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Integrated Optimal Design of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator for

Smart Wind Turbine Using Genetic Algorithm

Article in Energies · July 2021

DOI: 10.3390/en14154642

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Article

Integrated Optimal Design of Permanent Magnet Synchronous

Generator for Smart Wind Turbine Using Genetic Algorithm
Henda Zorgani Agrebi 1, Naourez Benhadj 2, Mohamed Chaieb 3, Farooq Sher 4,*, Roua Amami 5, Rafik Neji 2
and Neil Mansfield 4

1 Department of Electrical Engineering, National School of Engineering of Gabes, University of Gabes,

Zrig Gabes 6029, Tunisia; [email protected]
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, National School of Engineering of Sfax, University of Sfax,

Soukra Sfax 3036, Tunisia; [email protected] (N.B.); [email protected] (R.N.)

3 Department of Electrical Engineering, National School of Engineering of Carthage, University of Tunis,

Tunis 2035, Tunisia; [email protected]

4 Department of Engineering, School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University,

Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK; [email protected]

5 Higher Institute of Agricultural Sciences, University of Sousse, Chott Meriem 4042, Tunisia;

[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel: +44‐(0)115‐84‐86679

Abstract: In recent years, the investment in the wind energy sector has increased in the
context of producing green electricity and saving the environment. The installation of
small wind turbines (SWTs) represents an actual strategy for meeting energy needs for
off‐grid systems and certain specialized applications. SWTs are more expensive per kilo‐
Citation: Zorgani Agrebi, H.; watt installed as compared to large‐scale wind turbines. Therefore, the main objective of
Benhadj, N.; Chaieb, M.; Sher, F.;
this study is to produce an economical technology for the wind power market offering
Amami, R.; Neji, R; Mansfield, N.
low‐cost SWTs. The idea consists of considering a simple structure of the wind turbine
Integrated Optimal Design of
using direct‐drive permanent magnet synchronous generator (DDPMSG). DDPMSGs are
Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Generator for Smart Wind Turbine
the most useful machines in the wind energy field thanks to several advantages, such as
Using Genetic Algorithm. Energies elimination of noise and maintenance cost due to suppression of the gearbox and absence
2021, 14, 4642. https://doi.org/ of the rotor circuit excitation barriers by the presence of the permanent magnets (PMs).
10.3390/en14154642 Their major downside is the high cost of active materials, especially the PMs. Thus, the
improvement of the generator design is treated as being the main component of the con‐
Academic Editor: Mario Marchesoni
sidered chain to assure active materials’ mass and cost reduction. The methodology stud‐
ied aims to explain the approach of the design integrated by optimization of the consid‐
Received: 11 June 2021
ered system. It is based on the elaboration of analytical models to find a feasible structure
Accepted: 25 July 2021
Published: 30 July 2021
for the system, taking into account the multi‐disciplinary analysis. The relevance of these
models is validated by the finite element method using 2D MATLAB‐FEMM simulation.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu‐ The models are integrated to elaborate the optimization problem based on a genetic algo‐
tral with regard to jurisdictional rithm to improve the cost of the proposed generator by minimizing the mass of its active
claims in published maps and institu‐ constructive materials. As an outcome, an optimal solution is offered for the wind gener‐
tional affiliations.
ators market, providing a 16% cost reduction.

Keywords: renewable energy; small wind turbine; wind energy; direct drive permanent
magnet synchronous generator; finite element analysis; optimization and genetic algo‐
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li‐
rithm
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and con‐
ditions of the Creative Commons At‐
tribution (CC BY) license (http://crea‐
tivecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Energies 2021, 14, 4642. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154642 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2021, 14, 4642 2 of 20

1. Introduction
With a rapid growth in global energy needs and facing the problem of climate and
ecological change on the planet [1], the installation of wind turbines is considered nowa‐
days as a reliable solution for electricity development [2,3]. The International Energy
Agency (IEA) affirms that electricity consumption from wind power underwent a boom
in the latest thirteen years, from 3.4 TWh in 1990 to 790 TWh in 2016. Moreover, the sta‐
tistics provided by the World Wind Energy Association (WWEA) show that the installa‐
tion of wind turbines reached 744 GW in 2020, providing 7% of the global electricity de‐
mand. According to the report of the Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC), experts high‐
lighted the major role of wind energy in green electricity production and announced that
the year 2021 is decisive to confront barriers threatening the world evolution in the future,
especially carbon emission. Without denying the importance of large‐scale wind turbines
in power production, small wind turbines (SWTs) gained renewed attention from manu‐
facturers [4], creating a lucrative market thanks to their key role in off‐grid installation,
such as islands, rural zones and urban regions, and specialized equipment including ra‐
dar, pumping station, electrification and camping‐cars [5,6]. Despite their importance in
energetic transition towards energy systems, SWTs are more expensive per KW compared
to high‐power wind turbines [5,7]. The main cause of this problem is the low interest of
developed nations who are more interested in large wind turbines [5].
In fact, these small machines have received a high level of research to improve their
cost per installed kilowatt. Technological and operational aspects that limit SWTs perfor‐
mance and electricity costs have been studied to identify the tendencies and topics that
inhibit SWTs markets [8]. A techno‐economic feasibility study of SWTs was carried out in
the valley of Mexico Metropolitan to discuss the economic strategy that promotes the pen‐
etration of SWTs technology [9]. Optimization of power and levelized cost for shrouded
SWTs was realized as presenting an average 59% decrease for the levelized cost of energy
and a 74% increase in annual energy production for wind lens turbines [10]. Economic
and energetic analysis of a 10 KW wind turbine were performed in two cities, Tehran and
Manjil, discussing the cost of the generated electricity [11]. An overview of the SWTs mar‐
ket in Brazil took into account lessons learned from the American market by discussing
the economic problem of these small machines to encourage the growth of this low‐carbon
technology [12]. The examination of energy productivity and economic viability of SWTs
in South Africa has been considered to tackle the obstacles leading to the slow growth of
this technology [13]. Rezza [14] treated the technical and economic analyses of home en‐
ergy management systems including SWT.
In this way, from a design point of view, the European Wind Energy Association
(EWEA) mentioned the necessity of improving some components of SWT to offer an ef‐
fective and economical technology, while respecting the system feasibility [15]. Thus, par‐
ticular regard is given to the optimal design of a direct drive permanent magnet synchro‐
nous generator (DDPMSG) as part of a simplified structure of a wind conversion chain.
The objective is to decrease the mass of the active material, especially for the permanent
magnets (PMs) on account of their high price [16,17]. As a result, the cost of the generator
could be reduced, guaranteeing excellent reliability–performance compromise. Further‐
more, various generators are used in the wind power conversion chain, such as squirrel
cage induction generator (SCIG) [18,19], doubly‐fed induction generator (DFIG) [20,21]
and permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) [22,23]. The choice of PMSGs is
based on several advantages. They are the heart of many applications. These machines are
used especially in direct‐drive wind chains, with variable speeds. The gearless generators
eliminate the noise problems and the maintenance costs from which wind chains suffer
[17]. These benefit with high energy efficiency and provide a permanent magnetic yield
in the air gap thanks to the presence of the PMs [24]. The absence of a circuit exciter re‐
duces the maintenance costs of the generator’s rotor and minimize its losses. Therefore,
the temperature is lower and the efficiency of the machine is improved [25].
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 3 of 20

The design of electrical machines is complex due to constraints imposed by engineer‐

ing domains such as electromagnetic, structural and thermal disciplines [26]. The design
integrated by optimization (DIO) leads to improving the performance of the machine,
such as material cost, mass and efficiency, considering the multi‐physics aspects. The cost
of the generator refers to the cost of the design. A large number of papers are devoted to
the optimization of generators dedicated to wind turbines’ applications. A surface‐
mounted permanent magnet synchronous generator used in low‐power wind turbines is
designed and optimized to reduce the cogging torque [27]. An optimal design of a coreless
axial permanent magnet synchronous generator is treated with the swarm optimization
method to reduce the active material cost of the generator [28]. The optimal design of a
radial flux permanent magnet generator with an outer rotor dedicated to wind turbines
with direct drive is realized to reduce the cost of the wind turbine system while maintain‐
ing the high‐efficiency characteristics [29].
There are various optimization methods divided into two main parts, the gradient‐
based algorithm and the intelligent optimization algorithm [30]. According to the litera‐
ture, the genetic algorithm (GA) is the most popular evolutionary method of intelligent
optimization algorithms in the design of electrical systems. A study on the design by op‐
timization of airfoils related to a 20 KW power wind turbine was presented using a multi‐
objective GA and HARP‐opt Code developed by the National Renewable Energy Labora‐
tory (NREL) [5]. The sensitivity analysis and the design optimization of the flux switching
permanent magnet motor are studied using the non‐dominated sorting GA‐II to improve
the electromagnetic performance of the machine [31]. The optimal design of a PMSG used
in a wind power conversion chain is elaborated based on the GA method to maximize the
annual energy input and minimize the volume of the PMs in the considered generator
[32]. The optimization of the total cost of the distribution network is investigated using
the GA method to minimize the power losses and maximize the voltage profile [33]. An
optimization method of the generator structure and control dedicated for SWT power
plant according to the annual wind speed is described using the GA [34]. An approach for
the design by optimization of DDPMSGs inserted in small wind turbines is realized using
a multi‐objective GA coupled to the fast finite element analysis (FEA) to evaluate the elec‐
tromagnetic torque and the field distribution [35]. An optimization method based on the
GA is interested in the auxiliary damping control with the reactive power loop on the
rotor side converter of a doubly‐fed induction generator used for wind farm applications
[36].
In the present study, a DIO approach for PMSG’s design is envisaged. The purpose
of the study is two‐fold. First, effective analytical models of PMSG are elaborated to find
a feasible structure for the generator according to specifications drawn up by the designer.
The modelling concerns radial flux PMSGs’ with surface magnets and inner rotor topolo‐
gies. This step is critical as the structural modelling phase represents 5% of the cost of the
total design activity and also fixes 75% of the costs incurred over the life of the system
[37]. Subsequently, generator information including parameters and performance are pro‐
vided to develop the optimization model. On the other hand, a GA code is formulated
presenting 8 mixed optimization variables and 6 constraints. Taking into account the
multi‐physical nature of the system (thermal‐mechanical‐electrical and magnetic disci‐
plines), the target of the design by optimization of the generator is mono‐objective. It aims
to minimize the mass of its active components (iron, copper and especially PMs). Then,
the cost of the constructive materials is reduced. The theoretical problem posed is sup‐
ported by simulation results that validate the used approach. Indeed, according to the
literature, the electromagnetic design analysis of the PMSG has obtained three main kinds
of analysis methods: analytical method, magnetic circuit method and finite element
method [30,38]. These analyses fix the thermal structural material and multi‐physics as‐
pects of the system. The FEA is the best technique producing accurate results, despite the
long analysis time [38]. For the studied case, a FEA using the 2D MATLAB‐FEMM soft‐
ware (MATLAB R2014a, FEMM 4.2) is the fundamental stage presented in the work that
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 4 of 20

validates the elaborated analytical models for the PMSG design. For the optimization part,
optimized output characteristics of the considered PMSG are provided according to the
results of the evolutionary optimization approach (GA). As the outgrowth, an economical
solution of the new lightweight PMSG is finely studied and offered to the SWTs market.

2. Multi‐Physics Models of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator

The studied wind turbine presented in Figure 1 represents a simplified structure of
the small wind conversion chains. It is devoted to remote system application and for ac‐
tivities in the agriculture sector (pumping station, desalination, etc.), the tourist sector
(camping cars, boats, etc.) and for certain applications (rural electrification, radars, tele‐
communications, etc.). It is composed of three blades with a horizontal axis coupled di‐
rectly to a PMSG, delivering energy into a battery through a diode bridge. The wind is the
primary source of energy that stimulates the turbine to turn. It specifies the operating
condition and phenomena applied to the blades to generate the turbine power. The kinetic
wind power is transferred to the gearless generator through two stages. It undergoes a
variation according to the capacity of the blades to capture the energy and the mechanical
losses of the turbine rotor.
Being the main component of the wind power system, the cost of the generator is
important. For this reason, this study is focused on the economic study of a wind genera‐
tor. The PMSG studied is a radial‐flux internal rotor generator using surface PMs of the
Neodymium Iron Boren (NdFeB) type. Radial‐flux PMSG is preferred for a wide range of
speeds [25]. They are slightly more efficient and require slightly less active materials than
axial‐flux PMSGs [25]. For the surface magnets, they offer a simple construction for the
rotor design.

Figure 1. Simplified wind power conversion chain studied.

This section aims to elaborate analytical models for the design of electrical PMSGs.
In effect, to meet the exigency of wind generators, the competence to model their perfor‐
mance is of vital importance. The study mainly concerns the modelling through the ex‐
amination of the multi‐disciplinary system behaviour including structural, magnetic, elec‐
trical and losses models. This stage provides information about the generator parameters’
calculation to produce a feasible schema according to the design specifications. The per‐
formance of the elaborated models is requested for the development of the optimization
model. As a result, an initial stator and rotor design, air gap model, coil model and magnet
model permit the initial design of the machine.

2.1. Structural Model

The structural characteristics of the generator are clarified in Figure 2. The principle
of the geometry determination procedure is based on fixing the generator electromagnetic
torque, T on its nominal value. Once the torque is fixed, the bore radius, r , is deduced.
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 5 of 20

Then, all machine dimensions are obtained referring to the analytical model proposed in
the study. Equation (1) shows a relationship between the bore radius and the electromag‐
netic torque [39].
R 1
r T (1)
R πJ B K K
where R is the ratio of the bore radius, r , and the generator active length, l , R is
the ratio of the depth slot, d , and the bore radius, r , J represents the surface density of
the current (A/m2), B corresponds to the magnet fundamental peak value (T), k is the
slot filling coefficient and k is the winding factor. The active length of the machine, l ,
is deduced from the empirical Equation (2) [39].
r
l (2)
R
The air gap of the machine, g, is calculated from Equation (3) as follows [39].

g 0.001 0.003 r l (3)

The angular width of the magnet per pole, w , and its thickness, l , are deduced
using the fundamental magnet properties mentioned below in Equations (4) and (5) [39].
2 α
w r (4)
p
μ
l K g (5)
B /B 1
where α is the magnet angle (rad), p represents the number of pole pairs, K
shows the crankcase coefficient, B is the magnet remanent induction (T), B is the in‐
duction magnet peak value (T) and µ is the magnet relative permeability equal to 1.05.
For reasons of simplification of the process, the stator and rotor depth, d and d , are
taken equally by assumptions, which is the same case for the tooth and slot width, w
and w . These parameters are calculated using Equations (6) and (7) [39].
r B
d d α (6)
pB
4πr
w w (7)
3N
where B corresponds to the induction of the stator yoke (T) and N is the slots’ num‐
ber. The slot shape is trapezoidal, having a depth, d , defined by Equation (8) [40].
d R r (8)
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 6 of 20

Figure 2. Permanent magnet synchronous generator structural model.

2.2. Magnetic Model

The structural parameters’ values intervene in the calculation of the magnetic grad‐
ers. The induction magnet peak value in the air gap, B , is expressed as a function of the
remanent induction, B , the magnet thickness, l , the magnet relative permeability, µ ,
the crankcase coefficient, k , and the air gap thickness, g, as provided by Equation (9) [39].
l /µ
B B (9)
K g l /µ

The vacuum magnetic flux received by a stator phase, Φ , is expressed in Equation

(10) [40].
Φ 2N K N B rl (10)
where N is the conductors’ number per slot and N is the slot number per pole and
per phase.

2.3. Electrical Model

The variation of the magnetic flux over time generates the birth of an electromotive
force (EMF), E (V), in the 3 phases of stator windings. For the case of the studied machine,
the winding distribution of the three phases is of the distributed type. The expression of
the induced EMF is provided in Equation (11) [39].
E pΩΦ (11)
where Ω is the rotation angular speed of the rotor (rad/s). The generated current, I (A),
is obtained from the current density, J . It is determined using Equation (12) [40].
J d K πr
I (12)
6pN N
The induced EMF in the three stator phases, e t (i = 1, 2, 3), generates the presence
of an induced current, i t , assumed sinusoidal. Therefore, there will be the presence of
electromagnetic torque, T t , as shown in Equation (13) [39].
e t i t e t i t e t i t
T t (13)
Ω

2.4. Losses Model and Generator Efficiency

Energies 2021, 14, 4642 7 of 20

In this section, the losses model is explained at first. Generator losses are divided into
3 categories, these are mechanical losses, P , iron losses, P , and Joule losses, P .
Mechanical losses are due to the friction coefficient of the machine, f , when rotating
the rotor with an angular speed Ω. The expression of the mechanical losses, P , is ex‐
pressed as follows [39].
P f Ω (14)
Being a magnetic material, the generator iron losses, P , are localized in the teeth and
the stator yoke. The formula of the iron losses is provided in Equation (15) [39].
α α
P 4f V B K V B K (15)
Δ Δ
where f is the frequency of the establishment of the induction in the material, V is the
teeth volume, V is the stator yoke volume, B is the maximum induction in the teeth
(T), B is the induction in the stator yoke (T), K and α are characteristic coefficients
of the material used (for sheet metal of FeSi NO20, K = 52 Am/(V.s), α = 0.06 Am/V),
Δ is the time required in the magnet extremity for the induction to pass through a tooth
at the rotational angular speed and Δ is the induction build‐up in the stator yoke. The
Joule losses, P , are resulted from the temperature rising from the stator resistors trav‐
ersed by currents. Its expression is shown in Equation (16) [39].
P 3R I (16)
where R is the phase resistance (Ω). On the other hand, the generator efficiency, ɳ, is
defined in Equation (17) as being the ratio between the generator useful power, P , and
the power it absorbs from the turbine power, P [41].
P P P P P
ɳ (17)
P P
The useful power, P , is obtained based on different losses generated during the gen‐
erator operation. Figure 3 represents the power balance at the level of the wind generator.
It shows the various losses of the system during the energy transfer. Wind power is the
input variable of the system, which stimulates its operation. It generates the mechanical
rotational movement of the turbine shaft, leading to mechanical losses, P . The direct
transmission of the turbine torque to the generator rotor creates an electromagnetic torque
producing Joule losses, P , at the stator iron losses, P , in the ferromagnetic material.

Figure 3. Permanent magnet synchronous generator power balance.

3. Design Integrated by Optimization of PMSG

The design of electrical machines becomes more and more complex as more engi‐
neering domains and constraints are developed. The design integrated by optimization
(DIO) permits to produce an optimal design while respecting specifications and techno‐
logical‐physical requirements. The DIO represents two parts, the design model with anal‐
ysis method and design optimization with algorithms. Design modelling, as presented in
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 8 of 20

Section 2, provides effective models to develop the optimization model, the second stage
of the DIO. The main object of the optimization part is to improve the qualifications of the
studied generator. In effect, despite their popularity across many applications, the major
drawback of the PMSG is the high cost of constructive materials, especially for the NdFeB
PMs. Thus, the formulation of the optimization problem is elaborated to generate a light‐
weight prototype, resulting in the reduced cost of the system. In this framework, the op‐
timization model is treated with the GA method, which is described in Figure 4. The GA
uses a vocabulary adopted from that of natural genetics.

Figure 4. Steps of the design by optimization approach using the genetic algorithm method.

GA represents an evolutionary process similar to that of the Darwin model. The pro‐
cess begins with the generation of an initial random population of individuals. These in‐
dividuals, points of the state space, adopt the value of the criterion to be optimized. The
passage from one generation to another goes through the stages of selection, crossing and
mutation to be able to generate a new population for the next generation. The evaluation
of the fitness function makes it possible to provide optimal solutions of the generations
considered until reaching a unique optimal solution imposed by a condition of conver‐
gence of the iterative system. Two parameters of the probability of application of genetic
operators are defined: crossing rate, r , and mutation rate, r . At this stage, the formu‐
lation of the problem consists of establishing the object of the optimization, optimization
variables and the constraints.

3.1. Objective Function

The objective of the design optimization is to minimize the mass of the generator’s
active parts, which leads to reduce its cost. Therefore, it is a single criteria optimization
with 8 mixed variables and 6 constraints. The objective function also called the fitness
function, F , corresponds to the function calculating the generator mass, as provided
in Equation (18) [39].
F 2πρ l d 2r d g l ρ lN S ρ S _ N l
l (18)
l . 2πK ρ ll r g
2
where ρ is the density of the iron, ρ is the density of the copper, S _ is the
useful area of the slot, l . is the winding head length and ρ is the density of
the magnet.
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 9 of 20

3.2. Optimization Variables

The optimization variables considered in this study are the input design variables
used during the generator sizing phase. The variation range of these parameters is deter‐
mined according to the expertise of the design. The design variables are made of 6 contin‐
uous variables and 2 discrete variables, as indicated in Table 1.

Table 1. Type and variation range of the optimization variables.

Optimization Variables Symbol Unit Type Range

Ration of the slot depth to the bore radius of the machine R _ Continuous [0.03, 3]
Ratio of the bore radius to the active length of the machine R _ Continuous [0.1, 5]
Pole pairs number P _ Discrete [1, …, 30]
Current surface density J A/mm2 Continuous [0.5, 4]
Slot number per pole and per phase N _ Discrete [1, …, 5]
Rated power P W Continuous [300, 3000]
Rated angular rotation speed Ω rad/s Continuous [25, 95]
Induction in the stator yoke B T Continuous [1.2, 1.8]

3.3. Design Constraints

The design constraints intervene during the variation of the optimization variables
in their field of exploration in order to guarantee the feasibility of the system. For the case
studied, 6 constraints are taken into consideration. The first, highlighted in Equation (19),
requires that the number of conductors per slot, N , should be greater than 1.
N 1 (19)
The second, presented in Equation (20), discuss the slot capability to accommodate
all conductors per slot to complete the winding. Therefore, the area reserved for a con‐
ductor per slot must be greater than a minimum value, S _ , equal to 0.5 mm2.
S (20)
S _
N
The third, shown in Equation (21), concerns the slot width, which must be considered
to avoid having too‐thin slots, which annoy the windings generator. Thereby, the slot
width must be greater than a minimum width of a slot w _ , typically equal to 4 mm.
w w _ (21)
The fourth declared in Equation (22), discuss the problem of magnets’ demagnetiza‐
tion during generator operation. This constraint requires that the maximum induction
produced by the stator currents, B , must not exceed the difference between the peak
value of the permanent magnet induction, B , and the demagnetization induction of the
magnet, B . The induction at the stator level, B , is expressed by Equation (23) as a func‐
tion of the geometric quantities [39].
B B B (22)
3µ N N I
B (23)
K g l /µ
where µ represents the space permeability equal to 1.25 H/m.
The fifth, mentioned in Equation (24), insists that the stator windings’ temperature,
T , must not override the maximum temperature value of the insulating T . In the case
of the studied machine, a class F winding is used with a maximum temperature of 155 °C.
T T (24)
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 10 of 20

The final constraint, as expressed in Equation (25), guarantees the maximum energy
efficiency provided by the generator. It is fixed greater than or equal to 0.9. The maximum
value of the efficiency is calculated according to the evolution and the convergence of the
optimization problem.
ɳ 0.9 (25)

4. Design Simulation Integrated by Optimization of PMSG

The results obtained from the DIO approach represents two parts: the design model‐
ling results at the basis of the FEA and the design optimization results based on the GA
method.

4.1. Finite Element Analysis of the Elaborated PMSG Analytical Models

The pertinence of the analytical models of the PMSG is requested. The most popular
method available to evaluate machines’ parameters is the finite element method (FEM)
[38]. The FEM method permits solving the complexity of the electromagnetic field [42]. It
permits to accurately calculate the electromagnetic parameters such as torque power and
flux and also allows the design to be evaluated according to several criteria. Therefore, in
this phase, a MATLAB‐FEMM code is developed. This code, using the LUA script lan‐
guage of octave FEMM 4.2 via a set of MATLAB functions, allows the design of electrical
machines in 2D and studies their electromagnetic behaviour especially with respect to the
magnet material saturation. This code requires as input parameters geometric graders and
some properties of the machine. The goal of this part is to evaluate the relevance of the
developed analytical models on a reference machine while respecting the performance
and the constraints of the system. A method of simulation using the FEM by FEMM soft‐
ware is used and considered as a reliable method to treat the electromagnetic behaviour
of an outer rotor permanent magnet brushless DC motor for torque improvement [42]. In
fact, referring to an existing external rotor PMSG in our laboratory that can be used in the
same small wind sector, the fixed input parameters are taken as shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Input parameters of an external PMSG dedicated for small wind power applications.

Parameters Symbol Unit Value

Ratio of the slot depth to the bore radius of the ma‐
R _ 0.366
chine
Ratio of the bore radius to the active length of the ma‐
R _ 2.025
chine
Pole pairs number P _ 6
Current surface density J A/mm2 2.7
Slot number per pole and per phase N _ 1
Rated power P W 1100
Rated angular rotation speed Ω rad/s 40
Induction in the stator yoke B T 1.4

The topology of the studied generator differs from the topology of the reference ma‐
chine. It represents a surface permanent magnet generator with radial flux and an internal
rotor. Thereby, the design parameters associated with this generator were obtained from
the structural analytical model and designed in 2D with the finite element software
FEMM, as shown in Figure 5. This step requires the definition of different components
(stator, rotor, air gap, slots, magnets and boundaries box), the material composing the
machine (Steel 1010 for the stator and rotor yoke, NdFe30 for the magnets, coils for the
slots) and measuring of dimensions and thickness in each part.
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 11 of 20

Figure 5. Permanent magnet synchronous generator structure with the 2D finite element analysis software, FEMM.

The FEA by FEMM is a part of a cross‐sectional discredited engine into a small vol‐
ume, called mesh or finite element. The 2D mesh of the active parts of the machine is
shown in Figure 6. It generates an efficient mesh using a triangle in the critical region (air
gap and the stator and rotor yoke) to accommodate between the time of simulation and
the accuracy of results. According to Gerber et al., [43], the mesh generation using triangle
is the most powerful method of mesh because of its various advantages. The air gap mesh
is too small due to the complexity of the electromagnetic field. For other regions, the mesh
is bigger due to the simplicity of the electromagnetic field. The rotor is turned with a step
chosen by the designer to obtain the mechanical variation of the electromagnetic field. The
smaller the step, the more precise the values. The simulation results were obtained with a
rotational angle of the rotor fixed to 1° and for a mesh of 49,872 nodes.

Figure 6. 2D mesh of permanent magnet synchronous generator.

Energies 2021, 14, 4642 12 of 20

The vector potential mapping and the distribution of the flux link are shown in Fig‐
ure 7. It represents the best representation of the saturation phenomena within the ma‐
chine. Additionally, finite element analysis in using FEMM software for an inset perma‐
nent magnet synchronous machine represents the importance of the magnetic flux density
to investigate the core saturation induced in the stator and rotor of three experimental
machines [44]. For the studied case, the density of the magnetic field reached approxi‐
mately 1.4 T in the stator yoke and 1.7 T not only in the ribs but also in stator teeth.

Figure 7. 2D magnetic flux density and vector potential in the permanent magnet synchronous gen‐
erator.

The evolution of the electromagnetic graders with the finite element method is pre‐
sented in Figure 8. Figure 8a shows the magnetic induction shape of the permanent mag‐
nets in the air gap, with a peak value approximately equal to 0.9 T. The variation of the
magnetic flux in the three unloaded phases as a function of mechanical angle is obtained
in Figure 8b. Its rate is perfectly sinusoidal, giving a peak value equal to 0.35 Wb. The
variation of the magnetic flux over time generates the birth of an electromotive force in
the 3 phases of stator windings, as illustrated in Figure 8c. The shape of the EMF curves
presents a distortion of the sinusoid. The fast Fourier‐transform of these signals is pre‐
sented in Figure 8d and explains this deformation by the presence of harmonics 3 and 5.
These harmonics are due to the effect of the technique’s winding the robust representation
of the electromagnetic phenomena analysis with the finite element method. The variation
of the electromagnetic torque as a function of the mechanical angle is presented in Figure
8e. Its average value per finite element is 23.5 N∙m.
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 13 of 20

1 0.4

0.8
0.3
0.6
Flux Density in the air gap (T)

0.2

Vacuum Magnetic Flux (Wb)

0.4
0.1
0.2

0 0

-0.2 -0.1
-0.4
-0.2
-0.6
-0.3
-0.8

-1 -0.4
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Mechanical Angle (°)
Mechanical Angle (°)

(a) (b)

80 1.2
Vacuum Induced EMF in the stator phases (V)

60

Harmonic normalized amplitude (pu)

1
40
0.8
20

0 0.6

-20
0.4
-40
0.2
-60

-80 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Mechanical Angle (°) Harmonic rank

(c) (d)

30

25
Electromagnetic Torque (N.m)

20

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Mechanical Angle (°)

(e)
Figure 8. Finite element analysis results of electromagnetic graders within the permanent magnet synchronous generator:
(a) flux density in air gap vs. mechanical angle, (b) vacuum magnetic flux vs. mechanical angle, (c) vacuum induced EMF
in stator windings vs. mechanical angle, (d) fast Fourier transform (FFT) of vacuum induced EMF in stator phases and (e)
electromagnetic torque vs. mechanical angle.
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 14 of 20

The analytical and numerical values of the electromagnetic parameters are summa‐
rized as mentioned in Table 3. The percentage of the error rate between the results of the
two models is calculated. The percentage values are tolerable. Indeed, the error presented
for the case of the permanent magnets’ induction and the vacuum flux is low, with per‐
centages of 6% and 2.9% respectively. For the case of the EMFs’ and the electromagnetic
torque’s error, the percentages of 26% and 17% respectively, are explained by the wind‐
ings technique effect in the generator considered and the smoothness of a finite element
approach compared to an analytical approach. In the context of an optimal design based
on analytical models of a 5 MW axial‐flux permanent magnet synchronous generator used
for wind turbines’ applications, analysis by the finite element method of the elaborated
model supported by experimental validation showed a good arrangement between the
studied models [45]. It affirms the relevance of the finite element method in analyzing
electromagnetic graders within a machine. Therefore, the developed analytical model spe‐
cialized for the PMSG’s design is validated. The working method is adopted for the prob‐
lem of design by optimization of the PMSG.

Table 3. Analytical results vs. numerical results of the PMSG electromagnetic graders.

Parameters Symbol Unit Analytical Value Numerical Value Error (%)

Induction B T 0.85 0.90 6
Maximum Vacuum‐Induced Flux Φ Wb 0.34 0.35 2.90
Maximum Vacuum‐Induced EMF E V 82.50 65.50 26
Electromagnetic Torque T N.m 27.50 23.50 17

4.2. The Optimization Algorithm Simulation Results

The evolution of the GA process generates at first an initial random population of
individuals adopting the value of the criterion to be optimized. Then, the creation of new
generations is carried out to evaluate the objective function at each iteration, until reaching
the optimal solution imposed by a condition of convergence of the iterative system. Figure
9 represents the simulation results of the GA applied for our case study. It describes the
pace of the fitness function and the evolution of the optimized design parameters for the
different generations. As shown in Figure 9a, the GA simulation was spread over 197 gen‐
erations until it converged to the optimum mass equal to 6.26 kg. There was a weight
reduction of 41% from the initial mass. There will be the birth of a new optimized machine
delivering a power, P of 1125 W at the nominal rotation speed, Ω equal to 27.3 rad/s,
with an efficiency, ɳ of 94%. The characteristics of this machine are inspired by the results
of the curves provided above. The main parameters of the initial and optimized PMSG are
declared in Table 4. To analyze the effect of the evolution of the design parameters on the
machine performance, the results of Figure 9 are considered. Increasing the number of
pole pairs, p from 6 to 12 seems logical for the reduction of the stator and rotor yoke mass
while they are inversely proportional. Likewise, for the induction in the stator yoke, B
increasing its value from 1.4 to 1.8 T is acceptable for reducing the mass of the stator and
rotor yoke. The decrease of the rotation angular speed, Ω, is pertinent for the augmenta‐
tion of the electromagnetic torque and the reduction of the mechanical losses. However,
the mass is inversely proportional to the torque, so the optimal value of Ω is logical.
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 15 of 20

Ratio of the Bore Radius to the Generator Length Rrl

20

18 4.5
Fitness Function: Generator Mass (Kg)

16 4

14 3.5

12 3

10 2.5

8 2
6 1.5
4 1
2 0.5
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Generation Number Generation Number

(a) (b)
0.25 2
Ratio of the Slot Depth to the Bore Radius Rdr

1.9
Induction in the Stator Yoke By (T)
1.8
0.2
1.7

1.6

1.5
0.15
1.4

1.3

0.1
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Generation Number Generation Number

(c) (d)
6
20 x 10
4
18
3.5
Current Surface Density Js (A/m2)

16
3
Number of Pole Pairs p

14

12 2.5

10 2

8 1.5
6
1
4
0.5
2

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Generation Number Generation Number

(e) (f)
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 16 of 20

3000
2
Number of Slots per Pole and per Phase Nspp

1.8 2800

2600

Generator's rated power Pr (W)

1.6

1.4 2400

1.2 2200

1 2000

0.8 1800
0.6 1600
0.4 1400
0.2 1200
0
0 50 100 150 200 1000
0 50 100 150 200
Generation Number
Generation Number
(g) (h)
50
Generator's Rated Angular Speed (rad/s)

45

40

35

30

25
0 50 100 150 200
Generation Number

(i)
Figure 9. Simulation results of genetic algorithm optimization code: (a) generator’s mass vs. generation number, (b) ratio
of the bore radius to the generator’s length (Rrl) vs. generation number, (c) ratio of the slot’s depth to the bore radius (Rdr)
vs. generation number, (d) induction in the stator yoke (By) vs. generation number, (e) number of pole pairs (p) vs. gen‐
eration number, (f) current surface density (Js) vs. generation number, (g) number of slots per pole and per phase (Nspp)
vs. generation number, (h) generator’s rated power (Pr) vs. generation number and (i) generator’s rated angular speed
Ω ) vs. generation number.

Table 4. Main parameters of PMSG before and after optimization.

Value
Parameters Symbol Unit
Initial Design Optimized Design
Bore radius r mm 83.16 121.23
Active length of the generator l mm 41.06 26.19
Total length of the generator l _ mm 144.10 95.90
Stator depth yoke d mm 11.29 6.40
Rotor depth yoke d mm 11.29 6.40
Slot depth d mm 30.43 22.71
Slot width w mm 9.67 7.05
Tooth width w mm 9.67 7.05
Magnet thickness l mm 4.93 4.91
Air gap thickness g mm 1.17 1.16
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 17 of 20

Magnet angular width per pole w mm 36.28 26.44

Number of conductors per slot N _ 47 35
Number of pole pairs p _ 6 12
Maximum vacuum‐induced flux Φ Wb 0.34 0.23
Maximum vacuum‐induced EMF E V 82.55 78
Induced current I A 4.44 4.8
Phase synchronous inductance L mH 5.25 3.43
Phase synchronous resistance R Ω 0.51 0.72

As for post‐processing action after the optimization, a 2D finite element design of the
optimized PMSG is elaborated based on the results in Table 4 to validate the reliability of
the optimal structure. In this context, a finite element analysis of an optimized permanent
magnet synchronous generator is permitted to study the harmonic distortion rate of elec‐
tromagnetic graders and assure the improvement of its performance [46]. Besides, the 2D
design ensures the feasibility of the structure of the solution proposed. The new concep‐
tion is provided in Figure 10. It shows the safe distribution of flux links within the machine
and clarifies the vector potential mapping, which asserts the unsaturation of the material.

Figure 10. 2D magnetic flux density and vector potential in PMSG’s optimized structure.

From an economical point of view, the cost of the PMSG, C , refers to the sum
of the active components’ cost. It depends on the magnet cost per kg, C , the copper
cost per kg, C , and the iron cost per kg, C , as explained in Equation (26).
C C M C M C M (26)
where M is the magnet mass (kg), M is the copper mass (kg) and M is the
iron mass in the entire machine (kg). A comparison between the reference and the optimal
PMSG from a mass and cost point of view is established in Table 5.

Table 5. The mass and cost of reference and optimized PMSG.

Initial Mass Initial Cost Optimized Mass New Cost

System Active Part
(kg) (€) (kg) (€)
Copper 2.43 13.87 1.66 9.47
Iron 7.58 0.77 4.06 0.41
Magnet (NdFeB) 0.59 36.58 0.54 33.48
Generator 10.6 51.22 6.26 43.36

The iron mass of the machine is notably reduced from 7.58 to 4.06 kg. Furthermore,
despite a large number of teeth and slots, the tooth surface and the slot’s useful surface
become smaller so that the total mass of the teeth goes from 3.19 to 1.93 kg. The stator and
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 18 of 20

rotor yoke thickness are notably reduced, offering a 45% and 57% reduction weight, with
an increase in the bore radius value from 0.083 to 0.121 m. The mass of copper goes from
2.43 to 1.66 kg. For the PMs, the mass varies slightly from 0.59 to 0.54 kg, offering an 8.5%
mass reduction. The PMSG’s cost is reduced from 51.22 to 43.36 €, equivalent to a 16%
reduction from the initial price. In fact, iron cost occupies 0.95% of the machine construc‐
tion materials’ total price, the copper cost reaches 21.84% and the PMs’ cost represents
77.21%. As known, PMs are the most expensive component, which explains the major
drawback encountered by permanent magnet machines. According to the literature, an
optimal multidisciplinary design of a permanent magnet synchronous generator dedi‐
cated to a 50 KW wind turbine is realized [46], offering a reduction of 17.4% cost of sys‐
tem’s active material to offer a low‐cost wind generator. The mass of the permanent mag‐
net is reduced by 21.4%. Furthermore, from an economical point of view, the percentages
obtained in this study appear relevant.

5. Conclusions
In a context related to the production of economical technologies of small wind tur‐
bines, the design integrated by optimization of a direct drive permanent magnet synchro‐
nous generator was treated in this article as being one of the critical components of a sim‐
plified small wind turbine. This approach had a significant impact on the performance
and the cost of the considered machine. In fact, this method represented two main aims.
The first target was the elaboration of analytical models, including structural magnetic
and electrical disciplines. The relevance of the elaborated models was analyzed by the
finite element method. This analysis is required to test the performance of the generator
modelling phase, which represents 5% of the cost of the total design and fixes 75% of the
costs incurred over the life of the system. Therefore, by analyzing the electromagnetic
graders of a reference machine dedicated to a small wind turbine with MATLAB‐FEMM
software, the error between analytical and numerical results was discussed. For the in‐
duction in the air gap and the vacuum magnetic flux, the error was low, with percentages
of 6% and 2.9% respectively. For the vacuum induced EMF and the electromagnetic
torque, the errors of 26% and 17% were explained by the distributed windings effect and
the finality of the finite element method in the electromagnetic analysis of electrical ma‐
chines. Consequently, the analytical models were validated and integrated into the for‐
mulation of the optimization model, the second step of the DIO. The optimization prob‐
lem aimed to produce a lightweight generator to reduce the cost of the constructive ma‐
terials, especially in the case of the high cost of the NdFeB magnets. The genetic algorithm
approach was cited as being the most used method in the design of electrical systems, and
generated an optimal solution with 94% power efficiency, offering a mass reduction of the
generator from 10.6 to 6.26 kg, equivalent to a 41% weight reduction and a 16% cost re‐
duction. The validation of the optimized structure by finite element analysis was consid‐
ered to support the reliability of the approach. As the outcome, an optimal design of the
PMSG was interpreted, offering a low mass‐cost configuration while respecting the feasi‐
bility and the energy efficiency of the system. As a perspective, the DIO of the entire sim‐
plified wind chain, including the airfoils and the convertor, will be an achievement in the
small wind power production sector that will make small wind power generation more
financially viable.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.Z.A., N.B., M.C. and F.S.; Methodology, H.Z.A., R.A.
and R.N.; Software, H.Z.A., N.B., N.M. and F.S.; Validation, H.Z.A. and M.C.; Formal Analysis,
H.Z.A., N.B. and F.S.; Investigation, H.Z.A., R.A. and F.S.; Resources, H.Z.A., F.S. and N.M.; Data
Curation, H.Z.A. and N.B.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, H.Z.A., N.B., F.S. and R.A.; Writ‐
ing—Review and Editing, H.Z.A., F.S., R.A. and N.M.; Visualization, H.Z.A., M.C., F.S. and R.N.;
Supervision, F.S., R.N. and N.M.; Project Administration, M.C., F.S. and N.M.; Funding Acquisition,
F.S. and N.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Energies 2021, 14, 4642 19 of 20

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors are thankful to the respective institutions for their financial sup‐
port.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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