, including liver enlargement, intestinal damage, and
urinary tract problems.

77
Diagnosis: Typically involves identifying eggs in stool or urine samples through microscopy.
Serological tests and detection of specific antibodies can also be used.
Treatment: Praziquantel is the mainstay of treatment for schistosomiasis caused by Schistosoma
japonicum. In cases of severe disease, additional medications and supportive care may be
necessary
Prevention: Avoid contact with contaminated water, practice good hygiene, wear protective
clothing, control snail populations and seek for more medical advice.

29.Schistosoma japonicum /female/ W.M

Picture 72 /Schistosoma japonicum-female/

30.Schistosoma japonicum sporocyst W.M

78
 Picture 73 /Schistosoma japonicum sporocyst/

31.Schistosoma japonicum miracidium W.M

Picture 74 /Schistosoma japonicum miracidium/

32. Schistosoma japonicum cercaria W.M

79
 Picture 75 /Schistosoma japonicum cercaria/

33.Ancylostomiasis duodenale nit W.M

Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Nematoda
Class: Chromadorea
Order: Rhabditida
Family: Ancylostomatidae
Genus: Ancylostoma
Species: A. duodenale

Picture 76 /Ancylostomiasis duodenale nit/

Life cycle: The life cycle of Ancylostoma duodenale involves egg-larval stages. The adult worms
reside in the small intestine of humans and feed on blood by attaching to the intestinal wall,
causing infection. The eggs are passed in the feces and under favorable conditions, can develop
into infective larvae in the soil.

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Pathogenicity: Ancylostoma duodenale causes a parasitic infection known as ancylostomiasis or
hookworm disease. It thrives on human blood, leading to iron deficiency anemia, fatigue,
weakness, and potentially impaired physical and cognitive development in children.
Diagnosis: Usually made by examining stool samples for the presence of eggs or larvae under a
microscope. Blood tests can also help detect anemia and eosinophilia (increase in eosinophil
count).
Treatment: The infection can be treated with anthelmintic drugs like albendazole or
mebendazole. Iron supplements may also be necessary to treat anemia.
Prevention: Involves promoting proper sanitation, wearing shoes, avoiding walking barefoot in
contaminated areas, and regular deworming programs.

34.Hymenolepis nana mature proglottid W.M

Picture 77 /Hymenolepis nana/ Picture 78 /Hymenolepis nana mid-section/

Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota Order: Cyclophyllidea
Kingdom: Animalia Family: Hymenolepididae
Phylum: Platyhelminthes Genus: Hymenolepis
Class: Cestoda Species: H. nana

Life cycle: Hymenolepis nana is a tapeworm with a direct life cycle. The adult tapeworm lives in
the small intestine of humans, and the eggs are passed in feces. Once ingested by an intermediate
host (e.g., insects), the larvae develop into cysticercoids. Humans get infected by accidentally
ingesting these infected intermediate hosts.

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Pathogenicity: Hymenolepis nana infection, also known as dwarf tapeworm infection, can cause
symptoms like abdominal pain, diarrhea, and poor appetite. In severe cases, it can lead to
malnutrition, especially in children.
Diagnosis: Made by examining stool samples for the presence of mature proglottids (segments)
or eggs under a microscope.
Treatment: Hymenolepis nana infection can be treated with anthelmintic drugs such as
praziquantel or niclosamide.
Prevention: Involves promoting good hygiene practices like handwashing, ensuring proper
sanitation, and avoiding ingestion of contaminated food.

35. Blood trypanosoma smear

Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Euglenozoa
Class: Kinetoplastea
Order: Trypanosomatida
Family: Trypanosomatidae
Genus: Trypanosoma

Picture 79 / Blood trypanosoma smear/

Life cycle: Trypanosoma species, including Trypanosoma brucei, have complex life cycles. They
are transmitted through the bite of infected tsetse flies. The parasites multiply in the bloodstream,
causing various forms of trypanosomiasis.
Pathogenicity: Trypanosoma species can cause sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis) in
humans. It leads to neurological symptoms, fever, fatigue, and can be fatal if not treated.
Diagnosis: Involves microscopic examination of a blood smear to identify the presence of
trypanosomes.
Treatment: Typically involves medications like suramin or pentamidine for the early stage of the
disease and melarsoprol or eflornithine for advanced stages.
Prevention: Focuses on controlling tsetse fly populations, avoiding exposure to infected areas,
wearing protective clothing, and using insect repellents in endemic regions.

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 36.Echinococcus granulosus imago W.M

Picture 80 /Echinococcus granulosus Picture 81 /Echinococcus granulosus

anterior end/ posterior end/

Classification:

Domain: Eukaryota Order: Cyclophyllidea

Kingdom: Animalia Family: Taeniidae
Phylum: Platyhelminthes Genus: Echinococcus
Class: Cestoda Species: E. granulosus
Life cycle: Adult tapeworms reside in the small intestine of definitive hosts such as dogs and
other canids. The eggs are passed through the feces of the definitive host and can infect
intermediate hosts (usually herbivores) when ingested. In the intermediate host, the eggs hatch in
the intestine and penetrate the intestinal wall, migrating to various organs and forming cysts.
These cysts can be ingested by definitive hosts, completing the life cycle.
Pathogenicity: Echinococcus granulosus can cause a condition called hydatid disease in humans,
characterized by the formation of cysts in organs such as the liver, lungs, and brain. These cysts
can grow slowly over many years, causing symptoms such as abdominal pain, cough, and organ
dysfunction.
Diagnosis: Often made based on imaging techniques such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, which
can detect the presence of cysts. Serological tests can also be used to detect specific antibodies
against Echinococcus.
Treatment: Typically involves surgical removal of the cysts, although medication may be used to
shrink or kill cysts prior to surgery. Anti-parasitic drugs like albendazole may also be prescribed
to eliminate any remaining parasites.

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Prevention: Mainly focus on deworming infected dogs and proper disposal of dog feces to
decrease the risk of contamination. Education on good hygiene practices and avoidance of
contact with infected animals is also important.

37.Microfilaria bancrofti

Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Nematoda
Class: Chromadorea
Order: Rhabditida
Family: Onchocercidae
Genus: Wuchereria
Species: W. bancrofti

Picture 82 /Microfilaria bancrofti/

Life cycle: This parasitic worm causes lymphatic filariasis in humans. Mosquitoes serve as the
intermediate hosts, ingesting microfilariae during a blood meal from an infected human. Inside
the mosquito, the microfilariae develop into infective larvae. When the mosquito bites another
human, it injects these infective larvae into the skin, where they migrate to the lymphatic vessels
and mature into adult worms.
Pathogenicity: Microfilaria bancrofti can cause lymphatic filariasis, a disease characterized by
the obstruction and enlargement of lymphatic vessels. This can lead to symptoms such as
swelling of limbs, genitals, and breasts, as well as recurrent fevers and lymphedema.
Diagnosis: Can be made by identifying microfilariae using microscopic examination of blood
samples. Immunological tests can also detect specific antibodies against the parasite.
Treatment: Medications such as diethylcarbamazine (DEC), ivermectin, and albendazole are
commonly used to treat lymphatic filariasis. The treatment aims to kill the adult worms and
reduce microfilariae levels.
Prevention: Prevention strategies primarily focus on vector control, including the use of bed nets,
mosquito repellents, and environmental management to reduce mosquito breeding sites. Regular
mass drug administration in endemic areas can also help control the disease.

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 38.Trichina imago /female/ W.M
Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Nematoda
Class: Enoplea
Order: Trichocephalida
Family: Trichinellidae
Genus: Trichinella

Picture 83 /Trichina imago-female/

Life cycle: This parasitic nematode causes trichinellosis in humans. The life cycle involves
ingestion of undercooked meat containing encysted larvae. These larvae then mature into adult
worms in the small intestine, where they produce larvae that migrate to various tissues in the
body and encyst.
Pathogenicity: Trichinella spiralis can cause trichinellosis, characterized by symptoms such as
muscle pain, fever, edema, and gastrointestinal disturbances. Severe cases can lead to
myocarditis, encephalitis, and respiratory failure.
Diagnosis: Typically made by serological tests, detecting specific antibodies against Trichinella,
or by muscle biopsy to identify the presence of encysted larvae.
Treatment: There is no specific treatment for trichinellosis. Medications such as albendazole may
be used to alleviate symptoms and reduce larval burden, but supportive care is often necessary.
Prevention: Include proper cooking of meat, particularly pork and wild game, to kill the larvae.
Freezing meat at -15°C for several days can also destroy the larvae. Additionally, avoiding the
consumption of raw or undercooked meat from potentially infected sources is crucial.

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39. Trichina imago /male/

Picture 84 /Trichina imago-male/

40. Trichina nit cyst W.M

Picture 85 /Trichina nit cyst/

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 41.Anopheles /female/

Picture 86 /Anopheles-female/ Picture 87 /Abdomen part of Anopheles/

Classification:
Order: Diptera
Domain: Eukaryota Family: Culicidae
Kingdom: Animalia Subfamily: Anophelinae
Phylum: Arthropoda Genus: Anopheles
Class: Insecta
Life Cycle: Anopheles mosquitoes undergo complete metamorphosis, consisting of four stages:
egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The female lays eggs on the surface of stagnant water, which hatch
into larvae after a few days. The larvae feed on microorganisms and organic matter present in the
water. They then enter the pupa stage, where they transform into adult mosquitoes. The adult
Anopheles mosquito primarily feeds on plant nectar but the female also requires blood meals to
lay eggs.
Pathogenicity: Female Anopheles mosquitoes are known to transmit the malaria parasite,
Plasmodium, to humans. When an infected mosquito bites a person, it injects the parasite into
their bloodstream, leading to malaria infection.
Diagnosis: Typically done by examining blood samples under a microscope to identify the
presence of the Plasmodium parasite.
Treatment: Malaria can be treated with antimalarial medications, such as chloroquine,
artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs), and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine, depending on the
drug resistance in the specific region.

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Prevention: Involves using insecticide-treated bed nets, wearing protective clothing, using
mosquito repellents, and implementing indoor residual spraying with insecticides to reduce
mosquito populations.

42.Anopheles egg

Picture 88 /Anopheles eggs/

43.Anopheles /male/

Picture 89 /Anopheles-head part/ Picture 90 /Anopheles-male/

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 Picture 91 /Anopheles-abdomen part/

44.Aedes mosquito /female/

Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Culicidae
Tribe: Aedini
Genus: Aedes

Picture 92 /Aedes-female/

Life Cycle: Aedes mosquitoes also undergo complete metamorphosis. They lay their eggs in or
near water bodies, such as small containers, flower pots, and discarded tires. The eggs survive in
a dormant state until they come into contact with water, triggering hatching. The larvae then
develop in the water, feeding on microorganisms and organic debris. After going through the
pupal stage, adult Aedes mosquitoes emerge.
Pathogenicity: Aedes mosquitoes are vectors for several viral diseases, including dengue fever,
Zika virus, chikungunya, and yellow fever. When an infected Aedes mosquito bites a person, it
can transmit the virus, causing infection.
Diagnosis: Transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes is usually done by conducting laboratory tests on
blood or other bodily fluids to detect the presence of specific viral antigens or genetic material.

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Treatment: There are no specific antiviral treatments available for most Aedes-transmitted
diseases. Treatment focuses on relieving symptoms, managing complications, and providing
supportive care.
Prevention: Revolves around controlling mosquito breeding sites by removing stagnant water
sources, using larvicides and insecticides, and practicing personal protection measures, such as
wearing long-sleeved clothing and using mosquito repellents.

45.Aedes mosquito /male/

Picture 93 /Aedes-male/

46.Culex /female/
Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Culicidae
Subfamily: Culicinae
Tribe: Culicini
Genus: Culex

Picture 94 /Culex-female/

Life Cycle: Culex mosquitoes also have a complete metamorphosis life cycle. The female Culex
mosquito usually lays her eggs in stagnant water, including artificial containers, drains, and

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pools. These eggs hatch into larvae, which feed on organic matter and microorganisms in the
water. After the pupal stage, adult Culex mosquitoes emerge.
Pathogenicity: Culex mosquitoes are primarily known for transmitting West Nile virus, which
can cause severe neurological diseases in humans, including meningitis and encephalitis.
Diagnosis: Done through laboratory testing, such as detecting viral genetic material or antibodies
in blood or cerebrospinal fluid.
Treatment: There is no specific treatment for West Nile virus infection. Treatment mainly
focuses on managing symptoms, providing supportive care, and monitoring complications.
Prevention: Involves reducing mosquito breeding sites, using larvicides and insecticides, wearing
protective clothing, using mosquito repellents, and implementing mosquito control programs.

47.Culex nit
The nit refers to the egg stage of the
mosquito life cycle. Female Culex
mosquitoes lay their eggs in clusters called
rafts, which float on the water's surface. The
eggs are elongated and have a cylindrical
shape. They are usually laid in areas with
stagnant water, such as ponds, ditches, or
containers. The eggs hatch into larvae after a
certain period of time, starting the mosquito
life cycle.
Picture 95 /Culex nit/

48.Culex /male/

Picture 96 /Culex-male/ Picture 97 /Abdomen oart of male cule

49.Culex pupa

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Picture 98 /Culex pupa/ Picture 99 /Abdomen part of culex pupa/

The pupa is the stage of mosquito development that follows the larval stage. During this stage,
the mosquito larvae transform into pupae. Pupae are comma-shaped and have a distinct head and
thorax. They are often found floating at the water's surface, where they undergo metamorphosis.
Pupae do not feed and are relatively inactive, but they are capable of moving in response to
disturbances in the water.

50.Necator americanus /female/ W.M

Picture 100 /Anterior end of the worm/ Picture 101 /Mid-part of the worm/

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 Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Nematoda
Class: Chromadorea
Order: Rhabditida
Family: Ancylostomatidae
Genus: Necator
Species: N. americanus

Picture 102 /Posterior end of the worm/

Life Cycle: The adult worms reside in the small intestine of the human host, where they attach to
the intestinal wall and feed on the host's blood. The females produce eggs, which are passed
through the feces of the infected individual. In favorable environmental conditions, the eggs
hatch into larvae within the soil. The larvae go through several stages of development, eventually
becoming infective third-stage larvae (L3). Humans become infected by walking barefoot on soil
contaminated with infective larvae. The larvae penetrate the skin, enter the bloodstream, and are
carried to the lungs. From there, they migrate to the throat and are swallowed, reaching the small
intestine where they mature into adults.
Pathogenicity: Necator americanus causes a disease called hookworm infection or hookworm
disease. The worms attach to the intestinal wall and suck blood, which can lead to chronic iron
deficiency anemia, malnutrition, and other complications. Symptoms may include fatigue,
abdominal pain, diarrhea, and weight loss.
Diagnosis: Can be made by detecting the eggs in a stool sample using a microscope.
Treatment: The common treatment for Necator americanus infection is the use of anti-parasitic
medications such as albendazole, mebendazole, or pyrantel pamoate. These medications kill the
worms, allowing the body to eliminate them.
Prevention: Involves practical measures such as wearing shoes when walking on soil,
maintaining proper hygiene, and avoiding contact with fecally contaminated soil.

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 Report 9
1. Enterobius vermicularis

Picture 103 /Enterobius vermicularis/ Picture 104 /Enterobius vermicularis egg/

Classification: Class: Chromadorea

Domain: Eukaryota Order: Rhabditida
Kingdom: Animalia Family: Oxyuridae
Phylum: Nematoda Genus: Enterobius

Life Cycle: The cycle involves the ingestion of pinworm eggs, which hatch and develop into
adult worms in the intestine. The female pinworms migrate to the anus at night to lay their eggs,
causing intense itching. The eggs are then transferred to the environment through scratching,
where they can survive for a few weeks.
Pathogenicity: Enterobius vermicularis infection, also known as enterobiasis or pinworm
infection, is a common parasitic infection in humans. It does not usually cause significant health
problems but can result in discomfort, anal irritation, and itching, especially at night.
Diagnosis: Made by observing the characteristic eggs under a microscope. This can be done
through the "scotch tape test" where a piece of clear tape is placed around the anus, and eggs
adhering to it can be visualized.
Treatment: Typically involves the use of medications such as mebendazole, albendazole, or
pyrantel pamoate. The entire household is usually treated, and hygiene measures such as frequent
handwashing, changing clothes, and bedding are recommended.
Prevention: Include maintaining good personal hygiene, washing hands before eating and after
using the toilet, frequently changing and washing bed linens, and trimming nails short. Regular
cleaning of the household environment is also important to minimize the risk of reinfection.

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 2. Ancylostoma duodenale

Picture 105 /Ancylostoma duodenale/ Picture 106 /Ancylostoma

duodenale egg/
Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota Order: Rhabditida
Kingdom: Animalia Family: Ancylostomatidae
Phylum: Nematoda Genus: Ancylostoma
Class: Chromadorea Species: A. duodenale
Life Cycle: The cycle begins with the eggs passed in the feces of an infected individual. The
eggs hatch into larvae in the soil, which can penetrate the human skin. The larvae then migrate
through the bloodstream to the lungs, and eventually reach the small intestine, where they mature
into adult worms and attach to the intestinal wall, causing intestinal damage and blood loss.
Pathogenicity: Ancylostoma duodenale infection, also known as hookworm infection, can cause
anemia and iron deficiency due to blood loss from the intestines. Common symptoms include
abdominal pain, diarrhea, and fatigue. Severe infections can lead to malnutrition and stunted
growth in children.
Diagnosis: Typically made by identifying characteristic eggs in a stool sample under a
microscope. Blood tests may also be done to check for anemia and iron deficiency.
Treatment: Involves the use of medications such as albendazole, mebendazole, or pyrantel
pamoate. Iron supplements may be required to manage anemia caused by the infection.
Prevention: Involves wearing shoes or protective footwear when walking on contaminated soil,
practicing good hygiene, and avoiding contact with feces-contaminated areas. Improved
sanitation and proper waste disposal also play a crucial role in preventing the spread of
hookworm infection.

3. Trichuris trichiura
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Picture 107 /Trichuris trichiura/ Picture 108 /Trichuris trichiura egg/

Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota Order: Trichocephalida
Kingdom: Animalia Family: Trichuridae
Phylum: Nematoda Genus: Trichuris
Class: Enoplea Species: T. trichiura
Life Cycle: The cycle begins with the ingestion of eggs that are passed in the feces of an infected
individual. The eggs hatch in the intestine, and the larvae develop into adult worms in the colon
and cecum. The adult worms then attach to the intestinal wall, causing inflammation and tissue
damage.
Pathogenicity: Trichuris trichiura infection, also known as whipworm infection, can cause
abdominal pain, diarrhea, bloody stools, and weight loss. Chronic infections can result in
malnutrition and impaired physical and cognitive development, particularly in children.
Diagnosis: Typically made by identifying the characteristic eggs in a stool sample under a
microscope. In some cases, colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy may be necessary to visualize the
adult worms in the colon.
Treatment: Typically involves the use of medications such as mebendazole or albendazole. In
severe cases or when complications arise, additional treatments may be required.
Prevention: Involves maintaining good sanitation and hygiene, avoiding the ingestion of soil and
water contaminated with feces, and practicing proper handwashing. Improved sanitation and
access to clean water sources are crucial for preventing the transmission of whipworm infection.

4. Strongyloides stercoralis

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Picture 109 /Strongyloides stercoralis free-living Picture 110 /Strongyloides stercoralis egg/
and larvae form/

Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota Order: Rhabditida
Kingdom: Animalia Family: Strongylidae
Phylum: Nematoda Genus: Strongyloides
Class: Chromadorea Species: S. stercoralis

Life cycle: Strongyloides stercoralis has a complex life cycle that involves both free-living and
parasitic stages. The adult worms reside in the small intestine of the human host, where they
produce eggs. The eggs hatch into larvae, which can develop into either free-living adults in the
soil or infectious filariform larvae. The filariform larvae can penetrate the skin of the human
host, leading to an autoinfection cycle where the larvae can reinfect the small intestine or migrate
to other tissues in the body.
Pathogenicity: The larvae of Strongyloides stercoralis can cause an intestinal infection known as
strongyloidiasis. In mild cases, patients may experience abdominal pain, diarrhea, and skin rash.
However, in immunocompromised individuals, the infection can become chronic and potentially
life-threatening.
Diagnosis: Usually done through the examination of stool samples for the presence of
Strongyloides larvae. However, due to the intermittent shedding of larvae in the stool, multiple
samples may be required. Serological tests can also be used to detect specific antibodies against
the parasite.
Treatment: The main treatment for strongyloidiasis is the administration of antiparasitic drugs
such as ivermectin or albendazole. The duration of treatment may vary depending on the severity
of the infection and the patient's immune status.

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Prevention: Involves proper sanitation, including the disposal of human waste in a sanitary
manner. Individuals in endemic areas should avoid walking barefoot and should practice good
personal hygiene to minimize the risk of infection.

5. Ascaris lumbricoides

Picture 111 /egg form/ Picture 112 /larvae form/ Picture 113 /adult form/

Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota Order: Ascaridida
Kingdom: Animalia Family: Ascarididae
Phylum: Nematoda Genus: Ascaris
Class: Chromadorea Species: A. lumbricoides

Life cycle: Ascaris lumbricoides follows a direct life cycle, which means it does not require an
intermediate host. The adult worms reside in the human small intestine, where they produce
eggs. The eggs are excreted in the feces and can contaminate the soil. Ingestion of contaminated
food or water leads to the hatching of the eggs in the human small intestine, allowing the larvae
to penetrate the intestinal walls and migrate to the liver, heart, and lungs. From there, the larvae
ascend the respiratory tract, are swallowed, and return to the small intestine to mature into adult
worms.
Pathogenicity: Ascaris lumbricoides infections can cause ascariasis. In mild infections, patients
may be asymptomatic. However, heavy infections can lead to abdominal pain, malnutrition,
intestinal obstruction, and even migration of the worms to other organs, causing complications
such as pneumonia or biliary obstruction.
Diagnosis: Can be done through microscopic examination of stool samples for the presence of
Ascaris eggs. Imaging techniques such as ultrasound or X-ray may also be used to detect the
presence of adult worms.
Treatment: Typically involves the administration of antiparasitic drugs such as albendazole or
mebendazole. In severe cases or complications, surgical intervention may be necessary to
remove the worms.
Prevention: Involves proper sanitation, including the provision of clean water and improved
hygiene practices. Education on the importance of handwashing, proper disposal of human

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waste, and thorough cooking of food can help prevent contamination and transmission of the
parasite.

6. Trichinella spiralis

Picture 114 /Trichinella spiralis Picture 115 /Trichinella spiralis adult form/
larvae form/
Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota Order: Trichocephalida
Kingdom: Animalia Family: Trichinellidae
Phylum: Nematoda Genus: Trichinella
Class: Enoplea Species: T. spiralis
Life cycle: The cycle involves a complex series of stages. The adult worms reside in the small
intestine of the human host, where they produce larvae. The larvae then penetrate the intestinal
walls and migrate through different tissues, including muscle tissue. Once in the muscle tissue,
the larvae encyst, forming a protective capsule. When an infected animal, such as a pig or bear,
is consumed by another host (including humans), the larvae are released from the cysts in the
stomach, and they mature into adult worms in the small intestine.
Pathogenicity: Trichinella spiralis infections result in trichinellosis. Symptoms can vary
depending on the stage of infection and the number of larvae ingested. Initial symptoms may
include gastrointestinal discomfort, diarrhea, and fever. As the larvae migrate through the
muscles, symptoms such as muscle pain, swelling, and weakness can occur. Severe cases can
lead to cardiac and respiratory complications.
Diagnosis: Usually based on clinical symptoms and confirmed through serological tests to detect
specific antibodies against the parasite. Muscle biopsy may also be performed to directly
visualize the larvae.
Treatment: Usually involves antiparasitic drugs such as albendazole or mebendazole during the
early stages of infection. However, in severe cases, supportive treatment to manage symptoms
and complications may be necessary.
Prevention: Primarily revolves around proper cooking of meat, particularly of pork and game
meats, as freezing may not necessarily kill.

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 7. Necator americanus

Picture 116 /egg form/ Picture 117 /Necator americanus/

Classification:
Domain:Eukaryota Order: Rhabditida
Kingdom: Animalia Family: Ancylostomatidae
Phylum: Nematoda Genus: Necator
Class: Chromadorea Species: N. americanus

Life Cycle: The cycle starts with the adult worms residing in the small intestine of infected
humans. These adult worms produce eggs that are passed out of the body through feces. In warm
and moist soil, the eggs hatch into larvae, and these larvae further develop into infective third-
stage larvae (L3). The L3 larvae can penetrate the human skin, usually through the feet, causing
skin inflammation and itching. Once inside the body, the larvae migrate through the bloodstream
to the lungs. From there, they pass into the airways and are eventually swallowed. As they reach
the small intestine, they develop into adult worms, starting the cycle again.
Pathogenicity: Necator americanus is a parasitic hookworm that attaches to the wall of the small
intestine, feeds on blood, and secretes anticoagulant proteins that promote bleeding. Chronic
infection can lead to anemia, as the loss of blood can result in iron deficiency.
Diagnosis: Involves microscopic examination of stool samples to identify the presence of eggs or
larvae. Blood tests can also be conducted to evaluate for anemia and eosinophilia (elevated
eosinophil count), which indicates an allergic response to the parasite.
Treatment: The primary treatment for Necator americanus infection is the administration of
anthelmintic drugs, such as albendazole or mebendazole. These drugs can kill the adult worms,
preventing further blood loss and terminating the infection. Iron supplements may also be
prescribed to treat anemia caused by the parasite.
Prevention: Involves good sanitation practices, including the proper disposal of human waste.
Wearing shoes and avoiding walking barefoot in areas where the parasite is prevalent can also

100
help prevent infection. Health education programs and public health initiatives play a crucial role
in promoting awareness and implementing preventive measures.

8. Dracunculus medinensis

Picture 118 /egg form/ Picture 119 /larvae form/ Picture 120 /adult form/

Classification:
Domain: Eukaryota Order: Camallanida
Kingdom: Animalia Family: Dracunculidae
Phylum: Nematoda Genus: Dracunculus
Class: Secernentea Species: D. medinensis

Life Cycle: Dracunculus medinensis, commonly known as Guinea worm, has a life cycle that
begins when infected individuals consume water contaminated with water fleas (Cyclops). Inside
the stomach, the water fleas die, and as a result, the Guinea worm larvae are released. These
larvae penetrate the stomach wall and migrate to the abdominal cavity and subcutaneous tissues,
where they mature into adult worms. Female worms grow up to 1m long and develop a blister
usually on the lower limbs. When the blister ruptures and contacts water, it releases thousands of
larvae, continuing the life cycle.
Pathogenicity: Dracunculus medinensis causes infection and subsequent disease known as
dracunculiasis. The female worm causes intense pain as it migrates through the subcutaneous
tissues, usually resulting in ulceration and blister formation. This process can hinder normal
daily activities, causing debilitation and sometimes secondary bacterial infections.
Diagnosis: Primarily based on clinical signs and symptoms. The presence of a blister on the skin,
often accompanied by a protruding worm, is highly suggestive. Laboratory confirmation can be
obtained by immobilizing the worm, carefully pulling it out in a slow, steady manner, and then
identifying it morphologically.
Treatment: There is no specific drug treatment available for Dracunculus medinensis infection.
The standard protocol involves physically removing the entire worm through a controlled and
slow extraction process. The worm is carefully wound around a stick or another object, a few
centimeters per day, to avoid rupture. This process can take several weeks. Pain management,
wound care, and prevention of secondary bacterial infections are also important aspects of
treatment.

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Prevention: Primarily focuses on providing clean drinking water sources. Filtering drinking
water through fine mesh filters can remove infected water fleas. Education about the importance
of consuming only safe water and avoiding contact with water bodies potentially contaminated
with the parasite is key to prevention efforts. Community-based interventions, health education,
and water treatment initiatives are instrumental in eradicating dracunculiasis.

Report 10
Experiment №1 Dissection of earthworm
Introduction: By doing this experiment we get to understand more about internal and external
anatomy of earthworm, and get to know more about the precise procedure and living organisms.
Materials: Earthworm, light microscope, pins, ethanol, forceps, scalpel blade and dissecting
surface
Method: Put the earthworm into ethanol for 10 minutes until its movement stops. Take it out
using forceps then position it on its dorsal side and pin it at the both ends. Start dissection by
cutting it from the end and pin it to the surface for more specific appearance as you do the
dissection. When you are done with dissection observe its internal anatomy.
Result: Picture 121-125 /External anatomy of the earthworm
Picture 126-135 /Internal anatomy of the earthworm/
/Because this earthworm was small, we can’t observe specific systems/

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Picture 121 /superior side/ Picture 122 /dorsal side/ Picture 123 /prostomium/

Picture 124 /anus of the worm/ Picture 125 /Side view with visible segments/

Picture 126 /earthworm Picture 127 /earthworm Picture 128 /internal

during dissection/ after dissention/ anatomy of the worm/

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Picture 129 /worm after dissection Picture 130 /anterior end
from the external side 1-dorsal 2-superior/ of dissected worm/

Picture 131 /anterior end/ Picture 132 /mid-section/ Picture 133 /posterior end/

Picture 134 /squashed brain of earthworm Picture 135 /squashed brain of earthworm

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 under LM/ under LM/

Conclusion: All living organisms consist of many important, functional parts, does not matter
if it is small or not. From this dissection we can see the evidence of evolution due to its and other
animals’ internal anatomy.

Experiment №2 Dissection of fish

Introduction: Fish are cold-blooded vertebrates that breathe through gills and use fins for
locomotion. Dissecting fish would be a good observing opportunity to learn about other animals’
anatomy due to its life style.
Materials: Fish, gloves, scalpel blade, forceps, light microscope, microscope slide, cover slip,
distilled water and dissecting surface
Method: Observe the external anatomy of the fish. Remove the gill arches by cutting its dorsal
and ventral attachment. Remove the fish scale, put it on microscope slides with drop of distilled
water and observe it under light microscope. Begin making incision along the dorsal side of the
fish no higher than the lateral line. Make the incision toward the head using scissors. Incision 2
should begin on the ventral surface just toward the anus. When you reach gills cut upward
behind the gills, completing incision 3. Lastly finish the process by making the incision 4. Very
carefully lift away the cut section of the body wall. Lastly observe the internal anatomy of the
fish.
Result: Picture 136-144 /External anatomy of the fish/
Picture 145-158 /Internal anatomy of the fish/
a. The mandible rotates upwards closing the opening (mouth) between it and the premaxilla.
At the same time the premaxilla moves dorso-posteriorly with its long ascending process
sliding back over the ethmoid region. On closure of the mouth the maxilla rotates
forwards to its pre-opening position.
b. This fish is toothless, at mandible and maxilla.
c. The operculum is the bony flap that protects the gills from harm. It opens and closes to
allow water to pass over the gills.
d. They are thin-walled, finely divided elements of the gill designed to provide as much
surface area as possible through which to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Fish has unique organ and structures that is not present in other animals. Such as gill and air bag.
1. Gills are located on both sides of the fish's body behind the head. They are made up of
numerous thin, finger-like structures known as gill filaments. Each gill filament contains
smaller structures called gill lamellae, which increase the surface area for gas exchange.
The gills are protected by a bony structure called the gill cover or operculum.

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 They are responsible for extracting oxygen from water and removing carbon dioxide.
Water enters the fish's mouth and flows over the gills. As water passes through the gill
filaments, oxygen diffuses across the thin walls of the gill lamellae into the fish's
bloodstream. At the same time, carbon dioxide from the fish's bloodstream is released
into the water and expelled.
2. The swim bladder is an internal gas-filled organ located in the abdominal cavity of the
fish. It is connected to the fish's digestive system via a duct called the pneumatic duct.
The size and shape of the swim bladder can vary depending on the species of fish.
The swim bladder primarily helps the fish control its buoyancy and maintain its position
in the water column. By adjusting the amount of gas in the swim bladder, fish can either
rise to the surface or sink to deeper depths. The swim bladder can also provide protection
to vital organs by acting as a cushion. In some fish species, the swim bladder also assists
in sound production and amplification for communication purposes.
/Because this fish’ dorsal fin was already cut-off we couldn’t observe the dorsal fin/

Picture 136 /external anatomy of the fish Picture 137 /external anatomy of the fish/
within parts/

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Picture 138 /head-part/ Picture 139 /anus of the fish/ Picture 140 /caudal fin/

Picture 141 /fish from the Picture 142 /Pelvic fin/ Picture 143 /Anal fin/
bottom/

Picture 144 /tongue of the fish/

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Picture 145 /gill within the fish/ Picture 146 /gills separately/

Picture 147 /scale under LM/ Picture 148 /airbag filled Picture 149 /airbag-airless/
with air/

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Picture 150 /internal anatomy/ Picture 151 /internal anatomy/ Picture 152

Picture 153 /Heart/ Picture 154 /separated heart/ Picture 155

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Picture 156 /Kidney and digestive system/

Picture 157 /liver and stomach/ Picture 158 /Stomach of the fish/

Conclusion: Animals in the world adapt to the environment and condition as evolution occurs.
Anatomy of the fish is so much different than earthworm’s and mouse’s due to its living
condition.

Experiment №3 Dissection of mouse

Introduction: A mouse dissection is conducted to explore the internal structure and function of
basis mammalian anatomy. We get to know more about internal and external anatomy of
different animals.
Materials: Mouse, gloves, scalpel blade, dissecting tray and pins
Method: Place the mouse on the dissecting tray and examine the external features. Pin down
the mouse to your dissecting tray on hands on feet. Then carefully remove the skin to expose the

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muscles below, once you reach the cranial region use scissors to peel the skin from the muscle.
Cut through the abdominal wall of the mouse carefully, without damaging any internal organ.
Lastly observe the internal anatomy of the mouse.
Result:
Picture 159-172 /External anatomy of the fish/
Picture 173-183 /Internal anatomy of the fish/
From this experiment we get to know more about external and internal anatomy of mammal, a
mouse.

Picture 159 /external anatomy of the mouse/ Picture 160 /mouth part/

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Picture 164 /eye and nose/ Picture 165 /ear/ Picture 166 /whiskers/

Picture 167 /arm/ Picture 168 /leg/

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Picture 169 /hand/ Picture 170 /feet/ Picture 171 /tail/

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Picture 172 /external anatomy/ Picture 173 /skin and muscle Picture 174 /Internal anatomy/
separated/

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Picture 175 /diaphragm/ Picture 176 /sternum/ Picture 177 /trachea/

Picture 178 /thoracic cavity/ Picture 179 /lungs and heart separated/

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Picture 180 /digestive system/ Picture 181 /kidney/ Picture 182 /urinary bladder/

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 Cause of death: As you can see there is
blood accumulated in the spine. From that
we can expect this mouse was dead because
of a fracture in the back.

Picture 183 /mouse after dissection/

Conclusion: There is a reason why this mouse is called lab mouse, which is its anatomy.
Researchers use this animal to do experiments for various types pf reason, mostly because their
anatomy is most similar to human comparing to earthworm, or fish. Their digestive, respiratory,
reproductive, cardiovascular systems are mostly similar to human’s.

From this dissecting experiment we could see the evidence of evolution due to earthworm’s,
fish’s and mouse’s external and internal anatomy.

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