INTRODUCTION

What is science?
The word science comes from the Latin word "scientia", meaning knowledge. Science is a
system of acquiring knowledge using observation and experimentation to describe and explain
natural phenomena. The term science also refers to the organized body of knowledge acquired
through observation and experimentation.

The method used by scientists in their investigation is systematic. This method is referred to as
the scientific method.

Importance of Science
Science has helped to improve people’s standard of living by improving on the natural
resources of the world. With the aid of scientific skills and methods, many great achievements
were made. These include increase in food production, improvement of medical skills,
provision of better shelter, improvement in communication, designing of better instruments,
manufacture if drugs, and so on.

Branches of Science
Science can be grouped into two main branches.
1. Pure science: Pure science is concerned with the search for new knowledge.
2. Applied science: Applied science is concerned with the application of research to human
needs. Applied science includes nursing, medicine, engineering, astronomy, etc.

Each of the main branches of science can be further divided as shown below.

1
The scientific method
The scientific ways a scientist tackles problems with the aim of solving them is referred to as
the scientific method. It involves the following important steps.

The steps of the scientific method

may vary but the fundamental
principle remains the same

1. Defining or identifying the problem: This step involves identifying the problem to be
solved or asking questions about natural phenomena. This step is the most important
because asking the right question is more likely to lead to the right answer.

2. Doing background research: This involves observation and gathering of existing

information relating to the problem to be solved.

3. Forming a hypothesis: A hypothesis is a suggested solution for a problem or a preliminary

explanation of a phenomenon based on prior knowledge and observation. A scientific
hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable.

4. Performing experiments: This is the test made under controlled conditions to examine the
validity of the hypothesis.

5. Recording, organizing and analysing data: This involves writing down (recording) and
arranging (organising) observations made during the experiment and looking at the data to
see if new clues can be found (analysis). Depending on the data, evidence that proves or
disproves the hypothesis may be found.

6. Drawing conclusion: Drawing conclusions to see if the data supports the hypothesis or
not. This step often had scientists restarting the process so that they can better refine their
hypothesis or try a new approach.

7. Communicating results: If the conclusion supports the hypothesis, a final report is

published.

2
Scientific attitudes
A scientist; • must be a creative and critical thinker
• must be curious about the world • must be rational
• must be logical and systematic • is willing to suspend judgment until
• must be able to keep records accurately he/she is sure of his/her results
• must be open-minded • tries new approaches to arrive at solutions
• must be intellectually honest • must be able to take good care of
• works hard and is persistent instruments.
• does not jump to conclusions

Examples of the use of the scientific method

Many great scientists made their discoveries using the scientific method.
1. Albert Einstein
He came up with the quantum theory. This theory has practical applications in the operation of
television, solar panels. He also formulated the theory of special relativity which lead to his
famous equation: .

2. Sir Isaac Newton

He made great advancements into the study of optics. In particular he developed the spectrum
by splitting white light through a prism. He also formulated the equations of motion, the three
laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation. (He is referred to as the father of modern
physics).

3. Alexander Fleming
He discovered penicillin. However, his discovery was not accepted until when Howard Florey
conducted further experiments which lead to the acceptance of penicillin as an antibiotic.

4. Henri Becquerel
He discovered Becquerel rays from uranium.

5. Louis Pasteur
He came up with the process of pasteurization. This process involves heating food, usually
liquid, to a certain temperature for a specific length of time, and then cooling it instantly.

6. Charles Darwin
He laid the framework for the theory of evolution.

Safety precautions in the laboratory

To avoid accidents in the laboratory, safety precautions must be adhered to. Below are some
examples.
1. Do not eat or drink anything in the lab. The important thing about
2. Do not run or play in the lab. safety is to make sure that you,
3. Do not smoke in the lab. those around you and the
4. Avoid unnecessary disturbance in the lab. environment are not harmed.

3
5. Glass equipment should be handled with care.
6. Never touch electrical equipment when your hands are wet.
7. When smelling chemicals or gases, do not bring them very close to your nose, wave the
vapour and sniff it.
8. Do not handle hot objects such as test tubes with your hand, use tongs or test tube holders.
9. Make sure that all chemicals and reagents are properly closed and their containers clearly
labeled.
10. Wear eye protection for all experiments.
11. Always put off all glowing splints before dropping them into the waste box and keep all
flammable substances away from open flames.
12. Always clean work area and equipment at end of each exercise.
13. Do not drop solid materials into the sink as this may lead to the blockage of the sink.
14. Do not wear loose fitting sleeves or bulky outwear.
15. Always notify your teacher (or anyone in charge) of chemical spills, burns, broken glass
ware and any damage of equipment.

4
 MEASUREMENT
Measurement in science is made in an international standard known as the SI system
(International System of Units) which contains seven fundamental units (quantities). It is
abbreviated SI (from Système international d'unités) and it is the modern form of the metric
system. The quantities measured in science are grouped as follows:
1. Basic quantities: These quantities are not obtained from any other quantity. It is from these
quantities that all other quantities are derived. They are shown in table below.

Basic quantity Symbol SI unit Symbol

length l meter m
mass m kilogram kg
time t second s
electric current I ampere A
temperature t kelvin K
amount of substance n mole Mol
luminous intensity Iv candela cd

2. Derived quantities: This are derived from the basic quantities. Some of them are shown in
table below.

Derived
SI unit Symbol Derived quantity SI unit Symbol
quantity
Area Square meters m2 Work Joule J
Volume Cubic meters m3 Energy Joule J
Density Kilogram per meter cube kgm-3 Power Watts W
Speed Meter per second m/s Electric volt Volts V
Velocity Meter per second m/s Electric resistance Ohms Ω
Acceleration Meter per second square m/s2 Torgue (moment) Newton meter Nm
Force Newton N frequency Hertz Hz
Mol per
Pressure Pascal Pa concentration mol/dm3
decimeter cube

The SI prefixes
An SI prefix is a unit prefix that precedes a basic unit of measure to indicate a
decadic multiple or fraction of the unit.

Factor Name Symbol Factor Name symbol

1024 Yotta Y 10-1 deci d
1021 Zetta Z 10-2 centi c
1018 Exa E 10-3 milli m
1015 Peta P 10-6 micro µ
1012 Tera T 10-9 nano n
109 Giga G 10-12 pico P

5
 106 Mega M 10-15 femto F
103 Kilo k 10-18 atto A
102 Hector h 10-21 zepto Z
101 Deca da 10-24 yocto Y
Measurement of length
Various instruments are used to measure length depending on the length to be measured.
Length is measured using a meter rule or measuring tape.

Measurement of volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object.

Volume of liquid
The volume of a liquid is measured using a
measuring cylinder. The liquid is poured into
the measuring cylinder and the volume is
read from the bottom of the meniscus as
shown below.

Volume of solid
The method of determining the volume of a solid depends on the shape of the solid. The volume
of regular shaped objects can be determined by simply calculating their volume using a formula.
For irregular shaped objects like a stone, the volume can be determined using the following
methods.
Method 1
• Collect a measuring cylinder and pour in some water.
• Read the volume and record it as V1.
• Gently place a stone into the measuring cylinder containing the water.
• Read the new volume and record it as V2.
The volume of the stone is −

Method 2
• Collect an over flow can and fill it with water.
• Gently place a measuring cylinder next to the can.

6
• Gently place the stone into the over flow can and record the volume of the water displaced
into the measuring cylinder. The volume of the displaced water is equal to the volume of the
stone.

Measurement of mass
Mass is the quantity of matter a substance
contains. It can be measured using beam
balance, chemical balance, or top pan
balance. The standard unit for mass is
kilogram.

Measurement of weight
Weight is the pull of gravity on an object. It can be measured with a spring balance. The standard
unit for weight is newton.

Differences between mass and weight

1. Mass is a scalar quantity while weight is a vector quantity.
2. Mass is the quantity of matter an object has while weight is the pull of gravity on an object.
3. Mass is measured in kilograms while weight is measured in newton.
4. Mass is constant no matter where it is measured while weight varies from place to place.
5. Mass is measured using beam balance whereas weight is measured with a spring balance.

7
 DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY
Density
This is the ratio of the mass and volume of a substance. Density describes how compact an object
is. Its unit is and is calculated by the formula;

Examples
1. What is the density of an object that has a mass of 45.2 kg and a volume of 64m3?
density ? mass
density
mass 45.2 kg volume
volume 64 m 45.2
1. 2345/78
64
2. What is the mass of an object that has a density of 1.8g/cm3 and a volume of 220cm3?

density 1.8g/cm mass

1.8
volume 220 cm 220
mass ? mass density × volume
mass 1.8 × 220 8>?5
density
volume
3. What is the volume of an object that has mass of 263 grams and a density of 3.5g/cm3?

density 3.5g/cm 263

3.5
mass 263g volume
volum ? 263
mass volume 2A. 3BC78
density 3.5
volume
Try these:
1. Platinum has a density of 21.41 g/cm3. What is the volume of a 14.6g piece?
2. 200 m3 of lake water was tested to find the density. If the mass of the lake water was 212kg,
what is the density?
3. What mass of water can be contained in a cylindrical tank of diameter 2m and height 10m?
Density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
4. A sheet of metal measures 2 cm by 10 cm by 15 cm. It was 4 kg. What is the density?
5. A room measuring 3m by 4m by 10m and contains air of density 1.3kg/m3. What is the mass
of the air and how does it compare to your mass?

How to determine the density of a liquid

• Weigh empty measuring cylinder and record it as m1
• Pour any liquid into the measuring cylinder, read the volume and record it as v.
• Weigh the measuring cylinder containing the liquid and record it as m2.
• The mass of the liquid is: m − m .
7DEE 7 −73
Since density is FGHI7J; It implies that the density of the liquid is:
F
8
How to determine the density of a solid
• Measure the mass of a solid and record it is m.
• Pour water into a measuring cylinder and record the volume as v1.
• Gently place the stone into the measuring cylinder containing water and record the new volume
as v2.

• The volume of the stone is v − v

7DEE
Since density is FGHI7J;

7
It implies that the density of the stone is:
F F3
Try these
1. A stone of mass 30 grams was put into a measuring cylinder containing some water. Volume
of water in the measuring cylinder changed from 50cm3 to 60cm3. What is the density of the
stone?
2. With the aid of a diagram, describe in detail, how you would find the density of a piece metal.

Applications of density
1. Density is used to determine the purity of a substance.
2. Some mixtures such as oil and water can be separated based on their density.
3. Engineers and architects always refer to density table when engaged in the designing and
construction of bridges and flyovers.

Relative density
Relative density is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of equal volume of water.
It is a means of comparing densities. Relative density has no unit.
Relative density of a substance can be calculated by the following formulae.
density of substance
relative density
density of water
mass of substance
relative density
mass of equal volume of water

9
 weight of substance
relative density
weight of equal volume of water
1. A rectangular block measures 2.3 x 5.1 x 7.8 centimeters. It has a mass of 66 grams. Determine
its;
a. Density b. Relative density. (Density of water is 1g/cm3).

a. density ? , mass 66g, b. relative density ?

volume 2.3 × 5.1 × 7.8 density of block 0.72 gcm
91.49 cm density of wate 1 gcm
mass density of block
density relative densit
volume density of water
66
1. 2 5/C78 0.72 g/cm
91.49 1. 2
1 g/cm
Exercise
1. A plastic cylinder is 0.1 m long, and 0.5 m in diameter. It has a mass of 1 kg.
a. Determine its relative density. (Density of water =1000 kg/m3).
b. State whether it would float or sink in water.

Archimedes’ Principle
It states that when a body is fully or partially immersed in a liquid, it experiences a lost in weight
due to the upward force called upthrust exerted on the object. The upthrust is equal to the weight
of the water displaced.

Archimedes’ principle can be used to determine the relative density of a substance.

Determination of the relative density of liquids

• Weight an empty vessel and record it as .
• Completely fill the vessel with the liquid and weigh it. Record the value as .
• Empty the vessel and allow it to dry completely.
• Completely fill it with water and weight it. Record the value as .
The relative density of the liquid can be calculated as follow.

mass of substanceTliquidU
relative density You can also use the weight instead
mass of equal volume of water of the mass and the results will be
the same.
Mass of liquid is − 3
The mass of the water is 8 − 3

m −m
therefore, relative density
m −m
Example
1. An empty vessel weighs 20g. When filled with kerosene, it weighs 100g. When filled with
water, it weighs 120g. What is the relative density of kerosene?

10
 Let; therefore, relative density
Mass of empty vessel = 3 m −m
Mass of vessel with kerosene m −m
8
100 − 20g
relative density
Mass of vessel with water =
120g − 20g
Mass of kerosene is − 3 80
1. V
The mass of the water is 8− 3 100

Determination of the relative density of solids

• Measure the weight (W1) of a solid in air using a spring balance.
• Measure the weight (W2) of the same object in water using a spring balance.
weight of solid
relative density
weight of equal volume of water
but weight of equal volume of water loss in weight W −W

weight of solid W
∴ relative density
loss in weight W −W
When the relative density of an object
is less than one, that object will float in
water.

Example
1. An object weighs 50N in air and when immersed in water, it weighed 35N. Calculate;
i. relative density of the substance
ii. the density of the substance
(density of water = 1000kg/m3)
50 50
i. Weight of object in air TW U 50N relative density 8. 88
50 − 35 15
Weight of object in water TW U 35N
weight of object [\]^_`a bc bde\f`
relative density ii. relative density
loss in weight [\]^_`a bc gh`\i

W density of substance
3.33
W −W 1000

density of object 3.33 × 1000 888145/78

11
The principle of floatation
A floating body displaces its own weight of fluid in which it floats. When an object is floating, it
experiences an upthrust which is equal to its weight. For an object to float, it must displace an
amount of fluid equal to its weight. This is why a large ship will float with its load whereas a nail
will sink because the ship is large enough to displace an amount of water equal to its weight while
the nail is not large enough to displace an amount of water equal to its weight.

• Weight of floating object = weight of fluid displaced = upthrust

• Changes in the density of the surrounding liquid affects the level in which an object floats.

Applications of Archimedes’ principle (floating objects)

Boats and ships
Boats and ships are hollow objects. They are large enough to displace an amount of water equal to
their weight. A ship submerges lower in fresh water as fresh water density is lesser than sea water.
Ships will float higher in cold water as cold water has a relatively higher density than warm water.

Submarine
A submarine has ballast tanks filled with air. When these tanks are filled with water, the overall
density of the submarine becomes greater than the density of water and the submarine sinks. When
the water is pumped out of the tanks, the density of the submarine decreases and it rises to the
surface. The ballast tanks are used to control the position and depth of the submarine from the
surface of the sea.
Hydrometer
A hydrometer is an instrument to measure the relative density of liquids. It consists of a tube with
a bulb at one end. Lead shots are placed in the bulb to weigh it down and enable the hydrometer
to float vertically in the liquid. The depth to which a hydrometer sinks in a liquid depends on the
density of the liquid.
Balloons
The atmosphere is filled with air that exerts buoyant force on any object.
Balloons are filled with hydrogen or helium. These gases are less dense than air and this makes
the balloon to rise in the air. Hot-air balloons rise because the hot air they contain is less dense
than the surrounding air.
Fishes
Certain group of fishes uses Archimedes’ principles to go up and down the water.
To go up to the surface, the fishes will fill its swim bladder (air sacs) with gases. The gases diffuse
from its own body to the bladder and thus making its body lighter. This enables the fishes to go
up. To go down, the fishes will empty their bladder, this increases its density and therefore the fish
will sink.

12
DIVERSITY OF LIVING THINGS AND NON – LIVING THINGS

Characteristics of living things

1. Movement
All living things can move. Most animals can move quite quickly from one place to another.
This is called locomotion.

2. Reproduction
Animals and plants can reproduce either sexually or asexually. Sexual reproduction involves
two parents. For example, animals give birth to young (offspring). Most plants produce seeds
from which new and young plants grow. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent. It
occurs when an organism grows parts which separate and become new organism. For example,
binary fission in amoeba and vegetative propagation of cassava.

3. Sensitivity
All animals and plants are sensitive to changes around them. These changes are called stimuli
(singular stimulus). Animals can respond rapidly to stimuli while plants respond to stimuli is
generally slow.

4. Growth
Plants and animals grow. Growth in animals is rapid at the beginning but slows down gradually
until it eventually stops. However, tissue maintenance is continuous. Plants grow throughout
their life time.

5. Respiration
Living things need energy for growth, movement and other activities in the body. This energy
is obtained from the reaction of food and oxygen in the cells of the living things. This reaction
is called respiration.

jk l mk n 6m oppppq 6jm n 6l m

6. Nutrition
This is the process of taking in food and water. Animals cannot make their own food. They
depend on plants for food. Plants make their own food by photosynthesis. They use water and
carbon dioxide as raw materials. They produce food (glucose) and oxygen. They use energy
from the sun for photosynthesis.
Notice that
}|•€z photosynthesis is the
6jm n 6l m opppppppppq
rssstsssu jk l mk n 6m
rsssstssssu reverse process of
†‡ ˆ ‰‡
vwx ywz{v|w}~ •v‚ƒ„…z~ respiration.

7. Excretion
When living things feed and respire, they produce waste products. The process of removing
these waste products is called excretion. For example, animals get rid of extra water and
nitrogen compounds like urea by urinating.

13
Classification of living things
Classification of living things is called Taxonomy. Classification paves away for organisms to be
sorted and grouped for easier studies. It also enables scientist to understand how organisms
functions and interact with each other. Organisms are grouped based on their characteristics.
Organisms with similar characteristics are put in the same group. The present form of classification
is based on the Linean system of classification. This system of classification was. The first group
used in the classification is the kingdom. There are five kingdoms;

1. Kingdom Animalia: Example; man, sheep, cat, horse, etc.

• They are eukaryotic, multicellular and do not have cell walls.
• They are generally heterotrophic, they do not photosynthesise.
• They can move from one place to another (locomotion).
• They reproduce sexually.
• Their response to stimuli is rapid.

2. Kingdom Plantae: Example; orange plant, banana, mango plant, cactus, etc.
• They are eukaryotic, multicellular and autotrophic.
• They have cell walls made of cellulose.
• They reproduce both sexually and asexually.
• The do not exhibit locomotion.
• They respond slowly to external stimuli.

3. Kingdom Prokaryotae: Example; streptococcus, vibrio, bacillus, etc.

• They are unicellular and have no nucleus.
• They have no membrane bound organelles.
• They respire in mesosomes rather than mitochondria.
• They are free living or parasitic.

4. Kingdom Protoctista: Example; amoeba, spirogyra, plasmodium, euglena, etc.

• They are unicellular, microscopic and have a nucleus.
• They usually move by cilia, flagella or amoeboid mechanisms.
• They show some animal-like features and plant-like features.
• They have either autotrophic or heterotrophic nutrition.

5. Kingdom Fungi: Example, mushroom, yeast, bracket fungi, etc.

• They are multicellular,
• They have cell walls
• They do not have chlorophyll. They feed saprophytically.
• They do not have mechanisms for locomotion.

Each kingdom is split into smaller groups called phyla (singular: phylum). Each phylum is split
into smaller groups called classes, each class is split into orders, each order is split into family,
each family is split into genera (singular: genus) and each genus is split into species. Organisms
of the same species are so alike that they can breed to produce fertile offspring.
All the seven types of groups go in the order from largest to smallest. That is,

14
 1. Kingdom
2. Phylum
3. Class
4. Order
5. Family
6. Genus
7. Species

As each group splits into smaller groups, the organisms are more and more alike. The table below
shows the scientific classification of some living things.

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus species

Man Animalia Chordata Mammalia Primates Homonidae Homo Sapiens
Domestic dog Animalia Chordata Mammalia Carnivore Canidae Canis Familiaris
Common frog Animalia Chordata Amphibian Anura Ranidae Rana Temporaria
Domestic cat Animalia Chordata Mammalia Carnivore Felidae Felis Felis catus
Lion Animalia Chordate Mammalia Carnivore Felidae Panthera leo
Amoeba Protoctista Plasmodroma Sarcodina Amoebida Amoebidae Amoeba Proteus
Mango Plantae Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Sapindales Anacardiacae Magnifera Indica
Groundnut Plantae Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Fabales Leguminosae Arachis hypogaea
Apple Plantae Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Rosales Rosaseae Malus Malus domestica
Coco nut Plantae Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Ericales Lecyhtidaceae Bertholletia Bertholletia excels

The scientific name of each organism is found by combining the genus and the species name. For
example Man (Homo Sapien) and Lion (panthera Leo). The same principle applies to the rest.

The Periodic table

The periodic table is a classification of element according their periodic properties. Although many
scientists have attempted to make the periodic table, the modern periodic table is based on the
Mendeleev’s versions of the periodic table.

All the element are listed in the modern periodic table. The elements are arranged in vertical
columns called groups and in horizontal rows called periods. The element follow each other
according to their atomic numbers. All the elements in the same group show similar properties.
Along each period, there is a gradual change in the properties of the elements. All the elements in
the same group have the same number of electrons in their outer shells and all the elements in the
same period have the same number of shells.
The elements exist as metals, non-metals or metalloid (semi-metals). With the exception of
hydrogen, all the element to the left of the zig zag line on the periodic table are metals. The non-
metals are those to the right of zig zag plus hydrogen. The metalloids are lie between the metals
and non-metals and are on both sides of the zig zag line. Metalloids are also called semi-
conductors.

15
16
 CELLS
A cell is a basic unit of life. Cells can only be seen with the help of a microscope. They vary in
size, shape and functions. Each cell is adapted to a particular function.

The cell theory

It states that;
• A cell is a basic unit of life.
• Living things are made up of cells.
• A cell is a structural and function unit of living things.
• New cells are formed from existing cells by cell division.

Cell structure and function

1. Cell membrane
It is a thin, delicate and flexible living membrane that encloses the cell contents.
Functions
17
 i. Is selectively permeable and regulates the entry and exit of substances into and out of
the cell.
ii. It provides an outer boundary to the cell and protects the cell from injury separate the
cell contents from the external environment.
iii. It receives and recognises external stimuli.
iv. It gives shape to the cell.

2. Cell wall
The cell wall is present only in plant cells. It is made of cellulose and it forms a rigid protective
covering outside the plasma membrane.
Functions
i. It gives rigidity to the cell.
ii. It provides mechanical strength to the cell.
iii. It protects the protoplasm against injury.
iv. It gives a definite shape to the plant cells.

3. Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm consists of vital molecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, minerals,
amino acids and water. It is the seat for cellular metabolism. Different types of cell organelles
are found within the cytoplasm. Each type of organelle performs a specific function in the cell.
Functions
i. Synthesis of molecules such as protein and fatty acid takes place in the cytoplasm.
ii. It helps the distribution of enzymes, nutrients and other biomolecules within the cell.

4. Mitochondria
Mitochondria are an organelle that release energy from food. They are more numerous in cells
that require a lot of energy such as the leg muscle cells.
Function
i. For respiration and energy release.

5. Nucleus
It is spherical and it contains the nucleolus and the chromosomes. Chromosomes contain genes
and each gene is responsible for one hereditary character in the form molecules called
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Heredity is the transfer of traits (characteristics) from parents
to offspring.

Functions
i. It contains nucleolus which makes ribosomes.
ii. It is responsible for cell division.
iii. It has threadlike structures called chromosomes.
6. Chloroplast
It is oval shaped. It contains chlorophyll which traps sunlight to make food. Light energy is
converted to chemical energy.
Function
i. Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplast.
18
 7. Vacuole
Vacuoles are fluid-filled and are present in plant cells as food vacuoles. Some protozoans have
contractile vacuoles. In plants the vacuole occupies a major portion of the cell. The vacuole is
bound by a membrane called tonoplast.
Function
i. Vacuoles store and concentrate mineral salts as well as nutrients.
ii. They contain enzymes which act as lysosomes and bring about autolysis.
iii. They maintain proper osmotic pressure in the cell for its turgidity and absorption of
water.
iv. They contain pigments which gives colour to petals, fruits, leaves, etc.

8. Golgi body
Function
i. It is responsible for the synthesis cell membranes.
ii. It is involved in the formation of lysosomes.

The differences between a typical animal

animal cell and a typical plant cell
Animal Cell Plant Cell
Cellulose wall absent Cellulose cell wall present
Cytoplasm occupies most of the space in the cell Cytoplasm is pushed to the periphery
Vacuoles are absent. If present, they are small and Vacuoles are large and permanent.
temporary usually concerned with excretion and secretion.
Plastids (e.g. chloroplast) are absent. Plastids (e.g. chloroplast) are present.
Centrosome is present. Centrosome is absent.
Nucleus is present in the middle Nucleus is present at the side
Centrioles are present. Centrioles are absent.
Food is stored in the form of glycogen. Food is stored in the form of starch.
Many mitochondria are present Few mitochondria are present

Diversity of cells
There are many types of cells which differ in shape and functions. Each cells has its own function.

Cells found in animals

Examples of cells found in animals are as follows.

Name of cell Function of cell

Red blood cell Transport of oxygen
White blood cell To protect the body from bacteria germs.
Nerve cell To carry and co-ordinate impulses from one part of the body to the other.
Muscle cell For movement
Platelets For blood clotting
Egg cell For reproduction
Sperm cell For reproduction
Epithelial cells Covers and protects the body from injury

19
Cells found in plants
Name of cell Function of cell
Leaf palisade cell For making food during photosynthesis.
Parenchyma cell To strengthen and support the plant.
Guard cell For gaseous exchange.
Root hair cell For absorbing water and mineral salts.

Levels of organization in living things

There are five levels of organisations in living things and can be summarised as follows.
cells opppq tissues opppq organs opppq organ systems opppq organisms

Tissue
A tissue is a collection of cells that are similar in size and shape and perform the same function.
Examples of tissues

Name of tissue Components Function

Nerve tissue Cells with long extension For transmitting impulses
Muscle tissue Elongated cells Contract and bring about movement
Hard and tough material
Skeletal tissue Provide support and permit movement
containing living cells
Photosynthetic
Cells with chloroplasts For making food
tissue
Strengthening
Bundles of tough fibres Provide support
tissue
Epidermal tissue Sheets of cells Covers the plant surface

20
Organ
An organ is a collection of different tissues whose functions are coordinated to bring about an
effective action in the living organism.
Organ system
Is a group of organs working together to bring about an effective action in the body of an organism.

Organ system Organs involved Function

Mouth, teeth, pancreas,
Digestive system Digestion and absorption of food
stomach, etc.
Eye, ear, tongue, nose and
Sensory system To sense stimuli
skin
Excretory system Kidney, lungs, skin, liver To remove metabolic wastes from the body
• To absorb minerals and water from the
soil.
Root system Roots
• To store food
• To serve as anchor for the plant
• Leaves help in respiration, photosynthesis
and food storage
Stems, branches, leaves, • Stems and branches support the leaves,
Shoot systems
flowers, fruits and seeds. fruits and flowers and conducts water and
minerals
• Some stems also store food

When all the systems within an organism work together, the organism will be able to exist on its
own and carry out its life activities.

21
 MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS IN AND OUT OF CELLS
The movement of materials into or out of cells takes place in three ways.
1. Osmosis 2. Diffusion 3. Active transport

Diffusion
This is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration until the molecules are equally distributed.

Conditions necessary for diffusion to take place

• Concentration gradient (that is the difference in concentration of molecules between the two
regions).

Factors affecting diffusion

• Temperature: Diffusion is faster with higher temperature and slower with lower temperature.
• Physical state: Gases diffuse faster than solids and liquids.
• Concentration gradient: Diffusion is faster when concentration gradient is steeper and vice
versa. A steeper gradient mean greater difference in concentration.
• Permeability of the membrane: The more permeable the membrane is, the faster the rate of
diffusion.
• Weight of particle: Lighter particles can diffuse faster than heavier ones.
• Size of the particle: Smaller molecules can diffuse faster than large ones.
• Stirring: Stirring increases the rate of diffusion.

Experiment to demonstrate diffusion in gases

Steps
1. Close all doors and windows in a room.
2. Open a container of perfume at one corner of the room.

22
Observation
After some time, the odour of the perfume spreads to all other parts of the room.

Conclusion
This shows that diffusion has taken place.

Experiment to demonstrate diffusion in liquids

Steps:
1. Half-fill a beaker with clean water.
2. Add some dye to the beaker containing the water.

In the absence of a dye, you can use any coloured

substance such as copper sulphate solution,
potassium permanganate, potassium dichromate,
etc.

Observation:
The dye is first seen to stay at the bottom of the beaker. It then gradually spreads throughout the
liquid and finally the whole liquid assumes a uniform colour.

Conclusion:
This shows that diffusion has taken place.

Examples of diffusion
diffusion in plants
1. Absorption of minerals from the soil through the roots of plants.
2. During respiration, oxygen enters and carbon dioxide leaves the plant through the stomata by
plants.
3. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide enters the stomata of the leaves by diffusion.
4. Loss of water vapour from the leaves into the atmosphere.

23
Examples of diffusion in animals
1. Unicellular organisms exchange gases across their body surface by diffusion.
2. Exchange of gases between the blood and lungs by diffusion.
3. Exchange of gases between the blood and the cells of the body by diffusion.
4. Absorption of digested materials from the small intestine into the blood by diffusion.

Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane, from a dilute
solution to a more concentrated solution. It is the movement of water molecules from a region with
more water to a region with less water across a semi-permeable membrane.

Conditions necessary for osmosis to take place

• Concentration gradient • Semi-permeable membrane

Factors affecting osmosis

• Temperature: Osmosis is faster with higher temperature and slower with lower temperature.
• Concentration gradient: Osmosis is faster when concentration gradient is steeper and vice
versa. A steeper gradient mean greater difference in concentration.
• Permeability of the membrane: The more permeable the membrane is, the faster the rate of
osmosis.

Experiment to demonstrate
demonstrate osmosis in living tissue
Steps:
1. Peel three potatoes and cut them such that they will be able to stand. Scrape out a hole at the
other end of each potato.
2. Label the potatoes A, B and C.
3. Boil potato A for about ten minutes. This will kill the living cells.
4. Place each potato in a dish of water.
5. Put some salt solution into the holes of potatoes A and B a leave the set-up for at least six
hours.

24
Observation
There was a rise in the level of salt solution in potato B. There was no change in potato A and C.

Conclusion
In potato A, no osmosis occurred, because the cells were killed by boiling. Therefore, semi-
permeable membrane is absent. In potato C, there was no osmosis because the there was no
concentration gradient. In potato B, osmosis has taken place because there was a living cell
membrane and a concentration gradient.

Experiment to demonstrate osmosis in non-

non- living tissue

25
Steps
1. Cover one end of a thistle funnel with cellophane paper and secure tightly with a rope.
2. Pour salt solution into the funnel and mark the water level.
3. Suspend the thistle funnel in a beaker of water using a retort stand and clamp.

Observation
A rise in the water level in the funnel will be observed.

Conclusion
This shows that osmosis has occurred.

Osmosis in animal cells

When an animal cell such as a red blood cell is place in a hypotonic solution (dilute solution), the
cell gains water by osmosis and expand until it bursts. It bursts because it lacks cell wall which
prevents bursting.
Alternatively, when the red blood cells are place in hypertonic solution (concentrated solution),
the cell loses water by osmosis and wrinkle/shrink/crenate.

Examples of osmosis in animals

1. The osmo-regulatory function of the kidney.
2. The osmo-regulatory function of the contractile vacuole in amoeba.

Osmosis in plant cells

If a plant cell such as an onion epidermal cell is placed in hypotonic solution, it absorbs water by
osmosis and expands until it becomes turgid. The plant cell does not burst because it has a cell
wall.
Alternatively, it is placed in hypertonic solution it loses water by osmosis. The cell gradually
loses it turgidity and becomes flaccid. The cytoplasm of the cell eventually shrinks away from the
cell wall and the cell becomes plasmolysed.

26
When either animal cell or plant cell is placed in isotonic solution, nothing happens to the cells.

Examples of osmosis in plants

1. Absorption of water from the soil through the roots of plants.
2. Opening and closing of stomata.
3. Movement of water in plants from cell to cell.

Active transport
Active transport is the movement of substances from a region of lower concentration to a region
of higher concentration across a living cell membrane. Energy is required for active transport
because the molecules are moving against a concentration gradient. It also requires oxygen and
low temperature.

Examples of active transport

1. Re-absorption of water and salts in the kidney.
2. Uptake of glucose in the intestines.
3. Uptake of mineral ions into the root hair cells of plants.

27
 ATOMS AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atoms
Atoms
An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the properties of that element.

Structure of an atom

Atoms are thought to be spherical. They are neutral and consist of a nucleus surrounded by
electrons in distinct energy levels called shells or orbitals.

1. The Nucleus: It is located at the centre of the atom. It consists of the following;

a. Protons: They are found in the nucleus. They are positively charged, and they have a
mass of 1.673x10-27kg. The number of protons in the nucleus determines the atom's
identity and is called the atomic number.
b. Neutrons: They are found in the nucleus. They have no charge but have mass of
1.675x10-27kg.

2. Electrons: These are negatively charged particles surrounding the nucleus. They are extremely
light compared to the protons and neutrons.

Particle Relative charge Relative mass Actual mass

Proton n1 1 1.673 × 10 Š ‹
Neutron 0 1 1.675 × 10 Š ‹
Electron −1 1/1840 9.109 × 10 ‹

Atomic number
This is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. In a neutral atom, it is equal to the number
of electrons. Atomic number has the symbol Z.

Number of neutrons
This is also called neutron number and it refers to the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an
atom. It has the symbol N.

Mass number
This refers to the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. It has the symbol A.
The atomic number, the neutron number and the mass number of an atom is related by;
Œ •nŽ
An atom is represented as
28 follows: ‘•X, where X = symbol
of element
Exercise
1. An atom has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. What is its mass number?
2. How many protons are there in the nucleus of an atom with mass number 39 and neutron
number of 20?
3. How many neutrons are there in H?

Electronic configuration
This is the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus of the atom. Electrons orbit the nucleus
along distinct energy levels. Each energy level can take maximum number of electrons determined
by the formula; 2 , where n is the shell number.
Shell Maximum number of electrons
K 1 2 = 2T1U = 2
L 2 2 = 2T2U = 8
M 3 2 = 2T3U = 18
N 4 2 = 2T4U = 32

Information on group number, period number and valency of each element can be obtained from
the electronic configuration once the atomic number is known.
Examples

Complete the exercise for the rest of the first twenty elements
Element Symbol Z Electron group period valency
configuration
K L M N
Hydrogen H 1 1 1 1 1
Helium He 2 2 8/0 1 0
Lithium Li 3 2 1 1 2 1
Beryllium Be 4 2 2 2 2 2
Boron B 5 2 3 3 2 3
Carbon C 6 2 4 4 2 4
Nitrogen N 7 2 5 5 2 3
Oxygen O 8 2 6 6 2 2
Fluorine F 9 2 7 7 2 1

29
 Neon Ne 10 2 8 8/0 2 0
Sodium Na 11 2 8 1 1 3 1
Magnesium Mg 12 2 8 2 2 3 2
Aluminium Al 13 2 8 3 3 3 3
Silicon Si 14 2 8 4 4 3 4
Phosphorus P 15 2 8 5 5 3 3
Sulphur S 16 2 8 6 6 3 2
Chlorine Cl 17 2 8 7 7 3 1
Argon Ar 18 2 8 8 8/0 3 0
Potassium K 19 2 8 8 1 1 4 1
Calcium Ca 20 2 8 8 2 2 4 2

• The group number can be determined by the number of electrons in the outer shell. With the
exception of helium, the group number is equal to the number of electrons in the outermost
shell.
• The period can be determined by the number of shells the atom has. The number of shells the
atoms has is equal to its period number.
• The valency is determined by the group number. From group one to four, the valency is equal
to the group number, from group five to eight, the valency is eight minus the group number.
For helium, the valency is two minus the number of electrons in its outermost shell.

Isotopes
These are atoms of the same element which have the same number of protons, but different number
of neutrons. For example, hydrogen has three isotopes, l , l , l called hydrogen–1(protium),
hydrogen–2 (deuterium) and hydrogen–3 (tritium) respectively.

l l l
1 proton 1 proton 1 proton
1 electron 1 electron 1 electron
0 neutrons 1 neutron 2 neutrons

Copy and complete the table below.

Electronic configuration
Isotope Symbol Z N A e
K L M N
Hydrogen – 1 1
H 1
Hydrogen – 3 H 2
”
ŠCl
37 2 8 7
k
Oxygen - 16 –O
17 8
2 6
˜
˜K
19 41

30
Molecules
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound that retains the chemical properties
of that element or compound.

Atomicity
Atomicity is the number of atoms in one molecule of a compound or an element or a radical.
Example;
Compound/element/radical Atomicity
jm 3
l ™mš 7
Žm 4
m 3
l 2
Ž 1

Relative molecular mass

Relative molecular mass is the sum of the relative atomic masses in one molecule of a substance.
It is equivalent the molar mass. Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance. The unit for
molar mass is gram per mole (gmol–1). It is calculated by adding up the atomic masses of all the
atoms in the molecule.
Examples
Calculate the relative molecular mass (hence the molar mass) of the following.

1. CO2 2. NaOH
T1 × CU n T2 × OU T1 × NaU n T1 × OU n T1 × HU
T1 × 12U n T2 × 16U 44 T1 × 23U n T1 × 16U n T1 × 1U 40
ˆ † ˆ BB ˆ † ˆ B1
ˆ BB›/ œ• ˆ B1›/ œ•

Try these
Calculate the relative molecular mass of each of the following.
1. HNO3 3. NH4OH 5. CH3COOH
2. Na2SO4 4. (NH4)3PO4 6. C6H12O6
Tj 12, m 16, Ž 23, l 1, Ž 14, ™ 32, ž 31U

Percentage composition
Example
Calculate the percentage composition of the following.

1. CCl4
j T1 × 12U
% TjU × 100 × 100
jj š T1 × 12U n T4 × 35.5U
T1 × jU 12
× 100 × 100 V%
T1 × jU n T4 × j U 154
31
 T4 × 35.5U
4×j × 100
T1 × 12U n T4 × 35.5U
% Tj U × 100
jj š 142
T4 × j U × 100 > %
154
× 100
T1 × jU n T4 × j U

Try these
Calculate the percentage composition of the following.
1. Na2SO4 3. NH4OH 5. (NH4)3PO4
2. C12H22O11 4. Cu(NO3)2 6. C6H12O6
Tj 12, m 16, Ž 23, j 35.5, l 1, Ž 14, ™ 32, ž 31, j 64U

Amount of substance (mole)

A mole is the amount of pure substance containing the same number of chemical units as there are
atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12sTi. e. ?. 1 × 31 8 U. The number 6.02 × 10 is called
Avogadro’s number. The number of moles of any substance can be calculated by the formula;
mass
no. of moles
molar mass
The unit for amount of substance is mole (mol).

Examples
1. Calculate the number of moles of the following.
i. 9 g of H O ii. 196 g of H SOš
h^^ mass
n n
b¡hi h^^ molar mass
9 196
n n
T2 × 1U n 16 T1 × 2U n 32 n T4 × 16U
9 196
n 1. A 7GH n 7GH
18 98

Try these
Calculate the number of moles of the following
i. 50 g of NaNO iii. 18 g of Ck H Ok
ii. 16 g of CuSOš iv. 100 g of Mg N

2. Calculate the mass of the following.

i. 0.25 moles of CaCO ii. 0.1 moles of CuTNO U

mass mass
n n
molar mass molar mass
mass n × molar mass mass n × molar mass
mass 0.25 × T40 n 12 n T3 × 16UU mass 0.1 × 64 n T2 × 14U n T2 × 3 × 16U
mass A5 0.1 × 188 3V. V 5

Try these
Calculate the mass in each of the following.

32
 i. 2 mol NaCl iii. 0.5 mol Ck H Ok v. 0.02 mol CuSOš
ii. 0.1 mol NaOH iv. 0.25 mol H SOš

Tj 12, m 16, Ž 23, j 35.5, l 1, Ž 14, ™ 32, ž 31, j 64, ¤ 24, j 40U

Concentration
This is the amount of substance dissolved in 1dm3 of solution. It can be expressed in terms of the
number of moles or the mass.
When it is expressed in terms of the number of moles, it is simply called concentration and is
calculated by the formula;

number of moles TmolU ¥¦§ ¨©ª¥ ª« œ•/¬ 8

concentration
volume Tdm U

When it is expressed in terms of the mass, it is called mass concentration and is calculated by the
formula:
mass TgU ¥¦§ ¨©ª¥ ª« ›/¬ 8
mass concentration
volume Tdm U
8 8
Note that in both cases, the volume is in decimeter cube (dm3). 3¬ 3111 3 •ª¥§-

Examples
1. 20 grams of NaOH were dissolved in 500cm3 of solution. Calculate the concentration in;
a) g/dm3 b) mol/dm3
TŽ 23, m 16, l 1U
h^^ T®U ]° d\i bc b¡\^ T b¡U
a) concentration b) concentration
¯b¡° \ T[ ± U ¯b¡° \ T[ ± U
concentration ? concentration ?
mass 20g volume 0.5 dm
500 mass 20
volume 0.5 dm n 0.5mol
1000 molar mass 40
20 0.5
concentration B15/²78 concentration 3 7GH/²78
0.5 0.5

Try these
1. 50 grams of CaCO were dissolved in 1dm of solution. Calculate the concentration in
mol/dm .
2. 10 grams of HCl were dissolved in 250 cm of solution, what is the mass concentration?
3. 0.5 mol H SOš was dissolved in 800 cm of solution. What is the concentration in g/dm ?
4. A 700 cm solution was known to have a concentration of 0.1 mol/dm of NaOH. Calculate
a) The number of moles of NaOH in the solution.
b) The mass of NaOH in the solution.
Tj 12, m 16, Ž 23, j 35.5, l 1, ™ 32, j 40U

33
 CHEMICAL FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS
Chemical
Chemical formulae
This is a set of chemical symbols showing the elements present in a compound and their relative
proportion. There are different types of formulae;

Molecular formula
This shows the elements and the actual number of atoms of each element present in one molecule
of a compound.

Empirical formula
This show the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each element present in the molecule
of a compound.

Structural formula
This shows the arrangement of atoms in the molecule of a compound.

Take glucose for instance, it’s molecular, empirical and structural formulae are as follows;

Molecular formula Empirical formula Structural formula

Ck H Ok CH O

Writing molecular formula

The following guidelines can be used to work out chemical formulae.
• Identify and write down the species present in the molecule of the compound.
• Workout the valency/oxidation number of each of the species.
• Exchange their valencies/oxidation numbers.
• Where applicable, simplify the valency of each by dividing by the smallest number.

Examples
Write the formulae of the following compounds.

1. Sodium oxide 2. Calcium oxide

Ca O
Na O 2 2 simplify the valencies where neccessary
exchange the valencies
1 2 1 1

´µ ¶ Ca O
exchange the valencies
1 1
¸D¹

34
3. Potassium tetraoxosulphate (vi) 4. Trioxonitrate (v) acid

K SOš exchange the valencies H NO

exchange the valencies
1 2 1 1
Tip:
¼½¹8
To get the oxidation state of
º »¹B polyatomic ions, add up the oxidation
states of the individual atom in the ion.
Try these
1. lithium sulphide 6. sodium hydroxide
2. sodium chloride 7. copper (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi)
3. magnesium oxide 8. hydrochloric acid
4. iron (iii) chloride 9. tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid
5. copper (ii) hydroxide 10. trioxocarbonate (iv) acid

Chemical equations
A chemical equation is an expression using formulae and symbols to describe a chemical reaction.

Balancing Chemical Equation

Chemical equation can be balanced by writing numbers before the formulae of the reactants and
products such that the total number of atoms of each element in the reactants is equal to the total
number of the same element in the products. When balancing chemical equations, you must not
change the formulae of the compounds in both the reactants and products.

Examples
Balance the following equations
1. H n O → H O I¿ÀDHD¿CJ² JÁIDÂÃG¿
2H n O → 2H O ÀDHD¿CJ² JÁIDÂÃG¿

2. NaOH n H SOš → Na SOš n H O I¿ÀDHD¿CJ² JÁIDÂÃG¿

2NaOH n H SOš → Na SOš n 2H O ÀDHD¿CJ² JÁIDÂÃG¿

3. Al n O → Al O I¿ÀDHD¿CJ² JÁIDÂÃG¿
4Al n 3O → 2Al O ÀDHD¿CJ² JÁIDÂÃG¿

Try these
Balance the following equations.
1. Al n Cl → nAlCl 6. Mg n CO → MgO n C
2. Ck H Ok n O → CO n H O 7. Fe O n CO → Fe n CO
3. Mg n N → Mg N 8. K SOš n BaCl → BaSOš n KCl
4. Fe n Cl → FeCl 9. C H n O oq CO n H O
5. Cš H Æ n O → CO n H O

35
How to write chemical equations for reactions
Steps
1. Write the equation in words.
2. Rewrite the equation using symbols and formulae. Make sure that the formulae are correct.
3. Balance the equation without changing any formula.
4. Write the state symbols of the reactants and products as subscripts.

Examples
Write balanced equations for the following reactions.
1. Calcium burns in chlorine to form calcium chloride.

Step 1: write the equation in words.

calcium n chlorine → calcium chloride Tip:
Metals are monoatomic, gases such as
oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, nitrogen, etc
Step 2: write the equation using symbols are diatomic.
Ca n Cl → CaCl

Step 3: balance the equation

Ca n Cl → CaCl

Step 4: write the state symbols of the reactants and products.

CaT^U n Cl T®U → CaCl T^U

2. Sodium reacts with tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid to form sodium tetraoxosulphate (vi) and
hydrogen gas.
Step 1: write the equation in words.
sodium n tetraoxoxulphate TviU acid → sodium tetraoxosulphate TviU n hydrogen
Step 2: write the equation using symbols
Na n H SOš → Na SOš n H Tip:
All alkalis and acids are aqueous, all
Step 3: balance the equation
metals except mercury are solids at room
2Na n H SOš → Na SOš n H
temperature, metal oxides are usually
Step 4: write the state symbols of the reactants and products. solids, hydrogen, chlorine, oxygen and
2NaT^U n H SOšThÈU → Na SOšThÈU n H T®U nitrogen are gases, metals chlorides are
usually solids.
Try these
Write balanced chemical equations for each of the following reactions.
1. Hydrogen reacts with chlorine to form hydrogen chloride gas.
2. Magnesium reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
3. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water.
4. Iron reacts with oxygen to form iron (iii) oxide.
5. Calcium trioxocarbonate (iv) decomposes to calcium oxide and carbon (iv) oxide.
6. Iron (iii) oxide reacts with carbon (ii) oxide to produce iron and carbon (iv) oxide
7. Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium chloride and water.
8. Magnesium reacts with trioxonitrate (v) acid to form magnesium trioxonitrate (v) and
hydrogen gas.

36
Calculations involving mole ratios
Examples
1. 112g of iron was reacted with copper (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi) to form iron (ii) tetraoxosulphate
(vi) and copper. How much copper can be produced? The equation of the reaction is shown
below.
Fe n CuSOš opppq FeSOš n Cu TFe 56, Cu 64, S 32, O 16U

Step 1: balance the equation Step 2: work out the mole ratio.
Fe n CuSOš opppq FeSOš n Cu Fe CuSOš oppq FeSOš Cu
n n
1 1

Step 3: work out the number of moles.

For Fe; m 112g
m mm T1 × FeU T1 × 56U A?
n
mm 112
n ? n 7GH
56

From the equation, the ratio of Fe : Cu is 1:1 n 2 mol

Therefore they have equal number of moles. mm T1 × CuU T1 × 64U ?B
Implying that Cu is 2mol. m ?
m
2
Mass of Cu produced: 64
m m 2 × 64
n
mm 3 V5

2. 10.6 of Na CO T^U reacts completely with HClThÈU . What mass of NaCl will be produced
from the reaction? Below is the equation of the reaction.
Na CO T^U n HClThÈU opppq NaClThÈU n CO T®U n H OT¡U
(Na = 23, C = 12, O = 16, H = 1, Cl = 35.5)
Step 1: balance the equation
Na CO T^U n 2HClThÈU opppq 2NaClThÈU n CO T®U n H OT¡U

Step 2: work out the mole ratio

Na CO T^U n 2HClThÈU opppq 2NaClThÈU n CO T®U n H OT¡U
1 2
Step 3: work out the number of moles.
For Na CO T^U Mole ratio of Na CO T^U ∶ 2NaClThÈU 1: 2
m Therefore, number of moles of 2NaClThÈU
n
mm T2 × 0.1U 1. 7GH
n ? The mass of NaCl is;
m 10.6 m
mm 106 n
mm
10.6 m
n 1. 3 7GH 0.2
106 58.5
m 0.2 × 58.5 33. 25

37
Try these
1. 9.8 g of H SOš was completely neutralised by NaOH as shown in the reaction below.
2NaOH n H SOš opppq Na SOš n 2H O
Calculate the mass of;
a) Na SOš produced b) H O produced

2. In a photosynthetic reaction, 88g of CO reacted with water according to the equation below.
6CO n 6H O opppq Ck H Ok n 6O
Calculate;
a) The mass of water needed by the plant to react with all theCO .
b) The mass of glucose formed during the reaction.
c) The mass of oxygen produced during the reaction.

TH 1, S 32, O 16, Na 23, C 12U

38
 CHEMICAL BONDING
A chemical bond is the force of attraction between two atoms that hold them together. It is the
main factor that makes molecules and compounds. A chemical bond is formed by the interaction
of outer electrons. Most elements do not have completely filled outer shells. This makes them
unstable. They gain stability, by losing electrons or by gaining electrons or by sharing electrons.
This makes them to have an outer shell with eight electrons.

Types of chemical bonds

1. Ionic bond or electrovalent bond.
This is the chemical bond formed between atoms due to the transfer of electrons from one atom
to the other. The transfer of electrons brings about the formation of ions. When an atom loses
electrons it becomes a positive charged ion and is called cation. A negative ion is called anion
and is formed when an atom gains of electrons. The attraction of the positive and the negative
ions result to the formation of the ionic bond.
An understanding of electron
Formation of ionic bonds configuration and valency can
Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals. Example; enhance your understanding of
chemical bonding
i. Formation of sodium chloride
Sodium chloride consists of the elements sodium and chlorine.
A neutral sodium atom has 11 electrons with only 1 in its outer shell. It gives out this electron
and be left with an outer shell with 8 electrons. It becomes positively charged.
A neutral chlorine atom has 17 electrons with 7 in its outer shell. It gains one electron from
sodium to obtain an outer shell with 8 electrons. It becomes negatively charged.
The ionic bond is formed by the electrostatic forces between the charged particles keeps them
together.

Try these
Show the formation of the following. Sodium fluoride
1. Calcium chloride 4. Magnesium oxide
2. Lithium oxide 5. Aluminium oxide
3. Aluminium chloride 6. Potassium fluoride

Properties of ionic compounds

1. They generally exist as solids.
2. They have high melting points and boiling points.
39
3. They are generally hard.
4. They are soluble in water.
5. They are generally very reactive
6. They do not conduct electricity in their solid forms, but when dissolved or molten, they conduct
electricity.

2. Covalent bond
This is the bond formed by the mutual sharing of electrons. In covalent bond formation, each
atom provides an equal number of electrons for sharing. Each pair of electron is attracted by
the nucleus of both atoms.

Formation of covalent bonds

Covalent bonding occurs bonding occurs mainly between non-metals. Example;

1. Formation of hydrogen chloride

Hydrogen chloride consists of the elements hydrogen and chlorine both of which are non-
metals. Hydrogen has only one electron and in its only shell. Since the K-shell takes a
maximum of two electrons, then hydrogen needs only one electron to fill its outer and the only
shell. Chlorine on the other hand has 17 electrons with 7 electrons in the outer shell. It needs
also need 1 electron to fill its outer shell. Both the hydrogen and the chlorine atoms each need
1 electron. Each of them will contribute on electron to form a pair which they both share. In
this way a stable hydrogen chloride molecule is formed.

Notice that only the

outermost shells are
shown.

2. Formation of ammonia molecule

Ammonia molecule consists of three hydrogen atoms and one nitrogen atom. Each hydrogen
atom has one electron in its only shell. This implies that each of the hydrogen atoms needs one
electron from ammonia. The nitrogen on the other hand, has five electrons in its outer shell. It
needs three more electrons to fill that shell. It needs one electron from each of the hydrogen
atoms. It will share electrons with each of the hydrogen atoms as shown below.

Each pair of shared

electrons represents
one covalent bond.

40
Try these
Show the formation following. Water molecule
1. Hydrogen molecule 4. Methane (CHš )
2. Oxygen molecule 5. Nitrogen molecule
3. Carbon dioxide molecule

Polar covalent bond

A covalent bond formed between two atoms of different elements is known as a polar covalent
bond. For example Hydrogen chloride, water, etc.

Non – polar covalent bonds

A covalent bond formed between two atoms of the same element is known as a non – polar covalent
bond. For example hydrogen molecule, chlorine molecule, etc.

Properties or covalent compounds

1. Covalent molecules are held together by weak intermolecular forces.
2. They exist mainly as liquids or gases. However some exists as solids.
3. They are volatile.
4. They have low melting and boiling points.
5. They are soluble in organic compounds.
6. Non-polar covalent compounds do not conduct electricity.
7. Polar covalent compound conduct small amount of electricity.

41
 UNSTABLE NUCLEI AND RADIOACTIVITY
Many atoms behave in a way that has nothing to do with their outer electrons. The nucleus of some
isotopes is said to be unstable. For example carbon has three isotopes, kj , kj , kšj called
carbon–12, carbon–13 and carbon–14.

kj kj
š
kj
6 protons 6 protons 6 protons
6 electrons 6 electrons 6 electrons
6 neutrons 7 neutrons 8 neutrons

The carbon–14 is unstable. This is due to its extra neutrons. Sooner or later, every single carbon–
14 atom releases a particle out of its nucleus and become nitrogen atom. This process is called
decay. Carbon–14 isotope is said to be radioactive. Such isotopes are called radioisotopes or
radionuclide. Other radioisotopes include sodium–24, uranium–235 and plutonium–238
All radioisotopes eventually turn into stable atoms by giving out radiation. These radiations may
be;
Alpha particle (Ë): An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons. It is a nucleus of
helium. It positively charged and can travel only a short distance in air. It cannot pass through
paper or the skin. It is deflected to the negatively charged plate as it passes through an electric
field. For example, Uranium-238 can undergo alpha decay to form Thorium-234.

Beta particle (Ì): A beta particle is a fast moving electron, which means it is extremely light. In
can travel 20 cm to 30 cm in air can penetrate the skin or thin sheet of metal. It is negatively
charged and is deflected towards the positively charge plate as it passes through an electric field.
For example, Thorium-234 undergoes beta decay to form Protactinium-234.

Gamma rays (Í): Gamma rays are usually given out at the same time as alpha particles. They are
high energy electromagnetic rays and they travel at the speed of light. They can pass through thick
sheet of metal and deep into our bodies. They can be stopped by thick block of lead or thick
concrete.

42
The effects of electric field on radiations

The alpha particles are deflected to the negative plate because they are positively charged. The
beta particles are deflected to the positive plate because they are negatively charged. They are
deflected more than alpha particles because they are lighter. The gamma rays are not deflected
because they have no charge.

The penetration power of radiations

Gamma rays are the most penetrating followed by beta particles then alpha particles. Alpha
particles are stopped by thick paper or thick cloth. The beta rays can be stopped by aluminium
sheet. The gamma rays are stopped by thick lead block or thick concrete.

Half-
Half-life
This is the time it takes for half the radio isotopes in a sample to decay.

Detection of radioactivity
Radioactivity is invisible, has no smell and makes no sound. In fact it cannot be detected by any
of our senses.
However, radioactivity can be detected using the following.

1. Geiger- Muller tube 4. Cloud Chamber 7. Scintillation Detectors

2. Gold Leaf Electroscope 5. Bubble Chamber 8. Solid State Detector
3. Spark Counter 6. Film Badge

43
Harmful effects of radiations
• Radiations can ionize molecules by knocking off electrons from them and turning them into
ions. When this happens in body cells, they undergo mutation. Mutation is a change in the
genetic code resulting in a variant form which may be transmitted to subsequent generations.
• Exposure to small dosage of radiation over a long period of time will give the mutated cells
the chance to multiply and later on show up as cancer. If the mutation occurs in the sex cells,
one may have children born with deformities.
• Exposure to large dose of radiation over a short period of time can lead to the death of millions
of cells in the gut, blood and bone tissue. This results in radiation sickness characterised by
vomiting, tiredness, loss of appetite, hair loss, bleeding gums and usually death within weeks.

Uses of radiations
• Killing microbes: Gamma rays kill microbes that cause fruits and vegetables to decay. Foods
radiated by gamma stay fresh for a long period of time. Syringes and surgical instruments are
sterilized after packing by radiating them with gamma rays.

• Cancer treatment: Appropriate dosage of gamma rays is used to kill cancer cells. This works
because cancer cells are easier to kill by gamma rays than healthy cells. This is called
radiotherapy. Cobalt–60 is often used as a source of gamma rays in radiotherapy.

• Carbon dating: By comparing the radiation from plant and animal remains and that of living
things and knowing the half–life of Carbon–14, the age of anything that was once living can
be worked out. This process is called carbon dating. In a similar way, the age of rocks can also
be determined using potassium–40.

• Tracers: Engineers can check underground oil and gas pipes for leaks by adding a radioactive
substance to the oil or gas, so that the leaks can be detected using devices such as Geiger
counter. Radioisotopes used in this way are called tracers. An example is krypton–81. Tracers
are also used to study how animals digest food and plants take up fertilizers. Phosphorus–32
is used for this.

• Pest control: Radiations are used to sterilize pest so that they cannot reproduce. This helps to
control their population.

• Nuclear energy: Under controlled conditions, the fission reaction of radioisotopes such as
uranium–235 can yield a large amount of energy which can be converted to electricity in a
nuclear power station. The heat energy is used to produce steam which drives the turbines of a
generator to produce electricity.

44
 PURE SUBSTANCES AND MIXTURES
Pure substances
This is a substance with a fixed composition. It has its unique properties that distinguish it from
all other substances. A pure substance cannot be separated using physical methods.

Mixtures
A mixture is a substance that has a variable composition and can be separated using physical
methods. Mixtures can be grouped as follows:
Homogeneous mixture
This is a mixture in which the boundaries between its components cannot be seen. For example a
salt solution is homogenous.

Heterogeneous mixture
This is the mixture in which the boundaries between the components of the mixture can be seen.
A mixture of sand and water is heterogeneous.

Methods of separating mixtures

The method used to separate a particular mixture depends on the components of the mixture.
Separating technique Mixture
Simple distillation Liquids of different boiling points (usually not very close)
Fractional distillation Liquids of different but very close boiling points
Filtration Mixture of solid and liquid
Separating funnel Liquids of different density (immiscible liquids)
Paper chromatography Mixture whose components have different solubility
Sublimation Mixture where one component can sublime
Crystallization A mixture of solute and solvent

Simple distillation
This method is used to separate a mixture of liquids of different boiling points. For example a
mixture of water and ethanol can be separated using this method. Water boils at 100 °C and ethanol
boils at 78 °C.
The mixture in the flask is heated until the boiling point of ethanol is reached. The ethanol boils
off and rises to the condenser where it is converted back into liquid. The ethanol flows down and
is collected in the flask. While the ethanol boils, the temperature does not change. The ethanol
boils first because it has lower boiling point than water.

45
Fractional distillation
This method is used to separate a mixture
of liquids of different but close boiling
point. The components of crude oil can
be separated using this method. It is very
similar to simple distillation. The main
difference is that fractional distillation
apparatus has a fractionating column and
components separated have very close
boiling points.

Filtration

This technique is used to separate a mixture of solid and liquid. The apparatus is set up as shown
in the diagram below. The solid particles are trapped in the filter paper while the liquid passes
through. Mixture of sand and water can be separated using this technique.

46
Crystallization
This method is used to separate a mixture of solute from its solvent. For example salt solutions. It
involves heating the mixture until it becomes highly concentrated. It is then left to cool. Salt
crystals begin to form as the mixture cools. The crystals are then filtered and dried.

Evaporation
This method is used to separate a
mixture of solute from its solvent. For
example salt and water. This is done by
heating the mixture to dryness. The
water evaporates leaving the salt.

Separating funnel
This technique involves the use of separating
funnel to separate a mixture of liquids of
different density. For example a mixture of
oil and water can be separated using this
technique. The mixture is poured in the
separating funnel and the oil (the less dense
liquid) floats. The tap is opened and the water
(denser liquid) runs out. The tap is closed
again when all the water has ran out.

Sublimation
This method is used to separate a mixture in which one of the components can sublime. For
example, a mixture of sodium chloride and ammonium chloride can be separate by this method.

47
Paper Chromatography

This method is used to separate a mixture of substances of different solubility. For example, the
component colours of an ink can be separated using this method.
A drop of the ink is placed on the filter paper and the suspended in a solvent such as water. The
solvent rises through the filter paper to meet the drop of the ink. The most soluble component
dissolves first and is carried upwards by the rising solvent.

Note:
Sometimes it requires more than one technique to separate mixtures. For example, a mixture of
sand and salt can be separated as follows.
• Water is added to the mixture so that the salt dissolves leaving the sand.
• The sand is then filtered from the salt solution.
• The salt is then obtained from the solution by evaporation or crystallization.

48
 FORCES
A force is a pull or push on an object. Force makes objects at rest to move, stops moving objects
or change the direction of motion of moving objects. Force is a vector quantity measured in
newton. Different types of forces exist. The following are examples.

1. Gravitational force: This causes objects to fall to the ground. It is a force of attraction between
any two masses.
2. Magnetic force: This is the force of attraction or repulsion due to magnets.
3. Cohesive force: This is the force of attraction that exists between the particles of the same
substance.
4. Adhesive force: This is the force of attraction that exists between the particles of different
substances.
5. Capillary force: This is the force that makes liquids to rise through narrow tubes.
6. Centripetal force: This is the force that keeps objects moving in a circular path.
7. Frictional force: This is the force that opposes motion.
8. Viscosity: This is the frictional force that exists in liquids.
9. Tension: This is the force existing in string a when it is stretched.

FRICTION
This is the resistance force that an object or a surface experiences when moving over another object
or surface. There are different types of friction.
• Static friction: This is the friction that an object encounters when it is forced to move along a
surface while movement does not occur.
• Kinetic friction: Kinetic friction comes into play when a body just starts moving along a
surface.
• Fluid friction (viscosity): This is the friction that exists in fluids. When a body moves in a
liquid or in air, there exists a resistive force which slows down the motion of the body. This is
known as fluid frictional force or viscosity.
• Rolling friction: Rolling frictional force is a force that slows down the motion of a rolling
object.

Advantages of friction
1. It enables pens to leave mark on paper.
2. It enables lizards and other reptiles to climb.
3. Screws and nails are able to hold objects together because of friction.
4. It enables car tyres to grip the ground.
5. Car brakes work as a result of friction.
6. Friction enables us to speak clearly. This is why reciters must clean their mouths.
7. It prevents us from slipping when we walk.
8. It helps us to grip objects.
9. Friction between a match stick and its box produces fire.

49
Disadvantages of friction
1. It reduces the efficiency of machines.
2. It causes wearing out of machine parts and shoes.
3. It causes bruises on people when they fall.
4. It slows down or stops moving objects.
5. It produces unnecessary heat. Car engines become hotter because of friction.

How to minimize friction

1. By lubrication: This provides a layer of lubricant such as oil on which the surfaces can easily
slide.
2. Streamlining: Fast cars, boats, ships, aircrafts and trains have a streamlined body. This allows
the water or air to flow by without offering much resistance.
3. By using ball bearings: Ball bearing reduces area of contact between moving surfaces thereby
minimizing friction.
4. Polishing: Friction is greater when surfaces are rough. Making surfaces smooth will reduce
friction.
5. Use of correct combination of surfaces in contact: Use of alloys on moving and sliding parts
reduces friction because alloys have a low coefficient of friction

MOMENT
The moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance
from the point. Its unit newton meter (Nm).

œ §©¥ Îœ- § µ©¬ ϧ-ϧ©¬ª ¨•µ- ¬ª«¥µ© §

1. A mechanic applies a force of 400N at the end of a spanner of length 0.2m. What moment is
applied to the nut?
Ð ˆ† Ñ ‰ ˆ‰ Ñ † ˆ Ñ †
Ð ˆ† 400 Ž, Ñ † 0.2
400 × 0.2 80 Ž

The principle of moment

The sum of the clockwise moments about a point is equal to the sum of the anti-clockwise moments
about the same point.

50
1. The ruler in the diagram below is balanced. What is the weight W.

TF × d U TF × d U n TF × d U TW × 25U T4 × 15U n T1 × 40U

F W, d 25cm 25W 60 n 40
F 4N, d 15cm 100
W B½
F 1N, d 40cm 25

Try these
1. A man uses a pole to shift a sack of scrap iron with mass 80kg. He uses a stone as fulcrum, the
stone being 0.15m from the sac. What force must he apply at a point 1.5m from the fulcrum in
order to move the sack? (g = 10 m/s2).

2. A meter rule is balanced at its centre of gravity, 1N and 2N loads are placed at 20cm and 40cm
respectively from the centre. A weight, X is suspended at 25cm mark on the opposite side.
Calculate the value of X.

3. 5N and 10N loads are placed at 15m and 10m respectively from the pivot of a plank. A load
20 N is placed at distance d on the opposite side of the pivot. Calculate the value of d.

4. Two loads 3N and 5N are placed at distances 2m and d respectively from the pivot. The
opposite side has 6N and 2N at distances 4m and 3m respectively. Calculate the distance d.

51
 CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND CENTRE OF MASS
The centre of gravity of a body is the point through which the weigh to the body seems to be acting.
If a body is supported at this point, it remains stable. It also coincides with the centre of mass of
the body.

How to determine center of gravity

The centre of gravity of regular shaped objects is at the intersection point of the diagonals of the
object.

The centre of gravity of irregular lamina is determined by using a plumb line. It involves the
following steps. Make two holes near the edge of an irregular lamina and label them A and B.
i. Suspend the object from hole A with the plumb line and draw the draw the line ŒŒÒ .
ii. Repeat the above step for hole, B.
iii. The point of intersection of line Ó and ÓÓ′
As a check, the object can be suspended from a third hole, C. It will be found that the plumb
line passes through the centre of gravity.

The centre of gravity of some objects may fall outside the object.

52
 STABILITY
A body is said to be stable if line drawn from its centre of gravity falls within the base of the object.
If the line falls outside of the base, it becomes unstable and it topples over. A condition necessary
for stability is that the centre of gravity is at its lowest position.
Types of stability
1. Stable equilibrium
A body is said to be in stable equilibrium when receiving a slight replacement it tends to return
to its original position. A body with a large base and low centre of gravity is usually stable. An
example is a cone resting on its base.

2. Unstable equilibrium
A body is said to be in a position of unstable equilibrium when on receiving a slight
displacement it tends to move on further away from the original position. A body with a small
base and a high centre of gravity is usually unstable.

3. Neutral equilibrium
A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium when on receiving a slight displacement it tends to
rest in its new position. An example is a bus rolling on a horizontal surface.

53
 PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as the force acting perpendicularly per unit area of a surface. The SI of pressure
is Pascal (Pa) or Newton per meter square (Nm-2)
Pressure is given by;

Force TNU Maximum pressure is force divided by least area

Pressure Minimum pressure is force divided by largest area.
Area Tm U

When the area is small, the pressure is large and when the area is large, the pressure is small. Thus
the pressure exerted by a person wearing narrow heel shoe is greater than that exerted by the same
person wearing flat heels. A sharp blade or a sharp needle pierces very easily even when a small
force is applied.

Examples
1. A force of 40N acts on an area of 5m2. What is the pressure exerted on the surface.
× šÆÙ
ž ?, Ö 40Ž, Œ 5 ž Ø V´
”yÚ
Try these
1. A block of weight 120N has sides of length 10cm, 20cm and 24cm. Calculate the pressure
exerted by the block when it lies on the;
a) Least area
b) Largest area

2. What weight of liquid would exert a pressure of 200 Pa on the base of a rectangular tank with
dimensions 2.0 m by 3.0 m?

3. A rectangular block of density 500kg/m3 measures 2m by 3m by 4m. Calculate;

i. Its volume iv. The minimum pressure it exerts
ii. Its mass v. The maximum pressure it exerts
iii. Its weight (g = 10 m/s2).

PRESSURE IN LIQUID

The diagram below represents a cylinder filled

with liquid.
From the diagram above
The volume of the liquid is equal to the volume
of the cylinder.

Volume = base area x height

Ûˆ ‡ Œ × ‡

The mass of the liquid is density x volume

Ü׌ׇ

54
The weight of the liquid is mass x à ᦛ
acceleration due to gravity
Ý Ü×‡×Œ× ˆ ˆ Ñ Ð† Ñ ˆ
‡ ‡ ‡ І Ñ ˆ
Ü Ñ Ð ß Ñ
The pressure exerted by the liquid is Ð ‡ ß Ñ
†† ˆ Ñ ˆ
Ð ˆ† TÞ ‡ Ð ß ÑU Œ â ˆ Ð ‡ † Ñ ˆ
ž
ˆ of the liquid

Üׇ׌×
ž
Œ

Examples
1. A diver pulls a balloon to a depth of 30m in the sea. What is the pressure exerted on the balloon?
(g = 10m/s2 and the density of sea water is 1004 kg/m3).
P ? P ρhg
ρ 1004kg/m P 1004 × 30 × 10
h 30m ä 813 11 äD
g 10m/s

2. A tank of height 10m is half-filled with water of density 1000kg/m3. What is the pressure
exerted at the bottom of the tank. (g = 10 m/s2).

P ? P ρhg
ρ 1000kg/m P 1000 × 5 × 10
h 10m × 0.5 5m Thalf filledU P A1111 äD
g 10m/s

3. At what depth will a swimmer experience a pressure of 8000 Pa in water of density 1000
kg/m3? (g = 10 m/s2).
P 8000 Pa P ρhg
ρ 1000kg/m 8000 1000 × h × 10
h ? 8000
h 1. V 7
g 10m/s 1000 × 10

Note
• The pressure in a liquid is directly proportional to the depth of the liquid.
• The pressure in different liquids at the same depth varies directly with density.
• The pressure in the liquids is transmitted equally in all directions.
• The pressure at all points in the same level within a liquid is the same.

55
To show that pressure at all points at the same levels within a liquid is the
same
Method
Collect a u – tube with legs of different diameters and hold them vertically by using retort stand
and clamp.
Fill it with any liquid and allow it to settle.

Observation
It will be observed that the liquid stands at the same horizontal level.

Conclusion
This shows that pressure at all points at the same level within a liquid is the same.

To show that pressure in liquids varies with depth

Method
• Collect a cylindrical vessel (spouting can) with holes of the same size at equal intervals from
the top
• Place the vessel near a sink and fill it with water to the brim.

Observation
It will be observed that the water coming through hole C reaches further than the water coming
through holes B and A.

56
Conclusion
This shows that the pressure at the bottom of the vessel is greater than the pressure at the top.
Therefore pressure in liquids varies with depth.

To show that pressure in liquid is transmitted equally in all directions

The Pressure applied in a confined liquid is transmitted uniformly in all direction throughout the
liquid. This is referred to as Pascal’s principle.
If the liquid is trapped in a container and
pressure is applied, according to the
principle; this pressure will be transmitted
equally in all direction. Therefore the water
coming out of the holes receives the same
amount of pressure. The operation of
hydraulic systems such as hydraulic jacks,
car brakes and hydraulic press is based on
Pascal’s principle.

PRESSURE IN AIR

The atmosphere is the name given to the whole body of air surrounding the earth. Atmospheric
pressure is the pressure of a column of air from the ground or sea level to the height at which the
atmosphere ceases to exist (about 80km). Air has weight; hence it exerts pressure on the surface
of the earth as well as on objects on the earth’s surface. Since the human blood a pressure is slightly
greater than the atmospheric pressure, we do not feel this pressure. At high altitudes where the
pressure is less, nose-bleeding may occur owing to the greater excess pressure of the blood.
There are various simple experiments that can be carried out to show the enormous pressure of the
atmosphere.

The crushing can experiment

• Collect a metal can with a stopper.

57
• Remove the stopper and fill the can with water to about one – third.
• Heat the water and allow it to boil for about five minutes. This helps to drive air out of the can.
• Remove the flame underneath the can while replacing the stopper.
• Pour cold water on the can so that the steam inside the can condenses producing water and
water vapour at very low pressure.

After some time, it will be observed that the metal can shrinks in wards. This shows that air exerts
pressure.

The Magdeburg
Magdeburg hemispheres experiment
Two air-tight fitting hemispheres were put
together and then pumping out the air to
create a vacuum. On removal of the air inside,
only the atmospheric pressure acted and
pressed the hemispheres tightly together. It
was impossible to separate the hemispheres
until the air was readmitted in.

Measurement
Measurement of atmospheric pressure
The fortin barometer
It consists of a tube of about 1meter long sealed at one end, filled with mercury and inverted in a
bowl of mercury. A vacuum is created at the top when the tube is inverted. A change in atmospheric
pressure produces a change in the height of the mercury in the tube. The height of the mercury in
the can be determined by a scaled attached to the tube. Atmospheric pressure can support of a
mercury column of 760 mm high.

Aneroid barometer

This barometer has no liquid. It consists of a partially evacuated corrugated metal box, whose
thickness changes as atmospheric pressure changes. These changes in the thickness of the box are
transmitted to a pointer which moves over a calibrated scale.

58
Applications of air pressure
The drinking straw
When drinking with a straw, one has to suck the straw. This causes the pressure in the straw to
decrease. The external atmospheric pressure, which is greater, will then act on the surface of the
water in the glass, causing it to rise through the straw.

Rubber sucker
When a rubber sucker is pressed onto a smooth surface, usually a glass or tiled surface, the air in
the rubber sucker is forced out. This causes the space between the surface and the sucker to have
low pressure. The contact between the rubber sucker and the smooth surface is airtight. The
external atmospheric pressure, which is much higher, acts on the rubber sucker pressing it securely
against the wall.

Pumps
A pump is a device uses to transfer fluids from one chamber to another in one direction. There are
different types of pumps.
The lift pump

It consists of cylindrical metal barrel with a side tube near the top to act as a spout. It also has a
piston (plunger) with a valve A in the barrel. The piston can move up and down inside the barrel.
At the bottom of the barrel are a valve B and a pipe leading to the well.

59
When the plunger moves up, the space above valve B increases leading to low pressure in the
space above valve B. Valve B opens while valve A remains closed and atmospheric pressure
pushes water into the barrel through valve B.
When the plunger moves downwards the valve B closes while valve A opens. The water inside the
pump passes upwards through valve A into the space above the plunger.
As the plunger moves up again, the water above the plunger is raised to the spout and delivered
outside. At the same time more water enters the pump through valve B.

Limitations of the lift pump

Owing to the fact that atmospheric pressure cannot support a column of water more than about 10
meters long, it follows that the lift pump cannot raise water to height greater than 10 meters

The force pump

The force pump is used to raise water to a height greater than 10 meters.
It consists of a metal barrel with at with a solid plunger and a valve B above the pipe leading to
the well. It is connected by a pipe to a reservoir through a valve A.
When the plunger moves up (upstroke), valve B opens and valve A remains closed. Atmospheric
pressure pushes water through valve B into the space above valve B. When the pistons moves
down, valves A opens and valve B closes. The force exerted by the plunger pushes water into the
reservoir through valve A. As more water comes into the reservoir, water continues to rise through
the exit pipe to be delivered outside.

The height to which water may be raised by a force pump depends on the force exerted on the
plunger during the down stroke and the ability of the pump and its working parts to withstand the
pressure of the long column of the water in the exit pipe.

The siphon
Siphon is a U-shaped flexible tube. One end of the siphon is inserted into the reservoir and the
other end is left free inside a container to collect falling liquid. The siphon is started using a

60
priming pump. A Siphon allows liquid to flow from the higher level to the lower level without
pumps. Liquids flow down the tube under the pull of gravity.

Siphons are useful in keeping unwanted impurities out of liquids. Siphoning can prevent impurities
from being transferred to a fresh container. Siphoning is therefore useful in the fermentation of
wine and beer. Irrigated fields often use siphon to pull in water from nearby ditches or channels
into their fields. Siphon can be used in flooded homes to remove accumulated water.
Large siphons are used in municipal waterworks and industries.
A siphon does not work in vacuum.

61
 MOTION
Motion involves a change in the position of a body depending on time. The study of bodies in
motion is called dynamics.

Types of motion
Linear motion: It is the motion in a straight line.
Random motion: Is the type of motion with no pattern to it. Example the movement of an ant
and the movement of the particles of a gas.
Circular motion: It is the motion in a circular pattern. Example the revolution of the earth.
Simple harmonic motion: this is a periodic to and fro motion. Example the swinging of the
human arm.
Rotational motion: this involves motion in a circle about a centre or axis. Example a spinning
wheel and the rotation of the earth.
Vibrational motion: this is a rapid to and fro motion. Example the movement of the soil during
earth quake.

Linear motion
This is the simplest form of motion. Four parameters are required to describe linear motion.
• Distance or displacement (s) • Acceleration (a)
• Speed or velocity (v) • Time (t)

Displacement
This is distance travelled in a specified direction. For example if one travels in 25 m eastwards, it
is a displacement. Displacement is measured in meters.

Speed
This is the rate of change of distance with time. Speed is measured in meters per second (m/s).

Velocity
This is the rate of change of displacement. Velocity is measured in meters per second (m/s).
s
v
t
v speed or velocity, s distnce or displacemt, t time

Acceleration
This is the rate of change of velocity. It is measured in meters per second squared (m/s2).
¯ a acceleration, t time
a
`
Equations of motion
i. F I n DÂ ii. E IÂ n DÂ
3
iii. F I n DE
s distance u initial velocity t time
v final velocity a acceleration
A negative value for
acceleration means
retardation or deceleration.
That is slowing down.
62
Examples
1. A car starts from rest and accelerates at 20 m/s2 for 10s. Calculate;
a) The final velocity b) Distance travelled.

u = 0 m/s (from rest) aU The final velocity bU Distance travelled.

v ? v u n at s ut n ½ at2
a 20 m/s2 v 0 n 20 x 10 s T0 x 10U n T½ x 20 x 102U
t 10s v 200 m/s s 0 n1000
s 1000m

2. A car moves from rest with an acceleration of 0.2 m/s2. Find the velocity when it has moved
a distance of 50m.
u 0m/s v2 u2 n 2as
v ? v2 02 n 2 x 0.2 x 50
a 0.2m/s 2 v2 20
s 50m v √20
v 4.47m/s

3. A car accelerates from 5 m/s to 25 m/s in 10s. Calculate the acceleration.

a ? v u n at
u 5m/s 25 5 n a x 10
v 25 m/s 25-5 a x 10
t 10s 20/10 a
a 2m/s
m/s2
Try these
1. A train slows down from 108 km/h with a uniform retardation of 5 m/s2. How long will it
take to reach 18 km/h and what is the total distance covered?

2. A train moving at 30 m/s slows down to 15 m/s in 3s. Find its acceleration.

3. A motor bike increases its velocity from 8 m/s to 12 m/s in 3 seconds. Calculate its
acceleration.

GRAPHS OF MOTION
The motion of an object can be represented in the form of a graph.

Velocity–
Velocity–time graph (acceleration graph)

63
The graph above shows the motion of a body. At A, the body is at rest. Between A and B the
body is moving with uniform acceleration (increasing velocity). Between B and C it is moving at
a constant velocity (zero acceleration). Between C and D is moving with a uniform retardation
(decreasing velocity). The acceleration at any point on the graph can be found by calculating the
slope or gradient of the line at that point. The total distance covered is equivalent to the area
under the line. The average velocity is the total distance travelled divided by the total time.

Examples
1. A car runs at a speed of 15 m/s for 300 seconds and then accelerates uniformly at a speed of
25 m/s over a period of 20 seconds. The speed is maintained for a period of 300 seconds
before the car is brought to rest with uniform retardation in 30 seconds.

a) Draw a velocity – time graph to represent the journey described above.

b) From the graph, find;
i. The acceleration while the velocity changes from 15 m/s to 25 m/s.
ii. the deceleration
iii. average velocity

a) accelaration slope of line BC b) deceleration slope of line DE

change in velocity change in velocity
change in time change in time
v −v v −v
t −t t −t
0 − 25 25
25 − 15 10 − −1. V87/E
1. A7/E 650 − 620 30
320 − 300 20
`b`h¡ [_^`h]f\
It’s a good idea to divide the shape
c) average velocity into rectangles and triangles. Then
`b`h¡ `_ \
total time 650 seconds calculate the areas of all the
total distance area under the graph rectangles and triangles and add
1 1 them up.
Tl × bU n T l × bU n ë b × hì n Tl × bU n ë × b × hì
2 2
1 1
T15 × 300U n T20 × 15U n ë × 20 × 10ì n T300 × 25U n ë × 30 × 25ì
2 2
4500 n 300 n 100 n 7500 n 375 3 22A7

64
 total distance 12775
average velocity 3>. ?A7/E
total time 650

Try these
1. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly until it reaches a velocity of 30 m/s after
5seconds. It travelled with a uniform velocity for 15seconds and brought to rest in 10seconds
with a uniform retardation.
a) Draw velocity–time graph to c) Calculate the retardation
describe the journey above. d) Calculate the total distance covered.
b) Calculate the acceleration e) Calculate the average velocity

2. A motor car travels from town X to town Y through two other towns A and B. The motion of
the car is represented with the velocity – time graph below.

a) Explain the motion along the various portions of the graph.

b) Calculate the area under the graph and state what it represents.

3. The diagram below represents the motion of an object.

a) Briefly describe the journey along the various portions of the graph.
b) Calculate the acceleration between points Band C.
c) Calculate the average velocity.
65
 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Sir Isaac Newton formulated the basic laws of motion. These laws are still valid today.

Newton’s first law of motion

It states that, a body will continue to be in its state of rest or if it is in motion it will continue to
move with uniform speed in a straight line unless it is acted upon by a force.

Inertia
The tendency of a body to remain in its state of rest or uniform motion is called inertia. It is a
measure of how difficult or easy it is to cause a change in the motion of a body. It depends on the
mass of the body. The greater the mass a body, the greater its inertia.

When a vehicle stops suddenly, the passengers tend to move forward. This is because the
passengers tend to continue their motion in a straight line.
When a vehicle suddenly starts, the passengers tend to be pushed backwards because they tend to
remain at rest.
This is why passengers need to wear seat belts.

Newton’s second law of motion

The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the force applied and takes
place in the direction in which the force acts. The change in the velocity of an object is brought
about by a force. The required force to bring about change in momentum is the product of the
mass and the acceleration.

í 7×D F force
m mass,
a acceleration
Examples
1. Calculate the force required to give a car of mass 700kg and an acceleration of 6 m/s2.

F ? F m×a
m 700kg F 700 × 6
a 6m/s F B 11 ½
2. A force of 28N acts on a body of mass 4kg. Calculate the acceleration.
F 28N F m×a
m 4kg 28 4 × a
a ? 28
a 27/E
4
3. What is the force on a 1 kg ball that is falling freely due to the pull of gravity? (Acceleration
due to gravity = 9.8 m/s2 )
F ? F m×g
m 1 kg F 1 × 9.8
g 9.8m/s F >. V ½
66
4. What is the mass of a person who weighs 500 N? ( g = 10 m/s2)

W 500N F m×g
g 10 m/s 500 m × 10
m ? m 500/10
m A1 45

5. A 100 kg object begins at rest on a frictionless surface. It then experiences a 10 N force for
6.0 s.
a) What is its acceleration during that 6.0s?
b) How far does it travel during that 6.0s?
c) What is the velocity after that 6.0s?

a) F 10N F m×a 10
a 1. 37/E
m 100kg 10 100 × a 100
a ?

b) s ? a 0.1 m/s 1
1 s T0 × 6U n × 0.1 × 6
u 0 m/s 2
s ut n at s 3. V 7
t 6 sec 2

c) v ? a 0.1m/s v 0 n 0.1 × 6
u 0 m/s v u n at v 1. ? 7/E
t 6 sec

Try these
1. What is the weight of an object (on earth) that has a mass of 45 kg? (g = 10 m/s2)
2. The value of gravitational pull on the moon is 1.6 m/s2. What is the weight of a 75 kg
astronaut on the moon?
3. A space ship has a mass of 9000 kg. The space ship is launched from Earth and lands on a
distant planet where it has a weight of 390000 N. What is the acceleration due to gravity on
this planet?
4. If my mass is 100 kilograms, what is my weight? (g = 10m/s2)
5. A car of mass 700kg accelerates from rest at a rate of 5m/s2. Calculate;
a) The force causing the acceleration.
b) The distance travelled in 10 seconds.
c) The velocity after the 10 seconds.

Newton’s third law of motion

It states that to every action, there is equal and opposite reaction.

When a bird flies, the wings of the birds push the air downwards and the reaction force of the air
pushes the bird upwards. The direction of the force on the air is downwards and the direction of
the force on the bird is upwards. The size of the force on the air is equal to the size of the force on
the bird. Therefore, action and reaction force pairs enables birds to fly.

67
When you want to jump up, your feet push on the floor and the reaction force pushes you upwards.

As the wheels of a car spin, they grip the floor and push it backwards. The reaction of the floor
pushes the wheels forwards.

This law has a very useful application in the operation of jet planes and rockets.

Linear momentum
The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and velocity. Momentum is
derived from of velocity which is a vector quantity. Its unit is Kgms-1.
p momentum
P m×v m mass
v velocity
Examples
1. Calculate the momentum of an object of mass 4kg rolling down a mountain at a speed of 15
m/s.
P ? P m×v
m 4kg P 4 × 15
v 15m/s ä ?1457/E
2. An object has a momentum of 45 Kgms-1 and a mass of 9kg. Calculate its velocity.
P 45kgm/s 45 9×v
m 9kg 45
v
v ? 9
P m×v F A7/E

The law of conservation of momentum

When two or more bodies act upon one another, their total momentum remains constant provided
no external forces are acting.

Tm × v U n Tm × v U Tm n m UVf Vf common velocity

Example
1. An object of mass 2kg moves with a velocity of 6m/s and collides with a stationary object of
mass 0.5kg. If the objects move together after the impact, calculate the common velocity.

m 2kg Tm × v U n Tm × v U Tm n m UVf
m 0.5kg T2 × 6U n T0.5 × 0U T2 n 0.5UVf
v 6 ms 12 2.5Vf
v 0ms 12
Vf B. V 7/E
2.5

68
Try these

1. A body of mass 4kg moving with a velocity of 10 m/s collides with a stationary body of mass
6kg. If the two bodies move together after the collision, calculate the common velocity.

2. A truck of mass 60kg moving with a velocity of 3 m/s collides with a stationary truck of
mass 30kg. If the two trucks moved after the collision, calculate their common velocity.

3. An object of mass m, moving at a velocity of 15m/s collides with an object of mass 400 kg
moving at a velocity of 10m/s. If the two objects moved together after the collision at a
velocity of 12m/s, what is the value of m?

4. A body of mass 1000 kg collides with another body of mass 2000 kg moving at a velocity of
5 m/s. If the two bodies moved together at a velocity of 4 m/s after the collision. What was
the velocity of the 1000 kg body?

5. A truck of mass 15000kg accelerates from rest at a rate of 5m/s2 for 10 seconds and
immediately collided with a stationary truck of mass 20000kg. If the two trucks moved
together after the collision, calculate their common velocity.

69
 ENERGY
Energy can be defined as the capacity to do work. It is measured in joules, J.

Sources of energy
• Solar energy • Biomass • Hydroelectric
• Fossil energy • Nuclear • Geothermal

Forms of energy
Energy exists in various forms. Example;
1. Kinetic energy: This is the energy possessed by moving objects. Example falling stone,
moving car and you running.
2. Potential energy: Energy which is stored is called potential energy. Any object lifted above
the ground gains potential energy.
3. Wave energy: Is the form of energy in waves. Wave energy from the sun causes
photosynthesis.
4. Nuclear energy: Is the energy stored in the nuclei of atoms.
5. Geothermal energy: is the energy obtained in the core of the earth.
6. Chemical energy: energy locked between atoms. E.g. foods and fuels.
7. Strain energy: Material that has been stretched and strained is storing energy. For example
spring, stretched rubber band.
8. Heat energy: It is also called thermal energy. Energy in hot materials such as hot water and
red hot charcoal. Molecules in any material move faster when heated.

The law of conservation of energy

It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can be changed from one form to
another.

Example
• The energy from the nuclei of atoms can produce heat energy, which in turn can be used to
produce electrical energy.
• Solar energy from the sun can be collected, stored and transformed to various forms of useful
energy.
• Mechanical energy which moves cars comes from the heat energy that comes from the burning
of fuels which is stored as chemical energy.
• Telephone converts sound energy to electrical energy and back to sound energy.
• A television set convert electrical energy to sound, light, and heat.

Potential energy
This is the energy possessed by objects due to their position. The energy which is stored is called
potential energy. It is calculated by the formula;
žï ‡
Þ‡ ˆ , †† ˆ Ñ ˆ , ‡ ‡ ‡

70
Examples:
1. A rock is at the top of a 20 meter tall hill. The rock has a mass of 10 kg. How much potential
energy does it have?T 10 / U
P. E ? P. E m × g × h
m 10kg P. E 10 × 10 × 20
h 20m P. E 111 ð
g 10 m/s

2. How high up is a 3 kg object that has 300 joules of energy?Tg 10 m/s U.

P. E 300 J P. E m×g×h
m 3kg 300 3 × 10 × h
h ? 300
h 31 7
g 10 m/s 30

Try these:
1. A body of mass 2 kg is raised to a height of 25m. Calculate the potential energy possessed by
the body. T 10 / U
2. A bag of rice weight 75 kg. To what height is it raised if the work done in lifting it is 4900J
T 10 / U

Kinetic energy
This is the energy possessed by moving objects.
1
KE mv
2
Þ‡ ˆ , †

Examples:
1. An 8 kg cat is running at 4m/s. How much kinetic energy does it have?
1 KE ?
KE mv 1
2
m 8 kg, KE ×8×4 ?B ð
2
v 4 m/s

Try these
1. A 4 kg bird is flying with a velocity of 4m/s. What is its kinetic energy?
2. A rolling ball has 18 joules of kinetic energy and is rolling at 3m/s. Find its mass.
3. An object of mass 10 kg is initially at rest, which is subjected to a force of 20N. Calculate the
kinetic energy of the object after 10s.
4. A body of mass 75 kg has a momentum of 1500 kgm/s. Calculate its kinetic energy.

71
 WORK
Work is said to be done when a force moves a body through a certain distance in the direction of
the force. It is the product of the force and the distance moved. Work done is equal to energy
change. Its unit is joule or newton meter.
W F×s

W = work, F = force and s = distance

Examples:
1. Calculate the work done when a bag of vegetables of weight 300N is lifted to a height of 0.75m.
W ? W F×s
F 300N W 300 × 0.75
s 0.75m W Að

Try these
1. The work done in moving a body along a horizontal plane to a distance of 20m is 200J. What
is the mass of the body? (g = 9.8 m/s2)

2. A man weighs 800N carries a load of 20kg up to vertical height 6m. Calculate the work done
by the man. (g = 9.8 m/s2)

POWER
Power is the rate at which work is done. It can also be defined as the rate at which energy is
used.
W F×s E
P
t t t
1. Calculate the power of a pump which lifts 500kg of water through a vertical height of 4m in 5
seconds. (g = 10m/s2)
P ? but F m×g
m 500kg m ×g×s
∴P
s 4m t
t 5 seconds 500 × 10 × 4
P
g 10m/s 5
W F×s P B111ò
P
t t

Try these
1. A crane lifts a load of 3000Nthrough a height of 5m in 10 seconds. Calculate;
a) The work done by the crane.
b) The power of the crane.

2. A man weighing 1000N runs up some stairs rising to a vertical height of 5m in 10 seconds.
Calculate his power.

72
 MACHINES
A machine is a device by means of which work can be done conveniently. It is device in which a
certain amount of force is applied at one end to overcome a load at another end. Examples of
machines are pulleys, car lifting jacks, inclined plane, etc.

Mechanical advantage
It is also called force ratio. It is the ratio of the load to the effort.
load
MA
effort
Velocity ratio
It is also called speed ratio. It is the ratio of the distance moved by effort to the distance moved by
load.
effort distance
VR
load distance

Efficiency of a machine
This is the ratio of the useful work done by a machine to the total work put into the machine
expressed as a percentage. It refers to the percentage of the total energy put into a machine that is
converted to useful work.
energy output
efficency × 100
energy input
No machine is 100% efficient.
gbiô b°` õ°`
This is because some energy is × 100
used to overcome friction. gbiô _]õ°`

load × load distance

× 100
effort × effort distance
mechanical advantage
× 100
velocity ratio

1. A machine is used to raise a load of 200N by applying a force of 100N. If the velocity ratio of
the machine is 4, calculate the efficiency of the machine.

L 200N L 200
but M. A 2
E 100N E 100
V. R 4 2
E × 100 A1%
M. A 4
E × 100
V. R

Try these
1. A machine is known to have an efficiency of 80% and a mechanical advantage of 4.
Calculate the velocity ratio of the machine.
2. An athlete exerts a force of 200N for a distance of 100m. If he uses 40000J of energy, what
is his efficiency?

73
3. A machine has a velocity ratio of 10 and an efficiency of 80%. What effort would be needed
to lift a load of 2000N using this machine?
4. A man applied a force of 200N on a load of 800N through a distance of 5m. If he was able
to move the load by 1m, what is his efficiency?

CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINES
1. Levers
A lever is a simple form of a machine. In a lever system, the distance moved by the effort
and the load are proportional to their distances to the pivot.

Classes of levers
i. First class lever or first order lever: In this class of lever, the pivot (fulcrum) lies
between the load and the effort. Examples are scissors, pliers, claw hammer, etc.

ii. Second class or second order lever: This class of lever has the load between the effort
and the fulcrum. Examples are nut cracker, wheel barrow, knife, etc.

iii. Third class or third order lever: This is the class in which the effort is between the
load and the pivot. Examples are sugar tongs, forceps, the human arm, etc.

2. Pulleys
A pulley consists of a wheel with a rope passing around a groove in its rim.

74
 Pulleys can be combined to form machines used for lifting loads. They are used by builders
for raising loads. They are also use in the loading and unloading of ships.

3. Inclined plane
It consists of a sloping plank inclined
to an angle to the horizontal. Heavy
loads can be raised to a certain height
by dragging them along an inclined
plane.

4. Screw
A screw can be thought of as an
inclined plane wrapped around a
cylinder to form a thread.

5. Gears
Gears can be used as force magnifiers or
distance magnifiers. It depends on the
size of the wheels.

6. Hydraulic press
The hydraulic press depends on Pascal’s principle.
The pressure throughout a closed system is constant. One part of the system is a piston
acting on a pump, with a small mechanical force acting on a small cross-sectional area. The
other part is a piston with a larger area which generates a correspondingly large mechanical
force. Only small-diameter tubing (which more easily resists pressure (is needed if the lamp
is separated from the press cylinder.

75
7. Wheel and axle
This consists of a large wheel grooved to take a rope and an axle also grooved.

76
 ENERGY IN FOODS
All living things need energy in order to carry out their live activities. This energy is obtained from
food. Plants produce their own food by photosynthesis. Plants use energy from the sun during
photosynthesis. When plants produce more food than they need, they store the excess. Animals
depend on plants for food either directly or indirectly.
The amount of energy that can be obtained from food can be measured using a bomb calorimeter.

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants make food in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll using carbon (iv) oxide and water as raw materials. Glucose and oxygen are produced.

Factors necessary for photosynthesis

The following factors are necessary for photosynthesis:
• Light • Carbon dioxide
• Water • Chlorophyll
}|•€z
6jm n 6l m oppppppppppq
rssstsssu jk l mk n 6m
rsssstssssu
†‡ ˆ ‰‡
vwx ywz{v|w} •v‚ƒ„…z~
Glucose is produced in photosynthesis and is converted to starch. Plants absorb elements such as
phosphorus and nitrogen to produce other food substances such as proteins. The oxygen released
is used by other organisms for respiration.

EXPERIMENTS ON PHOTOSYNTHESIS

How to test a leaf for the presence of starch

Method
• Cut a green leaf from a plant that has been exposed to the sun for at least six hours.
• Boil the leaf in water to kill the living tissues and to stop all metabolic activities.
• Warm the leaf in ethanol using water bath to remove the chlorophyll.
• Remove the leaf from the ethanol after it has lost the chlorophyll (becomes colourless). This
makes the leaf soft and more permeable to iodine.
• Wash the leaf with clean water.
• Drop iodine solution on the leaf and wash it off after few minutes.

Observation Although plants produce glucose

A blue-black colour appears. during photosynthesis, we still
test for the presence of starch.
Conclusion This is because the glucose is
This shows that starch is present in the leaf. changed to starch.

77
To show that light is necessary for photosynthesis
Method
• Destarch a potted plant by keeping it in the • Expose the setup to light for at least six
dark for at least 24 hours. hours.
• Cut off a leaf from the plant and test it for • Test the enclosed leaves for the presence of
starch to confirm the absence of starch. starch.
• Enclose one leaf in a conical flask and
surround the leaf stalk with dry cotton wool
to allow free circulation of air around the
enclosed leaf.
• Cover the leaf with light proof material such
as a black polyethene bag to prevent light
from reaching the leaf. Label it flask A.
• Enclose another leaf in another conical flask
but without light proof material and
surround the leaf stalk with dry cotton wool.
Label it flask B.

78
Observation
It will be observed that only the leaf in flask B turned blue-black with iodine solution. The leaf in
flask A showed the brown colour of iodine.

Conclusion
This show that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

To show that carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis

Method
• Destarch a potted plant by keeping it in the dark for at least 24 hours.
• Cut off a leaf from the plant and test it for starch to confirm the absence of starch.
• Enclose one leaf in a conical flask containing soda lime and surround the leaf stalk with cotton
wool soaked with lime water. Label it flask A. The soda lime absorbs the carbon dioxide from
the air.
• Enclose another leaf in another conical flask but without soda lime and surround the leaf stalk
with dry cotton wool. Label it flask B.
• Expose the setup to light for at least six hours.
• Test the enclosed leaves for the presence of starch.

Observation
It will be observed that only the leaf in flask B turned blue-black because no soda lime was present
in the flask to absorb the carbon dioxide. The leaf in flask A showed the brown colour of iodine
(no starch was present) because the carbon dioxide was absorbed by the soda lime.

Conclusion
This shows that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis to take place.

To show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis

Method
• Cover several variegated leaves of a croton or ice plant with black plastic bag for two days.
The bag should be tied loosely to so that the leaves are in the dark but have access to air.
• Remove the bag and test one of the leaves immediately to check that it is starch free.
• Expose the leaves to sunlight for at least three hours.
79
• Remove a leaf from the plant, trace its outline on a graph paper and carefully map out its green
and non – green parts.
• Test the leaf for starch and compare the parts stained blue-black with your drawing.

Observation
The green parts of the leaf will show a blue–
black colour. The non-green part showed the
brown colour of iodine.

Conclusion
This shows that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis.

To show that plants produce oxygen during photosynthesis

Method

• Half-fill two beakers of the volume with water.

• Place a water weed into one of the beakers and label it.
• Add sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3) into the beaker to ensure the availability of carbon
dioxide in the water so that the water weed can photosynthesise.

80
• Cover the water weed with an inverted glass funnel, resting it in a support of plasticine to allow
free movement of water.
• Fill a test tube with water and invert it on the stem of the funnel making sure that air bubbles
are not trapped in the test tube. This is set up A.
• Repeat the same set – up with the other beaker but without water weed. This is set up B.
• Expose each set up to sunlight for at least three hours.

Observation
Bubbles of gas will be formed and collected in the inverted test tube of set up A. No gas bubbles
were formed in set up B. The gas produced in set up A relights a glowing splint showing that it is
oxygen.

Conclusion
This shows that plants produce oxygen during photosynthesis.

How the leaf is adapted to photosynthesis

• The leaf adapted to photosynthesis in the following ways;
• It has a broad flat shape giving a large surface area to allow absorption of sunlight and carbon
dioxide.
• It is thin, enabling CO2 to diffuse easily through mesophyll cells.
• The presence of stomata to ensure efficient exchange of gases. The greater number of the
stomata is usually found on the upper surface of the leaf.
• The palisade mesophyll cells have large number of chloroplast which are located beneath the
upper surface of the leaf, thus receiving maximum sunlight.
• The spongy mesophyll cells are loosely packed with large air spaces between them which allow
gases to diffuse easily.
• The extensive network of veins supplies the photosynthetic cells with water and carbon dioxide
and removes products of photosynthesis. These are transported through the xylem and the
phloem respectively.
• The leaves are arranged along the stem in a regular pattern which minimizes overlapping and
overshadowing.

Differences between respiration and photosynthesis

Respiration Photosynthesis
it occurs at all times It takes place in the presence of light
It occurs in all cells Occurs only in cells with chlorophyll
Food substances are broken down (catabolic Food substances are built up (anabolic
process) process)
Results in decrease in weight Results in increase in weight
Energy is released Energy is absorbed
CO2 and water are released as by product Oxygen is released as by products
Oxygen and high energy food substances Low energy containing food substances are
are used up. used up.

81
 HEAT ENERGY
Heat is a form of energy. It is measured in joules, J. When a quantity of heat energy is added to a
body, its temperature rises and when heat energy is removed, the temperature falls, except where
addition or removal of heat causes a change of state.

Sources of heat
1. Sun 4. Nuclear reactions 6. Friction
2. Fossil fuels 5. Combustible substances 7. Electrical device
3. Fire

Temperature
Temperature is the degree of hotness of a body. It is measured in degrees Celsius or Kelvin.
Temperature is important in making heat flow from one region to another. Heat flows from a region
of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.

Measurement of temperature
A thermometer is used to measure temperature.

Types of thermometers
1. liquid-in-glass thermometer 4. pyrometers ( this is suitable for high temperatures)
2. bimetallic thermometer 5. thermocouples
3. gas thermometer 6. maximum and minimum thermometer

Substances that can change in length, volume, pressure or electrical resistance are used to make
thermometers.

Liquid-
Liquid-in-
in-glass thermometer
It has a long narrow transparent glass tube with a bulb. The bulb serves as a reservoir for the liquid.
Alcohol or mercury is used as the thermometric liquid in this type of thermometer.

Alcohol-
Alcohol-in-
in-glass thermometer
This thermometer is used where temperatures may drop to very low values. Alcohol has a low
freezing point.

Advantages of Alcohol-
Alcohol-in-
in-glass thermometer
1. It freezes at -115 oC. Therefore it can be used to measure very low temperatures.
2. It has high expansivity.

82
Disadvantages of Alcohol-
Alcohol-in-
in-glass thermometer
1. It boils at 78oC, therefore it cannot be used to measure high temperature.
2. Alcohol vaporises easily.
3. It is not easily seen, it has to be coloured.
4. Alcohol wets glass. This can lead to inaccurate reading.
5. It has poor conductivity, therefore it responds slowly to temperature changes.

Mercury-
Mercury-in-
in-glass thermometer
This thermometer is used to measure high temperatures. Mercury has a high boiling point.

Advantages of mercury-
mercury-in-
in-glass thermometer
1. It boils at 357oC, therefore it can be used to measure high temperature.
2. It is not easily vaporises.
3. It can be easily seen because it is opaque.
4. It does not wet glass.
5. It has much greater conductivity than alcohol, therefore it responds rapidly to temperature
changes.

Disadvantages of mercury-
mercury-in-
in-glass thermometer
6. It is not suitable for low temperatures because it freezes at -39oC.
7. It has low expansivity.

Water is not used as a thermometric liquid because of the following reasons.

1. It does not expand uniformly.
2. It freezes at 0oC and boils at 100oC. Therefore it has a small range of expansion.
3. The meniscus in the glass will be difficult to read since water is colourless.
4. Water wets glass.

The clinical thermometer

This thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the human body. It has a range of about
35oC to 42oC, since the human body temperature falls within this range.

It consists of a short tube with a narrow bore through which the fine mercury thread moves. The
fine bore of the tube makes the thermometer very sensitive to even small changes in temperature.
It has a constriction or kink just above the bulb. This prevents the mercury falling back to the bulb
when the thermometer is used. This makes it possible to slowly and carefully read the temperature.

83
Thermometric scales
The two commonly used scales in temperature are.
• Kelvin scale • Celsius scale

On the Celsius scale, the lower fixed point (ice point) is the normal freezing point of water (0oC)
and the upper fixed point is the normal boiling point of water (100oC).
On the Kelvin scale, the lower fixed point is 273K and the upper fixed point is 373K.
This scale starts at the lowest temperature possible to achieve. It is called absolute zero (0K) and
is equivalent to -273oC.

To convert from Kelvin to degrees Celsius

Temperature in Kelvin – 273 = temperature in degree Celsius One Kelvin rise in temperature
is equivalent to one degree
To convert from degrees Celsius to Kelvin Celsius rise in temperature.
Temperature in degrees Celsius + 273 = temperature in Kelvin

Heat
Heat is a form of energy and is measured in Joules. Heat can be transferred from one point to
another provided that there is a temperature difference. The direction to which heat will flow is
from region of high temperature to region of low temperature.

Effect of heat
1. It causes expansion 3. It causes a change in resistance
2. It causes rise in temperature 4. It causes a change of state of a body

Specific heat capacity

The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by a particular amount
depends on the mass and the specific heat capacity (s.h.c.) of the material from which the substance
is made of.

84
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature
of a unit mass of a substance (1Kg) by1K or 1oC. It is measured in joules per kilogram per
Kelvin (JKg-1K-1).

The amount of heat energy absorbed or released when the temperature of a substance changes can
be calculated by the formula;

÷ 7 × E. ø. C × ∆ Q quantity of heat
m mass
s. h. c specific heat capacity
∆ change in temperature û − |

Examples
1. How much heat energy is needed to raise the temperature 4 kg of water by 10oC? (S.h.c of
water is 4200Jkg-1 oC-1).

Q m × s. h. c × ∆t
Q ? ∆t 10℃
m 4 kg Q 4 × 4200 × 10
s. h. c 4200 J/kg℃ Q 3?V111 ð 3?V 4ð

2. A piece of iron of mass m is heated from 27oC to 37oC. If it absorbed 3000J of heat energy in
the process, calculate the value of m. [s.h.c of iron is 462 Jkg-1 oC-1].

Q m × s. h. c × ∆t 3000 m × 462 × 10℃

Q 3000 J 3000
m 1. ?A 45
s. h. c 462 J/kg℃ 462 × 10
∆ t c − t _ 37℃ − 27℃ 10℃

Try these:
1. Calculate the heat energy required to raise the temperature of 10kg of brass by 10K. S.h.c of
brass is 380Jkg-1K-1.

2. Calculate the energy needed to raise the temperature of a 1.5kg block of iron from 25oC to
273oC. (S.h.c of iron is 435 JKg-1 oC-1).
3. 720 kJ of energy are required to raise the temperature of a piece of metal by 20oC. The specific
heat capacity of the metal is 380 JKg-1 oC-1. Calculate the mass of the metal.

85
 EXPANSION WITH HEAT

Solids, liquids and gases normally expand when they are heated and contract when they are cooled.
The rate of expansion varies with different substances.

Expansion in solids
Ball and ring experiment.
This apparatus consist of a metal ring through which a metal ball just fits. The ball is strongly
heated for some time and placed on the ring. The ball does not pass through the ring anymore.
When the metal cools whiles in contact with the ring, the ring becomes heated and expands whiles
the ball cools and contracts.
When the ball and the ring reach the same temperature, the ball will pass through ring again.

The bimetallic strip

A bimetallic strip consists of two strips of metals such as brass and iron riveted together.

When the strip is evenly heated, it will be noticed that the strip curves with the brass on the on the
outside of the curves. This is because brass expands more than iron when they are heated over the
same range of temperature.

When the strip is cooled to below room temperature, it contracts and curves with the brass inside
of the curve.

When the curved strip is allowed to cool to its original temperature, the metals return to their
original size and the strip becomes straight again.

86
Expansion in liquids
Fill a round bottom flask with liquid (example
water) and tightly closed with a stopper. Insert
narrow tube is pushed through the stopper until
some of the liquid rises in the tube and heat the
flask. The level of the liquid in the tube initially
drops and then rises to above its initial level. As
the flask is heated it first expands faster than the
liquid, hence the fall in the liquid level. As more
heat gets to the liquid, it expands more than the
glass and the liquid rises in the narrow tube.

Expansion in gases
The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram
below. A small amount of water is placed in the
u–tube so that it can act as a manometer (pressure
gauge), making sure that the water levels in the
each side of the tube are the same. The air in the
flask is heated in a water bath.
As the air gets heated it expands and this is
noticed by a change in the water levels in the
manometer.

Effects of expansion
1. It causes cracks on buildings, bridges, walls etc.
2. It causes sagging of cables ( for instance overhead electric cables)
3. It causes the buckling of rail way lines.
4. It causes the breaking of rocks into pebbles in desert region.

Methods of overcoming the consequence of expansion

1. Metal bridges are always mounted on rollers so that expansion and contraction can take place
without causing damage to the bridge.
2. Concrete road surfaces and bridges are always laid in small sections and each section is
separated from the next one by a small gap which is fitted with soft materials.
3. Railway lines are laid in such a way that there is a small gap between adjacent rails.

87
Applications of expansion
The bimetallic strip thermometer

This thermometer consists of a coiled bimetallic strip in the form of a spiral. The metal on the
inside is usually invar steel which hardly expands and the outside of the strip is brass. One end of
the spiral is fixed and the other end is attached to a pointer. When the temperature increases, the
brass expands more than the invar. This difference in expansion causes the strip to curl in a
clockwise direction thereby making the pointer to move over a calibrated scale.

The thermostat
A thermostat is a device used for maintaining steady temperature. It is used in electric irons,
refrigerators, hot water storage tanks, electric cookers, etc.

Transfer of heat
Heat moves from one object to another by the following ways.
• Conduction • Convection • Radiation

Conduction
Conduction of heat is a process by which heat is passed along a stationary solid material, the heated
particles remaining in position.

To demonstrate conduction in solids

Steps
1. Clamp a metal rod horizontally
2. Place pins at equal intervals along the rod using wax.

88
3. Apply heat to one end of the rod and note the time.
Observation
After some minutes it will be noticed that the wax begins to melt along the rod. The pins also drop
as the wax melts. The pin closest to the heat source dropped first, followed by the next until the
last pin drops.

Conclusion
This shows that heat has moved along the rod from the hottest end to the cooler end.
Most metals allow heat to pass through them and are called conductors of heat. Non – metals such
as wood, cork and cotton do not allow heat to pass through them and are called insulators.
All metals are classified as good conductors but they differ in their thermal conductivity (ability
to conduct heat).

Cooking utensils such as cooking pots are mostly made of good conductors of heat, but their
handles are made of poor conductors such as plastic or wood.

Convection
Convection is a process by which heat energy is transferred in fluids (liquid or gas) by the actual
movement of the heated particles.

To demonstrate convection current in liquids

Steps
Fill a beaker with liquid (water) to about two – third.
Sprinkle some pieces of filter paper on the surface of the water.
Apply gentle heat to the extreme left end of the bottom of the beaker.

Observation
It will be observed that the pieces of the filter paper begin to move towards the right of the beaker,
to the bottom right, across to the left and then upwards in a cyclic way.

Conclusion
The direction of motion of the filter paper indicates the circulation of heated liquid. The circulation
of the heated liquid is called convection current.

89
Convection current occurs in the following way. The heat applied at the bottom causes the liquid
to expand but its mass remains the same thereby making it become less dense than the cold
surrounding liquid, hence it floats upwards. The colder and the denser liquid moves downwards to
take the place of the warm liquid, thus setting up convection current.

To demonstrate convection in gases

Convection in gases can be demonstrated using a smoke box.

Steps
Light a short candle at the base of
a smoke box near chimney A.
Place a smouldering straw on
chimney on chimney B.

Observation
The smoke is observed to flow downwards through chimney B and upwards through chimney A.

Conclusion
This indicates the direction of convection current.

This occurs in the following way. The air above chimney A becomes warm when heated and rises
upwards. Cold air moves down the box through chimney B to take the place of the warm air. The
result of both movements gives rise to convection current.

Land and sea breeze

Natural examples of convection current are land and sea breeze which are observed in coastal
areas.

Sea breeze

Sea breeze is the cool breeze that blows inland from the sea. It occurs in the following way. During
the day, the land is heated up by the sun more quickly than the sea. The air near the land becomes

90
warm and rises up. Cooler air from the sea moves to the land to replace the risen air. Air from the
higher atmosphere comes down into the sea. A circulation current is thus set-up.

Land breeze
Land breeze is the cool breeze that blows from the land to the sea. It occurs in the following way.
At night, the reverse process takes place. The land is not being heated by the sun and it cools very
quickly whiles the sea temperature drops only slightly. As a result, the sea will be warmer than the
land. Convection current is therefore set up in the opposite direction.

Radiation
Radiation is the process by which heat is transferred from one place to the other without heating
the intervening medium. No material medium is needed for this process. The heat reaching the
earth travels for most of its way through a vacuum by radiation.
Objects that are hotter than their surrounding radiate heat energy. This can be detected by feeling
the heat near the object without touching the object. The energy given out as radiant heat is known
as radiant energy. Radiant energy is electromagnetic (i.e. it has both electric and magnetic
properties) and it is infra–red radiation. It travels with a speed of 3x108ms-1. When objects radiate
heat energy, they cool down.
Heat radiating objects are called emitters of heat and the absorbers of radiant heat are absorbers of
heat.
Good radiators of heat are also good absorbers of heat and poor radiators of heat are poor absorbers
of heat. Smooth and shiny surfaces are poor emitters and absorbers of heat. They are however good
reflectors of radiant heat. Dull or black surfaces are good emitters and absorbers of heat. For this
reason, gas tanks are painted with silver paint. This reduces the heat absorbed by the tank. Kettles
are silver coated to reduce the amount of heat lost by radiation.
It is advisable to wear white or
light coloured clothes on hot sunny
days because they reflect heat.

The thermos flask

The thermos flask or the vacuum flask is used to keep the temperature of its contents constant. It
consists of double walled glass vessel with sides of the walls coated with silver and vacuum
between the walls. The stopper is made of an insulating material such as cork or plastic. The bottom
of the glass vessel is supported by an insulating cork.

91
The vacuum prevents heat loss by conduction and convection, since a material medium is needed
for these processes to occur.
The silver coated walls prevent heat loss by radiation. Silver is a poor radiator and any heat radiated
from one wall tend to be reflected back by the other wall.
The insulating cork or plastic stopper reduces heat loss by convection from the hot contents
upwards to the outside.

Change of state
Matter exists in three states.
1. Solid 2. Liquid 3. Gas

A substance can exist in any of the three states depending on the conditions of temperature and
pressure. The diagram below shows the relationship between the three states matter. When a solid
is heated until the melting point is reached, it changes to liquid. This process is called melting and
the reverse process is freezing. When the liquid is heated until the boiling point is reached it boils
and forms a gas (vapour). Boiling occurs when the saturated vapour pressure is equal to the
external atmospheric pressure. The reverse process is called condensation. The process by which
a solid changes to gas and back to solid without going through the liquid state is called sublimation.

92
 Whiles a substance is
changing its state, the
temperature remains
constant.

The energy lost or

absorbed when a
substance is changing
state is called latent
heat.

The figure below represents a heating curve.

The portion AB shows a solid gaining temperature. The Portion BC represents a solid changing to
liquid (melting). The temperature at this stage is called melting point.
The melting point of a liquid is the temperature at which a solid changes to liquid at standard
atmospheric pressure. The energy absorbed when a substance is changing from solid to liquid is
called latent heat of fusion.

The portion CD shows a liquid gaining temperature. The portion DE shows a liquid changing to
gas. The temperature at this stage is called the boiling point. The boiling point of a liquid is the
temperature at which a liquid changes to gas at standard atmospheric pressure. The energy
absorbed when a substance is changing from liquid to gas is said to be the latent heat of
vaporisation.

The portion EF shows a gas gaining temperature.

The reverse process gives a cooling curve. The figure below shows a cooling curve.

93
 Whether it is cooling or heating, the
latent heat for any change of state is
the same. The only difference is that
for cooling energy is lost and for
heating energy is gained. This means
that the energy gained while melting
is equal to the energy lost while
freezing for the same substance.

Factors affecting boiling and melting

Pressure: When a solid is subjected to pressure, its boiling and melting point is lowered (for ice
only).
Impurities: Melting point is lowered when a substance contains impurities.

Evaporation
This is the process whereby molecules at the surface of a liquid escape from the liquid to its vapour
state, resulting in the cooling of the remaining liquid.

Factors affecting the rate of evaporation

1. Temperature of the surrounding: increase in temperature increases the rate of evaporation.
2. Humidity: the rate of evaporation decreases when the humidity is high.
3. Draught over the surface (wind): When rushing wind moves over the surface of the liquid,
the rate of evaporation increases and when still wind moves over the surface, the rate of
evaporation decreases.
4. Size of the exposed area: if the size of the exposed area increases, the rate of evaporation
increases.
5. Density: decrease in density increases the rate of evaporation.
6. Atmospheric pressure: decrease in atmospheric pressure increase the rate of evaporation.

Similarities between boiling and evaporation

1. Heat is needed for both processes to go on.
2. In both processes, molecules with greater energy leave the liquid state for the gaseous state
3. When both processes occur, there is a decrease in the volume of liquid.

Differences between boiling and evaporation

1. Evaporation occurs at the surface of the liquid while boiling occurs within the entire liquid.
2. Evaporation occurs at any temperature while boiling occurs at a particular temperature called
boiling point.
3. When evaporation occurs, the temperature of the liquid drops (the liquid cools) and when
boiling occurs the liquid does not cool down.

94
 LIGHT ENERGY
Light is a form of energy that is radiated outwards from a source. Light is the energy that makes
vision possible.

Sources of light

Natural sources
1. Sun 3. The fire flies, glow worms, etc.
2. Stars 4. Some fish deep down the ocean.

Artificial sources
1. Fire 3. Photographic flash bulbs
2. Candle

Luminous object: This is an object that can produce light.

Non-luminous object: This is an object which cannot give out light.
Opaque object: This is an object that does not allow light to pass through it.
Transparent object: This is an object that allows light to pass through it.
Translucent object: This is an object that allows little light to pass through it.
Fluorescent object: This is an object that produces light in a relatively cold state.
Incandescent object: This is an object that produces light when it is hot.
Phosphorescent object: This is an object that absorb light and radiate it. Such objects glow when
light strikes them.
Ray of light: A ray is narrow beam of light.
Beam of light: A beam of light is a collection of rays of light

Types of beams
1. Parallel beam 3. Divergent beam
2. Convergent beam

THE RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION OF LIGHT

The phenomenon of light traveling in a straight line is called the rectilinear propagation of light.
This implies that light travels in a straight line.
Three card board screens, A, B and C, with holes at their centres are arranged in a straight line as
shown in the diagram above. Light from a source is placed behind the first screen, A. When it is
viewed through the third screen, C, light is seen from the source. If one of the screens is shifted,
the light is cut off.

95
Shadows
A shadow is an area which light cannot reach because of the obstruction of an opaque object. When
an opaque object is placed in the path of light, a shadow is formed.

Types of shadows
Umbra
When an opaque object is placed between a point source of light (small source of light) and a
screen, a sharp shadow is formed. Such shadows are called umbra.

Penumbra
When an opaque object is placed between an extended source of light (large source of light) and a
screen, both umbra and penumbra are formed with the umbra at the centre and penumbra around
it.

Eclipses
Lunar eclipse or eclipse of the moon
This occurs when the earth is between the moon and the sun. The entire shadow of the earth casts
on the moon. When this happens, the moon receives no light from the sun; it has none to reflect
and thus cannot be seen.

96
Solar eclipse
Solar eclipse occurs when the moon is between the sun and earth. The shadow of the moon casts
on the earth. People in the umbra region of the shadow will observe total eclipse and those in the
penumbra region of the shadow will observe partial eclipse.

Annular eclipse
Sometimes the moon is far away from the earth. In this case, when the moon is between the earth
and the sun, the umbra does not reach the earth surface. The sun is covered except for a bright ring
around the edge. This is called annular eclipse of the sun.

Reflection of light on plane surfaces

Reflection of light is a change in the direction of a ray of light when it falls on reflecting surface.
There are two types of reflections

Regular reflection
This occurs when the reflecting surface is smooth and well-polished. The reflected rays are parallel
and orderly.

97
Irregular or diffuse reflection
This occurs when the reflecting surface is rough or dull. The reflected rays are scattered and are
not parallel to each other.

Differences between regular reflection and irregular reflection

Regular reflection Irregular reflection
Occurs on smooth surfaces Occurs on rough surfaces
Reflected rays are parallel Reflected rays are scattered
Laws of reflection are obeyed Laws of reflection are not obeyed
Sharp images are formed Blurred images are formed

The laws of reflection

1. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of reflection.
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the
normal are on the same plane and at the same
point of incidence.

MORRORS
Types of mirrors
1. Plane mirror 2. Curved mirrors
- Converging or concave mirror
- Diverging or convex mirror

The plane mirror

Image formation by the plane mirror
98
 Real image is formed by the actual intersection of light
rays and they are formed on a screen.
Virtual image is formed by producing the rays backwards
so that they can meet at a point and cannot be formed on
screen.

Properties of images formed by a plane mirror

1. The image is upright (erect)
2. The image is virtual
3. The size of the image is the same as the size of the object. Therefore the magnification is 1.
4. The image is far behind the reflecting surface as the object is in front.
5. The image is laterally inverted.

Uses/application
Uses/application of
of plane mirror
1. It is used as a dressing mirror
2. Plane mirrors are used in periscopes to view overhead of crowds and obstacles.

Curved mirrors
1. Converging or concave mirror

r = 2f

Pole (P): It is the mid-point of the reflecting surface.

Centre of curvature (C): It is the centre of the sphere of which the mirror is a part.
Principal axis: It is the line that runs from the pole to the centre of curvature.
Principal focus (F): It is also called the focal point. It is a fixed point on the principal axis where
rays of light that a parallel and close to the principal axis meet (in the case of the converging
mirror) or appear to diverge from (in the case of the diverging mirror) after reflection on the mirror.
Focal length (f): It is the distance between the pole and the principal focus.
Radius of curvature (r): It is the distance between the pole and the centre of curvature.

99
Images formed by converging mirror
The nature of the image formed by the converging mirror depends on the position of the object.

Note
• A ray that comes from the object and goes parallel to the principal axis, passes through the
focal point after reflection.
• A ray that comes from the object and passes through the focal point, returns parallel to the
principal axis after reflection.
• A ray that comes from the object and passes through the centre of curvature, returns along the
same path after reflection.
Image position Ray diagram Nature of the image
At infinity • Real
(u = ∞) • Inverted
• Diminished
• At F

Beyond C • Real
(u ˃ r) • Inverted
• Diminished
• Between F and C
(r > v > f)

At C • Real
(u = r) • Inverted
• Same size as object
• At C
(u = v = r)

Between F and C • Real

(r ˃ u ˃ f) • Inverted
• Magnified
• Beyond C
(v > r)

At F • At infinity
(u = f) • Assumed to be real

100
 Before F • Virtual
(u ˂ f) • Erect
• Magnified
• At the back of the
mirror

• In mirrors, real images are formed in front of

the mirror and virtual images are formed at the
back of the mirror.
Uses of the converging mirror • When the image is closer to the mirror than the
1. It is used for shaving. object, the image is diminished and vice versa.
2. It is used to focus solar beams to solar cookers.
3. It is used to focus light in the light microscope.

Diverging or convex mirror

Images formed by a diverging mirror

Irrespective of the object position, the image
formed by a diverging mirror is always virtual,
diminished, upright and on the opposite side of
the mirror.

Uses
Uses of the diverging mirror
1. It is used as a driving mirror.
2. It is used in shops to watch out for thieves.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT
This is a change in the direction of a ray of light at the interface of media of different optical
density.

101
Laws of refraction of light
The incident ray and the refracted ray are on opposite sides of the normal and on the same plane.
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence and the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant.
This law is known as Snell's law.
™
†
™ ˆ
Facts about refraction
• When light travels from a less dense medium to a denser medium, the refracted ray bends
towards the normal and the angle of incidence is greater than the angle of refraction.
• When light travels from a dense medium to a less dense medium, the refracted ray bends away
from the normal and the angle of incidence is less than the angle of refraction.
• The velocity of light changes when it undergoes refraction.

Effects
Effects of refraction of light
When a straight rod is put into water and viewed, it appears to be bent at the interface.
The base of swimming pools appears shallow as a result of refraction.

Real depth and apparent depth

When an object such as a coin is dropped into
a bucket of water, it appears to be raised when
viewed from the top. The apparent depth is the
distance between the image of the coin and the
surface of the water. The real depth is the actual
distance between the coin and the surface of the
water. The lateral displacement is the
difference between the real depth and the
apparent depth.

Critical angle
This is the angle of incidence that makes the angle of refraction to be 90° when light travels from
a denser medium to a less dense medium. (The refracted ray lies at the interface).

102
Total internal reflection
This is the reflection that occurs when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle while light
travels from a denser a medium towards a less dense medium.

Application
Application of total internal reflection
Total internal reflection finds it practical application in;
1. Optical fibres, which are used in endoscopes and telecommunications.
2. Rain sensors which control automatic windscreen/windshield wipers.
3. Prismatic binoculars, which use the principle of total internal reflections to get a very clear
image.
4. Fingerprinting devices, which use frustrated total internal reflection in order to record an image
of a person's fingerprint without the use of ink.

LENSES
Lenses are made of glass or plastic. They are widely in the construction of optical instruments such
as cameras, telescopes, projectors, etc. The operation of lenses in based on refraction of light.

Types of lenses
Converging lens or convex lens Diverging lens or concave lens

103
 Conventions used in drawing ray diagrams for lenses

Optical centre (o): This is the centre of the lens.

Principal focus (F): It is also called the focal point. It is a fixed point on the principal axis where
rays of light that are parallel and very close to the principal axis meet after refraction in the case
of the converging lens or appear to diverge from in the case of the diverging lens.
Focal length (f): This is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus of a lens.

Formation of images by the converging lens

The nature of the image formed by a converging lens depends on the position of the object.

Note
• A ray that comes from the object and goes parallel to the principal axis, passes through the
focal point after refraction.
• A ray that comes from the object and passes through the focal point, goes parallel to the
principal axis after refraction.
• A ray that comes from the object and passes through the optical centre, proceeds along the
same path after refraction.

In lenses;
• When the image is on the opposite side of the lens with the object, it is a real image.
• When the image and the object are on the same side of the lens, it is a virtual image.
Object
Nature of
position Ray diagram Application
image
(distance, u)
Object at • Inverted Telescopes
infinity • Real
( ∝) • Diminished
• Image at F

Object beyond • Inverted Camera

twice the focal • Real Eye
length • Diminished
( u > 2f) • Image at
between F
and 2F

104
Object at twice • Inverted Photocopier
the focal length • Real
( u = 2f) • Same size
as object
• At 2F
Object at • Inverted Projector
between F and • Real Photographic
2F • Magnified enlarger
(f<u<2f) • Image
beyond 2F.

Object at F • Upright Spot light

(u = f) • Magnified
• Virtual
• At infinity

Object between • Virtual Magnifying

F and O • Upright glass
(u < f) • Magnified
• Beyond F

Image formation by diverging lens

Irrespective of the object position, the nature of the image formed by a diverging lens is always
virtual, diminished, erect and on the same side of the lens as the object but in front of the object.

Lens formula
The focal length, the object distance and the image distance of a lens can be related by the formula;
n f = focal length • f is positive for converging lens
û „ þ and negative for diverging lens.
u = object distance • v is positive for real images and
v = image distance negative for virtual images.

105
Magnification
This is the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object.

image size image distance • Whether v is positive or negative,

magnification
object size object distance it is ignored here.
Examples
1. An object is 10cm long. When viewed through a lens, the image is 4cm long. Calculate the
magnification.
image size
magnification
magnification ? object size
image size 4cm 4
object size 10cm magnification 1. B
10

2. An object is placed 15 cm from a convex lens of focal length 20 cm.

i. Find the position of the image.
ii. Calculate the magnification of the image.
iii. What is the nature of the image?

i. 15† ; ?; Ð 20† ii.

1 1 1 1 1 1 image distance
n n magnification
Ð 20 15 object distance
60
1 1 1 magnification
− 15
20 15 magnification B
1 1
− iii. The image is virtual, magnified, and is
60 beyond 2f.
−?1

Try these
1. An object is placed 30cm from the centre of a converging lens. It produces an image at 15cm
on the opposite side of the lens.
a. Calculate the focal length of the lens. c. What is nature of the image?
b. Calculate the magnification of the
image.

2. An object is placed at 15cm from the centre of a diverging lens of focal length 10cm.
a. Calculate image distance
b. Calculate the magnification
c. Describe the nature of the image

3. An object is placed 2.5cm from the centre of a converging lens of focal length 2cm.
a. Draw a ray diagram to show the position of the image
b. Measure and state the image distance
c. Calculate the magnification

106
 DEFECTS OF THE HUMAN EYE
The common defects of the human eye are:
1. Short sightedness (myopia) 3. Presbyopia
2. Long sightedness (hypermetropia) 4. Astigmatism

Short-
Short-sightedness

It is also called myopia. It is the defect of the eye that causes the eye to see near objects clearly but
cannot see distant objects clearly. The image is formed before the retina.

Causes
The defect may be caused by;
• Abnormally long eyeballs
• Eye lens that are abnormally thick. This happens because the ciliary muscles are weak and
are unable to make the eye lens thinner.

Correction
The defect can be corrected by wearing concave lens (diverging lens). The concave lens makes the
light rays to diverge before they enter the eye

Long-
Long-sightedness
It is also called hypermetropia. It is the defect of the eye that causes the eye to see distant objects
clearly but cannot see near objects clearly. This is because the image is formed behind the retina.

Causes
The defect may be caused by;
• Abnormally short eyeballs.
107
• Eye lens that are abnormally thin. This happens because the ciliary muscles are weak and
are unable to make the eye lens thicker.

Correction
The defect can be corrected by using convex lens (converging lens). The convex lens makes the
light rays to converge before they enter the eye.

Presbyopia
This is a condition that causes blurred near vision. It is an age-related condition. As people age,
the lens become harder and less elastic. This makes it difficult for the eye to focus on close objects.

Correction
Presbyopia is corrected by using a spectacle fitted with both converging and diverging lens.

Astigmatism
Astigmatism is caused by the irregular curvature of the cornea. All the light rays from an object
do not meet at a point on the retina. Some light rays are focused on the retina while others are
focused either in front or behind the retina. Astigmatism causes blurred vision for either near or
distant objects.

Correction
Astigmatism is corrected by using asymmetrical lens.

DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT

This is separation of white light into its component colours. The colours are red, orange, green,
blue, indigo and violet.

When white light passes through an equilateral triangular glass prism, an elongated coloured patch
is obtained on a screen placed behind the prism. This patch is called a spectrum.

Primary colours of light

These are colours which cannot be made by mixing other colours. They are red, green and blue.

Secondary colours of light

These are the colours formed by the combination of any two of the primary colours.

108
Complementary colours
This refers to the primary and the secondary colour which when combined, gives white light.

The colour television

A colour TV screen is coated with a red, green and blue phosphorescent material arranged in spots
or stripes. This phosphorescent material glows when electrons strike it. Three electron beams
(namely red, blue and green beams) are produced by three electron guns. Each beam aims at one
of the coloured spots. For instance, when a red colour is needed, the red beam fired at the red
phosphor. The same applies to the green and blue phosphors. When white colour is needed, all the
three primary colours are struck at the same time. To create black colour, all the three beams are
turned off. All the other colours are the combinations of red, green and blue.

109
 SOUND ENERGY
Sound is a mechanical wave that is longitudinal in nature. It is the form of energy that enables us
to hear.

Production of sound
Sound is produced by the vibration of materials. When objects vibrate, the mechanical energy of
the vibrating particles is converted to sound energy.
Vibrating objects that produce sound are:
i. Musical instruments such as guitar, violin and drum when played.
ii. A tuning fork when knocked.
iii. Air at the mount of a tube containing water when blown.
iv. The tissues in our vocal cords vibrate when we talk.
v. Sound produced by animals when their limbs are moved:
• Vibrations of the wings of bees and mosquitoes produce sound.
• Grasshoppers produce sound when their hind legs are brushing against their
wings, causing their wings to vibrate.

Transfer of sound
Sound can be transferred from one place to another through a medium. Sound can move through
a solid, a liquid or a gas. Sound is transferred through the air when we listen to someone talking.
The arrangement of particles in matter influences the transfer of sound. Compact arrangement of
particles in a solid enables the vibration to be transferred quickly. Particles in a gas are very far
apart from each other. Therefore, the transfer of vibration is not efficient. Sound moves fastest
through solid followed by liquid and slowest in gases. Sound does not move through a vacuum as
there are no particles in a vacuum.

Wavelength ( )
This is the distance between successive compressions or rarefactions. It is measured in meters.
Frequency (f)
This refers to the number of waves passing an observation point in one second. It is measured in
Hertz (Hz).
Velocity (v)
This is the product of the frequency and the wavelength of a wave.
Ð×

110
Examples
1. Calculate the velocity of a wave of wavelength 0.1m and frequency 10Hz.
? Ð×
Ð 10l 10 × 0.1
0.1 3 /«

2. A wave travels a distance of 50m in 5 seconds and has a wavelength of 0.1m. Calculate the
frequency of the wave.
50 50
10 /
5 † Ñ 5
0.1
Ñ † Ð×
10 Ð × 0.1
10
Ð 311
0.1
Try these
1. A siren emits a note which has frequency of 400 Hz and wavelength 0.8m. Calculate the
velocity of the sound.
2. A radio station broadcasts at 80.0 MHz. Calculate the wavelength of the wave if the velocity
of the wave is 3 × 10– / .
3. Bats emits ultrasonic waves of frequency 6.6 × 10š Hz. Calculate the wavelength of these
waves if the velocity of the sound is 333 m/s.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Musical instruments can be classified as follows.

Wind instruments
These are instruments produce sound by the vibration of air column. Examples are flute, bugle,
horn, mute, cornet, tuba, trumpet, saxophone, clarinet and trombone.

String instruments
These instruments produce sound by the vibration of a string. Examples are guitar, violin, cello,
harp, piano and bass.
111
Percussion instruments
These instruments produce sound when a solid object is struck with another solid object. Examples
are drums, bells, xylophone and cymbals

Musical note and noise

A musical note is a pleasant continuous and uniform sound produced by regular and periodic
vibrations.
Noise is an irregular succession of disturbances which are unpleasant to the ear.

Characteristics of sound
Sound is characterized by the following.

Pitch
Pitch is the frequency of sound as perceived by the human ear. A high frequency gives rise to a
high pitch note and a low frequency gives a low pitch note.

Quality
This is used to describe the quality of the waveform as it appears to the listener. The quality of a
note depends upon the waveform. Two notes of the same pitch and loudness, played from different
instruments do not sound the same because the waveforms are different. Therefore they differ in
quality.

Loudness
Loudness depends on the amplitude of the sound wave. The lager the amplitude the more energy
the sound waves contains, therefore the louder the sound.
112
 ECHO
Echo is the sound heard after reflection on a rigid obstacle.

Applications
Applications of echo
1. It is used to detect cracks in metals.
2. It is involved in the use of sound navigation and ranging (SONAR) in detecting objects, sunken
ships and shoals of fish in seas.
3. It is used by bats to navigate and locate food at night.
4. It is used in the operation of megaphones and hearing aids.
5. It is used in medical diagnosis and therapy.
6. It is used to determine distances such as the depth of sea.
7. It is used to determine the speed of sound.
The following formula can be used to determine the velocity of sound.

2 × distance
velocity
time

Examples
1. A sonar pulse sent out by a boat arrives back after 3 seconds. If the speed of sound is 1500m/s,
how deep is the water?

v 1500m/s 2×s
1500
t 3 seconds 3
s ? 3 × 1500 2s
2 × distance 4500
velocity s A17
time 2

2. How much time is there between a person firing a starting pistol and being able to hear the
echo from a wall 150 meters away? The speed of sound is 300 m/s.

v 300m/s 2 × 150
300
s 150m t
t ? 300
t 3 EJCG¿²
2 × distance 300
velocity
time

Try these
1. A man fires a gun and hears the echo from a cliff after 4 seconds. How far away is the cliff?
The speed of sound is 340m/s.
2. The speed of sound is 340 m/s. If thunder is heard 20 seconds after lightening, how far away
is the storm?
3. A wave source of frequency 1000 Hz emits waves of wavelength 0.1 meters. How long does
it take for the wave to travel 2500 meters?

113
 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
ACIDS
Arrhenius definition
An acid is a substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous solution.

Bronsted-Lowery definition
An acid is a compound containing replaceable hydrogen ions.

Lewis definition
An acid is a compound that accepts a pair of electrons from a base.

Properties of acids
1. They have sour taste. 6. They react with metals to form salt and
2. They turn litmus paper to red. hydrogen gas.
3. They have pH less 7. 7. They react with metal carbonates to form
4. They are corrosive when concentrated. salt, water and carbon (iv) oxide.
5. They react with bases to form salt and
water.

Types of acids
1. Inorganic acids: these are acids obtained from the mineral elements of the earth’s crust.
Examples are;
i. Tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid (H SOš ) iv. Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
ii. Trioxonitrate (v) acid (HNO ) v. Tetraoxophosphate (v) acid (H POš )
iii. Trioxocarbonate (iv) acid (H CO )

2. Organic acids: These are acids that occur naturally in living organism. Examples are;
i. Methanioc acid iv. Lactic acid
ii. Citric acid v. Ethanoic acid
iii. Ascorbic acid

Strong and weak acids

Strong acid: This is an acid that completely ionize in water
H SOš(hÈ) → 2H(hÈ) n SOš(hÈ)
Examples are: HNO , H SOš , HCl

Weak acid: this is an acid that does not completely ionize in water.
H CO (hÈ) ⇌ 2H(hÈ) n CO (hÈ)
Examples are: H POš , H CO ,CH COOH

Reactions of acids
1. Neutralization: This is the reactions of acids with bases to form salt and water only.
NaOH(hÈ) n HCl(hÈ) → NaCl(hÈ) n H O(¡)

114
2. Reaction with metals: Acids reacts with metals to form salt and release hydrogen gas.
HNO (hÈ) n Mg (^) → Mg(NO ) (hÈ) n H (®)

3. Reaction with metal carbonates: Acids reacts with metal carbonates to form salt, water and
carbon dioxide.
Na CO (^) n HCl(hÈ) → NaCl(hÈ) n H O(¡) n CO (®)

Uses of acids
Acid is used:
1. As an electrolyte in car battery. Example H SOš
2. In the manufacture of fertilizer. Example HNO
3. In the manufacture of textiles. Example H SOš
4. Fatty acids are used in the making of soap. Example stearic acid
5. As laboratory reagents. Examples H SOš , HNO , HCl
6. In the industrial treatment of metals. Example H SOš
7. In the manufacture of paints and detergents. Example H SOš
8. In the manufacture of paper. Example H SOš

Manufacture of sulphuric acid

Sulphuric acid is manufactured through the contact process as shown in the flow chart blow.

The flow chart above show the steps in the production of sulphuric acid by the Contact Process,
starting from the raw materials until you finally get the sulphuric acid. It involves the following
steps.
• Making the sulphur dioxide
This can be done by burning sulphur in an excess of air:
S(^) n O (®) opppppq SO (®)
• Converting the sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide
This is a reversible reaction, and the formation of the sulphur trioxide is exothermic.
SO (®) n O (®) opppppq SO (®)

115
• Converting the sulphur trioxide into sulphuric acid
This is done by simply adding water to the sulphur trioxide. The reaction is so uncontrollable that
it creates a fog of sulphuric acid. Instead, the sulphur trioxide is first dissolved in concentrated
sulphuric acid:
H SOš(hÈ) n SO (®) ⇌ H S OŠ(hÈ)
The product is known oleum.

This can then be reacted safely with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid
H S OŠ(hÈ) n H O(¡) opppppq 2H SOš(hÈ)

Uses of sulphuric acid

Sulphuric acid is used in the manufacture of;

1. Plastics, example rayon and nylon 4. Pesticides

2. Fertilizer, example ammonium sulphate 5. Soaps and detergents
3. Paints 6. Electrolytes

BASES
Arrhenius definition: A base is a substance that releases hydroxyl ions (OH ) in aqueous
solution.
Bronsted-Lowery definition: A base is a molecule that captures hydrogen ions.
Lewis definition: A base is a compound that donates a pair of electrons to an acid.

Bases react with acids to form salts. Bases are;

i. Metal oxides: example MgO, Na O
ii. Metal hydroxides: example NaOH, Ca(OH)
iii. Metal carbonate: example Na CO , CaCO
iv. Metal hydrogen carbonates: Example NaHCO , KHCO
v. Ammonia (NH )

Alkalis
An alkali is formed when a base dissolves in water. For example NaOH, Ca(OH) , KOH, etc. All
alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis.

Properties of bases
1. They are corrosive in concentrated forms.
2. They feel soapy.
3. They turn litmus paper to blue.
4. They have pH greater than 7
5. They have bitter taste.
6. They react with acids to form salt and water.
7. All alkalis except ammonia react with ammonium compounds and give out ammonia gas.

116
Strong and weak alkalis
Strong alkali
This is an alkali that completely ionizes in water. Example
NaOH(hÈ) → Na(hÈ) n OH(hÈ)

Weak alkali
This is an alkali that does not completely ionize in water.
NHš OH(hÈ) ⇌ NHš(hÈ) n OH(hÈ)

Uses of bases
Bases are used;
1. In the making of soap. Example NaOH
2. In the manufacture of tooth paste. Example Mg(OH)
3. In the manufacture of cement. Example Ca(OH)
4. In the manufacture of cleansing agents. NHš OH

Preparation of sodium hydroxide

hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide can also be prepared by the electrolysis of brine. Sodium chloride solution is
called brine.
This process yields chlorine gas, hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide solution.
Chlorine gas is formed at the positive electrode (anode) and hydrogen gas is formed at the negative
electrode (cathode).
2NaCl(w ) n 2H O(}) opppppq NaOH(w ) n Cl (•) n H (•)

At the anode
Chlorine ions loose electrons and form chlorine atoms. The atoms then combine to form molecules.

2Cl − 2e → Cl
At the cathode
Hydrogen ions gain electrons and form hydrogen atoms. The atoms then combine to form
molecules.
2H n 2e → H
117
The sodium remains dissolved in the solution. Sodium hydroxide solution is collected from at the
bottom of the cell.

Uses of sodium hydroxide

1. It is used in all sorts of domestic cleansing and laundry products.
2. It used to clear congested drains.
3. It is used in the production of aluminium.
4. It is used in the manufacture of paper
5. It is used to remove acidic contaminants in oil and gas processing.

Effects of
of acids and bases on indicators
Indicators are chemical substances that are used to determine whether a solution is acidic or basic.
The common acid - base indicators found in labs are as follows:
Indicator Acid Base Neutral
Litmus Red Blue Purple
Methyl orange Pink Yellow Orange
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink Colourless

Water and aqueous solutions of sodium chloride do not change colour of litmus paper. They are
said to be neutral.

Universal indicator

This is a mixture of indicators which change colour over a wide range of pH values. Universal
indicator can be in the form of solution or paper. Each colour of the universal indicator corresponds
to a particular pH range.

The pH – Scale

118
pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. pH stands for power hydrogen. The
pH – scale runs from 0 – 14.
The strength of an acid or alkali is shown using the pH scale. On a pH scale an acidic solution has
a pH number less than 7. An alkaline solution has a pH number greater than 7. A neutral solution
has a pH number exactly 7.

BUFFER SOLUTION
A solution that resists pH changes when a small amount of acid or base is added. The pH of a
buffer does not change significantly. Some chemical and biological processes can only take place
at a constant pH. Hence the associated systems are buffers. For example, the blood system
maintains a pH range of 7.4 to 7.5.

SALTS
A salt is a substance formed when the hydrogen atom of an acid is replaced with a metal or
ammonium.
HCl(hÈ) n NaOH(hÈ) → NaCl(hÈ) n H O(¡)

Types of salts
Acid salt
This is the salt that contains a replaceable hydrogen atom. It is formed by the reaction of a strong
acid and a weak base. Examples are NaHSOš , KHCO

Basic salt
This salt is produced by the reaction of a weak acid and a strong base. An example is CH COONa

Neutral salt
These are the salts formed by the reaction of a strong acid and a strong base or a weak acid and a
weak base. Examples are NaCl, Na SOš

Double salt
This is the salt formed from the combination of two distinct salts. Example are KMgCl . 6H O,
(CaMg(CO ) )

Solubility of salts
Some salts dissolve in water while others do not. When salts dissolve in water, they form free ions
in their solution.
Salt soluble in water Salt insoluble in water
All containing Except those containing All containing Except those containing
Na , K , NHš - CO Na , K , NHš
NO - S Na , K , NHš
SOš Pb , Ba , Ca , Ag SO Na , K , NHš
Cl Pb , Ag

119
Preparation of salts
The method used to prepare a salt depends on the solubility of the salt.

Preparation of soluble salt

Reaction of acid with metal
Example
Mg (^) n H SOš(hÈ) → MgSOš(hÈ) n H (®)
Method
1. Slowly add magnesium powder to dilute tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid and stir until excess
magnesium powder remains in the solution. Bubbles of gas will be released. This gas is
hydrogen and the solution after the completion of the reaction is magnesium sulphate solution.
2. Filter the solution to remove the excess magnesium powder.
3. Heat the solution to obtain magnesium sulphate crystals by crystallization.

Reaction of acid with metal carbonate

CaCO (^) n HCl(hÈ) → CaCl (hÈ) n H O(¡) n CO (®)

Method
The steps for this method are the same as above.

Reaction of acid with metal oxide

2HNO (hÈ) n CuO(^) → Cu(NO ) (hÈ) n H O(¡)

Method
Method requires warming to speed up the reaction. The procedure is the same as above.

120
Reaction of acid with alkali
HCl(hÈ) n NaOH(hÈ) → NaCl(hÈ) n H O(¡)

This reaction requires special technique as both reactants are solutions. An indicator is required to
know when the reaction is complete. This technique is referred to as titration. It involves the
following steps.

The colour of the

solution will depend
on the indicator
used.

• Measure a convenient volume of sodium hydroxide (alkali) and pour it into conical flask.
• Add few drops of indicator to the alkali.
• Fill the burette with hydrochloric acid as shown in the diagram above.
• Slowly add hydrochloric acid to the measured volume of alkali until the indicator changes
colour. Take note of the volume of acid used.
• Repeat the above steps using the same volume of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide but
without adding an indicator.
• Heat the solution to obtain sodium chloride crystals.

121
Preparation of insoluble salt
This method involves mixing together solutions of two soluble salts each containing the ions of
the required salts. The required insoluble salt is precipitated. For example, lead (ii) trioxocarbonate
(iv) can be prepared as follows.

• Mix the solutions of lead (ii) trioxonitrate (v) and sodium trioxocarbonate (iv) in a beaker. A
precipitate will form in the mixture.
• Filter off the precipitate and allow it to dry.
The precipitate is lead (ii) trioxocarbonate (iv) salt.

Uses of salts
1. NHš Cl is used as electrolytes in dry cells.
2. ZnCl is used in petroleum refining.
3. CaCl is used as a drying agent.
4. NaCl is used for preserving food.

122
 CHANGE AND EQUILIBRIUM
Physical and chemical change
All substances have properties (characteristics) which make them behave the way they do and
make them different from another substance. These properties can either be physical, e.g. colour,
density, physical state (gas, liquid or solid) or chemical e.g. metal or non-metal, acidic or basic,
reaction with acids, oxidizing or reducing agent.

Any substance can be changed by heating it, adding water to it, mixing it with another substance,
and so on. The change that takes place will either be a physical change or a chemical change

Chemical change
A chemical change occurs when one or more substances are changed into different substances. It
is usually accompanied by taking in or taking out energy. A chemical change is usually called a
chemical reaction. In a chemical change, one or more new substances are formed. The new
substances usually look quite different from the starting substances. A chemical change is usually
difficult to reverse. Examples of chemical reactions are combustion, respiration, photosynthesis,
neutralization, etc.

There are different types of chemical reactions.

1. Reduction reaction
This reaction is characterised by;
• Addition of hydrogen A reaction involving reduction and oxidation is
• Removal of oxygen simply called redox reaction. In a redox reaction, the
• Gain of electrons reducing agent is oxidized and the oxidizing agent is
• Decrease in oxidation number reduced.

2. Oxidation reaction
This reaction is characterised by;
• Removal of hydrogen • Loss of electrons
• Addition of oxygen • Increase in oxidation.

An example of reduction reaction is the extraction of iron from iron (iii) oxide.

Fe O (~) n 3CO(•) → 2Fe(}) n 3CO (•)

This is done by reacting the iron (iii) oxide with carbon monoxide. In the process, iron (iii) oxide
is reduced and carbon (ii) oxide is oxidized.

When you observe the equation, you will notice that iron is separated from the oxygen (removal
of oxygen). The oxidation number of iron in Fe O is +3 and in its pure form, the oxidation
number is 0 (zero), the shows a decrease in oxidation number. The decrease in oxidation number
is brought about by the gain of electrons from oxygen.

123
Carbon in carbon (ii) oxide on the other hand, gains another oxygen and becomes carbon (iv)
oxide. Its oxidation state increases from +2 to +4. This increase is brought about by the loss of
electrons from carbon to oxygen.

3. Exothermic reaction
This is a reaction in which energy is given out. For example respiration and combustion.

4. Endothermic reaction
This is a reaction in which energy in taken in. For example photosynthesis.

Physical change
When no new chemical substance is formed, the change is called physical change.
E.g. melting ice, sugar dissolving in water, etc. Physical changes are usually easy to reverse.

RATES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

The rate of a reaction is the amount of substances used or formed per unit time.
Using suitable apparatus, the rate of a reaction can be measured and the information can be
represented in the form of a graph.
For example, the following results were obtained from the reaction of Magnesium and excess
Hydrochloric acid. The volume of hydrogen gas produced was measured every thirty seconds.

Mg (~) n 2HCl(w ) oppppppq MgCl (w ) nH (•)

Time/minutes 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
3
Volume of H2 (cm ) 0 8 14 20 25 29 33 36 38 39 40 40 40 40

The nearer the

curve is to the
vertical axis, the
faster the rate
of the reaction.

124
In the first minute 14 cm3 of hydrogen were produced. Therefore the rate in the first minute is
14cm3 of hydrogen per minute. In the second minute, 11cm3 of hydrogen were produced and the
rate is 11cm3 of hydrogen per minute.
The rate changes all through the reaction. It is greatest at the start, but gets less as the reaction
proceeds.
The faster the reaction, the steeper the curve. Notice that the rate
becomes slower as the
When the reaction is over the curve goes flat time goes on.

`b`h¡ ¯b¡° \ bc õib[°f`

The average rate of a reaction is:
`b`h¡ `_ \ `hô\]

Factors affecting the rates of chemical reaction

reactions
i. Temperature iv. catalyst
ii. concentration v. pressure (in the case of gases
iii. surface area or size of particles (in the
case of solids)

The effect of temperature

A reaction can be made to go faster or slower by changing the temperature of the reactants.
A reaction goes faster when the temperature is raised and slower when the temperature is lowered.
For example, the low temperature in a fridge slows down the decomposition reaction. So foods
can stay longer in a fridge than out of a fridge.

The effect of concentration

A reaction can also be made to be faster or slower by changing the concentration of the reactants.
The reaction goes faster when the concentration is increased and slower when the concentration is
reduced.

The effect of surface area (size of particle)

When the solid particles are large, the surface area is small and when the solid particles are small,
the surface area is large.

The rate of a reaction is increased when the surface area of a solid reactant is increased. The rate
is lowered when the surface area is reduced. In other words, the reaction goes faster with smaller
solid particles than larger solid particles.
The reaction is fastest when
the solid reactant is in the
form of powder
The effect of catalyst
A Catalyst is a substance that changes the rate of a chemical reaction but remains chemically
unchanged itself. A reaction can be speeded up by adding a catalyst.
Catalysts are very important in industries, because they speed up reactions even at low
temperatures. (It makes the process economical)

125
Catalysts have been discovered for many reactions. They are usually transition metals or
compound of transition metals. Below are some examples.
Process Catalyst
In the manufacture of ammonia (Harber process) Iron (Fe)
In the manufacture of sulphuric acid (contact process) Vanadium(iv)oxide
The oxidation of ammonia to nitric acid Platinum-rhodium alloy
Hardening of oils to make solid fats nickel

Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts.

Properties of enzymes
1. They are specific, that is they act on a specific substrate and produce specific products.
2. They only work within a limited temperature range.
3. They only act at specific pH.
4. They are very efficient.
5. They are only produced by living cells
6. They are biodegradable
7. They are easily denatured by heat.

Inhibitor
Is a substance is used to slow a reaction down.

REVERSIBLE REACTIONS AND EQUILIBRIUM

Reversible reaction
A reversible reaction is the one in which the products formed react to regenerate the reactants. For
example, in the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen never gets completed because there are
two competing reactions going on.

N (®) n 3H (®) opppppq 2NH (®) (Forward reaction)

2NH (®) opppppq N (®) n 3H (®) (Backward reaction)

This reaction is a reversible reaction and is written as:

N (®) n 3H (®) ⇌ 2NH (®)

This reaction is reversible

The symbol ⇌ indicates a reversible reaction.

Equilibrium
An equilibrium reaction is the reaction in which the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate
of the backward reaction.

126
When a reaction is in equilibrium, the equilibrium remains unless something is done to alter it. It
may be altered by removing some of the reactants or of the products, or by changing external
conditions such as temperature or pressure.
The proportion of the reactants and products produced at any moment in a reversible reaction
depends on the position of the equilibrium, which in turn depend on factors such as temperature
and pressure. For example, in the Haber process, the effect of temperature and pressure can be
clearly seen.
N (®) n 3H (®) ⇌ 2NH (®) n heat energy

Temperature
The forward reaction above is exothermic and back reaction is endothermic. Since heat speeds up
any reaction, the result is that equilibrium is reached faster, but more ammonia will break to use
up the heat added. The equilibrium moves to the left.
If the heat energy is removed by cooling, more ammonia will be formed. The equilibrium moves
to the right.

Pressure
Pressure is caused by collision between gas molecules and the walls of the container. The fewer
the molecules present, the lower the pressure and the larger the number of molecules, the greater
the pressure in a fixed volume. If the pressure is increased, the equilibrium moves to the right and
more ammonia will be formed. The reverse is also true.

Removing ammonia
At equilibrium, the mixture is a balance between the levels of nitrogen, hydrogen and ammonia
present. When the mixture is cooled and the ammonia is collected, the remaining hydrogen and
nitrogen react again.

Adding a catalyst
Iron (Fe) acts as a catalyst for this reaction. But it speeds up the forward and backward reactions
equally. So reaction reaches equilibrium faster, but the equilibrium position does not change.

127
 NATURAL CYCLES
Plants and animals contain substances such as water, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
These elements are recycled by living things.

The carbon cycle

Plants and animals need steady supply of carbon to make important compounds like
carbohydrates and proteins. The carbon cycle involves the following stages.

• Plants (producers) absorb carbon dioxide from air and make carbon compounds by
photosynthesis.
• Animals (consumers) get their carbon compounds by eating plants and other animals.
• When plants and animals respire, carbon is returned to the air as carbon dioxide.
• Carbon dioxide is also returned to the air when decaying plants and animals are decomposed
by bacteria.
• Carbon dioxide is returned to the air when plants and animals are burnt.
• When plants and animals die, their carbon compounds begin to decay. Sometimes the
decaying remains get trapped underground as fossil fuel. The burning of these fossil fuels
returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

128
The Nitrogen cycle

The process in which nitrogen moves from the air into the soil through plants and animals is called
nitrogen cycle. It involves the following stages.
• Nitrogen is present as proteins in plants, animals and decaying remains, as ammonium salts
(NHš ) and nitrates (NO ) in the soil and as nitrogen gas (N ) in the air.
• The nitrogen in decaying remains from animals and plants is converted by decomposers
bacteria in the soil into ammonia and ammonium salts.
• Nitrifying bacteria in the soil converts this ammonia and ammonium salts to nitrates.
• Plants absorb the ammonium salts and nitrates through roots and use them to make amino
acids and proteins.
• Nitrogen fixing bacteria converts nitrogen in the air into amino acids and proteins for use by
plants. Some of these bacteria live freely in the soil and the rest live in the root nodules of
leguminous plants.
• Lightening increases the nitrate content of the soil.
• Farmers also participate in the nitrogen cycle by:
o Adding nitrogenous fertilizers into the soil.
o Growing leguminous crops.
o Ploughing and adding well-rotted manure to the soil.

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The water cycle

The water cycle renews the water supply on Earth. Roughly the same amount of water has been
kept on Earth as solid ice, liquid and gaseous water vapour throughout time. It continually cycles
and moves from the ocean, polar ice caps, rivers, lakes, wetlands, snow,
underground aquifers and water vapour in the clouds. The heat from the sun makes water to
evaporate from the earth to rise as vapour. It then returns back to the earth as rain or snow and
back again. The water cycle involves the following stages.

• Evaporation and transpiration: Water, heated by the sun, evaporates up mainly from the
oceans, lakes, rivers and other water bodies. Animals urinate or sweat which also evaporates.
During respiration animals give out water vapour which escapes into the atmosphere. Some
water is released from plants through their leaves. This process is called transpiration.

• Condensation: Cooler temperatures at higher altitude causes water vapour to condense. The
winds moves the moisture around resulting to the formation of clouds. With time these
clouds become heavier with water and develops into rain bearing clouds.

• Precipitation: The escaping water vapour cools and condenses in the atmosphere and form
tiny droplets. The clouds gather all the tiny water droplets together until they are big enough
to fall as rain or snow. This is called precipitation. Precipitation falls much more in warm
tropical places than in deserts. In colder places precipitation falls as snow.

• Drainage and runoff: When rain falls on land, some of it soaks into the ground and the rest
runs into rivers and streams and eventually find their way in to the oceans.
Some water is absorbed from the soil by plants and used in photosynthesis reaction.

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 HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis refers to keeping of the human body environment in a steady state when the external
environment is changed. Various conditions are controlled to maintain a constant internal
environment. These include, temperature, water content of the body, blood sugar levels and the
ion content of the body.

Temperature homeostasis
homeostasis
This is also called thermoregulation. It is the mechanism by which the body maintains a steady
temperature.
Humans are warm-blooded animals (also called endotherms). Endotherms maintains a fairly
steady body temperature. To maintain this constant temperature, the body adjust by gaining or
losing heat. This may be physiological or behavioural.

In humans, body temperature is controlled in the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus receives

signals from two sets of receptors.
• Receptors in the hypothalamus: These are present in the hypothalamus itself and they
monitor the temperature of the blood.
• Receptors in the skin: These monitor the external temperature.

How the body gains heat

Physiological Behavioural
Vasoconstriction Exercising
Shivering-muscles contracts and relax to Warm bath
generate heat.
Body hair erects to trap warm air Hot drinks
Increased metabolism Wearing more/thick clothes like sweaters
Curling up, finding shelter, etc.

How the body loses heat

Physiological Behavioural
Vasodilation Stretching out/relaxing
Hair lies flat Taking cool bath, swimming
Decreased metabolism Removing or wearing light clothes,
Sweating Finding shade

Blood water homeostasis

This is also called osmoregulation. Osmoregulation is important in order to prevent loss or gain
of water from cells. Blood water homeostasis is controlled by the hypothalamus. It contains
osmoreceptor cells which detects changes in the water levels in the blood passing through the
brain. The hypothalamus respond in two ways.
• Controlling the sensation of thirst.
• Secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which is stored in the pituitary glands. This
hormone make the water channels in the cells of the collecting ducts of the kidney nephrons
to open up.
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How the body loses water
• Sweating
• Urinating
• Respiration (exhalation)

How the body reacts to less water in the blood

• The hypothalamus provokes a sensation of thirst. This makes the person to drink water.
• The pituitary glands secrete more antidiuretic hormone resulting in more water being
reabsorbed from urine (reabsorption in the kidneys) and amount of water in the blood increases.
This results to the release of small volume of concentrated urine.

How the body gains water

• Drinking
• Cellular respiration

How the body reacts to too much water in the blood

• There is no feeling of thirst.
• The pituitary release less antidiuretic hormone resulting in less water being absorbed from
urine. A large volume of dilute urine is formed.

Blood glucose homeostasis

Glucose is the end product of carbohydrate digestion. It is transported in the blood and it affects
all cells in the body. Its concentration must remain within the range of 0.8 – 1 gram per dm3 of
blood. Very low levels (hypoglycaemia) or very high levels (hyperglycaemia) are both dangerous
and may lead to death.
The blood glucose concentration is controlled by the pancreas. The pancreas has glucose receptor
cells with monitor the concentration of glucose in the blood. It also has endocrine cell which
secrete hormones. These hormones are glucagon and insulin. They have opposite effects on blood
glucose.

Insulin helps to decrease glucose concentration in the blood.

• It stimulates the uptake of glucose by the cells for respiration.
• In the liver, it stimulates the conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis).

Glucagon helps to increase the glucose concentration in the blood.

• It stimulates the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver (glycogenolysis).
• In some cases, it stimulates the synthesis of glucose from pyruvate.

Failure of glucose homeostasis causes diabetes.

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 METALS AND NON-METALS
METALS
Characteristics of metals
1. They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
2. They are malleable, i.e. they can be beaten into shapes.
3. They are ductile, i.e. they can be stretched into wires.
4. They are sonorous, i.e. they produce sound when beaten.
5. They are generally dense.
6. They are shiny when clean.
7. At room temperature, they are all solids except mercury.
8. They are strong under tension and compression.
9. They lose electrons and become positively charged when they react.
10. They react with oxygen and form basic oxides.

The reactivity series of metals

The reactivity series of metals is the arrangement of metals with the most reactive metal at the top
and the least reactive metal at the bottom.

The most abundant metal

is aluminium. Next to
aluminium is iron

The more reactive the metal is, the more likely it forms compounds. Copper, silver and gold can
be found as elements. The rest are found as compounds.

Extraction of metals
The method used to extract a metal depends on the reactivity of the metal.

1. Electrolysis
This method is used to extract highly reactive metals from their ores. This method is powerful
but expensive. Potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium are extracted using
this method.

133
2. Heating with carbon monoxide
This method is used to extract iron from its ore in the blast furnace.

3. Roasting in air
Although copper may be found native, some occurs as copper (i) sulphide in an ore called
copper pyrites. The copper is extracted by roasting the sulphide in air.

Extraction
Extraction of aluminium
The main ore of aluminium is called bauxite. The bauxite, which is aluminium oxide mixed with
impurities, is extracted from the Earth.
The extracted aluminium oxide is then treated with alkali to remove the impurities. This results in
a white solid called aluminium oxide or alumina. The alumina is decomposed by electrolysis in a
huge tank called the Hall cell. The tank is lined with graphite, this act as the cathode. Also blocks
of graphite hang in the middle of the tank, and acts as anodes. The alumina melts at 2045°C. It is
then dissolved in molten cryolite (an aluminium compound with lower melting point than pure
alumina) to lower the melting point to about 950°C. Electricity is passed through and electrolysis
begins. When dissolved, the aluminium ions and oxide ions in the alumina can move.

At the cathode, the aluminium ions receive electrons and form aluminium atoms.
4Al n 12e → 4Al

Aluminium atoms collect together and drop to the bottom of the cell where it is collected at
intervals.

At the anode, oxygen ions give up electrons to form oxygen molecules which bubble off.
6O → 3O n 12e

Extraction of iron
To extract iron, three substances are needed.

Iron ore: The chief ore of iron is called haematite. It is mainly iron (iii) oxide (Fe2O3) mixed with
sand.
Limestone: This contains mainly calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

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Coke: This is obtained from coal. It is almost pure carbon.

These three substances are mixed together to give a mixture called charge. The charge is heated in
a tall oven called a blast furnace.

The following reactions take place in the blast furnace.

1. The coke reacts with oxygen in the air, giving carbon dioxide.
CT^U n O (®) → CO (®)

2. The limestone decomposes to calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon dioxide.

CaCO T^U → CaOT^U n CO (^)

3. The carbon dioxide reacts with more coke, given carbon monoxide.
CT^U n CO (®) → 2COT®U

4. The carbon monoxide reacts with the iron oxide in the ore, given liquid iron. The liquid iron
trickles to the bottom of the furnace.
Fe O T~U n 3COT•U → 2FeT}U n 3CO (•)

5. Calcium oxide from step 2 reacts with sand in the ore to form calcium silicate or slag. The slag
runs down the furnace and floats on the iron.
CaOT~U n SiO (~) → CaSiO T}U

The slag and iron are drained from the bottom of the furnace. The iron is then left to solidify in
moulds or converted to steel. The slag is used in road making.

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Uses of metals
Metal Uses Property that makes it suitable
Sodium A coolant in nuclear reactors Low melting point and good heat conductor
Overhead electricity cables Cheap, lighter and good conductor of electricity
Aluminium (though not as good as copper)
Saucepans Conducts heat well and non-toxic
Liquid at room temperature, expands on
Mercury Thermometers
heating, opaque and does not wet glass
Coating iron to give
Zinc Protects iron from rusting
galvanized iron.
Unreactive and non-toxic
Tin Coating steel cans
Protects the steel from rusting
Copper Electric wires Ductile and excellent conductor of electricity

Alloys
An alloy is a metallic substance composed of two or more metals.

Uses of alloys
Alloy Made from Special properties Uses
Aluminium
Duralium Light and strong Aircraft parts
Copper
Zinc
Brass Hard and does not corrode Musical instruments
Copper
Tin
Solder Low melting point Joining wires and pipes
Lead
Iron
Stainless Car parts, kitchen sinks and
Chromium Does not rust
steel utensils.
Nickel
Copper
Cupronickel Hard, attractive silver colour ‘silver’ coins
Nickel

Corrosion of iron
The corrosion of iron and steel is called rusting. The iron is oxidized. For rusting to take place,
both air and water must be present.
• In test tube A, rusting occurred because both air and water are present.
• In test tube B, no rusting occurred because there was no air. The water was boiled to drive out
the air. The oil layer excludes air from the water.
• In test tube C, rusting did not occur because no moisture (water) was present. The calcium
chloride absorbs moisture in the air.

136
 Stainless steel does not rust.

Effects of corrosion
1. It reduces the thickness of metals resulting to loss of mechanical strength and structural
breakdown.
2. It causes contamination of fluids vessels and pipes.
3. It reduces the value of goods due deterioration of appearance.
4. Results to hazards or injuries to people arising from structural failure or breakdown of
structures such bridges, cars, aircrafts, etc.

Prevention of corrosion
Since corrosion cannot take place without air and water, it can be prevented by keeping out air and
water. Below are some of the methods used.

1. Painting the metal.

2. Using grease or oil.
3. Coating the metal with plastic.
4. Coating the metal with zinc. This is known as galvanizing.
5. Plating: This involves coating the metal with a layer of tin or chromium using electrolysis.
6. Sacrificial protection: This involves attaching a more reactive metal such as magnesium to the
metal being protected. This makes the magnesium to corrode instead of the iron.

Corrosion of aluminium
aluminium
Aluminium is more reactive than iron. When the aluminium atoms are to air, the atoms at the
surface quickly react and form a layer of aluminium oxide which covers and prevents the inner
atoms from reacting. In this way aluminium can resist corrosion.

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 NON-METALS
Characteristics of non-
non-metals
1. They are not strong, malleable, ductile or sonorous. In fact they are brittle, i.e. they break–up
when hammered.
2. They have lower melting and boiling points than metals.
3. Most of them exist as gases at room temperature.
4. They have low densities.
5. They are poor conductor of electricity except graphite (an allotrope of carbon). They are also
poor conductors of heat.
6. They react with oxygen to form oxides, some of which when dissolved in water, form acids.
7. When they react, they gain electrons and become negatively charged. Hydrogen is an
exception.

LABORATORY PREPARTION OF GASES

Method of collecting gases

The method of collecting a gas produced by a chemical reaction will depend on the density and
solubility of the gas.

Collection by downward delivery

This method works for gases that are soluble in water and are denser than air. Examples are
hydrogen chloride and carbon dioxide.

Collection by over water

This method is best for gases that are slightly soluble in water. It is also suitable for gases that are
less dense than air. Examples are hydrogen, nitrogen, methane and oxygen.

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Collection by upward delivery

This method is used for gases that are soluble in water but less dense than air. An example is
ammonia gas.

PREPARATION OF OXYGEN
Caution
Use a lager flask and a
small volume of hydrogen
peroxide to avoid
explosion.

Potassium chlorate (º¸H¹8 )

can also be used to prepare
oxygen.

Equation: Hydrogen peroxide oppppppppppq Water + Oxygen

fh`h¡a^` T ] ÚU
2H2O2 (l) oppppppppppq 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
fh`h¡a^` T ] ÚU
Description
The apparatus is set up as shown above. Hydrogen peroxide is added slowly to the flask. The
manganese (iv) oxide (manganese dioxide) in the flask serves as a catalyst. Oxygen is collected by
downward displacement of water.

Properties of oxygen
1. Colourless, odourless gas.
2. Slightly soluble in water (hence fish can breathe in it).
3. Many substances, both elements and compounds, burn in oxygen.

Test for oxygen

It relights a glowing splint.

Uses of Oxygen
1. Living organisms use oxygen for respiration.
2. It packed in cylinders to be used for breathing by patients in hospitals, mountaineers, under
water divers, astronauts working in space, etc.

139
3. It used in combustion to produce energy in automobiles, airplanes, ships, generators, industrial
processes, etc.
4. It is used in welding, melting and cutting metals.
5. It is used in the production of iron and steel in the blast furnace.
6. It is used in the manufacture of nitric acid, sulphuric acid.

HYDROGEN

Caution
Tetraoxosulphate (vi)
acid is corrosive.

Equation
Zinc + Sulphuric Acid oppppppq Zinc Sulphate + Hydrogen
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) opppppppq ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Description
The apparatus is set up as shown above. Dilute sulphuric acid is added to the granulated zinc in
the flask via the thistle funnel. The hydrogen gas is collected by downward displacement of water.

Properties of hydrogen
1. Colourless, odourless gas. 4. Burns readily in air.
2. It is almost insoluble in water. 5. Is a reducing agent.
3. Far lighter than air (lightest gas).

Test for hydrogen

Hydrogen explodes with a pop in the presence of air (oxygen) when a flame is introduced. Water
is the only product.
2H T®U + O T®U oppppq 2H OT®U

Uses of hydrogen
1. It is used as fuel in rockets.
2. It is used as a lifting agent in balloons and air ships.
3. It is used as clean fuel in cars.
4. It is used to make hydrochloric acid.
5. It can be used to generate thermonuclear energy.
6. It is used to make ammonia (NH3) which is used to make fertilizer.
7. It is used in the making of margarine.

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 CARBON (IV) OXIDE

Equation
Calcium carbonate + Hydrochloric acid opppqCalcium Chloride + Water + Carbon dioxide
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) oppppq CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Description
The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram above. Hydrochloric acid is slowly added to the
marble chips in flask. Carbon dioxide gas is collected by downward delivery.

Properties of carbon dioxide

1. Colourless, odourless, tasteless gas. 4. Does not support combustion.
2. Slightly soluble in water. 5. Forms acidic solution.
3. Heavier than air.

Test for carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide turns limewater milky.

Uses of carbon dioxide

1. It is used in fire extinguishers
2. It is used in cooling and refrigeration
3. Carbon dioxide gas is used to carbonate soft drinks, beers and wine and to prevent fungal and
bacterial growth.
4. It is used as a propellant in aerosol cans.
5. It is used to neutralize alkaline water.
6. Plants use it for photosynthesis.

141
 CHLORINE
Caution
• Chlorine is toxic.
• Concentrated HCl is
corrosive

Equation
\h`
Manganese (iv) oxide + hydrochloric acid oppppqmanganese chloride + water + chlorine gas
\h`
MnO T~U n 4HClTw U opppppppq MnCl Tw U n H OT}U n Cl T•U

Description
The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram above. Concentrated hydrochloric acid is slowly
added to manganese dioxide (Manganese (iv) oxide) in the flask and heated. Chlorine gas is
collected by downward displacement of water.
Chlorine can also be prepared by the electrolysis of brine. Sodium chloride solution is called brine.

This process yields chlorine gas, hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide solution.
Chlorine gas is formed at the positive electrode (anode) and hydrogen gas is formed at the negative
electrode (cathode).
2NaClTw U n 2H OT}U oppppq NaOHTw U n Cl T•U n H T•U

At the anode
Chlorine ions loose electrons and form chlorine atoms. The atoms then combine to form molecules.
2j − 2 → j

142
At the cathode
Hydrogen ions gain electrons and form hydrogen atoms. The atoms then combine to form
molecules.
2H n 2e → H

The sodium remains dissolved in the solution.

Properties of chlorine
1. It is a greenish-yellow gas. 5. It very reactive.
2. It is a dense gas (denser than air). 6. It irritates the skin, eyes and the
3. It has a sharp smell respiratory system.
4. It is a toxic gas.

Test
Chlorine turns damp blue litmus paper to red.

Uses of chlorine
1. It is used to make hydrochloric acid, disinfectants, bleach and polyvinylchloride.
2. Chlorinated compounds are used mostly for sanitation, textile processing etc.
3. It is used to kill bacteria in drinking water and swimming pools.

NITROGEN

Description
Nitrogen is prepared from air by removing oxygen and carbon (iv) oxide. Water is used to push
air through sodium hydroxide solution. The sodium hydroxide solution removes carbon (iv)
oxide from the air.
2NaOHThÈU n CO oppppq Na CO ( ) n H OT¡U
The remaining gas is passed over heated copper turnings to remove oxygen.
\h`
2CuT^U n O T®U opppppq 2CuOT^U
Nitrogen is collected over water as it is insoluble in water.

143
Properties of nitrogen
• It is a colourless and odourless gas.
• It does not support combustion.
• It neither acidic nor basic.
• It reacts with hydrogen to form ammonia (Haber process).
• It reacts with some metals at very high temperatures to form nitrides.

Test for nitrogen

Nitrogen gas is inert and neutral. It does not change the colour of damp litmus paper and it does
not support combustion. There for nitrogen will put out a lit splint.

Uses of nitrogen
• It is used to produce ammonia.
• Liquid nitrogen is used as a food refrigerant.
• Nitrogen mixed with argon is used in electric bulbs.
• Nitrogen is essential for protein synthesis in plants.

SEMI-METALS
Semi-metals have mixed properties of both metals and non-metals. They are also called
metalloids. They include the following. Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic, Antimony, etc.

Characteristics of semi
semi–
emi–metals
1. They are solid at room temperature.
2. They are brittle and hard.
3. They conduct electricity. Although not as good as the metals. (They are referred to as semi-
conductors).
4. They undergo oxidation and readily form glass.
5. They react with halogens to form compounds.

Uses of semi-
semi-metals
1. Silicon is used in the manufacture of electronic devices such as transistors, integrated
circuits, microchips in computers and solar panels. Silicon is also used to make glass.
2. Germanium, is also used to make transistors, diodes and other electronic devices.
3. Boron is used to make glass. Glass made from boron oxide is called Pyrex. It is less likely to
crack when heated and are therefore used to make laboratory glassware.

144
 AIR AND WATER
AIR
Air is a mixture of several gases that are invisible and odourless. Air supplies us with oxygen.
The air that surrounds the entire planet make up the atmosphere.

Composition of air
Air consists of the following.

Composition Percentage
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
Inert gases 0.97%
Water vapour Varies

Preparation of nitrogen and oxygen from liquefied air

Nitrogen and oxygen can be prepared from liquefied air by fractional distillation. The air is first
purified by removing gases such as carbon (iv) oxide and water vapour. The air is then turned to
liquid. When air is compressed and quickly released, it temperature drops. If this is repeated over
and over, the air becomes cold enough to turn to liquid. The liquefied air then is subjected to
fractional distillation. To fractionally distil the air, the difference in boiling points of nitrogen
and oxygen is used. Nitrogen boils at -196 °C and oxygen boils at -183 °C. As the temperature is
carefully increased, nitrogen will boil off first and is collected followed by oxygen.

Uses of air
1. Air contains oxygen which is essential for life.
2. Carbon dioxide in the air is used by plants in photosynthesis.
3. Nitrogen in air is essential for plant growth.
4. Moving air (wing), helps in moving sail boats and wind mills.
5. Compressed air is used to fill tyres. Some machines also make use of compressed air.
6. The ozone layer protects us from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.
7. Wind supports flying birds.
8. Air exerts pressure that enables pumps to lift water from wells.

WATER
Water is a compound with the chemical formula H O. It consists of one oxygen atom chemically
bonded to two hydrogen atoms.

Sources of water
Water can be obtained from rain, oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, springs and wells.

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Physical properties of water
1. Pure water is colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid.
2. Pure water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C under 1 atmosphere pressure.
3. Water is a non-conductor of electricity and heat.
4. The density of water is maximum at 4°C.
5. Water is neutral to litmus.
6. Water dissolves a wide variety of substances.

Test for water

Water can be tested by adding white copper (ii) tetraoxosulphate (vi) power. A blue solution is
formed.

Water as a solvent
Water is known as universal solvent. This is because molecules dissolve in water than any other
chemical.

The hydrogen side of water molecule carries slight positive charge while the oxygen side carries a
slight negative charge. This enables water to dissociate ionic compounds into their positive and
negative ions. The positive part of an ionic compound is attracted to the oxygen side of water and
the negative part of the compound is attracted to the hydrogen side of water.

However, there are substance that water cannot dissolve or dissolve well. Examples are oils,
grease, petrol, kerosene, etc. In general, covalent compounds do not dissolve in water.

Biological importance of dissolved gasses in water

Water also dissolves gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide. The dissolved oxygen is used for
respiration by the aquatic animals and plants. The carbon dioxide is used by aquatic plants for
photosynthesis.

Hardness of water
Hard water is the water that produces an insoluble scum before it forms a lather with soap.
Hardness of water is caused by the presence of hydrogen carbonates, sulphates and chlorides of
magnesium and calcium. Hard water causes ‘furring’ in kettles, boilers and pipes leading to
reduced efficiency in kettles and blockage in pipes. There are two types of hard water.

1. Temporary hard water 2. Permanent hard water

This hardness of water is caused by the This hardness of water is caused by the
presence of hydrogen carbonates of calcium presence of chlorides or sulphates of
and magnesium. calcium and magnesium.

Removal of temporary hardness of water

Temporary hardness of water can be removed by the following methods.

146
1. Boiling
Boiling precipitates out the calcium and magnesium ions as calcium carbonate or magnesium
carbonate.
CaTHCO ) (hÈ) oppppq CaCO ( ) n H OT¡U n CO T®U

MgTHCO ) (hÈ) oppppq MgCO ( ) n H OT¡U n CO T®U

2. Clark’s method
This method involves the addition of a calculated amount of calcium hydroxide to the hard
water. The calcium hydroxide reacts with the hydrogen carbonates to form in soluble
carbonate which can be removed by filtration.

CaTHCO ) (hÈ) n CaTOHU ThÈU oppppq 2CaCO ( ) n 2H OT¡U

MgTHCO ) (hÈ) n CaTOHU ThÈU oppppq CaCO ( ) n MgCO ( ) n 2H OT¡U

Removal of permanent hardness of water

Permanent hardness can be removed by the following methods.
1. Addition of washing soda 2. Ion exchange

Addition of washing soda

Addition of washing soda causes magnesium and calcium ions to precipitate as calcium
carbonate and magnesium carbonate. The carbonates can be removed by filtration. The sodium
ions remains in the solution but they don’t prevent the water from forming lather with soap.

147
Ion exchange
This involves the swapping of magnesium and calcium ions with sodium.

Advantages of hard water

1. It contains calcium which helps in the development of bones and teeth.
2. It can prevent heart diseases.

Disadvantages of hard water

1. Hard water affects cleaning ability of soap leading to wastage of soap.
2. Hard water produces fur which causes blockage in pipes.
3. Hard water can cause stomach disorders when it is used for drinking for a long period of
time.

Purification of water
Water purification plays a key role in ensuring access to clean drinking water. Contaminated
water is not safe for domestic use. Sometimes, water needs to be purified to make sure that it is
safe for domestic use. Various methods can be used to purify water. They include the following.

1. Boiling
Boiling water for about 15 to 20 minutes will kill almost any organism living in the water. It
also removes most chemical by vaporizing them. However, boiling does not remove solid
materials. Therefore, filtration will be required to get rid of the solid materials.

2. Using purification tablets

Purification tablets such as chlorine tables and iodine tablets are added to water to kill
bacteria living in water.
These methods are most suitable in cases
where running water is not available. For
example in emergency situations.
3. Using water purifier
There are different type of water purifiers. One example is the ultraviolet purifier. This
purifier uses ultraviolet rays to kill bacteria in water.

Water may also be purified in a large scale such as water supply for a community. It involves
the following stages.

148
1. Screening
Water from the ground, lakes or rivers passes through a screen which removes large
contaminants such as weeds, sticks, fish and other debris.

2. Coagulation
This involves adding a substance called alum which makes small particles in the water to
stick together making them heavy enough to sink to the bottom.

3. Sedimentation
The water slowly flows into a sedimentation tank. At this stage particles sink to the bottom
sedimentation tank where they wait for removal.

4. Filtration
This involves passing water through layers of gravel or sand which serve to filter out any
remaining particles.

5. Disinfection
After the filtration process, the water goes into a closed tank or reservoir where chlorine or
other disinfectants are added in order to kill all microorganisms such as bacteria. This helps
to keep the water clean until distribution.

Note
If the only source of water is from the ground, disinfection may be the only step required
since the water must have passed through layers of the earth.

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 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Organic compounds are compounds consisting primarily of carbon and hydrogen. Other atoms are
found along with carbon and hydrogen in organic molecules. Examples of these include nitrogen,
sulphur, phosphorus, and halogens. These non-carbon, non-hydrogen atoms are called
heteroatoms.

All living things and many other substances around us contain organic compounds. For example
petrol, kerosene, plastics, drugs, insecticides, textiles, candles, etc.

Ability of carbon to form many compounds

1. The electron configuration of carbon is 2, 4. It uses the four electrons in its outer shell to form
compounds by sharing them to form covalent bonds.
2. Carbon is tetravalent. That is it can form four covalent bonds around itself. It can form single,
double or triple bonds.
3. Carbon has the ability to catenate. This means that it can form long chains of carbon atoms
bonded to each other forming straight chains, branched chains and rings.

HYDROCARBONS
A hydrocarbon is a molecule consisting exclusively of carbon and hydrogen. Hydrocarbons can
be obtained from petroleum. Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons from which useful
fractions can be obtained when it is distilled. Another source of hydrocarbons is natural gas, which
consists mainly of methane.

Hydrocarbons can be classified as follows;

1. Aliphatic hydrocarbons
They are hydrocarbons that do not contain benzene rings. They include the following.
1. Alkanes 2. Alkenes 3. Alkynes

2. Aromatic hydrocarbons
These are hydrocarbons that contain one or more benzene rings.

Hydrocarbons may also be classified as follows;

1. Saturated hydrocarbons
These are compounds with only single bonds between carbon atoms. They undergo
substitution reaction but cannot undergo addition reaction.

2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
These are compound with at least one double or triple bond between carbon atoms. They
undergo addition reaction but do not undergo substitution reaction.

Functional groups
A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms in molecule that gives the molecule its
characteristic properties.

150
Importance of functional groups
• They are sites for predictable chemical behaviour. Molecules with the same functional group
will undergo the same type of chemical reaction.
• They serve as basis for naming organic compounds.
• They serve as units by which organic compounds are classified into families.

Functional group structure Functional group name

Alkane

Alkene

Alkyne

Alkanol

Alkanoic acid

Alkyl alkanoate

Homologous series
These are series of compounds that are related to each other. Compounds with the same functional
group are of the same homologous series.

ALKANES
Alkanes are saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons with the general formula ; C] H ] where n is the
number of carbon atoms. They contain only single bonds between carbon atoms TC − CU. Alkanes
are also known as paraffins. The table below shows the first ten alkanes. Notice that each time the
number of carbon atoms increases by one, the hydrogen atoms increases by two. Therefore, alkanes
are related by CH .
Molecular
n Prefix Name Structural formula
formula

1 Meth Methane CHš

2 Eth Ethane C Hk

3 Prop Propane C H–

151
 4 But Butane Cš H Æ

5 Pent Pentane C” H

6 Hex Hexane Ck H š

7 Hept Heptane CŠ H k

8 Oct Octane C– H –

9 Non Nonane C˜ H Æ

10 Dec Decane C ÆH

Nomenclature of alkanes
The following rules are applied in the naming of alkanes.
1. Identify and name the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms.
2. Number the carbon atoms starting from the end nearest to the first substituent group. A
substituent group may be an oxide, a nitro, a halogen or an alkyl attached to the carbon atoms
of the main chain. An alkyl is an alkane that has lost one hydrogen atom.
3. Precede each substituent group name by the number of the of the carbon atom where the group
appears. Example;
For this structure;
• The longest chain has four carbon atoms. So it is called butane. (rule 1)
• The numbering begins from the right because that is where the
subtituent is nearer. (rule 2)
• The substituent is methyl and is at carbon number 2, so it is written as
2-methyl. (Rule 3)
• The full name of this structure is 2-methylbutane.

4. If the same substituent group occurs more than once, precede the group name with the prefix
di-, tri-, or tetra-; showing that the group appears two, three or four times respectively.

152
 For this structure;
• The longest chain has six carbon atoms. So it is called hexane.
(rule 1)
• The numbering begins from the left because that is where the
substituent is nearer. (rule 2)
• The substituent is bromo (bromine) and is at carbon number
2, 3 and 4, so it is written as 2,3,4-tribromo. (Rule 3)
• The full name of this structure is 2,3,4-tribromohexane

5. If different substituent groups appears on the same main chain, list these groups in alphabetical
order. When determining alphabetical order, the prefixes such as di, tri, etc. are ignored.

Applying the above rules, the full name of this

structure is;
2,4,6-tribromo-3-chloro-5,5-dimethyloctane

6. If two or more chains have the same number of carbon atoms, use the chain that has the largest
number of smaller substituent groups.
7. When writing the name, numbers are separated by comma, numbers and letters are separated
by a dash and letters are not separated. The whole name is one word.
Try these:
Give the IUPAC name of the following.

1. 2.

3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

8. 9.

10. CH − CTBrU − CH

153
Write the structures of the following compounds.
a) 2-methylpropane d) 3,4-dibromo-2-chloropentane
b) 3-iodopentane e) 2,2,4-trichloro-1-iodohexane
c) 3,4,4,5-tetrachlorononane f) 1,5-dibromo-2,4,4-trifluoro-6,7-dimethyloctane

Properties of alkanes
1. They are found in oil (petroleum) and natural gas.
2. The melting point and boiling point of alkanes increases with increasing relative molecular
mass.
3. Alkanes are less dense than water.
4. They are immiscible with water.
5. Their density increases with increasing relative molecular mass.
6. At room temperature, the first four alkanes (C − Cš U are gases, the next twelve TC” − C k U
are liquids and the rest are solids.
7. They burn well in good supply of oxygen. The first four alkanes burn with blue flame. The
others burn with yellow sooty flame.

Reactions of alkanes
Under ordinary conditions, alkanes are generally unreactive. They are saturated hydrocarbons.
However, they can undergo the following reaction.

1. Combustion reaction
Alkanes undergo combustion to give out water and carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide depending
on the availability of oxygen.

• In sufficient supply of oxygen

When there is enough supply of oxygen, combustion of alkanes yield carbon dioxide and water
vapour. For example;
\]b°® Ú
CHš n 2O opppppppq CO n 2H O
• In limited supply of oxygen
When there is insufficient supply of oxygen, combustion of alkanes yield carbon monoxide
and water.
¡_ _`\[ Ú
2CHš n 3O opppppppq 2CO n 4H O
2. Substitution reaction
Alkanes can undergo substitution reactions in which one or more hydrogen atoms of the alkane
molecule are replaced by an equal number of atoms or groups. An example of a substitution
reaction of alkanes is the chlorination of methane in the presence of sunlight.
^°]¡_® `
CHš n Cl oppppq CH Cl n HCl
Methane Chloromethane
^°]¡_® `
CH Cl n Cl oppppq CH Cl n HCl
Chloromethane Dichloromethane

154
 ^°]¡_® `
CH Cl n Cl oppppq CHCl n HCl
Dichloromethane Trichloromethane
^°]¡_® `
CHCl n Cl oppppq CClš n HCl
Trichloromethane Tetrachloromethane
3. Thermal decomposition
This is also known as cracking. It involves the breaking down of higher alkanes into lower
alkanes by heating. For example, cracking of propane gives methane and ethene.

\h`
CH − CH − CH opppppq CHš n C Hš
Propane Methane Ethene
Uses of alkanes
1. Methane in the form of natural gas is widely used as fuel. It is also used as a source of other
products such as chloromethane, methanol and ethyne.
2. Ethane is used for making chloroethane and is used as source of ethene on dehydrogenation.
3. Propane and butane are used as fuel. For this reason they are liquefied in cylinders under tight
pressure.
4. Liquid alkanes such as hexane are used as solvents.
5. Heavy petroleum fractions are used as lubricants and for obtaining waxes and vaseline.

Isomerism
Isomerism is the existence of compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural
formula. Isomers are compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural
formula. Isomers differs in names and chemical properties.

Structural isomerism in alkanes

Methane, ethane and propane have no isomers but the rest of the alkanes have. Butane has two
isomers, pentane has three isomers, etc.

Isomers of butane
The two isomers of butane are n-butane and 2-methylpropane. Notice that the both have the
molecular formula Cš H Æ.

n-butane
2-methylpropane
Isomers of pentane
The three isomers of pentane are n-pentane, 2-methylbutane, and 2,2-dimethylpropane. The all
have the molecular formula C” H Æ

Try this
Write the isomersPentane
of hexane and heptane. 2-methylbutane
Try this
2,2-dimethylpropane
Write the isomers of hexane.
155
Preparation of alkanes
Alkanes can be prepared in the lab by heating sodium salts of alkanoic acids with soda lime. Soda
lime is a mixture of sodium hydroxide and calcium oxide but the active ingredient is sodium oxide.
Sodium trioxocarbonate (iv) and the corresponding alkane are produced. Methane can be prepared
as follows.

CH − COONa n NaOH opppppq CHš n Na CO

ALKENES

These are unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons with the general formula; C] H ] , where n is the
number of carbon atoms. They contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. TC CU. The
simplest member of the alkenes is ethene. Alkenes are also known as olefins.

Nomenclature of alkenes
The rules for naming alkanes also apply to alkenes with the following modifications.

1. The suffix “–ene” is used instead of “–ane”.

2. The main chain is the longest chain containing the double bond and the numbering begins from
the end closest to the double bond (and not the substituent group).
3. The location of the double bond is indicated by the smaller of the two numbers of the carbon
atoms between which the double bond lies. In order words, it is the number of the carbon atom
that lies just before the double bond.

Example
For this structure;
Name the following compounds.
• There is only one chain so that’s the main chain and it has four
carbon atoms.
• The numbering begins from the left because that is the end nearest
1. to the double bond.
• Since the numbering begins from the left, the double bond is just
after carbon number 1. Therefore we will use 1 to indicate its
location.
The name is but-1-ene

156
 For this structure;
• There is only one chain so that’s the main chain and it has four
2. carbon atoms.
• The numbering begins from the right because that is the end
nearest to the double bond.
• Since the numbering begins from the right, the double bond is just
after carbon number 1. Therefore we will use 1 to indicate its
location.
• The substituent group is methyl and there are three of them.
Try these: The name is 2,3,3-trimethylbut-1-ene
Name the following alkenes.

1. 3.

2. 4.

Write the structures of the following alkenes.

a) Propene d) 3,4-dibromo-1,2-dichlorohex-3-ene
b) 3-methylhex-2-ene e) 4,5-dichloro-3,3,6-triiodo-2,4-dimethyloct-1-ene
c) 1-iodo-3-mehtylpent-2-ene f) 1,2-diiodo-3-methylpent-1-ene

Reactions of alkenes
Alkenes are much more reactive than alkanes. They undergo the following reactions.

1. Addition reaction
i. Hydrogenation: Hydrogenation of alkenes yields alkanes. For example;
Ethene is used as an example here but
oppppq the reaction works for all alkenes and
Ethene Ethane yields the corresponding alkane.
(alkene) (alkane)
ii. Halogenation: Halogenation of alkenes yields haloalkanes. For example, chlorination of
ethene yields 1,2-dichloroethane.

1,2-dichloroethane
iii. Reaction with hydrogen halide: Reaction of alkenes with hydrogen halide also gives
haloalkane. For example, reaction of ethene with hydrogen bromide will yield
bromoethane.

157
 Bromoethane
2. Polymerization
Polymerization is reaction where small molecules called monomers join up to form giant
molecules called polymers. Alkenes can also react within themselves to form giant molecules
called polymers. For example ethene can undergo polymerization to form polythene.

nT + )
Ethene Polyethene

(monomer) (polymer)
Test for unsaturation
Bromine water can be used to identify unsaturated hydrocarbons such as alkenes. Bromine water
is a brown solution of bromine in water. The solution turns colorless when it is added to an alkene.
This is because the alkene reacts with the bromine in the solution.

(in water)

Uses of alkenes
1. Ethene is used to make plastics and other organic chemicals such as ethanol and acetic acid
(vinegar). It is also used to make haloalkanes which serve as raw materials for other products.
2. Propene is used to make polypropylene which is used in plastics and fibers.
3. Butene can be used to produce rubber and high density polyethene.

ALKYNES

Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with the general formula C] H ] where n is the number
of carbon atoms. They contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond (C CU. The smallest
member of the alkynes is ethyne.

Nomenclature of alkynes
The rules for naming alkenes also apply to alkynes except that the name ends with “-yne”.
Example
Name the following alkynes.
2.

1.
but-1-yne
Try these: 4,5-dimethylhex-2-yne
Name the following alkynes.

1. 2.
158
3. 4.

Write the structures of the following compounds.

a) ethyne c) 3,5-dichloro-4-methylhex-1-yne
b) 3-bromoprop-1-yne d) 1,1-difluoro-4,4-dimethylpent-2-yne

Reactions of alkynes
Alkynes reacts in a way similar to alkenes. Alkynes can undergo the following reactions.

1. Addition reaction
a) Hydrogenation: When alkynes are reacted with hydrogen in the presence of a catalyst such as
Nickel, Palladium or Platinum, they are reduced to alkanes. Although an alkene is formed first,
but the reactions proceeds to form alkane.

b) Halogenation: The addition of halogen may yield a haloalkene or a holoalkane depending on

the amount of halogen in the reactants.

c) Reaction with hydrogen halide: Depending on the amount of hydrogen halide available, a
haloalkene or a holoalkane may be formed.

2. Combustion reaction
Alkynes burn in oxygen to form carbon (iv) oxide and water. When there is sufficient supply
of oxygen, a very high temperature can be reached. This make alkynes useful in oxy-acetylene
torches used for welding metals.
2C H n 5O oppppq 4CO n 2H O
Ethyne

Uses of alkynes
1. Ethyne is used as fuel in oxy-acetylene torches for cutting and welding metals.
2. Chlorinated ethyne is used as solvent.
3. Ethyne is a starting material for the preparation of vinyl chloride. Vinyl chloride is the
monomer for polyvinyl chloride.

159
 ALKANOLS
These are organic compound that contain an –OH group bonded to a carbon atom. They have the
general formula C] H ] OH.

Nomenclature of alkanols
Alkanols are named in similar way to alkenes and alkynes. The only difference is that the name
ends with “-ol”.

Example

1. 3.
Methanol Propan-2-ol

2. 4.

Ethanol
2-Methylbutan-2-ol
Types of alkanols
Primary alkanols
These are alkanols (alcohols) that have two replaceable hydrogen atoms. Ethanol is an example.

In a primary alkanol, there are two

hydrogen atoms attached to the
same carbon atom carrying the OH.
Ethanol
Secondary alcohols
These are alcohols that have one replaceable hydrogen atom. Example; propan-2-ol.

In a secondary alkanol, there is only

one hydrogen atom attached to the
same carbon atom carrying the OH.
Propan-2-ol

Tertiary alcohols
These are alcohols that have no replaceable hydrogen atom. Example; 2-methylpropan-2-ol.
In a tertiary alkanol, there is no
hydrogen atom attached to the same
carbon atom carrying the OH.

2-methylpropan-2-ol
Ethanol
Ethanol is a well-known alcohol. Alcoholic drinks contain ethanol. It is often just called ‘alcohol’
but strictly, alcohol is just another name for alkanols.

160
Preparation of ethanol
Ethanol can be prepared by the following methods.

1. Fermentation
Fermentation is a metabolic process that converts sugars such as glucose to alcohol and/or
gases. Ethanol can be prepared by fermentation of sugar (or starch). This is done by adding
yeast which produces enzymes that converts sugar to ethanol. During fermentation, glucose
from cereals, fruits and vegetables is turned to ethanol by enzymes contained in yeast. The
process takes place in two steps.

In the first step, the starch or sugar is converted to glucose and fructose by the action of an enzyme
called invertase. Invertase is present in yeast.

_]¯\i`h^\
C H O n H O oppppppq Ck H Ok n Ck H Ok
Sugar Glucose Fructose

In the second step, glucose is converted to ethanol and carbon (iv) oxide by the action of zymase
enzyme. Zymase is present in yeast.
a h^\
Ck H Ok oppppppq C H” OH n CO
Glucose Ethanol

The apparatus for fermentation is such that the carbon (iv) oxide produced can escape without
allowing air (oxygen) into the mixture. This is important because oxygen oxidizes the ethanol and
turn it to ethanoic acid (vinegar). Ethanol produced by fermentation is used in alcoholic drinks.

The lime water in the

test tube serves as
fermentation lock which
prevents oxygen from
entering. The test tube
may also contain water
instead of lime water.

161
The ethanol produced from fermentation is about 14%. Higher percentage of ethanol in the mixture
kills the yeast (which provides the enzymes), hence it makes the process to stop. Distilling the
mixture yields about 95% ethanol and 5% water. This is called rectified spirit.

Dehydrating agents such as calcium oxide are used to remove the remaining water to obtain
absolute ethanol. Absolute ethanol has a purity of 99% to 100%.

2. Hydration of ethene
The reaction of compounds with water is called hydration. The large scale production of
ethanol for commercial purposes can be done by the hydration of ethene. This is done by
mixing ethene and steam, and passing the mixture over a catalyst. Most of the ethanol produced
this way is used as a solvent or as a fuel.
Ú
C Hš n H O oppppppq C H” OH

Properties of ethanol
1. It is a clear colorless liquid. 4. It can slowly oxidize to ethanoic acid.
2. It boils at 78 ºC. 5. It is very volatile.
3. It burns well in air giving out heat.

Uses of ethanol
1. It is used as a solvent in paints, varnishes and perfumes which need to dry quickly when used.
2. It is used as a fuel.
3. It is present in alcoholic drinks. Various alcoholic drinks contain ethanol in varying amounts.
4. It is used to produce ethanoic acid (vinegar).

Methylated spirits
Methylated spirit is a mixture of ethanol (95%) and methanol (5%). It is also called denatured
alcohol. Methanol is poisonous, therefore it renders methylated spirits unfit for human
consumption.

Uses of methylated spirit

1. It is used as a cleansing agent. 3. It is used as a solvent.
2. It is used as a disinfectant. 4. It is used as a fuel.

162
 ALKANOIC ACIDS

Alkanoic acid are organic compounds with the TCOOHU group attached to an alkyl group. They
have the general formula C] H ] COOH.

Nomenclature of alkanoic acids

Alkanoic acids are named by replacing the last letter of the alkane (-e) with ‘-oic acid’.
Example
This compound has only one carbon atom. So its name starts with
1. ‘methan’. Since it also has COOH, it will end with ‘-oic acid’. The
full name will be methanoic acid.

This compound has two carbon atoms. So its name starts with
2. ‘ethan’. Since it also has COOH, it will end with ‘-oic acid’. The full
name will be ethanoic acid.

Some naturally occurring alkanoic acids

Name of acid Formula
methanoic acid Occurs in stings of ants and bees.
Ethanoic acid Present in vinegar
Occurs in the sebaceous glands of the
Propanoic acid
skin. It is used as a preservative.
Butanoic acid Found in butter
Lauric acid Found in berries
Stearic acid Found in animal fat
Palmitic acid Found in palm oil
Oleic acid Present in the human adipose tissue
Ascorbic acid Ck H– Ok Found mainly in citrus fruits
Table 1

Uses of methanoic acid

1. It is used as a starting material to produce other chemicals.
2. It is used in processing textiles and leather.
3. It is used in electroplating.

Uses of ethanoic acid

1. It is used in food flavouring. It is referred to as vinegar.
2. It is used in the production of drugs such as aspirin and other chemicals.
3. It is used as solvent.
4. It is used in the manufacture of various plastic substances, cellulose acetate, vinyl acetate, etc.

163
 ALKYL ALKANOATES

Alkyl alkanoates are formed by the reaction of alkanoic acids and alkanols. The reaction is called
esterification. They have the general formula RCOOR′. Alkyl alkanoates are also known as esters.

R = the alkyl of the alkanol

R′ = the alkyl of the alkanoic acid
Alkanol Alkanoic acid Alkyl alkanoate

Esters containing simple hydrocarbon groups are volatile fragrant substances used as flavorings
in the food industry. Triesters (molecules containing three ester groups) occur in nature as oils
and fats.

Nomenclature of alkyl alkanoates

Alkyl alkanoates are named by writing the alkyl (R) of the alkanol first followed by the
alkanoate. For Example;

1. 2.
Methyl methanoate Propyl ethanoate
The carbon atom with
the double bond to the
3. 4. oxygen belongs to the
acid part (alkanoate)
Ethyl ethanoate Methyl ethanoate

Esterification
This is the process in which an alkanol reacts with alkanoic acid to form ester and water. This
process often require heating and the use of catalysts.

Differences between esterification and neutralization

Esterification Neutralization
The reaction is reversible The reaction is not reversible
Acids reacts with alkanol Acid reacts with alkali
The reaction is slow The reaction is fast
Catalyst is needed Does not require the use of catalyst
Heating is involved Does not involve heating

Fats and oils

Fats and oils (lipids) are esters of fatty acids and glycerol. They are formed by the combination
of fatty acids and glycerol (propan-1,2,3-triol). They include the following.
1. Palmitin (Palmitic acid and glycerol)
2. Stearin (Stearic acid and glycerol)
3. Olein (oleic acid and glycerol)

164
Differences between fats and oils
1. At room temperature fats are solids and oils are liquids.
2. Fats are saturated and oils are unsaturated.

Saponification
This is the reaction between fat or oil and an alkali to form soap.

Preparation
Preparation of soap
Materials needed
Fat or oil, sodium hydroxide solution, concentrated sodium chloride solution, water, beaker,
measuring cylinder, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, glass rod and safety goggles,

Steps:
1. Add about equal volumes of fat or oil to sodium hydroxide solution in a beaker. Since fats
are solids at room temperature, it is necessary to heat the fat to melt it.
2. Heat the mixture and allow it to boil for few minutes while stirring. Periodically add little
water to keep the volume of the reaction mixture constant. At this stage, other substances
such as colour and perfume can be added.
3. Add concentrated sodium chloride solution and allow the mixture to boil for some time. This
helps to precipitate the soap.
4. Cool the mixture and pour off any liquid left and wash the solid product with water. The
solid product is the soap and the liquid is glycerol.

Differences between soaps and detergents.

1. Soapy detergents are made from fats and oils whereas soapless detergents are made from a
completely different set of chemicals.
2. Soapy detergents are biodegradable while soapless detergents are non-biodegradable.
3. Soapy detergents do form scum with hard water but soapless detergents do not form scum
with hard water.

Differences between industrially made (commercial) soaps and locally (traditionally) made
soaps.
1. Industrial production of soap is in large scale while local production is in small scale.
2. Locally produced soaps may contain impurities while industrially made soaps rarely contain
impurities.
3. In the commercial production of soap, synthetic chemicals such as perfume and colours are
added but the traditionally produced soaps usually do not contain synthetic chemicals.

PETROLEUM
Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons found in the earth’s crust. It is produced from the
remains of marine plants and animals that have decomposed over millions of years.

165
Petroleum exploration
Many scientific techniques are involved in oil exploration. It involves the following techniques.
1. An aerial survey of the area is done looking for likely geological structures.
2. Seismic waves are sent into the earth and are reflected by different layers of rocks. This is
referred to as seismic survey. The data obtained from this survey gives geologist an idea of
the rock structures underneath.
3. A small test well is drilled in a likely oil field. The core of the rock which is cut while
drilling give further information about the rocks beneath the ground.
4. If there is strong evidence that there is oil in the area, a large well is drilled.

Refining of petroleum

Some oil compounds have small molecules with only few carbon atoms while some have as
many as fifty carbon atoms. To make the best use of oil, it is separated into groups of compounds
that are close in size. This is called refining and is carried out in a tall tower that is kept very hot
at the base and cooler towards the top.
Crude oil is pumped in at the base and the compounds starts to boil off. Those with the smallest
molecules have the lowest boiling points. Therefore they boil off first and rise to the top of the
tower. The others rise only part way depending on their boiling points.

166
Name of fraction No. of carbon atoms Uses
Liquid petroleum gas 1–4 Further separated and some sold as bottled gas.
Gasoline 5–6 Blended with other fractions to make petrol.
Naptha 6 – 10 Starting materials for many chemicals and plastics
Kerosene 10 – 16 Jet fuels and detergents
Diesel oil 16 – 20 Fuel for central heating and for transportation
Lubricating oil 20 – 30 Oil for cars and other machines
Fuel oil 30 – 40 Fuel for power stations and ships
Paraffin waxes 40 – 50 Candles, grease, polishes
Bitumen 50 and more Pitch for roads and roofs.
Once the fractions are removed, there is need for further treatment before they can be used.

1. The fractions may contain impurities such as sulphur compounds which need to be removed.
If these are left in fuel, they burn to form harmful gases such as sulphur dioxide which can
pollute the environment.

2. Some fractions may be separated into single compounds or smaller groups of compounds.
For example the gas fraction may be separated in methane, ethane, propane and butane.

3. Part of the fractions may be cracked. Cracking is the breakdown of larger molecules into
smaller useful ones. For example one can crack decane from naptha to get the right size
molecule for petrol.

Cracking
Cracking is important for two reasons.
i. It lets you turn long chain molecules to shorter ones. For example, decane from
naptha can be cracked to form propene and ethene.

\h` , fh`h¡a^`
C ÆH opppppppppppq C” H n C Hk n C Hš
Decane Pentane Propene Ethene
ii. It always produces short chain molecules like those of ethene and propene with
double bonds which makes them reactive.
Reforming
Reform is the process whereby straight and long chain molecule are converted to branched
chains High quality petrol can be obtained by reforming. This is done by taking molecules with
long chains from gasoline and naptha fractions and making the chains branched.

Polymers
Polymers are long chain giant organic molecules that are assembled from many smaller
molecules called monomers. Polymers consists of many repeating units of monomers.

Polymerization
Polymerizatin is the process by which monomers chemically join up to form giant molecules
called polymers.

167
 Addition polymerization
This is the polymerizatin where no by product is formed. An example is the formation of
polyethene.

Condensation polymerization
This is where a by-product such as a water molecule is formed during polymerization. An
example is the formation if nylon.

Natural polymers
These are the naturally occuring polymers. They are usually structural or storage matrials.
Examples are as follows.

Natural polymer Monomers

Starch Glucose
Protein Amino acids
Cellulose Glucose
Natural rubber Isoprene
Nucleic acids Nuleotides

Synthetic polymers
These are often referred to as plastics.
Polymer Properties Uses
Low density Plastic bags, aqueeze bottles, dust
Flexible, chemically inert, insulator
polyethene bins
High density
Inert, thermally stable, tough Bottles, plastic bags, insulation
polyethene
Polystyrene Thermal insulator Petridishes, cups, CD case
Silky, thermoplastic, resistant to chemical and
Nylon Ropes, bristles for brushes, carpets
biological agents
High tensile strength, resistant to acids and Plastic crates, food conatainers,
Polypropene
bases industrial fibers, furniture
Polyvinyl chloride Insulator Pipes, wire and cable insulation
Non-stick coating for cookware,
Polytetrafluoroethene
Low coefficient of friction, tubing for highly corrisive
(teflon)
chemicals, gears
Melamine Stiff, hard, strong, resists some chemicals Mugs, dishes, insulations,
Polyester Strong, durable Textiles
Zylon Very high tensile strength, thermal stability Tennis ball rackest, body armor

Properties of plastics
1. They are all carbon compounds. 5. Some catch fire easily.
2. The are all polymers. 6. They give out harmful gases when they are
3. They are electrical and thermal insulators. burnt.
4. They are non-biodegradable. 7. They are generally light.

168
 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
Magnetism and magnetic materials
Certain substances are magnetic and others are not. Some non-magnets such as iron nails become
magnets when they are attached to a magnet. The effect of a magnet can be felt through materials
such as paper, cloth, etc.

Temporal magnetism
This is the magnetism which substances such as iron nails have when they attached to a magnet.
Such substances lose their magnetism when they are removed from the magnet.

Retentivity
Is the length of time a substance remains magnetic. Some substances such as steel have high
retentivity and the others such as soft iron have low retentivity.

Ferromagnetic substance
These are substances which can be attracted by magnets. Example nickel, iron, steel, cobalt, etc.
Copper, brass, wood and glass are non-ferromagnetic.

Magnetic field
This is the region in which the magnetic force • A magnetic line of force comes out of the
exists. North Pole and goes into the South Pole.
• The magnetic lines of force do not cross
• The magnetic lines of force can pass
through non-magnetic materials such as
paper, cloth, etc.

Neutral point
This is the point at which two magnetic forces
are equal and opposite.

Electromagnet
This is a magnet produced by the flow of electric current through a conductor. Electromagnetism
exists only when current is flowing, hence it is a temporal.

169
Hard magnet
This is a permanent magnet which retain its magnetism and is difficult to demagnetise.

Soft magnet
This is a magnet that holds its magnetism only temporarily. It can be easily demagnetised.

The earth as a magnet

The earth has its own magnetic field. It
behaves as if there is a huge bar magnet along
its north-south axis.
The geographical North Pole is not at the
same point as the earth’s magnetic North
Pole.
The South Pole of the earth’s magnet is at the
geographical North Pole and its north pole is
at the geographical South Pole.

Action of one magnet on another

If the similar poles of magnets are brought near each other, it is noticed that repulsion occurs and
when the opposite poles are brought near each other, they attract. That is north and south poles
always attract. This result may be summarized as follows;

Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.

How to magnetize an object

1. By passing an electric current through a coil of wire called solenoid.
2. By stroking some magnetic materials with a magnet.

How to demagnetize a magnet

1. By placing it in a solenoid through which alternating current (A.C) passes.
2. By rough handling
3. By heating
4. By hammering

Uses of magnets
1. Magnets of great range of types and sizes are used in the construction of dynamos, electric
motors and current measuring instruments.
2. Magnets are found in house hold instruments like radio loudspeakers, telephone earpiece, etc.

170
3. Television sets use magnetic field to direct the beam of electrons which strike the screen to
produce pictures.
4. Electromagnets are used to pick up heavy loads. Example in the loading and unloading of
ships.

ELECTRICITY

Sources of electricity
1. Cells 2. Generators 3. Solar cells

Cells
In cells, chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. The modern dry cell (Le Clanché cell)
is used in torches and other portable electrical appliances.

Types of cells
Primary cells
These cells cannot be recharged once the chemical energy they contain has been used up.

Secondary cells
These cells can be recharged once they have run down. The recharging is done by passing current
through them. They are also known as storage cells or accumulators. Example are the lead-acid
cell and the nickel-cadmium alkaline cell. The lead cells are widely used in ignition and lighting
in cars.

Generators
A generator consist of an armature (a metal core with wires wound around it). When the armature
rotates in a magnetic field, a potential difference (p.d) called electromotive force (e.m.f.) is
produced at the wires which when connected to a circuit, electric current flows.
A direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) may be produced by generators. In power
stations, generators produce alternating current. This is because alternating current can be easily
transformed for distribution. A bicycle dynamo is an example of a simple generator.

Solar cells
These turn radiant energy from the sun into electricity. They provide electricity for space ships
and artificial satellites. They are also found in watches and calculators.

ELECTRIC CURRENT

When electric current flows, electrical energy is converted into other forms of energy. For electric
current to flow, there must be a complete circuit. A complete circuit consists of the following;
1. An electric current source in the form of A.C or D.C.
2. A load that converts electrical energy to another form of energy that is immediately useful.
The load may be a resistor, capacitor inductor or components that contain these or their
combination.

171
3. A switch which allows the circuit to be opened or closed.

Conductors
Conductors and insulators
Conductors
These are materials through which current can flow. E.g. metals, carbon, etc.

Insulators
These are materials that do not allow current to flow through them. E.g. rubber, wood, etc.

Semi-
Semi-conductors
These are substances that allow current to flow through them but not as much as conductors. E.g.
silicon
Semi-conductors are used in making components like transistors and diodes in the electronic
industry. Semi-conductors can be made to be good conductors by adding some impurities. Good
conductors have low resistance where as poor conductors have high resistance.

Arrangement of the components in a circuit

The components in a circuit may be arranged as follows.

Series arrangements Parallel arrangement

The lamps in the above circuit are arranged

The lamps in the above circuit are arranged in parallel
in series.

Resistors
A resistor is anything that restricts the flow of current. When electricity is forced through a resistor,
often the electrical energy changed to another form of energy, such as light or heat. Resistors are
widely used in devices such as timing circuits, radios and televisions. Variable resistors (rheostats)
are used to adjust the brightness of lamps, adjusting motor speeds and controlling the volumes in
radios and other devices.

172
The total resistance of two or more resistors depends on the arrangement.

Resistors in series
When the resistors are arranged in series, the
total resistance in the circuit is the same as the
sum of the resistance across each resistor.
R R nR nR …

Resistors in parallel When the resistors are arranged in parallel,

the total resistance in the circuit is calculated
by the formula.
1 1 1 1
n n …
R R R R

Examples
1. Calculate the total resistance between X and Y for the following combinations of resistors.

Ammeter
It is used to measure the current (I) passing through a resistor.

Ohmmeter
It is used to measure resistance.

Voltmeter
It is used to measure potential difference (V) across a resistor.

173
In a circuit, the voltmeter is placed across the components and the ammeter is placed in series with
the components.

Electromotive force (e.m.f)

This is the number of joules of electrical energy used to move one coulomb of charge from one
point to another.

Potential difference
Potential difference is the difference in voltage between the ends of a wire when no current is
flowing.

The e.m.f and the p.d are often referred to as the voltage and is measured in volts.

Electric Current
Electric current is the flow of electrically charged particles in a conductor.

Resistance
A cell connected in a circuit resists the flow of current. This is called internal resistance.

The resistance of a conductor in the form of a wire is directly proportional to the length of the wire
and inversely proportional to the cross sectional area (thickness) of the wire.

The greater the resistance of the wire, the more electrical energy is converted to heat energy. For
this reason, filament light bulbs are made of thin wires and plugs are made of thick wires.

Ohm’s law
The current passing through an ideal conductor is proportional to the potential difference
between the ends of the conductor and inversely proportional to the resistance.

Examples
1. A circuit contains a single cell connected to a lamp. On open circuit, the e.m.f of the cell is
1.5V. On closed circuit, the p.d of the cell is 1.2V. The current passing through the circuit is
0.3A.Calculate the internal resistance of the cell.

174
 from OhmÒ s law, V I R 0.3 0.3 × R
V 1. 5 − 1.2 1. 8 0.3
R 3
I 0.3 A 0.3
R ?

2. A p.d of 4V is applied to two resistors of 6Ω and 2Ω connected in series. Calculate;

a) The combined resistance c) The p.d across the 6Ω resistor
b) The current flowing

a) The combined resistance

R R nR
R 6n2 V

b) The current flowing

V IR 4 I ×8
V 4V 4
I 1. A
I ? 8
R 8Ω

c) The p.d across the 6Ω resistor

V IR R 6Ω
V ? V 0.5 × 6 8
I 0.5

Try these
1. A p.d of 6V is applied to two resistors of 3Ω and 6Ω connected in parallel. Calculate;
a) The combined resistance
b) The current flowing in the main circuit
c) The current in the 3Ω resistor

2. Calculate the values of the readings on the meters in the following circuits.

a) b)

175
 ELECTRIC POWER
Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is converted into other forms of energy in a
circuit. It is the product of current and voltage. It is measured in watts.

ä P Power
I Current
V = Voltage
Examples
1. Calculate the power generated by an electric kettle which draws a current of 9A and operates
from a 240V supply.

P =IV = 240
ž =? ž = 9 × 240 = 3?1
=9Œ

2. An electric iron operates at a voltage of 220V and has a power rating of 1.5kW. Calculate;
a) The current passing through the iron.
b) The resistance of the iron.
a) The current passing through the iron.
P =IV 1500 = I × 220
P = 1.5 kW = 1500 W 1500
I= = ?. V
V = 220 V 220
I=?
b) The resistance of the iron
V= IR 220 = 6.82 × R
V = 220 V 220
R= =8 . ?
I = 6.82 A 6.82
R=?

Try these
1. Calculate the current passing through a heater which operates at 240V and has a power of
2.5kW.

2. A filament lamp is rated at 220V, 60W. Calculate;

a) the current taken by the lamp.
b) the resistance of the filament of lamp.

3. A vacuum cleaner has a rating of 480W on the 240V mains. What fuse should be fitted on the
plug.

4. An electric kettle connected to the 240V mains supply draws a current of 10A. Calculate:
a) The power of the kettle.
b) The energy produced in 20 seconds.

176
5. A vacuum cleaner is labelled 240V, 500W. When connected to a 240V supply, how much
current does it takes.

Calculating the cost of electricity

The commercial unit of electricity is the kilowatt hour (kWh).

•§ ¥-ª µ• §©§-› = Ïœ §- × ¥ª §
The kilowatt hour is the energy supplied by a rate of working 1000W for 1 hour. The amount of
electrical energy can be calculated as follows:

HJCÂ!ÃCDH J¿J!5" = #G$J! (4ÃHG$DÂÂE) × ÂÃ7J (øGI!E)

Examples
1. A refrigerator runs for a total of 6 hours each day. Its motor has a power of 180W.
a) How many units (kWh) will it use in 30 days?
b) How much will it cost to operate the refrigerator for the 30 days at cost of 10 Dalasis per
unit?
a) total unit (electrical energy = power × time)
power = 180 W = 0.18 kW
time = 6 h × 30 days = 180 h
electrical energy = 0.18 × 180 = 8 . B 4òø

b) total cost = amount of electrical energy × cost per unit

cost at D10.00 per unit = 32.4 × 10.00 = %8 B. 11

Try these
1. Find the cost of running five lamps of 60W each and four lamps of 100W each for 8 hours if
electricity cost 5 Dalasi per unit.

2. A 2kW electric fire is switched on for 6 hours. What is the cost if one unit cost 10 dalasis?

3. An electric lamp uses energy at the rate of 480W on a 220V supply. Calculate;
a) the current in the lamp
b) the resistance of the lamp
c) the cost of running the lamp for 6 hours at 9 dalasis per unit.

4. An electric heater has a resistance of 20 ohms and connects to a 220 Volts supply. Calculate;
a) the current taken by the heater.
b) the power of the heater.
c) the cost of running the heater for one month if it is kept on 12 hours each day and the unit
cost D9.00.

177
 HOUSEHOLD WIRING
The cable bringing the mains electricity supply into a house contains two main wires, the live and
the neutral. The live wire carries the full voltage supplied by the generator. The neutral wire is
earthed at a local transformer station.
At some convenient place in the house, the service cables enter the electricity board’s main fuse,
then to the electricity meter, to the switch and finally to the fuse box.
A fuse is a device containing a short length of thin wire which melts and breaks the circuit if the
current exceeds a save value. The fuse box contains fuses each of which protects a different circuit.

Ring circuit

A ring circuit is a cable taken to various parts of the house with both ends of the cable connected
to the mains. Besides the live and the neutral wire, the circuit is provided with a third wire, the
earth wire. Ring circuit allows appliances to be used in parallels to the mains supply.
Switches and fuses are placed on the live wire. This is done so that the components or appliances
will not be live when the switch is off. Most appliances are connected to an earth wire which
protects the users from receiving large electric shock by providing a safe route for the electric
current when the appliance becomes faulty.
All household wires are covered in insulating materials and are passed through conduits in the
walls of buildings. The conduits are tubes made of insulating materials such as plastics.

Wiring a three – pin plug

Many power circuits use three–pin plugs with earth connections. These plugs usually have a fuse
connected to the live wire that leads to the appliance and the earth wire connected to the body of
the appliance and is not on a switch.

The following colour codes are used in wiring.

Red or brown – live
Black or blue – neutral
Green or yellow with green stripes – earth
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Switches
A switch is a control on an electrical circuit. Where there is need to control the switch from two
points, a two-way switch used.

The figure above shows a two-way switch. Current flows and the lamp lights when;
• Switch 1 is on A and switch 2 is on B.
• Switch 1 is on C and switch 2 is on D.

Current does not flow when;

• Switch 1 is on A and switch 2 is on D.
• Switch 1 is on C and switch 2 is on B.

POWER TRANSFORMATION AND TRANSMISSION

Direct current (D.C) is the electric current which flows in one direction only. When direct current
flows at a constant value through a coil, it produces magnetic field whose size and polarity does
not change, hence no e.m.f is induced at any other coil or conductor positioned within the magnetic
field.
Alternating current (A.C) is the current which continuously changes direction of flow. When
alternating current flows through a coil, it produces a magnetic field which is continuously
changing shape and polarity. An e.m.f is induced in any coil or inductor within a magnetic field.

179
Transformers
Transformers are devices which have an A.C passed through a primary coil in order to induce an
A.C in the secondary coil. The coils of a transformer are wires wound around a laminated soft iron
core. There are two types of transformers;

1. Step–up transformer: this transformer has 2. Step–down transformer: This transformer

more turns at the secondary coil. Its output has more turns in the primary coil. Its output
voltage is greater than the input voltage. voltage is less than the input voltage.

Note
• The primary coil is the coil carrying the source current and the secondary coil is the coil in n
which the current is induced.
• Alternating current is induced at the secondary coil.
• The size of the induced current depends in the size of the source current and the ratio of the
number of turns of the wire of the primary and secondary coil.
Most transformers have high efficiency (very little energy is converted to heat)
Transformers can transform both the magnitude and the voltage of the current.

The ratio of the primary voltage and the secondary voltage is equal to the ratio of the number of
turns of wire in the primary coil and the number of turns of the wire in the secondary coil.

Võ Tõ ~ = † Ñ ˆ
=
V^ T^ • = ‰ˆ ˆ
&~ = â ˆ Ð ˆ ‡ † Ñ ˆ †
&• = â ˆ Ð ˆ ‡ ‰ˆ ˆ †

Example
The primary and the secondary coil of a transformer have 1000 and 50 turns of wire respectively.
What voltage is produced at the secondary coil if the primary coil is connected to a supply of 240
volts?

Võ = 240 240 1000

=
V^ =? V^ 50
T^ = 50 50 × 240
=
Tõ = 1000 1000
Võ Tõ =3
=
V^ T^

180
Try these
1. A transformer has 800 turns in the primary coil. The primary coil is connected to a supply of
240 volts and produces 6 volts at the secondary coil. Calculate the number of turns in the
secondary coil.

2. A transformer is required to transform 10 volts to 5 volts. How many turns will be needed in
the primary coil if the secondary coil has 25 turns?

3. What voltage is received at the primary coil of a transformer whose secondary coil produces
40 volts if the primary and the secondary coils have 100 and 400 turns respectively?

181
 SKELETON AND MOVEMENT
This is the body part that forms the supporting structure of an organism.

Functions of the skeleton

1. It forms the framework of the body.
2. It gives shape to the body.
3. It supports the body.
4. It provides surface for attachment of muscles.
5. Red blood cells are made in the bone marrow.
6. It protects internal and soft organs of the body. For example, the skull protects the brain.
7. It stores minerals such as calcium and Phosphorus.

The human skeleton

182
Types of skeleton
1. Exoskeleton: This is the stable outer shell of an organism.
2. Endoskeleton: This forms the support structure inside the body. This type of skeleton can be
found in humans.

Divisions of the skeleton

1. Axial skeleton: The axial skeleton includes the bones of the centre or axis of the body. Viz,
the skull, vertebral column, ribs and the sternum.
2. Appendicular skeleton: The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the upper and
lower extremities. Viz, the limbs and the limb girdles.

THE AXIAL SKELETON

The skull

The skull consists of the cranium and the upper and the lower jaws which hold the teeth. The
cranium consists of bones joined by sutures (immovable joints). The skull encases and protects the
brain. It also has hollows which protects the eyes and the ears.

The vertebral column

The bones of the vertebral column are grouped as follows.

183
1. Cervical vertebrae: They are seven in humans and are found at the neck region.
2. Thoracic vertebrae: They are twelve in humans and are found at the chest region.
3. Lumbar vertebrae: They are five in humans and are found in the abdominal region.
4. Sacral vertebrae: They are five in humans and are fused to form the sacrum. They are
found between the pelvic girdles.
5. Caudal vertebrae: They are four in humans and are fused to form the coccyx. They are
found at the tail region.

184
Vertebra Main features Functions
Cervical vertebra • The neural spine is short Supports the neck. The first
The atlas vertebra • It has a pair of vertebral canals for two carry the skull and allows
the passage of blood vessels the head to nod and rotate
• It has flattened transverse
processes
• The atlas has lager facets for
articulation with the skull.
The axis vertebra
• Found in the neck region

Thoracic vertebra • Long neural spine Articulates with the ribs. Back
• A pair of facet for and shoulder muscles attach
articulation with ribs to neural spine.
• No vertebral canals
• Large centrum
• Short transverse
processes
• Found at in the chest
region

The lumbar vertebra • Large and thick centrum Provide surface for
• Large neural canal attachment of abdominal
• Well-developed transverse muscles
processes Supports the head, neck and
• Short neural spine rib cage
• Found in the abdominal region

Sacral vertebra • Fused together to form the sacrum Together with the pelvic
• They are located between the girdles, they give the skeleton
pelvic girdles rigidity and strength
Caudal vertebra • They are fused to form the coccyx They provide attachment for
• They are located in the tail region muscles and support tail
of the backbone where present.

185
 THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton consists of the limbs and the girdles.

THE GIRDLES
Pectoral girdles
Each half of the pectoral girdle consists of a scapula, coracoid and clavicle. The scapula is
triangular in shape with its broad base lying parallel to the vertebral column. It has a coracoid fused
to it. The clavicle is a small rod-like bone with one end joined to the ligaments of the sternum

The pectoral girdle supports the arm and the scapula provides surface for attachment of shoulder
muscles. The glenoid cavity provides a socket for the head of the humerus forming the shoulder
joint. This allows the arm to swing freely.

186
The pelvic girdles
Each half of the pelvic girdle has an ilium,
ischium and pubis fused together for greater
strength. The pelvic girdle forms a protective
cage around vital organs such as the female
reproductive organs. It supports the legs by
articulating with the head of the femur and
forming the hip joint. It articulates with the
sacrum and provides support for a tail where
present.

THE LIMBS
The limbs in all vertebrates except fish are arranged in a similar plan. This is the pentadactyl limb
plan.

The fore limb

The fore limb of humans consists of the
humerus, radius, ulna, carpals,
metacarpals and phalanges. The upper
end of the humerus articulates with the
glenoid cavity of the scapular to form the
shoulder joint. The lower end articulates
with the radius and ulna to form the
elbow joint. The carpals form the wrist,
the metacarpals form the hand and the
phalanges form the fingers.

187
The hind limb
The hind limb consists of the femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges. The femur
has a round upper end which articulates with the pelvic girdle to form the hip joint. The lower end
of the femur articulates with the tibia and fibula to form the knee joint. The tarsals make up the
ankle, the metatarsals make up the foot and the phalanges make up the toes.

JOINTS
A joint occurs where two or more bones meet and may or may not permit movement.
Ligament: this is where two bones meet.
Tendon: this where a bone and muscle meet.

Type of joint Location Bones involved Function

Ball and socket Shoulder • Scapula and humerus Allows movement of the hand and
joint Hip • Hip bone and femur thigh in all direction
Elbow • Humerus and ulna Allows movement of hand and leg in
Hinge joint
knee • Femur and tibia one plane
Pivot joint Neck • Atlas and axis Allows nodding of the head
Wrist • Carpals
Gliding joint Ankle • Tarsals Allows slight and smooth movement
Backbone • Vertebrate
Skull • Cranium
Immovable joint Pelvic • Ilium, ischium and Does not allow movement
girdle pubis

188
Structure of a movable joint
A typical movable joint has the following features.
1. Ligament: It is made up of tough fibrous material that joints bone to bone.
2. Articular cartilage: A pad of
cartilage that covers the end of
each bone that articulates. It is
smooth and acts as cushion to
absorb frictional forces when
bones touch or rub to prevent
wearing away of the ends of
bones.

3. Synovial membrane: It
secretes synovial fluid. This
fluid acts as lubricant which
reduces friction at the joint.

MUSCLES
All muscle tissues have the ability to contract. Three types of muscles are found in mammals.

Skeletal (voluntary) muscles

These muscles are attached to the bones.
They are voluntary, striated, multinucleated
and non-branched. They can contract and
relax quickly but tire quickly. The ends of
skeletal muscles extend to form tendons.
Examples are the biceps and the triceps of the
upper arm.

Smooth (involuntary) muscles

They are found in the walls of alimentary
canal, reproductive system, excretory system
and the blood vessels. They are non-striated,
involuntary and tapered. They have a single
nucleus. Unlike skeletal muscles, smooth
muscles tire relatively slowly.

189
Cardiac (heart) muscles
This is the tissue that forms the walls of the heart. They are striated, branched, and involuntary and
have single nucleus. They contract and relax rhythmically without becoming fatigued.

Actions of voluntary (skeletal) muscles

The ends of skeletal muscles are drawn out into tendons which attach each end of the muscle to
the bones.
Limb muscles are usually arranged in pairs and have opposite effects. Pair of muscles with have
opposite effects are called antagonistic muscles. Antagonistic pairs of muscles create movement
when one of them contracts and the other relaxes. Examples of antagonistic pairs of muscle are
the biceps and the triceps in the arm and the quadriceps and the hamstrings in the leg.

When the biceps contract and the triceps relax, the arm is bent. This is referred to as flexion. When
the biceps relax and the triceps contract, the arm straitens. This is referred to as extension.

190
 RESPIRATION
Respiration is a chemical process whereby energy released from food with or without the use of
oxygen.

Anaerobic respiration Aerobic respiration

It is the type of respiration whereby energy is This is the type of respiration where energy is
released from food without the use of oxygen. released from food with the use of oxygen. It
has the following stages.

External respiration
This involves breathing followed by gas exchange. Breathing is the ventilatory movement that
brings air into to the lungs or out of the lungs. A small amount of energy is released.

Internal/tissue/cellular respiration
This respiration takes place within the cells of the body. It involves the breakdown of organic
compound such as glucose to release energy. The process is speeded by enzyme action. A lot of
energy is release in the presence of oxygen.
Ck H Ok + 6O oppppq 6CO + 6H O
In the absence of oxygen, lactic acid and carbon dioxide are formed in humans and ethanol and
carbon dioxide. This process in plants is called fermentation.
The energy released in respiration is used in muscle contraction, transmission of nerve impulses,
heat production, etc.

THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Air from outside enters the nostril, and passes to the nasal cavity, larynx and to the trachea. The
trachea splits into two bronchi. Each bronchus splits into a number of small tubes called bronchiole
which end in tiny air sacs called alveoli.
The nasal passage produces mucus which traps dust particles and is covered with cilia which helps
to move the mucus upwards to be coughed. The air passage helps to warm and moisten the air
before reaching the lungs.

191
192
Mechanisms of breathing
Two processes are involved in breathing.
1. Breathing in or inspiration or inhalation.
2. Breathing out or expiration or exhalation.

Inhalation Exhalation
External intercostal muscles contract External intercostal muscles relax
Internal intercostal muscles relax Internal intercostal muscles contract
Ribs move up and out Ribs move in and out
Diaphragm flattens Diaphragms domes upwards
Diaphragm contracts Diaphragm relaxes
Volume of thorax increases Volume of thorax decreases
Air pressure decreases Air pressure increases
Air rushes into the lungs Air rushes out of the lungs

Gas exchange in the lungs

Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli. The walls of the alveoli are thin and richly supplied with
blood. Oxygen diffuses into the blood capillaries and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood
capillaries into the alveoli and is expelled during exhalation.

193
Composition of inhaled and exhaled air
Inhaled air Exhaled air
Carbon dioxide 0.03% 3.5%
Oxygen 20.9% 16.9%
Water vapour Variable Variable
Temperature Existing atmospheric temperature 33 ºC

194
 NUTRITION
All living things must feed. Plants are autotrophic, that is they make their own food using carbon
dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll. Because they use light as their
source of energy, they are said to be holophytic. Animals are heterotrophs, that is, they cannot
make their own food. Some animals are:

Holozoic: that is they take in food and digest it.

Saprophytic: that is they digest food outside their body before they absorb it. E.g. fungi

DIET
What is a balanced diet?
This is the diet that contains all the seven classes of food in their right proportion.

The classes of food

1. Carbohydrates 5. Mineral salts
2. Protein 6. Dietary fibres (roughages)
3. Lipids (fats and oils) 7. Water
4. Vitamins

Carbohydrates
These are compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, in which hydrogen and oxygen
are in the ratio of 1:2, (CH2O).

Types
1. monosaccharide 2. disaccharides 3. polysaccharides

Monosaccharide
These are simple sugars. They are sweet and soluble in water and are reducing sugars. They are
useful for energy. Example;
1. Glucose – found in fruits
2. Fructose – found in honey and fruits.
3. Galactose – found in milk

Disaccharides
These contain two molecules of monosaccharides. They are also sweet and soluble in water and
are reducing sugars except sucrose. They are useful for energy too. Example;
1. Sucrose – found in table sugar.
2. Maltose – germinating barley
3. Lactose – milk sugar

Polysaccharides
They are many molecules of simple sugar units. They are storage or structural materials. E.g.
starch, cellulose, glycogen

195
Sources of carbohydrates
• Rice • Potatoes • Cereals
• Cassava • Bread • Flour

Functions of carbohydrates
Mainly for energy.

Proteins
All proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Some may contain sulphur or
phosphorus. Examples of proteins are insulin, keratin, etc. proteins are made up of long chains of
amino acids.
Proteins are divided into;

1. First class proteins

These contain all the essential amino acids (necessary for healthy growth). They are all animal
proteins and those of plants such as Soya bean.

2. Second class protein

These contain some but not all of the essential amino acids. They are all plant protein except
Soya bean.

Sources of proteins
1. Meat 4. Cheese
2. Beans 5. Milk
3. Fish

Importance of proteins
1. growth 4. hormone formation
2. repairs of cells and worn out tissues 5. for energy (occasionally)
3. enzyme formation

Lipids
Lipids are made from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in which the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is
2:1. They are made by the combination of fatty acids and glycerol.

Sources
1. Margarine 3. Animal fat
2. Vegetable oil

Importance
1. Protection against accidents
2. For energy production
3. Insulation of the body
4. As sources of fat soluble vitamins
5. Some are parts of cells E.g. Cell membrane

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 Vitamins
Vitamins are substances that the body needs in very small amounts. They allow the body to grow
and carryout normal activities (grow properly and stay healthy) by preventing deficiency diseases.
Vitamin Sources Function Deficiency disease
Cod liver oil, sweet
potatoes, carrots For good eye sight and healthy Poor night vision
A
and leafy skin. Skin defects
vegetables
Energy release from
Yeast, eggs and carbohydrates, formation of red Beriberi
B
liver blood cells, healthy nervous Anaemia
system, healthy skin.
Citrus fruits, For healthy immune system,
C (ascorbic Bleeding from gum and
tomatoes, potatoes holds cells together and makes
acid) stomach–scurvy
and cabbage chemical messengers in the brain
Milk, cheese,
For processing calcium and Weak bones, deformed
D (calciferol) cereals, egg yolk
maintaining bone health bones– rickets
and sunlight
Leafy green
Bone pain and muscle
E vegetable, soybean Functions as an antioxidant
weakness
and vegetable oil
Leafy green
For blood clotting and
K vegetables and Excessive bleeding
maintaining bone health.
soybean oil,

Minerals
The body needs minerals in small amounts. They are mineral elements contained in the body which
play specific roles.
Mineral Source Function Effect of deficiency
For strong bones, teeth, and
Milk and milk
muscle tissue. Regulates
product, legumes Soft and deformed bones–
Calcium heartbeat, muscle action and
and canned fish rickets
nerve function. Blood
with bones
clotting
Haemoglobin formation,
improves blood quality and Tiredness, lack of energy and
Iron Meat and legumes
increases resistance to stress anaemia
and diseases
Sea food and Thyroid glands in the neck
Iodine Nerve transmission
iodized salt swell –goitre
Table salt,
processed foods, Needed for proper fluid
Sodium milk, breads, balance, nerve transmission, Pains in muscle (cramp)
vegetables, and and muscle contraction
meat

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 Fluorinated water,
Stimulates bone formation Dental decay, weak tooth
Fluorine marine fish and
and inhibits dental caries enamel and brittle bones.
tea
Meats, milk, fresh
Needed for proper fluid
fruits and Reduced reflexes and weak
Potassium balance, nerve transmission,
vegetables, whole muscles
and muscle contraction
grains, legumes
Table salt,
processed foods,
Needed for proper fluid Reduced blood pressure and
Chlorine milk, meats,
balance and stomach acid. fatigue.
bread, and
vegetables
Important for healthy bones
Meat, fish,
and teeth; found in every Fatigue, loss of appetite, stiff
Phosphorus poultry, eggs, and
cell; part of the system that joints, fragile bones, etc.
milk
maintains acid-base balance.
Occurs in foods as part of
Found in protein Brittle hair and nails, rashes,
sulphur protein: meats, poultry, fish,
molecules slow wound healing, etc.
eggs, milk, legumes and nuts

Dietary fib
fibres (roughages)
This is mainly indigestible cellulose from the cell wall of plants. Roughages stimulate the intestines
resulting in better movement of food along the alimentary canal. Lack of roughage causes
constipation and is mainly due to insufficient vegetables in the diet.

Water
Water makes up about 79% of the body of humans. It is the medium in which food molecules are
digested, absorbed and transported.

Test for foods

Food Method Results and inference
substance
starch Add a few drops of iodine solution A blue black colour
confirms the presence of
starch.
Reducing Add a few drops of Fehling’s solutions A and B A brick red precipitate
sugars e.g. or Benedict solution and heat. indicates the presence of
glucose reducing sugar
Non-reducing Add a few drops of HCl to sucrose solution, heat A brown or brick red
sugars e.g. (2 or 3 minutes), cool and add sodium hydrogen precipitate confirms the
sucrose carbonate (NaHCO3) slowly until fizzing stops. presence of non-reducing
Carryout Benedict’s or Fehling’s test. sugar
Lipids e.g. Place some oil or butter on a filter paper and A translucent spot
palm oil leave it for ten minutes and then expose the confirms the presence of
paper to light. lipid,

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 Add NaOH solution (1cm3), then add CuSO4 A violet colour confirms
solution drop by drop and shake after each drop. the presence of protein.
Protein e.g.
(Biuret test)
milk
Add a few drops of millon’s reagent and boil A red colour confirms
(millon’s test) the presence of protein.

DENTITION
The characteristic number and arrangement of teeth in the mouth is called dentition.

Types of dentition
Homodont dentition: all teeth are of the same size and shape. It is found in fish, reptiles and
amphibians.
Heterodont dentition: teeth vary in size and shape. It is found in mammals.

Types of teeth
Incisors: they are flat and are used for biting and cutting.
Canines: they are tapered and are used for seizing and tearing The premolars and molars
are referred to as cheek
Premolars: they are large and rough and used for crushing and grinding food. teeth.
Molars: they are larger than the premolars. They are used for further grinding.

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Mammals have two sets of teeth in their life time.

The milk teeth

This is the first set of teeth that grows during the first year of life. It consists of the incisors, canines
and premolars. Between the age of six and twelve, the mild teeth gradually fallout and are replaced
by the permanent teeth.

The permanent teeth

It is the set of teeth that replace the milk teeth after they have fallen out. The permanent teeth
include six molars in each jaw. The last of these molars are called the wisdom teeth. They do not

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grow until the age of about seventeen. If these permanent teeth are lost for any reason, they do not
grow again.

Dental formula
Dental formula shows the number and arrangement of teeth in the mouth of animals.
Herbivorous dentition 2 ' ( = 30
Æ Æ
† ‰

Carnivorous dentition 2 ' ( = 42

š
† ‰
š

Omnivorous dentition 2 ' † ‰ ( = 32

Dental care
Tooth decay is caused by bacteria infecting the pulp cavity of the tooth. The following measures
can help prevent tooth decay.
1. Clean the teeth regularly every morning and evening.
2. Avoid or reduce the intake of sugary foods and drinks.
3. If possible, finish your meal with a rough vegetable such as carrot, and then rinse your mouth
with water.
4. Consult a dentist on regular bases to check the state of health of the teeth.

Dental disease
1. Dental decay (dental carries)
Dental decay may be cause by;
i. Lack of hard food iv. Lack of vitamin D
ii. Too much sweet food v. Imperfect cleaning
iii. Lack of calcium in the diet

Decay begins when small holes appear in the enamel. They decay is cause by bacteria on the tooth
surface. The bacteria acts on sugars in the mouth and produce acids which dissolves the calcium
salts in the tooth enamel. The enamel and dentine are dissolved away in patches, forming cavities.
The acids produced by the bacteria irritates the nerve endings and cause toothaches. If the cavity
is not filled, bacteria get into the pulp and cause severe pain.
2. Gum disease (periodontal disease)
This may be cause by;
i. Lack of vitamins A and C iii. Imperfect cleaning
ii. Lack of massage of the gum

There is usually a layer of saliva over the teeth. This layer contains bacteria with lives on food
residues in the mouth, building up a coating on the teeth called plaque. If the plaque is not removed,
salts of calcium and magnesium are deposited in it, forming a hard layer called calculus. Plaque
spread down the tooth into a narrow gap between the tooth and the gum causing inflammation
called gingivitis which leads to redness and bleeding of the gum. If not treated, the gingivitis may
progress to periodontal disease. At this stage the fibres holding the tooth in the jaw bone are
destroyed and the tooth becomes loose and falls out or may have to be pulled out.

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 DIGESTION

Digestion is the process of breaking down large insoluble organic molecules present in food into
smaller soluble organic molecules which the cells can absorb. The whole process is speeded by
enzyme action.

The digestive system

The digestive consist of the alimentary canal and its associated glands. The alimentary canal is
muscular tube running from the mouth to the anus. Its main functions are;
1. Ingestion: taking in food
2. Digestion: breaking down of ingested food in simpler molecules
3. Absorption: passage of the simpler molecules into the blood and lymph
4. Assimilation: use of absorbed foods by the cells of the body.
5. Egestion: removals of undigested food materials form the body.

The alimentary canal

The mouth: It contains the teeth and the tongue. Food is received through the mouth and digestion
of food begins there. Starch is converted to maltose begins in the mouth.

Teeth: They help to rip, grind, mash and generally pulverize all the food put into the mouth.

Tongue: It helps to mix food with saliva. It also helps to push food into the oesuphagus.

Salivary glands: They secrets saliva which contain digestive enzymes.

Epiglottis: This trap door belongs to both the respiratory system and the digestive system. When
food is swallowed, it closes over the trachea to prevent food and fluids from draining into the
lungs.

Oesuphagus: A muscular canal running from the pharynx to the stomach. The tongue pushes a
'bolus' of food into the oesuphagus to start it on its way to the stomach. Food moves along the
alimentary canal by Peristalsis. Peristalsis is the name used to describe the rhythmic contract and
release actions of this muscle and most all others along the digestive tract. Conversion of starch to
maltose continues.

Stomach: It is a muscular sac in which swallowed food accumulates. The stomach wall secretes
gastric juice which contains hydrochloric acid. The Hydrochloric acid:
• Sterilizes food.
• Stops the conversion of starch to maltose.
• Provides correct pH for protein digestion in the stomach.

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Liver:
• It secretes bile that is passed along to the gall bladder for concentration and storage.
• It de-aminates excess amino acids.
• It store iron which comes from the haemoglobin of red blood cells in the liver.
• Manufactures plasma proteins such as fibrinogen which is used in blood clotting.
• It converts harmful substances produced in the large intestines by the action of bacteria on
amino acids to harmless forms.
• Stored vitamins such as the fat-soluble vitamins A and D.
• It produces heat. All the chemical reactions taking place in the liver produce heat as by product.

Gall bladder: It is the storage tank for bile. Bile is released into the duodenum as needed for the
breakdown of fats.

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Pancreas: It secretes pancreatic juice which contains digestive enzymes. It also produces insulin
and glucagon which help to control the blood sugar level.

The small intestine: It consists of;

1. Duodenum: In humans, a common duct opening into the duodenum carries bile from the
liver and pancreatic juice from the pancreas.
2. Ileum: The wall of the ileum secretes digestive enzymes which complete the chemical
breakdown of food. Absorption of nutrients into the blood stream takes place in the ileum.

The large intestine: It is also referred to as the colon. It has three parts; the ascending colon,
transverse colon and descending colon. It also has a small sac like branch called eh caecum which
narrows into a blind ending called the appendix. Most of the water is absorbed in the large intestine.

Rectum: The semi-solid waste, the faeces, is passed into the rectum and later egested through the
anus.

Site of Site of Optimum

Secretion Enzymes Substrate Product
production action pH
Salivary
Saliva Mouth Amylase Starch Maltose 7
gland
Gastric Pepsin Protein Peptides
Gastric juice Stomach 2
gland Renin Pepsinogen pepsin
Amylase Starch Maltose
Small Trypsin Protein Peptide
Pancreas Pancreatic juice Fatty acid 7 – 8
intestine
Lipase Fats and
glycerol
Small Fat
Liver Bile Fats
intestine droplets
Maltase Maltose Glucose
Glucose
Lactase Lactose and
galactose
Glucose
Succrase Sucrose and
Small Succus Small
fructose 8
intestine entericcus intestine
Amino
Erepsin Peptides
acids
Enterokinase Trypsinogen Amino acid
Fatty acid
Lipase Fats and oils and
glycerol

When food is digested, it is taken into the blood by diffusion. From the blood, cells absorb and use
glucose, fatty acid and glycerol and amino acids. This uptake and use of food is called assimilation.

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During respiration in the cells, glucose is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. This reaction
provides energy that drives the many chemical processes in the cells. The glucose not required
immediately is change to glycogen in the liver. Some of the glycogen is stored in the liver and
converted back to glucose when the blood sugar level falls. The rest of the glycogen is stored in
the muscles and is used by the muscle cells for energy.
Fatty acids reform to form fats and stored or used for energy. They may also be used in building
cell structures.
The amino acids are used in protein formation in growth, enzyme formation, etc. Excess amino
acids are transported to the liver where they are de-aminated to form urea which is excreted by the
kidneys.

Enzymes
These are protein molecules made in the cells of living organisms that speed up the rate of
digestion. Enzymes are non-living.

Characteristics of enzymes
1. They are biological catalysts.
2. They are specific. That is each enzyme catalyses one type of reaction.
3. They are efficient. That is a small amount of enzymes can act on a large amount of substrate.
4. They are not used up in chemical reaction.
5. They are denatured by heat.
6. They are pH sensitive.

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 TRANSPORT OF MATERIALS IN ANIMALS
Transport is the movement of materials from one part of the body to the other. In lower animals,
the transport medium is water and in higher animals, the transport medium is blood. The materials
transported include:

1. Food substances such as glucose, amino acids

2. Waste substances such as urea, carbon dioxide
3. Gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide

BLOOD
Blood is a tissue fluid. It accounts for 8% of the body mass. An adult human being has about six
litres of blood. Blood varies in density, colour and composition from animal to animal.

Composition of blood
In mammals blood has two main components
1. plasma 2. corpuscles (blood cells)

Plasma
This is the liquid part of blood and it is straw coloured. The plasma contains dissolved substances
like;
1. Digested food example glucose, amino acids, vitamins, etc.
2. Blood proteins (plasma protein) example albumins, anti-bodies, fibrinogens
3. Mineral salts (in the form of ions) example sodium chloride, bicarbonates, etc.
4. Water (about 90%)
5. Hormones, example insulin
6. Gases, examples oxygen, nitrogen
7. Waste materials example carbon dioxide, urea, etc.

Note
• Water is the main constituent of blood plasma
• Carbon dioxide is transported in the form of bicarbonate ions
• Fibrinogen helps in blood clotting
• Insulin controls the amount of sugar in the blood.
• Blood plasma is the plasma excluding fibrinogen

Corpuscles (blood cells)

The cells float in the plasma. There are three types of corpuscles
1. Erythrocytes: these are the red blood cells
2. Leucocytes: these are the white blood cells
3. Thrombocytes: these are the platelets

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Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
1. Every 1cm3 of blood contains about 4.5 to 5 million erythrocytes. They are very small, about
0.008mm in size.
2. They are disc shaped (biconcave)

3. They are short lived (about 120 days)

4. They are formed in the bone marrow of all bones in infants, and in the ribs, sternum, vertebrae,
scapula and pelvis of adults.
5. Extra red blood cells are stored in the spleen.
6. The old red blood cells are destroyed by the liver phagocytes in the spleen. This becomes the
bile.
7. They are red coloured when in groups. The red colour is due to the iron pigment called
haemoglobin, which is useful in carrying oxygen during respiration as oxy-haemoglobin.
8. Nucleus is absent in red blood cells and because of this, and the flexibility of their cell
membrane, they are able to squeeze through the tiny blood capillaries and regain their shape
after emerging from them.
9. The cell surface membrane is permeable to gasses like oxygen and their cytoplasm contains
haemoglobin which combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin which readily breaks
down in areas of low oxygen concentration.

Leucocytes (white blood cells)

They are of two kinds;
• Granulocytes- have granules in the cytoplasm. E.g. phagocytes (these engulf pathogens)
• Agranulocytes- do not have granules in the cytoplasm. E.g. lymphocytes (these produce
antibodies.

1. They are larger in size but fewer than the red blood cells.
2. Their cytoplasm has a permanent nucleus but they do not contain haemoglobin and they are
essentially colourless.
3. They are shapeless
4. They are produced in the bone marrow, lymph nodes and spleen.
5. About 800 white blood cells are present in a millimetre cube of blood. They account for less
than 1% of the cells of the human blood.

Thrombocytes (platelets)
1. They are irregular shaped
2. They have no nucleus, no haemoglobin
3. They are the smallest blood cells.
4. They are produced in the bone marrow

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5. They help in blood clotting, because they contain a substance called thromboplastin which
initiates blood clotting.

Differences between RBC and WBC

Red blood cells White blood cells

No nucleus Nucleus present
Haemoglobin present Haemoglobin absent
Concave or disc shapes Irregular shaped
Larger in numbers Fewer in numbers
Smaller in size Larger in size

Functions of blood
1. The haemoglobin of the Red blood cells transport oxygen in the body
2. Blood distribute heat to all parts of the body.
3. Blood transport digested soluble food substances from the intestines to other parts of the body.
4. Blood helps to carry metabolic waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide outside the
body.
5. Blood carries hormones and distributes them to different parts of the body.
6. Blood helps to form clot at injured parts of the body and hence prevents excessive loss of blood
and the entry of germs.
7. Blood helps to maintain the water content of the body.
8. White blood cells help to defend the body against pathogens.

Blood clotting
When a blood vessel is cut, blood oozes out. The blood platelets on exposure to air produce a
substance called thromboplastin. Thromboplastin, with the help of some plasma enzymes and
calcium ions, catalyse the change of prothrombin in the blood to thrombin. Prothrombin is formed
in the liver with the help of vitamin K. The thrombin so formed takes part in the reaction where
by the soluble fibrinogen in the plasma is changed to insoluble fibrin. The fibrin forms a network
of fibres or mesh over the wound where red blood cells are trapped. On drying a scab is formed
which prevents further loss of blood and the entry of pathogens.

Note
The liver destroys old red blood cells and converts them to bile.
The liver helps in the formation of prothrombin with the help of vitamin K.

Haemophilia: This is a hereditary disease which results in excessive or continuous bleeding. It is

due to lack of or low amount of any of the substances essential for blood clotting. Viz, vitamin K,
calcium, fibrinogen and platelets.

Blood vessels
vessels
Blood vessels are tubes through which blood flows around the body. The blood vessels are of three
types.
1. Arteries 2. Veins 3. Capillaries

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 Arteries
An artery has three layers. The outer layer has fibrous connective tissue which prevents extreme
expansion of the wall. The middle layer is thick and contains smooth muscles and elastic tissues
which help the arteries to expand and withstand the high pressure of the blood pumped through
them. The inner layer is thinner, elastic and one cell thick. It is called endothelium.

Arteries divide into many small vessels called arterioles. They have no valves and they help to
carry blood away from the heart.

Veins
A vein has three layers. The outer coat fibrous connective tissue prevents extreme expansion of
the walls. The middle layer is thinner and contains smooth muscles and elastic tissues. The inner
layer is one cell thick and is called endothelium. They help to carry blood to the heart. They have
valves which prevents back flow of blood. Veins divide into many small channels called venules.

Differences between arteries and veins

Arteries Veins
Have small lumen Have large lumen
Have no valves Have valves at intervals
Carry blood away from the heart Carry blood to the heart
Blood flows under high pressure Blood flow under low pressure
Are red in colour Are pink in colour
Have thick walls with muscles and elastic tissues Have thin walls
Carry oxygenated blood except the pulmonary artery Carry deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary vein

Capillaries

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These are blood vessels that link the arteries and the veins. They permit the exchange of materials
between the blood and the cells of the body. Capillaries have no valves and their lumen is very
small. Their walls are only one cell thick. They contain both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Blood flow in the capillaries is slow, smooth and under low pressure.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Types of circulatory systems

1. Closed circulatory system 2. Open circulatory system.

Closed circulatory system

This is the system where blood is strictly confined within the cavities of the vessels and the heart.
It is never in contact with the cells of the body. This system is made up of blood vessels and is
found in all vertebrates and earthworms.

Open circulatory systems

This is the system where blood from the heart end in spaces called haemocoels within the body.
In this system blood comes into direct contact with the cells of the body before returning to the
heart. It is found in insects, snails, crabs, etc.

The circulatory system can also be divided into;

Blood circulatory system: In this type, the liquid blood is the vehicle which carries materials in
the body.

Lymph circulatory system: Here the liquid lymph which carry materials in the body.

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The former has blood vessels whereas the later has lymphatic vessels through which materials are
transported in the body.

The blood
blood circulatory system
This system has four main organs. These are the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries.

The heart

The heart is the most powerful organ in the circulatory system. It has powerful muscles called
cardiac muscles. The heart is a pear-shaped organ located in the thoracic cavity. It is enclosed in a
thin envelope called pericardium. This secretes a fluid that makes the heart movement free from
friction. The heart has four main chambers with muscular walls. The two upper chambers have
thin walls and are called auricles or atria (singular – atrium). The two lower chambers have thick
walls and are called ventricles. The auricles pump blood to very short distances only (to the lungs).
The ventricles pump blood to long distances (to the body)
The right side of the heart contain deoxygenated blood and the left side contain oxygenated blood.
Both sides are separated by septum which helps to prevent mix of blood. The right atrium pumps
deoxygenated blood and the left atrium pumps oxygenated blood. The heart has three valves which
help to prevent the back flow of blow. These are:

1. The tricuspid valve: this is located between the right atrium and the right ventricles.
2. The bicuspid valve: this is located between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
3. The semi lunar valve: it is found along the pulmonary artery and the aorta and they prevent
the back flow of blood into the ventricles. These valves are also called pocket valves.

The double circulatory system

This is the system where by the blood enters the heart twice in each circuit.

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Materials transport by the blood system
Substance From To
Oxygen Lungs Whole body
Carbon dioxide Whole body Lungs
Urea Liver Kidneys
Hormones Glands Target organs
Digested food Intestine Whole body
Heat Liver and muscles Whole body

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 CONTROL AND COORDINATION
Co-ordination is the way all organs and system of the body are made to work efficiently together.
For example if the leg muscles are to be used for running, they will need extra supply of glucose
and oxygen. To meet this demand, the lungs breathe faster and deeper to obtain the extra oxygen
and the heart pumps more rapidly to get oxygen and glucose to the leg muscles more quickly. The
brain detects changes in the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of the blood and sends nervous
impulses to the diaphragm, intercostal muscles and the heart. In this example the co-ordination is
brought about by the nervous system.

The extra glucose needed for running comes from the liver. Glycogen in the liver is converted to
glucose which is released into the blood stream. This conversion is stimulated by among other
things, a chemical called adrenaline. This co-ordination is brought about by the endocrine system.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is our processing system, and the system that keeps us in contact with the
outside world. It tells us that we exist, and along with the muscles allows us to move and react to
stimuli. Our consciousness resides in our nervous systems, as do our thoughts and emotions.
The nervous system is responsible for coordination of movement, response to environmental
stimuli, intelligence, self-awareness, thought, and emotion.
It is composed of nerve cells called neurones, which are specialized to carry nerve impulses.

There are different types of neurons.

The motor neurones: These carry impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and
glands.

The sensory neurones: These carry impulses from the sense organs to the central nervous
systems.
The relay (connector) neurones: These connect sensory neurones to motor neurones
Pyramidal neurones: These connect relay neurones to other pyramidal neurones in the brain.

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The nervous system has two major divisions which work together and are connected to one
another). The two systems are:

1. Central Nervous System (CNS): This includes spinal cord and brain.
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): The rest of the nervous system. PNS is further divided
into the;
a. Somatic Nervous System (connects to skeletal muscle)
b. Autonomic Nervous System (connects to smooth (involuntary) muscles

The central nervous system (C.N.S)

This consists of the brain and the spinal cord. Nerves carry electrical impulses from the central
nervous system to all parts of the body making muscles contract or glands produce enzymes or
hormones.

The brain

It consists of following.
The medulla: It is concerned with the regulation of activities such as heart beat and breathing rate.
The cerebellum: It controls the posture, balance and coordinated movement.

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The cerebrum: It forms the largest part of the brain. It is made up of two cerebral hemispheres.
These are very large and well developed in man. They are regions thought to be concerned with
intelligence, memory, reasoning ability and acquired skills.

The functions of the brain

The functions of the brain can be summarized as follows.

1. The brain receives impulses from all the sensory organs of the body.
2. As a result of these sensory impulses, it sends impulses to the glands and muscles, causing
them to function accordingly.
3. It correlates the various stimuli from different sense organs and the memory.
4. It coordinates bodily organs so that mechanisms and chemical reactions of the body work
efficiently together.
5. It stores information so that behaviour can be modified according to past experiences.

The spinal cord

cord

The Spinal Cord is connected to the brain and descends down the middle of the back and is
surrounded and protected by the vertebral column. The spinal cord is surrounded by a clear fluid
called Cerebral Spinal Fluid, that acts as a cushion to protect the delicate nerve tissues against
damage from banging against the inside of the vertebrae.

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The spinal cord consists of millions of nerve fibres which transmit electrical information to and
from the limbs, trunk and organs of the body, back to and from the brain. The nerves which exit
the spinal cord in the upper section (around the neck) control breathing and the arms. The nerves
which exit the spinal cord in the mid and lower section of the back control the trunk and legs, as
well as bladder, bowel and sexual function.

Reflex action
Reflect actions are rapid automatic response to stimuli. Reflex actions are rapid because nervous
impulses travel by the shortest route in the body. These shortest routes are called reflex arcs. The
figure below represents a reflex arc involved in responding to a stimulus due to a pin in the skin.

1. The sharp point acts as a stimulus. Pain receptors in the skin produce impulses.
2. The sensory neurone carries impulse to the central nervous system.
3. The relay neurone (inter neurone) carries the impulse from the central nervous system to the
motor neurone.
4. The motor neurone carries impulse to the muscle.
5. The muscle responds and acts as effector.

Voluntary action
A voluntary action starts in the brain. Unlike reflex action, it does not happen automatically. The
brain sends motor impulses down the spinal cord in the nerve fibres. These makes synapses with

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motor fibres which enter the spinal nerves and make connections to the set of muscles needed to
produce effective action.

Differences between voluntary and reflex actions

Voluntary action reflex action
Initiated in cerebral cortex of brain-due to Initiated by stimulation of receptor
thought
Impulses pass from the brain down to the Impulses travel up or down the spinal cord
spinal cord
Response is relatively slow Response is quick
Response is in skeletal muscle only Response is in skeletal or internal involuntary
muscle
Involves the fore brain Involves only the spinal cord
Pathway of nerve impulse is longer Pathway of nerve impulse is shorter

SENSES AND SENSE ORGANS

Our senses make us aware of changes in our surroundings and in our bodies. We have sensory
cells which respond to stimuli (singular: stimulus). A Stimulus is change in the environment
which can be detected by receptors in our sense organs. Receptors are structures which respond
to stimuli. Sensory cells and sense organs can convert one form of energy to another. Structure
which can do this are called transducers. For example, the eyes can convert light energy into
electrical energy of a nerve impulse.

Sensory organs and their function

The sensory organs found in humans are the skin, eyes, nose, ears and tongue. Each of these is
sensitive to different stimuli.
Sensory organ(s) Sense(s) Stimulus/stimuli
Skin Touch Heat, cold, pain, pressure, touch
Eyes Sight Light
Nose Smell Chemical substances
Ears Hearing and body balance Sound and body movement
Tongue Taste Chemical substances

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The skin and the Sense of touch
The skin is the outermost layer of the human body which covers and protects the human body. It
is a sensory organ which is sensitive to touch. The human skin consists of two layers:
• The epidermis layer which consists of dead cells and acts as a protector.
• The dermis layer consists of living cells, blood vessels, nerves and sweat glands. The
dermis also has receptors which are sensitive to heat, cold, contact (touch) and pressure.
Receptors are the ends of the nerves which are very sensitive to stimuli. Each receptor is connected
to a nerve. When stimulated, it sends a nerve signal known as an impulse to the brain to be
interpreted. Pain receptors are the closest to the skin surface. This is followed by touch receptors,
heat receptors and cold receptors. Pressure receptors lie deep down in the adipose tissue beneath
the dermis layer. Different parts of the skin have different levels and sensitivity. The skin
sensitivity depends on:
• The depth of receptors in the skin. The palms of our hands, the lips and the neck are
more sensitive than the soles of our feet.
• How close together the receptors are. The parts of the skin which have receptors close to
one another are more sensitive.

Parts of the skin Function

Epidermis and dermis • Protect the body from physical injuries.
• Prevent water loss (the skin is water proof).
• Prevent the entry of bacteria and germs.
• Produce vitamin D
Adipose (fat) tissue • Keeps the body warm by serving as heat insulator.
Hair • Controls body temperature by trapping a layer of air to insulate
the body.
Sweat glands • Secrete excrements such as water, urea, and mineral salts.
• Controls body temperature by evaporation of sweat.

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The Nose and the Sense of Smell

The nose is a sensory organ which is sensitive to smell. The cavity of the nose is lined by 2 types
of cells:
• Glandular cells which secrete slime (mucus).
• Cells of the smell receptors. The cells of the smell receptors are found on the upper part of
the nasal cavity, which are connected to the nerve endings that in turn convey smell impulses
to the brain.
Chemical substances, inhaled through the nose, dissolve in the mucus and stimulate the
sensory cells of smell. Then, impulses are sent to the brain through the nerves to be interpreted.
When we have flu, the thick layer of mucus in the nose hinders these sensory cells from being
stimulated and we are then, unable to smell as usual. Hair and mucus in the nasal cavity function
to filter dust from the air so that only clean air can enter the lungs. The sensivity of smell of animals
such as cats, rats and dogs is greater than that of humans, which is relatively quite weak.

The Tongue and Sense of Taste

The tongue is the sensory organ for taste. It Therefore, the taste and smell of food can
can detect salt, sour, sweet and bitter tastes. be experienced at the same time.
There are small bumps on the surface of the
tongue known as taste buds. The taste buds
are cells which are sensitive to taste.
Different parts of the tongue have different
tastes. Most foods have the combination of
all types of tastes. When we eat, the chemical
substances from the food dissolve in the
saliva and stimulate the taste buds. Then, the
receptors on the taste buds send impulses to
the brain to be interpreted. Our taste and
smell sensory organs help us to feel the
palatability of food. This is because the
mouth cavity and nose cavity are connected.

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The Ears and the Sense of Hearing and Balance

The ears are the sensory organs for hearing and are sensitive to sound. The human ear is divided
into three parts:
• Outer ear - filled with air
• Middle ear - filled with air
• Inner ear - filled with fluid

The hearing mechanism

mechanism
• The earlobe collects and directs sound waves into the eardrum through the auditory canal.
• The eardrum vibrates and the sound vibration in transferred to the ear bones (ossicle).
• The ossicles strengthen (amplify) these vibrations and convey them to the oval window.
• The vibrations of the oval window cause the fluid in the cochlea to produce nerve impulses.
• The nerve impulses are sent to the brain by the auditory nerve to be interpreted.

The ear as a balancing organ

organ
Apart from functioning as a hearing organ, the ear also controls the balance of the body.
Any bodily movements will stimulate the receptors in the semi-circular canals to
produce impulses.
The brain will interpret these impulses and direct the muscles to respond and to balance up
the body.

Hearing defects
The most common hearing defects are the inability to detect sound and the difficulty of hearing
with ease.

Deafness
Deafness may be caused by the damage of the ossicles, the eardrums, the cochlea and the auditory
nerves. Bacterial or viral infections and high fever may lead to damage of the inner ear. Long
exposure to loud sound may increase the chance of becoming deaf.
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Some of the hearing limitations can be corrected by;
a) The use of hearing aids can be used to help people with hearing problems
b) Carrying out surgery to replace damaged ossicles and to repair damaged eardrums.
c) Implantation of electronic gadgets into the ears can help deaf people to hear again.

Taking care of the ears

a) Prevent the ears from being exposed to loud sound, especially while listening to music.
b) Avoid digging the ears with sharp objects.
c) Avoid from inflicting tight slaps onto the ears.
d) Clean up the ears with cotton buds regularly so that the ear canal is not blocked.

The eye and

and the sense of sight
• The eye is the sensory organ of sight and responds to light. Sclera: It protects the eye and
maintains the shape of the eye.
• Cornea: It refracts the light entering the eye and helps to focus the light onto the retina.
• Choroid: prevents the reflection of light in the eye and supplies food and oxygen to the eye
tissues.
• Iris: controls the size of the pupil.
• Pupil: It allows light to enter the eye. Eye lens: It refracts and focuses light onto the retina.
• Ciliary body: changes the thickness of the lens.
• Aqueous and vitreous humour: Maintains the shape of the eye and helps to focus light onto
the retina.
• Suspensory ligaments: Holds the eye lens in position.
• Retina: Detects light stimulus.
• Optic nerve: Sends nerve impulses from the retina to the brain.
• Central fovea: Detects light and produces nerve impulses.

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 THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Components of the endocrine system
• Endocrine glands
• Chemical messengers (hormones)

The endocrine system works intimately in conjunction with the nervous and circulatory systems

General functions of the endocrine system

Some of the functions of the endocrine system include the following.
1. Maintenance homeostasis.
2. Control of chemical and water balance in body.
3. Control of growth and metabolism.
4. Control of embryonic development and preparation for nurturing a new born.
5. Influences sexual behaviour and stimulates growth.

Hormones and hormonal control

Hormones are chemicals produced by organs called glands and then passed into the bloodstream.
They help to control many process in the body. They carry messages from one part of the body to
another. They are sometimes called chemical messengers. Usually, hormones only affect certain
cells. These cells are referred to as target cells.

The human hormonal system

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 The effects of the human hormones are shown in the table below.

Hormone Normal effect of Effect of over

Gland location Effect of underproduction
produced hormone production
Controls the
Growth
Pituitary brain growth of bones Gigantism Dwarfism
hormone
and muscles
Increase in heart-
Controls the rate Weight gain, dry skin, thin
rate, weight loss,
At the base of chemical and brittle hair. Impaired
Thyroid Thyroxine bulging eyes due to
of the neck processes in the mental development
accumulation of
body
fluid behind the eye
Prepares the increased blood Low level of adrenaline is
At the top body for action pressure, weight usually caused by adrenal
Adrenal of the Adrenaline by increasing loss and fatigue. This may lead to
kidneys heart beat and nervousness hypoglycemia (low blood
breathing rate sugar).
Weight gain,
bloating, hormonal
Causes uptake of imbalances, risk of
Pancreas
glucose from developing type 2
(islet of abdomen Insulin Rise in blood sugar
blood by liver diabetes, and
Langerhans)
and muscles gestational diabetes
during pregnancy.

In females:
Fatigue,
Accelerated ageing,
Infertility, uterine
cancer,
Miscarriage, high
Controls female
blood pressure Lack of menstruation,
Ovaries Female sexual
Oestrogen delayed development, early
(females) pelvis development and
In males: Fatigue, menopause
menstrual cycle
Insomnia
Hair loss
Headaches
Weight gain,
Prostate cancer,
high blood pressure
Increased level of
sperm production
Controls male (in men), male Decrease in strength/muscle
sexual pattern baldness (in mass, fragile bones, increase
Testes
groin Testosterone development and women), low in body fat, increased
(male)
sperm cholesterol, low fatigue, decrease in body
production blood pressure, hair.
excessive facial
hair.

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 EXCRETION
Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste products from the body. Major metabolic wastes are
carbon dioxide, water, nitrogenous wastes (urea, uric acid and ammonia) and salts

The organs of the excretory system

The organs of the human excretory system are the lungs, the kidneys, the liver and the skin.

The lungs
As respiration occurs carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product. As the carbon dioxide
accumulates in body cells, it eventually diffuses out of the cells & into the bloodstream, which
eventually circulates to the lungs. In the alveoli of the lungs, carbon dioxide diffuses from the
blood, into the lung, and then leaves the body every time we exhale.

The liver
The liver has numerous functions in the circulatory, digestive, and excretory systems. Its excretory
function is to breakdown some proteins and other nitrogenous compounds by a process called
deamination.

The skin
The skin excretes salt, water and urea. The skin has sweat glands which are surrounded by blood
capillaries. Wastes diffuse from the blood into the sweat glands. When the body temperature rises,
sweat is released from the glands and travels through sweat duct and reaches the skin surface
through the sweat pores.

The kidneys

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The principal function of the kidneys is to filter the blood and remove urea, excess water, and some
other waste materials from the blood. Urea is a chemical that comes from the breakdown of
proteins. The filtering process produces watery fluid called urine. Each kidney has three layers.

Cortex
This layer is packed with lots and lots nephrons. This is where blood is filtered.

Medulla
This is the middle layer. The medulla contains the collecting ducts which carry filtrate (filtered
substances) to the pelvis.

Pelvis
The pelvis is a hollow cavity where urine accumulates and drains into the ureter.

The urinary system

The urinary system is composed of two kidneys, two tubes called ureters, one urinary bladder, and
another tube called the urethra.

Each kidney contains about a million nephrons. Nephrons are tiny structures that remove wastes
from blood and produce urine. The ureters are tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder. The bladder temporarily stores urine. And the urethra is the tube through which urine
leaves the body.

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Urine formation
Ultra–filtration
Urine formation begins with the process of ultra–filtration, which goes on continually in the
Bowman’s capsule or renal capsules. As blood passes through the glomeruli, much of its fluid,
containing both useful chemicals and dissolved waste materials, soaks out of the blood through
the membranes (by osmosis and diffusion) where it is filtered and then flows into the Bowman's
capsule. The water, waste products, salt, glucose, and other chemicals that have been filtered out
of the blood are known collectively as glomerular filtrate. The glomerular filtrate consists
primarily of water, excess salts (primarily Na+ and K+), glucose, and a waste product of the body
called urea.

Selective reabsorption
Selective reabsorption is the movement of substances out of the renal tubules back into the blood
capillaries. Substances reabsorbed are water, glucose and other nutrients, and sodium (Na+) and
other ions. Selective reabsorption begins in the proximal convoluted tubules and continues in the
loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubules, and collecting tubules

Secretion
Secretion is the process by which substances move into the distal and collecting tubules from blood
in the capillaries around these tubules. In this respect, secretion is reabsorption in reverse.
Whereas reabsorption moves substances out of the tubules and into the blood, secretion moves
substances out of the blood and into the tubules where they mix with the water and other wastes
and are converted into urine. These substances are secreted through either an active
transport mechanism or as a result of diffusion across the membrane. Substances secreted are
hydrogen ions (H+), potassium ions (K+), ammonia (NH3), and certain drugs. Kidney tubule
secretion plays a crucial role in maintaining the body's acid-base balance, another example of an
important body function that the kidney participates in.

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 REPRODUCTION
Reproduction is the process of producing new individuals.

Types of reproduction
1. Asexual reproduction
Some unicellular organisms usually reproduce by simply dividing into two (binary fission).
For example in amoeba. In some multicellular organisms such as hydra, part of the body breaks
off and grow into a new individual. This is called budding. Asexual reproduction involves one
parent.

2. Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction occurs in most animals including humans. This is the type of reproduction
that requires the fusion of gametes. Sexual reproduction requires two parents, each of which
produces gametes that fuse to form a zygote.

REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

The female reproductive system

Ovaries: They contain follicles where eggs are produced. There are two ovaries, one on each side.
Oviduct (fallopian tube): This is where fertilization occurs. They also provide pathways for the
eggs to travel. There are two of them, one on each side connected to an ovary.
Uterus (womb): This is where the foetus develops.
Cervix: A muscular tissue which separates the vagina from the uterus.
Vagina: It receives the male reproductive organ.

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The male reproductive system

The male reproductive system is located under the stomach. It consists of the following parts.
Testes (singular: testis): The testes produce sperms. There are two testes in male humans.
Scrotum: It is the sac which contains the testes and hangs outside the body.
Vas deferens (sperm duct): They are two muscular tubes each connected to a testis. They carry
the sperms from the testis to the urethra.
Urethra: It is a tube inside the penis which is the pathway of semen and urine out of the body.
Prostate glands: It secretes a nutritive fluid to the sperms to from a mixture called semen.
Seminal vesicle: It is a gland that secretes nutritive fluids for the sperm to feed from and swim in
forming semen.

Production of gametes
The formation of gametes is called gametogenesis. The two types of gametes are sperms and eggs.

Sperm production

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The production of sperm is called spermatogenesis. Sperm is produced in the testes. Each testis is
composed of numerous tiny tubes called seminiferous tubules. It is in the walls of these tubules
that sperm production actually takes place.

Production of eggs (Ovulation)

The production of eggs is called oogenesis. There two ovaries in females. One on each side. They
contain follicles where eggs are produced.

Fertilization
Fertilization is the fusion of gametes to form a zygote. The female gametes are the eggs and are
produced in the ovary and the male gametes are the sperms. Eggs and the sperms carry genetic
information from the parents.

Formation of twins
There are two types of twins;

Non-identical twins
Non-identical twins are formed when the mother releases two different egg cell, one in each tube.
Two sperm cells will be needed to fertilize them and produce tow zygotes. Because they from two
different eggs, they show clear differences when they are born. This kind of twins is called
dizygotic.

Identical twins
In identical twins, there is only one egg cells that is fertilized by one sperm cells. After fertilization,
the zygote splits into produce two zygotes. This results in two identical babies. This kind of twins
is called monozygotic.

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Implantation
Implantation and development
Fertilization occurs in the oviduct. After
fertilization, the zygote keeps dividing and
producing more cells which becomes the
embryo. The development into an embryo takes
place while it is moving slowly down the
oviduct to the uterus where the embryo starts
developing further. When the embryo reaches
the uterus, it attaches to it. This is called
implantation.

Development of embryo
After implantation, the embryo starts further development. Some of the cells of the embryo grows
into projections which are fixed firmly into the walls of the uterus. The uterus also grows
projections which grows closely with those of embryo to form the placenta. The placenta is used
in substance transfer between the mother and baby. The embryo also forms a bag called the amnion
which surrounds the baby. Most of the cells of the embryo divide rapidly to form the foetus.
The foetus in the amnion, is surrounded by fluid called amniotic fluid. This fluid protects the
foetus from mechanical shock so that it doesn’t get harmed if something hits the mother’s stomach.

The placenta and the umbilical cord facilitate the exchange of substances between the mother and
the foetus without mix of blood between them. This is important because they might have different
blood groups. Useful substances such as oxygen, glucose, amino acid, water, vitamins, minerals,
fatty acid and glycerol diffuse into the blood of the foetus. Antibodies and antibiotics may also
diffuse from the mother’s blood to the foetus’ blood. Waste substances such as carbon dioxide and
urea diffuse out of the blood of the foetus. The placenta also produces oestrogen and progesterone
hormones that help to keep the uterus in good condition.

Birth
Nine months after fertilization, the foetus becomes ready to be given birth. It starts by muscles of
the uterus starting to contract. This causes some pain for the mother. The frequency of the
contraction of the muscles increases gradually leading to the breaking of the amnion. The muscles
of the uterus keep contracting pushing the baby out. The head comes out first followed by the rest
of the body. The umbilical cord is then cut and tied safely.

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Parental care
Parental care is especially important in human offspring because learning plays an important role
in their development. Extended care of the young and close association with adults yields the
opportunity and time to acquire the necessary skills for adult life.

In mammals the provision of milk is an obvious example of parental care. As the offspring develop,
they are introduced to other, more solid types of food. This process is called weaning.

Disadvantages of teenage pregnancy

Becoming pregnant as a teenager is in most cases an unplanned event. As a result teen mothers are
faced with disadvantages they have to deal with.

1. It can lead teen mothers dropping out of school. This diminishes their prospects of getting
better jobs in the future.
2. Teenagers are more likely to experience complications during pregnancy than older women.
3. Teen mother mothers who cannot afford the cost of raising a baby often end up transferring
burden to organisations or family members which can cause hardship especially in lower
income families.
4. It can lead to loss of trust between parents and their pregnant child.

Birth control
Birth control is controlling the number of children and time to have them. There are several
methods of birth control and can be categorised as follows.

1. Natural method
There are two methods of natural birth control.
a) Abstinence method
This method is to simply avoid sexual intercourse. This method is very reliable since there
is no chance of pregnancy.

b) Rhythm method
This method is based on the woman’s menstrual cycle. In this method, the couples avoid
sexual intercourse at the time of ovulation.

2. Mechanical method
The following are mechanical methods of birth control.

Condom
It is a layer of cover made of impermeable material that prevents semen from entering the
woman’s body. It is worn by men. The condom also has the advantage of preventing the
transmission of diseases from man to woman or vice versa.

Femidom
This is a female condom. It acts like a bag in the female reproductive organ to prevent semen
from passing into the woman’s body.

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 Diaphragm
This is a small piece of circular rubber which fits over the woman’s cervix to prevent sperms
from passing through it. It is impermeable and can be used with spermicidal cream.

Intra-uterine device (IUD)

This is coil of copper or plastic that fits in the woman’s uterus to block the passage of sperms.

3. Chemical method
This involves the use of chemical substances to prevent fertilization. The following may be
used.
Contraceptive pill
This pill contains chemicals which prevent the release of eggs from the ovaries (ovulation).

Spermicidal cream
This is a cream that contains a substance that kills sperms. This method can be more effective
when it is used with other birth control methods.

4. Surgical method
This method can be performed by any of the couples. A man or woman could have an operation
to cut and seal the sperm ducts in the case of the man or cut and seal the oviducts in the case
of the woman. This surgery is called vasectomy and is irreversible.

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 GENETICS AND HEREDITY
Genetics is the branch of biology that studies how heredity works.

Heredity is the transfer of trait from parents to offspring through the genes. Genes are located on
the chromosomes. The chromosomes are found in the nucleus. In humans, cells have 46
chromosomes except reproductive which have 23 chromosomes. The nucleus controls the
activities of the cell including cell division.

Cell division
There are two types of cell division.

Mitosis
Mitosis occurs during growth or cell replacement in an organism. It occurs in all cells except sex
cells.

Meiosis
Meiosis occurs only in the formation male and female sex cells during sexual reproduction. In
meiosis, a normal cell with 46 chromosomes, divides to form two cells each having 23
chromosomes. When an egg is fertilized by a sperm, two nuclei join together. The egg and the
sperms each contains 23 chromosomes. This fusion form a zygote with 46 chromosomes.

Differences between mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis Meiosis
Occur in somatic cells Occurs in reproductive cells
Takes place during growth, cell replacement Takes place in the formation of gametes.
and repairs.

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 Occur both in sexual and asexual Occurs only in sexual reproduction
reproduction
Number of chromosomes in the daughter Half the number of chromosomes in the
cells is the same as those in the parent cells. parent cells are found in the daughter cells.
Two daughter cells are formed Four daughter cells are formed
Chromosomes and genes in each daughter Homologous chromosomes and genes are
cell are identical. randomly assorted

GENETIC CROSSING

Genetic crossing is a means of determining genetic characteristics of a potential offspring based

on the genetic characteristic of the prospective parents.

Gene: A gene is a section of DNA on the chromosomes which controls one characteristic. A gene
is represented with letters.

Allele: An allele is one of a pair of genes that appear at a particular location on a chromosome.

Homozygous: Having two identical alleles of a gene. For example (TT).

Heterozygous: Having two different alleles of a gene. For example (Tt).

Dominant allele: An allele that has the same effect on the phenotype whether it is present in
homozygous or heterozygous state. It is represented with a capital letter.

Recessive allele: An allele that only has one effect on the phenotype when it is present in
homozygous state. It is represented with a small letter.

Codominant allele: Pairs of alleles that both affect the phenotype when present in a heterozygous
state.

Genotype: Is the allele combination of an organism. Genotypes always have two letters, one from
each parent.

Phenotype: The expressed characteristics of an organism. It is determined by the combination of

genotype and environmental factors.

Laws of heredity
The laws of heredity also called the rules of genetics, were put forward by Gregor Mendel. They
are as follows.
• An organism gets its characteristics from genes.
• Each characteristic is controlled by a pair of genes. One in each pair come from the father and
the other from the mother. This means only one gene is present in a gamete.
• Genes may be dominant or recessive but it is the dominant one which produces an effect.

The rules of genetics can be used to determine the genotype of the off springs.

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Tongue rolling

Tongue rolling is caused by a dominant allele. People who can roll their tongues are either
homozygous dominant (TT) or heterozygous dominant (Tt). Those who cannot role their tongue
are homozygous recessive (tt).
If a non-roller (tt) marries a homozygous roller (TT), there is a 100% chance that the child will be
a roller.

Parent
gametes
T T

t Tt Tt

t Tt Tt

If two heterozygous rollers (Tt) marry, there is a 75% chance that the offspring will be a roller and
25% chance that the offspring will be a non-roller.
Parent
gametes
T t

T TT Tt

t Tt tt

Albinism
Albinism is a hereditary condition in which the skin has little or no pigment. Most forms of
albinism are recessive. This mean a child can inherit one normal gene from each parent. Parents
who are carriers will show normal pigmentation but they can still pass their abnormal gene to their
child. When two carrier parents marry, there is a 25% chance that their child will be an albino.

Parent
gametes A a
AA Aa A = normal
A
normal carrier a = albinism
a Aa aa
carrier albino
Sex determination
The sex of a baby is determined by one of its 23 pairs of chromosomes. The chromosomes in this
pair are called the sex chromosomes. There are two types of sex chromosomes: a long one called
the X chromosome and a short one called the Y chromosomes.

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In females, every cell has two X chromosomes and in males every cell has one X and one Y
chromosomes.
The eggs and sperms are produced by meiosis. The eggs and sperms fuse to form fertilized a
fertilized egg.

All the eggs produced by the mother contain X chromosomes. Half of the sperms from the father
contain X chromosomes and the other half contain Y chromosomes. The chances of an egg to be
fertilized by a Y sperm or an X sperm are equal. If the egg is fertilized by and X sperm, the zygote
will contain two X chromosomes and the zygote develops into a female. If the Y sperm fertilizes
the egg, the zygote will contain an X and a Y chromosomes and it develops into a male.

ABO Blood groups

Everyone blood belongs to a group known as A, B, AB, or O. These blood groups are determined
by the antigens present in the blood. Although the genes in human traits exist in alternative forms
or alleles, the genes that determine human blood types exist as three alleles. These are A, B and
O. The blood groups are as follows.

Blood group Genotype Antigens Antibodies

O OO None A and B
A AA or AO A B
B BB or BO B A
AB AB A and B None

The blood group inherited by a child depends on the parent’s blood groups. This has some
practical applications.
• It can be used to predict the blood group of a child if the parent’s blood groups are known.
• If the blood group of a child and the blood group of one of the parents is known, it can be
possible to predict the blood group of the other parent.

Suppose a man of blood group O marries a woman of blood group AB, the possible blood groups
of the child are as follows.

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The father’s blood genotype is OO and the mother blood genotype is AB.

♀ ♂ O O

A AO AO

B BO BO

There is 50% chance that the child will be blood group A or B.

Blood transfusion
Blood transfusion is a procedure in which blood is given to an individual through one of the
blood vessels.

A blood transfusion fails if the blood of the recipient has antibodies that agglutinates the red
blood cells in the donated blood. The table below summarizes the compatibility of the blood
groups for transfusion.

Blood group Antigens Antibodies Can give blood to Can receive blood from
O None A and B A, B, AB and O O
A A B A and AB A and O
B B A B and AB B and O
AB A and B None AB A, B, AB and O

Sickle-
Sickle-cell anaemia
Sickle-cell anaemia is an inherited form of anaemia. It is a condition where there is a shortage of
healthy red blood cells to carry adequate oxygen throughout the body.

Normally, red blood cells are round and flexible. In sickle-cell anaemia, some of the red blood
cells are shaped like sickles or crescent moons and are rigid and sticky. This makes them to get
stuck in small blood vessels thereby slowing down or blocking the flow of blood and oxygen to
parts of the body.

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An individual can inherit sickle-cell disease if both parent are carriers of the gene. There is a 25%
chance that a child can inherit sickle cell from parents who are carriers.

Parent S = normal
gametes S s
s = sickle cell

SS Ss
S
normal carrier

Ss ss
s sickle cell
carrier
sufferer

Sex-
Sex-linked inheritance
Sex chromosomes (X and Y) carry genes that control some somatic characters as well. The
inheritance of these somatic characters on the sex chromosomes is called sex linked inheritance.
The characteristics that are carried on the sex-chromosomes and are inherited along with the sex
of the individual.

X-linked characteristics (genes) in humans.

These are the sex linked characteristics that located on the X-chromosomes and have no
corresponding alleles on the Y-chromosomes. Haemophilia and colour blindness are examples
of sex-linked genes and since they occur on the X-chromosome, they are also referred to as X-
linked genes.

Y-linked characteristics (genes) in humans.

These are sex linked characteristics that are found on the Y-chromosomes and have no
corresponding allele on the X-chromosomes. These are inherited by sons. Examples of Y-linked
genes are hypertrichosis (excessive hair growth from the pinna) and baldness in males.

Haemophilia
Haemophilia is a hereditary disease which results in excessive bleeding. It is caused by a recessive
gene on the X chromosomes.
If a female who is normal but a carrier marries a normal man, the results are shown below. It is
25% chance that a male child will have haemophilia.

XH = normal allele
Xh = haemophilia

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 VARIATION
Variation refers to the observable differences within a species. All humans belong to the same
species. They can interbreed but there are variation such as eye colour, blood group, gender, height,
weight, foot length,

Types of variation
Discontinuous variation
This is where individuals fall into a number of distinct categories and is based on features that
cannot be measured across a complete range. These feature may include blood group, gender, eye
colour, etc. An individual either has the characteristic or does not have it. For example the
individual can belong to only one of the blood groups. Discontinuous variation is controlled by
alleles of a single gene or a small number of genes. The environment has little effect on this type
of variation.

Continuous variation
In continuous variation, there is a complete range of measurement from one extreme to the other.
The features in this type of variation may include height, weight, foot length, hand span, etc.
continuous variations is a combined effect of many genes and is usually significantly affected by
environmental factors.

Causes of variation
Variation is caused by;
• The genes
Genes can bring about variation through;

Mutation of genes
This is a change in the genetic code of an organism.

Meiosis
The formation gametes during meiosis, the pairs of chromosomes divide in a completely
random way.

Random Fertilization
This brings together new sets of chromosomes from both parents.

• The environment
Environmental factors that can bring about variation include, diet, climate, culture, lifestyle
and physical accidents. Variation caused by environmental factors is not passed on to the next
generation.

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 EVOLUTION
Evolution is the process by which living organisms develop from earlier form. Evolution occurs
over long period of time. It results to the formation of new species.

Theories of evolution
The theories of evolution were developed by Charles Darwin and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.

Lamarck’s theory of evolution

Lamarck’s theory of evolution is centred on;

• The law of use and disuse

• The law of inheritance of acquired characteristics.

Lamarck’s theory suggests that the more characteristics or features are used, the more they develop
and become stronger and bigger. Those that are not used gradually disappear.

According to Lamarck’s theory, a giraffe stretches its neck to reach food high up. As a result its
neck gets longer because it uses it more. The giraffe’s offspring inherit its long neck.

Darwin’s theory accounts for all life forms on earth.

However, Lamarck’s theory doesn’t account for all the observation made of life on earth. It also
lacks genetic bases. His theory implies that all organisms gradually become complex and simple
ones becomes extinct.

Darwin’s theory of evolution

Darwin studied variation in animals and plants during a voyage around the world. He explained
his ideas of evolution in a book called The Origin of Species.
This theory
The features of Darwin’s theory are that; suggests that all
• Individuals compete for limited resources. living things have
a common ancestor.
• Variation occurs within a species.
• Individuals with characteristics best suited to their environment are more likely to survive to
reproduce. This is also referred to as survival of the fittest. Organisms that survive pass on their
characteristics to the following generations.

Species that were not able to compete successfully eventually extinct.

According to Darwin’s theory, a giraffe with a longer neck can reach food high up. It is more likely
to get enough food to survive and reproduce and its offspring inherit its long neck.

Natural
Natural selection
According to the theory of evolution, evolution happens by natural selection.

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Individuals in a species show a wide range of variation which is brought about by a difference in
genes. Individuals with the most suitable characteristics for its environment is most likely to
survive and reproduce. The gene that allowed the organism to be successful are passed on to the
next generation.

Evidences
Evidences of evolution
• Fossil records
Darwin and scientist today have discovered that the remains of ancient organisms that they
find are similar to organisms alive today.

• Similarities among living organisms

Many organisms have similar body plans. For example the bodies of horses, donkeys and
zebras are set up in a very similar way. All insects have six legs and essentially the same body
plan.

• Genetic commonalities
DNA analysis confirms that there is genetic commonality among cells of various organisms.
The universal genetic code is known to apply to virtually all cells.

• Common traits of embryos

Embryos of some animals are very much similar in the early stages of their development.

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 HEALTH AND DISEASES
Health
Health as defined by the world health organization is a state of complete physical, mental and
social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

Disease
A disease is an impairment of the normal state of the body of an organism or one of its parts that
modifies or interrupts the performance of the vital functions.

A disease is manifested by signs and symptoms as a response to factors such as malnutrition,

industrial hazards, climate and infective agents such as worm, viruses and bacteria.
Diseases can be grouped as follows;

Infectious diseases or contagious or communicable diseases

These are diseases caused by pathogens. A pathogen is a disease causing organism. Examples are
viruses, bacteria, fungi and worms. Organisms that carry disease causing organisms from one
individual to another is called a vector. Diseases can be spread or transmitted from one
individual to another through air, water, food, contact and animals.

Non-infectious diseases
These are diseases that are not caused by pathogens and therefore cannot be transmitted from one
individual to another.

INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Diseases caused by bacteria

Bacteria are found almost everywhere. They live in the soil, food, air, water and in the bodies of
other organisms. Disease causing bacteria are parasites. They feed by secreting digestive
enzymes which breaks the surrounding host tissue. The digested material is then absorbed. Some
of the substances secreted by bacteria are toxic (poisonous). These toxins often contribute to the
symptoms of the disease.

Disease Transmission Symptoms Treatment Control and prevention

Use of drugs like
tetracycline,
In water and Sickness, diarrhoea, Vaccination (protection lasts
chloramphenicol,
Cholera wastes passed stomach pain severe for few months)
etc.
into the toilet thirst Consuming purified water
Injection of
saline water
Through air High temperature,
usually from severe pains in
droplets throat, swelling of Use of antitoxins
Diphtheria Mass immunization
produced throat lining leading and antibiotics
when to difficulty in
coughing breathing

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 Pasteurization of milk
Airborne, in Mass radiography for
Use of antibiotic
spit brought Cough, fever and detection of the disease
Tuberculosis drugs such as
up from blood stained spit. Vaccination with BCG
streptomycin
lungs. (Bacille Calmette-Guerin)
Eradicate TB in cattle
Vaccination
Use of antibiotics
Consumption of purified
Typhoid In water, food High temperature, such as
water
fever or toilet waste fever, diarrhoea chloramphenicol,
Safe disposal of sewage
ampicillin
Pasteurization of milk
Using antibiotics
Coughing, fever, such as penicillin Prevent overcrowding and
Pneumonia Airborne
chest pain and create good ventilation
sulphonamides
Use of antibiotics
Transmitted
Jaw and neck like penicillin
through
Tetanus stiffness, sore Injection of anti- Immunisation with tetanus
wounds
(lock Jaw) throat, restlessness, toxins and toxoid
contaminated
etc. muscle relaxing
with dirt.
drugs
Whooping Severe coughing
Airborne Using antibiotics Use of vaccines
cough (mainly in children)
Using drugs such
Skin lesion
Leprosy Airborne as streptomycin, • Isolation of patients
(damage)
and sulphone
High fever,
Use of antibiotics
Meningitis Airborne vomiting, headaches Prevention of overcrowding
like penicillin
and body rashes

Diseases caused by viruses

Viruses are so small that they can only be seen with the electron microscope. All viruses are
parasites. They consist of a protein coat and nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) which are injected into
the host cell and they reproduce rapidly within the host cell resulting to the destruction of the
cell. This explains why they are so harmful.
Control and
Disease Transmission Symptoms Treatment
prevention
Isolation of patient
Through air in Skin rash, swollen
Injection of Prevent
Measles droplets of moisture glands and eyes,
gamma globulin overcrowding
from nose runny nose and cough
Vaccination
Mild fever in young
In droplets from nose
children and No known drug
Polio and in waste passed Vaccination
permanent paralysis
into the toilet then
in adults.

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 through water, person
to person contact.
No known cure • Practice good hand
Runny nose,
but taking lots of hygiene
Common Air droplets of sneezing, coughing,
rest and drinking • Avoid close
cold moisture from nose sore throat, watery
lot of water can contact with those
eyes, mild headache
be helpful with colds.
• Contact with • Rashes on face Use mild
infected person then spread to the analgesics like
Rubella Rubella vaccine
• Coughing and rest of the body. aspirin and
sneezing • Mild fever paracetamol
Chicken Fever, rash of face
Air borne Use of antibiotics Vaccination
pox and body
No medication for Avoid overcrowding
Air droplets of High temperature,
the virus Wash hands
Mumps moisture from nose neck swells and
Use painkillers to regularly
or spit become painful
relief symptoms vaccination
Since there is no
Swollen eyes, known cure, • Avoid mosquito
Yellow Transmitted through
bleeding gums, treatments to ease bites
fever mosquito bite
vomiting symptoms is • Vaccination
done.
• Controlling the
Affects nervous movement of
• Washing and
Transmitted through system leading to mammals into
disinfecting the
the bite of an infected death. Symptoms rabies-free areas.
Rabies wound
mammal such as include fever, • Vaccination of
• Injecting
dogs, bats, etc. headache, and domestic pets that
vaccines
general weakness can serve as host.
E.g. dogs
Not known cure • Practice careful
but depending on hygiene.
High fever,
the patient’s • Wasting no time in
Contact with body weakness, joint and
immune response taking infected
Ebola fluids of infected muscle pain,
and supportive persons to health
person haemorrhage, weight
clinical care can centres.
loss, etc
help patients to • Isolation of
recover. patients.

Diseases caused by protozoans

Infections caused by protozoa are generally contagious. The protozoa that inhabited the human
intestine are generally transmitted through the consumption of contaminated food and water. Those
living in the blood are transmitted through vectors such as mosquitoes.

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Disease Transmission Symptoms Treatment Control and prevention
• Purification of drinking
Diarrhoea, water
nausea,
• Avoiding unpasteurized
weight loss,
Amoebic In water and wastes • Taking plenty of milk
loss of
dysentery passed into the fluids • Minimize or if possible
appetite,
(amoebiasis) toilet • Use of antibiotics avoid contact with
blood in
faeces due to infected persons
gut bleeding • Keeping oneself and
cooking utensils clean
Fever, • Use of insecticides and
Antimalarial drugs
weakness, insect repellents to get rid
such as quinine,
Malaria By mosquito shivering, of mosquitoes.
chloroquine and
vomiting, • Clearing away mosquito
coartem.
etc. breeding grounds.

Life cycle of plasmodium parasite

Diseases caused by fungi

Diseases caused by fungi are usually on skin, lung, mouth, and other the parts of the body easily
reached by things in the environment. Fungal diseases are generally transmitted through direct skin
contact or sharing personal care item like combs, towel, etc.

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 Control and
Disease Transmission Symptoms Treatment
prevention
Touching or
sharing
infested • A ring of
• General cleanliness
clothing and scaly skin.
Use of antibiotics (or • Avoid sharing
personal care • Itching
Ring worm antifungal combs, towels, and
items like around the
medicines) other personal care
combs, infected
items
walking bare area
foot on wet
floors
• Keep feet clean and
dry
Use of antibiotics (or
Athlete’s Contact with Itching • Change socks
antifungal
foot floor between toes frequently and
medicines)
always keep them
clean.

Diseases caused by worms

Worm diseases are usually as a result of poor hygiene. The eggs or larvae of parasitic worm may
be found in the soil and can enter the human body directly through the skin or through the mouth.

Control and
Disease Transmission Symptoms Treatment
prevention
• Avoid getting
Blood in
into ware with
urine, Drugs such as
Touching snails.
Bilharzia or weakness, nidolin and
water with • Avoid urinating
schistosomiasis kidney metrifonate are
water snails in water
damage and used.
skin itching • Purify drinking
water
• No vaccine or
medication for
preventing river
Itchy skin
blindness
rash, nodules Use of Ivermectin
under the which kills the • Avoid insect bite
Onchocercciasis
Transmitted by using insect
or river skin, eye larvae and renders
by black flies repellant,
blindness disease, may the adult worms in
wearing long
lead to effective.
sleeve and
blindness
trousers in areas
where black flies
are active

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 • Improved
Coughs, sanitation and
passing Using albendazole hygiene
Drinking
worms in or mebendazole to • Routine or
Ascariasis contaminated
stool, stomach paralyse to kill preventive
water
pain, vomiting intestinal worms treatment with
worms, deworming
medications.
• Improved
Anaemia, sanitation and
tiredness, hygiene
Contact with itchiness and albendazole or • Wearing shoes
soil skin rash, mebendazole are while walking
Hookworm
containing nausea, fever, usually given to get outdoors
larvae abdominal rid of the parasites. • Preventive
pain, blood in treatment when
stool necessary
•
Thick and • By administering
cracked skin, albendazole Avoid mosquito
Elephantiasis Transmitted headache, together with bites by getting rid
(lymphatic my culex inflammation ivermectin. of mosquitoes,
filariasis) mosquito of lymph • In severe cases, using bed nets and
vessels, surgery may be so on.
swollen legs needed.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs)

Sexually transmitted diseases are particular group of contagious diseases. They are spread only
by direct contact that is during sexual intercourse. STDs can be cured if treatment is given at an
early stage. They include the following

Gonorrhoea
This disease is caused by a bacterium. Gonorrhoea is more like to cause symptoms in men than
in women. Its symptoms in men include a burning sensation when urine is being passed. In
women, the symptoms are rarely noticed, but can be detected when the male partner develops the
disease. Gonorrhoea can be treated with antibiotics.

Syphilis
This disease is caused by bacteria. It is transmitted mainly through sexual activity. In the first
stage, that is the primary stage, the first symptom shown is sore at the site of the infection (on the
site of the infection). This sore may disappear quickly and no further symptoms may show up to
a year. In the second stage (secondary stage) the following symptoms appear; rashes, swollen
lymph glands, eyes and other organs. At this stage the infection is high.
The tertiary stage may last for many years during which the body tissues become damaged. This
disease may attack the brain if it is not treated.
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Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
It is caused by a virus usually called Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and it is passed
through sexual contact or body fluids. The virus prevents the white blood cells from initiating the
immune response processes. The patient’s immune system becomes paralysed hence becoming
prey to infections. Various symptoms such as fever, fatigue, diarrhoea, various forms of cancer,
etc. may show.

In general, sexually transmitted diseases can be prevented by;

• Avoiding sexual contact with infected persons by remaining faithful to a health partner.
• Use of condoms.

PREVENTION OF INFECTIONS

The body is constantly open to attack by microbes but when attacked, it has a number of defence
mechanisms.

• The mouth, nasal passage and the wind pipes all contains mucus which helps to trap invading
pathogens and dust particles.
• The epidermis (the outer layer of the skin) if not broken, serves as a barrier to infection.
• The skin gland also secretes an oily substance called sebum which contains antiseptics.
Antiseptics are substances that can kill or stop bacterial growth.
• Tear also contains antiseptics.
• The stomach contains hydrochloric acid which kills bacteria taken in with food.
• Blood clotting prevents the entry of microbes into the body tissues.

ANTIBODIES
Antibodies are chemicals produced by the lymphocytes. They attack the antigens produced by
invading microbes. They defend the body by neutralising the toxins produced by the bacteria.
They may also to the surface of the bacteria and make them easy to the engulfed by the
phagocytes. This process is called phagocytosis. Antibodies are very specific. When a pathogen
enters the body, its antigens causes the body to produce a specific antibodies against it. This
antibodies remain in circulating in the body for some time. This can make the body immune to
the disease.

Antigen: is a chemical substance produced by

the pathogens
Antibody: chemical substances produced by the
lymphocytes. They are proteins.

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 IMMUNITY
Immunity is the body’s ability to resist infection by producing antibodies. Sometimes, a person
may develop immunity against getting a disease by once having the disease. The individual
develops antibodies against the disease in the body. The antibodies produced in the body in
response to the pathogens remain in the blood stream and prevent reinfection.
Immunity can be to two types;

Natural immunity
Natural immunity can be divided into:

• Natural Active Immunity

This occurs during infection. The lymphocytes are activated by antigens.

• Natural Passive Immunity

This form of immunity is transferred from mother to child through the placenta or milk.

Artificial Immunity
Artificial immunity can be divided into:

• Artificial active immunity

This is acquired by injecting or taking by mouth dead or weakened antigens. This may give a
long lasting immunity.

• Artificial Passive immunity

This occurs through the injection of another person’s or animal’s antibodies.

Vaccination
A vaccine is a substance introduced into the body in order to cause the body’s immune system to
produce the appropriate antibodies. Vaccines are usually dead or weakened pathogens.
Immunization is usually carried out by injection with hypodermic needles. For some diseases, a
scratch is made on the skin, some vaccines are taken by mouth and some through the nose.
People may be vaccinated against tuberculosis, yellow fever, cholera, polio, diphtheria, tetanus,
measles, whooping cough, etc.

Antiseptics
An antiseptic is a substance which can kill or stop the growth of microbes (pathogens) but not
poisonous to the cells of the body. Acriflavin, potassium permanganate, iodine, and hydrogen
peroxide are examples. Antiseptics are used externally on living tissues to prevent infections in
minor cuts and wounds.

Disinfectants
Disinfectants are substances that kill bacteria but are only used on non-living materials.
Disinfectants are poisonous to living tissues.

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Antibiotics
An antibiotic is a substance that destroys or stops the growth of bacteria and fungi. They are
obtained mainly from moulds but some are made in laboratories. Antibiotics are injected or
given in tablet form. Tetracycline, penicillin and streptomycin are examples.

NON – INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Deficiency diseases
These are caused by lack of certain food items in the diet. They are linked to nutrition.
Disease Cause
Kwashiorkor Lack of protein
Rickets Lack of vitamin D
Scurvy Lack of vitamin C
Goitre Lack of iodine

Ageing or degeneration of body tissues

• Ageing of the tissues may cause arthritis in joints.
• Weakening of the eye muscles may cause eye defect.

Cancer
Cancer arises when cell division becomes abnormal and uncontrolled leading to the formation of
tumours (lumps of tissues). Some tumours are non – cancerous. They remain where they are
formed and do not spread to cause destruction and death.
Lung cancer
It is caused by chemicals such as cigarette smoke, tar, etc.

Leukaemia
This is a type of blood cancer caused by a virus.

Skin cancer
This is caused by ultraviolet light from the sun.

Other types of cancer are breast cancer, cervix cancer and penis cancer.

It is difficult to prevent people from getting cancer as the exact cause of cancer is not understood.
However, healthy lifestyle such as avoiding smoking is important. If cancer is detected early
enough, it can be treated by surgery. Chemicals or radiations can also be used to treat cancer by
killing the cancerous cells and prevent them from spreading.

Cataract
Cataract is a degenerative disease in which the eye lens becomes opaque. Cataract occurs mostly
in old people. It may be due to frequent exposure to strong heat or atomic radiations. It may also
be as a result of diabetes. Blindness caused by cataracts may be cured by removing the lens
through surgery. This is possible because much of the refraction of light to form images on the
retina is brought about by the cornea and the cornea is not affected.
Sometimes damaged lenses can be replaced with acrylic (plastic ones).
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 HEALTH SERVICES
A wide range of services and professionals are involved in the eradication of diseases and
ensuring that people stay healthy.

Community health care

Community health workers offer a wide range of services to communities. Their roles are as
follows.
• They carrying out vaccinations.
• They diagnose common diseases and treat minor illnesses.
• Where necessary, they refer patients to hospitals.
• They provide counselling and support.
• They educate and enlighten community members about;
o How to prevent the spread of diseases and recommended actions in the event of
outbreaks.
o Standard nutrition
o Maternal and child health and so on.

International Health Organisations

Organisation Headquarters Functions
located in
• Monitoring and addressing health trends.
• Providing leadership on matters critical to health and
engaging in partnerships where joint action is needed.
• Setting norms and standards and promoting and
monitoring their implementation.
World Health
Geneva • Providing technical support, and building sustainable
Organisation(WHO)
institutional capacity.
• Shaping research agenda and stimulating the
generation, translation and sharing of valuable
knowledge.
• Articulating ethical and evidence-based policy options.
FAO is committed to promoting the following in relation
to mainly food and agriculture.
• Scientific, technological, social and economic research.
Rome • Improvement of education and administration, spread
Food and Agricultural (African of public knowledge of agricultural science and
organisation (FAO) headquarters practices.
is in Egypt) • Conservation of natural resources and adoption of
improved agricultural production.
• Improvement of the processing, marketing and
distribution of food and agricultural products.

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 The Red Cross provides voluntary services to people
affected by wars and natural disasters by;
International Red Cross
Geneva • Providing food and shelter to refugees.
Society
• Assisting army medical corps
• Providing first aid and giving basic first aid training.
• Increasing child survival rates.
• Promoting education for girls.
• Protecting children from violence, abuse and in times
United Nations International of emergency.
Children Emergency Fund London • Protecting and advocating the rights of children.
(UNICEF) • Provision of adequate and safe drinking water for
children.
• Immunization of infants to protect them from diseases.
• Providing basic education infrastructure to the world.

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 DRUGS AND DRUG ABUSE
What is a drug?
drug?
Drug refers to any substance that alters the biochemical or physiological processes of the body.
Medically, a drug is a substance with the potential to prevent or cure a disease or enhance
physical or mental well-being.

Motivation for
for drug use
Drugs may be taken for many reasons. Some take drugs;
• For pain relief • To escape reality
• For relief from stress • For recreation
• For increased energy • To feel more self-esteem
• For relaxing • For curiosity

However, many drug addicts take drugs as a result of peer pressure.

Hard drugs
These are drugs that are generally considered to be more dangerous and with higher risk of
dependence. They are said to cause physiological addiction. For example, cocaine, heroin,
alcohol, nicotine, etc.

Soft drugs
These are drugs not thought to cause physiological addiction. For cannabis, lysergic acid diethyl
amide (LSD), etc. However some of them can still lead to physiological dependence.

DRUG ABUSE
Drug abuse is a chronic or habitual use of drugs for reasons other than medically unwarranted
purposes.

Effects of drug abuse

Drug abuse has effects on the individual, friends and family and society.

Effects of drug abuse on the individual

• Those who abuse have higher risks of getting HIV/AIDS as result of sharing hypothermic
needles.
• Heroin withdrawal can cause vomiting and muscles cramps.
• Drug abuse can result to poor self-care.
• Some drugs cause anxiety, depression, and hallucination.

Effects of drug abuse on the society

• It leads to marital problems.
• It results to poor work performance.
• Pregnant drug users usually bear children with low birth weight.
• Drug related crimes such as fighting, theft or even murder can disrupt neighbourhoods.

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• Money meant to be spent on the family is usually used to by these drugs. Therefore, the
family is not adequately cared for.
• It can lead to accidents in traffic and workplaces.

DRUG ADDICTION

Addiction is a condition of physical and physiological dependency on drugs. Drug abuses go

through stages which lead them to addiction. At the beginning they fill in control but as time
goes on they lose control. The stages to addiction are as follows;

Experimentation
Individuals usually take drugs for the first time as a result of curiosity and peer pressure.

Becoming a regular user (repetition)

Those who enjoyed their first experience become regular users. They develop a desire for more
of the ‘pleasant’ feeling they had.

Substance abuse (tolerance)

This is when the individual uses so much of the drug that it leads to harmful consequences. This
makes some to reduce or stop completely. Other ignore and continue to use the drugs. They
become tolerant to the drug and desire to take more of the drug to acquire the same feeling.

Dependence (withdrawal)
This is the stage when the individuals feels that they cannot live normally without taking drugs.
They become reluctant to give up. At this stage it is the absence of the drug that disturbs the user
and must do whatever it takes in order to feel normal.

Drugs may be classified as follows.

Domestic drugs
Caffeine
Caffeine is a stimulant found in coffee, tea, cocoa, and cola. Caffeine tends to aid mental activity
and give a slight ‘high’ feeling. In small quantities is virtually harmless. Caffeine is rarely
addictive but in large amounts for example drinking large amount of coffee can damage the heart
and kidneys as coffee contains more caffeine than tea. Too much coffee may also cause
increased heat beat, increased breathing rate and nervousness.

Alcohol
Alcohol is a very widely abused drug. Alcohol is not found in soft drinks which are harmless.
Alcoholic drinks contain ethanol. The ethanol content of various alcoholic drinks varies. Some
spirits are very strong and may even contain other harmful types of alcohols. Drinking alcohol
especially heavy drinking can be harmful in the following ways;
• Alcohol can affect the brain. A person who drinks alcohol easily loose self-control and may
say or do things that he or she will not do normally.

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• Alcoholics may argue, shout or fight.
• They cannot rely on their memory. They see things in a confused manner and they may judge
distances wrongly.
• When the effect of the alcohol is over, they have “hang over” (headaches, tiredness, thirst
and sickness).
• Drinking is expensive; hence there may not be enough money for the family leading to
poverty.
• Babies born to mothers who drink during pregnancy usually have below normal intelligence
and may also have other defects such as distorted faces, poor eye sight and heart defects.
• It can cause stomach ulcers.
• It can make the heart to enlarge and becomes less powerful.
• It can lead to the destruction of the brain cells thereby affecting the memory.
• It can lead to cirrhosis which may be the result of the destruction of the liver cells.
• Alcoholics usually have less interest in food and as a result they become malnourished.
• Heavy drinking leads to accidents and crime.

Heavy drinkers become alcoholics. Such people usually;

• Have frequent desire to drink.
• Drink more than the past.
• Behave badly after having a drink.
• Don’t remember things that happened when they were drunk.

However, with strong will, alcoholics can control their drinking or even stop it. Abstinence and
involvement in games and other sporting activities can also help to solve the problem.

Nicotine
This substance is poisonous and is found in tobacco. Nicotine can cause atherosclerosis
(narrowing of the blood vessels) causing heart attack and stroke.

Tobacco smoke contains carbon monoxide which reduces oxygen in the smoker’s blood as well
as the passive smoker. This can affect the brain, heart and other tissues.

• Tar contained in cigarette is irritating to the nose, throat and lungs.

• It also causes cancer of the lips, throat and lungs.
• Diseases of the respiratory tract such as bronchitis can also develop.
• Smoking can cause abortion and premature births in pregnant women.
• Nicotine is harmful to developing babies.
• Smokers cough repeatedly and do not eat well.
• They usually have bad smell in their breath.
• Other harmful effects include poverty and danger of starting fires.

Hallucinogenic drugs
Cannabis: It is also called hemp, grass, marijuana, etc. The main ingredient in this drug is
cannabis resin. It is smoked, eaten or drunk and it is harmful in the following ways.

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• It is a depressant drug. (It slows down the users reactions causing unsteadiness).
• It can produce hallucination (seeing, hearing and becoming aware of things that are either not
present or different from the reality).
• It removes the desire for work and better one self.
• It acts on the nervous system and damages the brain.

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD): This is one of the most powerful drugs. It produces
hallucinations (may lead to suicide). Some of the side effects include mental disorder and
difficulty in concentrating.

Stimulants
Amphetamines
Amphetamines such as Benzedrine are also called pep-pills, speed or uppers. They are widely
used as stimulants in depression and tiredness.
• Amphetamines may cause restlessness and inability to sleep.
• Mental confusion and hallucination may occur.
• There may be withdrawal from reality that can end in suicide.

Cocaine
It is a deadly drug normally taking by sniffing. Cocaine can bring about heart attack or stroke.
Abusers of this drug usually don’t have much appetite for food and also do not have a normal
sleep pattern. High dosage of cocaine brings about disorientation, delusion, antisocial behaviour
and aggressiveness.

Opiates
Opiates are taken either orally or intravenously. They are uses mainly as pain killers. They
include heroin and morphine.

Heroin
Heroin can slow down the function of the lungs and this may lead to the death of the user. The
bacteria from or from unsterilized needles often attack the heart tissue.

Morphine
Morphine is highly addictive. It can cause slow breathing, lower heart rate, constipation and
itchiness. Too much of morphine can cause low blood pressure, coma and even death.

Barbiturates
Barbiturates are depressant drugs and are very addictive. They are taken as pills or injected into
the veins. They include amytal and phenobarbitones. They can cause nervousness, confusion,
anxiety, depression of the central nervous system. It can also result to fever, vomiting, headaches
and liver damage.

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 ECOLOGY
Ecology is the study of the inter-relationships between living organism and their surroundings.

Ecological terms
1. Environment: This refers to everything in the surrounding of an organism that can affect it.
2. Biosphere: This is the part of the earth and the atmosphere where life exists. Example land,
sea and air.
3. Habitat: This is a place within an environment where and organism can live successfully.
4. Population: Is the total number of living organisms of the same species living in habitat.
5. Community: Is the total number of organisms of different species living in a habitat.
6. Ecosystem: This consists of the living things and the non-living things in an environment
which interact to produce a stable system. An ecosystem has three components;
• Producers
• Consumers
• Decomposers

Ecological factors
These are factors or conditions which determine the behaviour, development and distribution of
organisms in any place. These factors can be grouped as follows; Abiotic factors
• Biotic factors

Abiotic factors
These are the non-living factors that affect living organisms in a habitat. They include the
following.

1. Light intensity
• Light intensity decrease with depth of water.
• It is important for photosynthesis.
• It affects flowering and climbing plants. Termites swan night.
• Fish move deeper down in water when light intensity is high. They come up to the surface
when light intensity is reduced.
• It is measured with light meter on land and with light intensity probe in water and the
unit is candela.

2. Temperature
• Affects the decay of organic matter. Therefore it affects the distribution of fungi and
bacteria.
• Speeds up the growth of some organisms such as toads and house flies.
• High temperature increases the rate of evaporation resulting in the drying of the soil, rivers,
lakes, etc.
• It affects transpiration in plants.
• It is measured with a thermometer and the unit is Kelvin or degrees Celsius.

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3. Rainfall
• It determines the type of vegetation in an area. Less rainfall causes draught.
• Affects crop yield.
• It causes floods.
• Ponds and pools formed when there is rainfall serve as habitats for mosquito larvae and
algae.
• It affects the level of water in streams, rivers and lakes.
• Termites start new colonies in the rainy season.
• Measured with a rain gauge and the unit is mm.

4. Humidity
• It refers to the moisture content of the atmosphere.
• It affects the rate of water loss in animals and plants. Low humidity increases the rate of
transpiration in plants.
• It affects the rate or evaporation from the soil and water bodies. Low humidity favours
evaporation.
• It is measured with a hygrometer.

5. Wind
• Affects fruit and seed dispersal.
• Pollination of flowers.
• Causes water currents and erosion.
• Affects the movement of birds and insects.
• Measured with an anemometer for speed in and wind vane for direction.

6. Slope of land (topography)

• The degree of the slope of land affects the distribution of animals and plants.
• Many plants cannot grow on steep slopes
• It favours erosion and making the base of hills and mountain more fertile.
• Water runs very fast on steep slopes and may not soak into the soil.
• It is measured with a slope gauge.

7. Pressure
• Air pressure changes from time to time depending on weather conditions.
• It also changes with altitude. Pressure is lower at high altitude.
• It increases with depth in water.
• Pressure restricts the activities of animals.
• Animals that are not adapted to this condition may find breathing difficult.
• It is measured with a barometer.

8. Depth of water
• Pressure and light intensity varies with depth of water.
• It affects light intensity in water. Light intensity is greater at the surface. It affects
organisms living at different depths particularly photosynthesising plants.
• It affects pressure acting on organisms.
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9. Hydrogen ion concentration
It is also called pH. It is a measure of how acidic or alkaline the soil or water is.
• It affects the growth of plants. Different plants thrive in different levels of acidity or
alkalinity.
• High levels of acidity affects animals and plants in aquatic habitats.
• It is measured with pH meter and is expressed in terms of the pH scale. A universal
indicator is also suitable.

10. Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of the cloudiness of water. It is degree to which water loses its
transparency.
• It affects the penetration of light in water. This reduces the rate of photosynthesis.
• Oxygen concentration reduces and carbon dioxide concentration increases in the water as
a result of a drop in the rate of photosynthesis. This makes aquatic animals to suffocate and
may die.
• It reduces visibility in water. This makes it difficult for fish to find food.
• Suspended particles favour the multiplication of micro-organisms which may be harmful
to aquatic animals.
• It is measured with secchi disc.

11. Oxygen concentration

• It varies with depth of water. It also varies with altitude.
• It affects organisms in water. Oxygen concentration is greater around the surface of water.
• Oxygen concentration is lower at higher altitudes.

12. Carbon dioxide concentration

• It important for photosynthesis.
• Causes more heat to be retained leading to ‘green house’ effect.
• When dissolved in rain, it forms acid rain which can destroy vegetation and kills animals
in aquatic habitats.

13. Salinity
• It affects the density of water.
• It affects osmotic pressure on aquatic organisms.
• Some animals such as tilapia are mainly found in fresh water.

14. Altitude
Altitude is the height above sea level.
• Air pressure and oxygen concentration decreases with altitude. Organisms living at high
altitudes such as mountain tops are adapted to these conditions.
• Temperatures are usually lower at high altitudes and winds are usually stronger there.
• It is measured with altimeter.

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Biotic factors
These are the living factors (living organisms) in a habitat which affects one another. They include
the following.
• Herbivores feeding on plants.
• Carnivores feeding on animals.
• Insects pollinating flowers.
• Plants with weak stems depend on other plants for support.
• Parasites live in/on the host.
• Insects and animals help in seed and fruit dispersal.
• Epiphytes growing on trees.

Man’s influence on the distribution of plants and animals

Man fells trees for timber and firewood.
• Man burns grass or forest for farming.
• Man clears land for building roads, towns, etc.
• Man pollutes the environment.

Feeding relationships
Energy is contained within organic molecules produced by autotrophs (organisms that make their
own food). Autotrophs are producers and are usually the green plants. The producers provide food
(material and energy) to heterotrophs (organisms that cannot make their own food). These
animals may be eaten by other animals transferring their energy to the next.

Food chain
A food chain shows the energy flow in the form of food, from one organism to another. Each stage
in the food chain is called trophic level. The first level of the food chain is known as the producer.
This is usually a green plant. Organisms in the following levels are called consumers. Consumers
that feed on the producers are called primary consumers. Animals that feed on primary
consumers are called the secondary consumers and so on.

producers oppq primary consumers oppq secondary consumers opppq tertiary consumers
Examples of food chains;
grass oppq goat oppq lion
water weed oppq tad pole oppq water bird

Herbivores: These are animals that eat only plants. Examples are goat, sheep, etc.
Carnivores: These are animals that eat only animals. Examples are lion, hyena, etc.
Omnivores: These are animals that eat both plants and animals. Examples are man, chicken, etc.
Saprophytes: These are organisms that live and feed on death organic matter. Examples are fungi
and bacteria.

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Food web
A food web is interconnected food chains. Within an ecosystem, the feeding relations are much
more complex than simple food chains. This is mainly due to selective feeding among animals.

Ecological pyramids
The amount of food flowing through a food chain usually drops with each level of the food chain.
This pattern when represented graphically shows a ‘pyramid’ shape called ecological pyramid.
There are three types of ecological pyramids. Pyramid of numbers
A pyramid of numbers represents the number of individuals in each trophic level of a food chain.
A pyramid of number may be upright or inverted depending on the number of number of producers.
When the producers are in abundance and are larger in number at the base of the food chain, while
the consumers decrease in number at each trophic level, an upright pyramid is formed. This is
common in grass land ecosystems.

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 Hawk

Snakes

Mice

Plants

Sometime the producers are large than the consumers but fewer in number. This forms an inverted
pyramid of numbers. This is common in a parasitic food chain such as where many ticks feed on one
cow or locust feeding on a tree.

Other types of ecological pyramids are:

Pyramid of biomass
A pyramid of biomass is a graphical representation of the total amount of living matter present at
each trophic level. It is upright in grassland and forest ecosystems and inverted in a pond
ecosystem.

Pyramid of energy
A pyramid of energy flow shows the amount of energy flow at each trophic level.

SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATION (SYMBIOSIS)

Symbiosis is the relationship between two living organisms of different species whereby the body
of one organism is a habitat for another organism.

Types of symbiotic relationships

1. Parasitism
This is the relationship between two organisms of different species where by one (the parasite)
lives in or on the other organism (the host), deriving benefits from the host and causing harm
to it.

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 Examples of parasitism;
• Tape worm and man: tapeworms live in the intestines of animals such as man. It obtains
food and shelter from the animal while inflicting harm on it.
• Plasmodium and man: plasmodium is a parasite that spends part of its life cycle in the
human body. While it is in the body, it multiplies and releases toxins that makes people
sick.

2. Mutualism
This is the relationship between living organisms of different species where both partners
benefit.

Examples of mutualism
• Herbivorous animals and bacteria: the herbivorous animal provide food, shelter and
warmth for the bacteria in its stomach and the bacteria in return helps the animal to digest
cellulose.
• Leguminous plant and rhizobium bacteria (nitrogen fixing bacteria): the rhizobium helps
the plant to change atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates which the plant uses. The leguminous
plant provide food and shelter for the rhizobium bacteria in its rood nodules.

3. Commensalism
This is the relationship between organisms of different species where only one member (the
commensal) benefits but does not affect the other member (the host). The host neither benefits,
no suffers.

Examples of commensalism
• Shark and remora: remora is a small fish that feeds on scrap food ignored by the shark. It
also depends on the shark for transport by clinging on to the shark.
• A bird and a tree: a bird gets shelter from the tree while the tree does derives no benefits
and is not harmed as well

Habitats
There are different types of habitats.
a) Aquatic habitat (water)
• Fresh water habitat • Marine habitat (salt water habitat)

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b) Terrestrial (land)
• Forest - characterised by abundant large trees and rain fall.

• Savana - characterised by abundant grass than trees.

• Desert - characterised by few trees and little rainfall.

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Interdependence and interrelationships exist among organisms in any habitat. Living things in any
habitat have unique adaptive features that enables them to live successfully. In the study of
organisms in a habitat, the following steps are followed.
• Identification of a suitable habitat.
• Sampling of organisms
• Collection and identification of organisms
• Measurement of abiotic factors and recording of data.
• Interpretation of data and drawing of conclusions.

Sampling techniques
1. Quadrat
It is used for sampling species present in a terrestrial habitat.
A quadrat is used to gain a random sample of plants and animals in a habitat. It is a squared
wooden or metal frame. It is thrown randomly on some parts of the ground. The organisms in
the quadrat are then identified and counted. The data is then used to estimate the population
the organisms.

2. line transect
A line transect is a path along which organisms are counted. It is used together with the quadrat
to carry out a random sampling of plant and animals in a habitat.

3. Point frame
It is used together with the line transect for plant sampling.

4. Pooter
Is used for catching small and delicate insects such as insects and spiders from walls and tree
trunks.

5. Pitfall trap
It is used to catch small animals in a terrestrial habitat.

6. Sweep net
It is used for catching insects usually in areas of long grass. They can also be used in ponds.

7. Butterfly net
It is used for catching fling insects such as better flies.

8. Wicker-work trap
It is used for catching animals in an aquatic habitat.

9. Plankton net
It is used for catching aquatic organisms. It is dragged through the water and the organisms
caught are identified and counted.

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 ECOSYSTEMS
An ecosystem consists of the living things and the non-living components (environment)
interacting with each other. In an ecosystem, every organism has a niche and plays a role.

In a pond habitat, different organisms such as microorganisms, insects, plants and animals can be
found. The respiration of the animals provide carbon dioxide for the plant to photosynthesise.
Some organism serve as food for other organisms. The small fish may feed on the tadpoles.

Introduction of external factors can create imbalance in the ecosystem. For example rise in
temperature, increase in pH, etc. The absence of one member of the ecosystem can affect the rest
of the members.

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 POLLUTION
Pollution is the release of harmful waste substances into the environment. Pollution leads to upsets
in the balance of nature.

AIR POLLUTION
Air pollution is caused by the release of harmful gases into the air. Most air pollution is caused by
burning of fossil fuels in homes, power stations, vehicles, etc. Some of the harmful substances
released into the air are shown in the table below.

Air pollutant Source Effects Methods of control

Soot and smoke Burning fuels • Deposits soot on buildings • Use of smokeless fuels
• Makes clothes and fabrics dirty • Improved air supply to burning
fuels
Carbon dioxide Burning fuels Has caused more heat to be • Burn less fossil fuels by
retained by the earth leading to improving home insulation and
the ‘greenhouse effect’. making vehicles more efficient.
• Using clean renewable energy
such as solar, wind and
hydroelectric power.
• Planting more trees to absorb
the carbon dioxide.
• Using public transport such
buses, trains, etc., bicycles and
walking.
Carbon monoxide Burning fuels – • Poisonous to humans and • Making vehicle engines burn
particularly animals. fuel more efficiently
vehicles • Prevents haemoglobin in the • Fitting catalytic converters to
blood from carrying oxygen. the exhaust systems of vehicles.
Sulphur dioxide • Burning fuels • Burn less coal and oil
such as coal and • Remove sulphur dioxide from
oil. This reacts • Acid rain waste gases.
with rain water to • Harms plants
form sulphurous • Gets into rivers and lakes
acid rain. causing them to become acidic.
• Some industrial This harms fish and other
processes and aquatic organisms.
volcanoes also • Destroys structures of buildings
release sulphur such stone works, and some
dioxide. roofs.
Oxides of Vehicles exhaust • Oxides of sulphur causes • Adjust vehicles engines so that
nitrogen gases. These react breathing difficulties. oxides of nitrogen do not form.
with rain to form • Fit catalytic converters to
nitric acid rain. vehicle exhaust systems.

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 • Oxides of nitrogen participate in
the formation of smog which
causes low visibility, and
respiratory diseases.
Dust • Factories, dry • Affects visibility. Factories that release dust should
and lose soils • Blocks stomata of plant leaves be situated far from farms and
• Volcanic leading to low photosynthesis. residential areas. Taking care of
eruptions • Irritates the eyes and affects the the surroundings and planting
respiratory system. ornamental plants and grass will
prevent loosening of the soil.
Chloro-fluoro Refrigerators Destruction of the ozone layer Avoiding the use CFC based
carbons (CFCs) Aerosols leading to skin cancer, eye sprays and appliances.
(Refrigeration cataracts and threats to plants.
gases).
Lead Smelters and Damages nervous system Using unleaded petrol.
other metal especially in children leading IQ
industries. loss.
Combustion of
leaded fuels.

The greenhouse effect

The increased use of fossil fuels and deforestation has led to small but significant increase in the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the air. Radiant heat cannot pass through carbon dioxide as
easily as it passes through clean air. As a result the carbon dioxide traps heat in the earth’s
atmosphere. This is referred to as the Greenhouse effect.

Global warming
This is an increase in the average temperature of the earth. It has the following effects.
• Changes in the climate: Higher temperatures are being recorded in some parts of the world.
Rainfall patterns are changing and more violent storms are occurring around the world.
• Changes in the patterns of food production: Due to decrease in rainfall in some areas of the
world, crop failure has increased leading to food shortages in those areas.

• Rising sea levels: Melting of the polar ice caps leads to rising sea levels. This causes coastal
flooding

WATER POLLUTION
This is release of harmful substances into the water bodies. Examples of water pollutants are shown
below.

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Water pollutant Source Effects
Sewage Homes, schools, work places • As bacteria grows on the nutrients in
sewage, oxygen is used up in the water
leading to the death of aquatic animals and
plants.
• The decaying matter makes the water
smelly.
• Loss of recreational use of water.
Oil Refineries • Pollutes beaches.
Oil spills from tankers • Destroys habitats.
• Causes the death of sea birds usually in
large numbers.
Fertilizers Rain water washes fertilisers • Causes Eutrophication which promotes the
from farmlands into rivers growth of bacteria and water plants leading
and lakes the oxygen shortage in the water which
eventually makes the bacteria and plants to
die.
• The decaying matter makes the water to
stink.
Pesticides Insecticides, herbicides and • Pesticides kill helpful and harmless
fungicides used by farmers organisms such as decomposers, pollinating
and gardeners insects, etc.
• They get into the food chain where they
harm organisms along the chain.

SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution is the release of harmful substance into the soil. It causes adverse effects ranging
from food production and contamination of food chains.

Pollutant Sources Effects

Pesticides Spraying of farmlands Leads to contamination of food chains.
When the chemical in pesticides are
absorbed by plants, it is passed along the
food chain resulting to the death of non-pest
species.
Fertilizers Application of fertilizer in Kills some organisms in the soil which serve
farmlands. as food for other organisms and may cause
contamination of the food chain. Fertilizers
may be washed by rain and may end up to
the water table below.
Acid rain Acid rain is formed when Reduces soil fertility.
oxides of nitrogen, sulphur

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 and carbon are dissolved in Inhibits the ability of plants to absorb
rain. nutrient form the soil.
Inhibits the activity of bacteria in the soil.
Chemicals Chemicals from factories Pollutes the soil and make plants harmful to
and nuclear power plants our health.
usually through leakage.
Deforestation Cutting down of trees Leaves the soil exposed erosion,
without replacements. desertification and land degradation.

Controlling pollution
In general, pollution can be controlled by;

• Reducing the quantity of harmful materials released in the environment. This involves a
reduction in the use of chemical fertilizers, reduction in the emission from factories, radioactive
waste and house hold waste.

• Recycling of waste materials such as paper, plastics and other materials to reduce the volume
of refuse.

• Reusing materials such as plastics bags.

• Growing more trees and to absorb the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and to prevent soil
erosion.

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 GLOSSARY
Acceleration Rate of change of velocity. Unit: m/s2 Anode A positive electrode.
Aerobic respiration The process through which Arteriosclerosis The build-up of fatty materials
energy is released from food (such as glucose) in the inside an artery.
presence of oxygen. Carbon dioxide and water are
Asexual reproduction. The reproduction that
produced.
involves only one parent.
Alimentary canal (gut) The tube that runs from the
Atom The smallest particle of an element that can
mouth to the anus.
take part in chemical reaction.
Alkali metals Various reactive metals which form
Atomic number The number of protons in the
alkalis when they dissolve in water. They are found
nucleus of an atom.
in group one of the periodic table.
Atria (singular atrium) the two upper chambers of
Alkanes A family of hydrocarbons that have a
the heart. Blood enters the heart via the atria.
single covalent bonds between the atoms. Their
general formula is )© © (where © = no of Background radiation The natural radiation all
carbon atoms). around us. It is usually very low.
Alkenes A family of hydrocarbons with double bond Balanced diet A diet which contains all the seven
between carbon atoms. Their general formula is food classes in correct proportions.
)© © (where; © = Ð † ˆâ ). Battery Two or more electrical cells joined together.
Alkynes A family of hydrocarbons with triple bond Beam of light This is a collection of light rays.
between carbon atoms. Their general formula is
Beta particles A type of radiation consisting of high
)© © (where © = no of carbon atoms).
energy electrons.
Alleles different forms of a particular gene. E.g. the
Breathing The movement of air into and out of the
allele for eye colour can be blue or brown eyes.
lungs.
Alloy A metallic substance usually composed of two
Capillaries Microscopic blood vessels which allow
or more metals. For example brass is an alloy of
substance to diffuse into and out of the blood.
copper and zinc.
Carbon dating The use of half – life of radioactive
Alpha Particle A type of radiation consisting of
carbon in dating ancient objects which contain
helium nuclei.
carbon.
Alternating current (a.c) An electric current that
Carnivores An animal that eats other animals. They
changes direction.
are called predators.
Alveoli (singular alveolus) microscopic air spaces
Catalysis This is the acceleration of a chemical
in the lungs where gas exchange takes place.
reaction due to the presence of catalysts.
Ammeter An instrument used to measure electrical
Catalyst A substance which speeds up the rate of a
current.
reaction without being used up during the reactions.
Amplitude The greatest displacement of the
Catalytic cracking A process which involves
vibration material from its undisturbed (normal)
breaking down large hydrocarbons into simpler
position.
ones using a catalyst at high temperature.
Anaerobic respiration The process from which
Cathode A negative electrode.
energy is released from food in the absence of
oxygen. Carbon dioxide and ethanol are produced.

271
Cell membrane A thin skin which holds a cell Critical angle The angle of incidence that make the
together and controls the movement of substances in refracted ray to lie at the interface of media when
and out of the cell. light travels from a denser medium to a less dense
medium.
Cell wall A tough layer on the outside of a plant
cell that supports and protects the cell. It is made of Crystalline A solid made up of particles which are
cellulose. packed together in a regular way.
Chemical bond The forces that holds atoms and Current A flow of electrons, ions or electric charge.
molecules together. Its unit is ampere.
Chemical messengers Another name for hormones. Cytoplasm The part of the cell where most chemical
reactions take place.
Chlorophyll A green pigment in the chloroplast that
absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis. Decomposers Organisms which feed on dead
plants and animals e.g. bacteria and fungi.
Chloroplast An organelle in the plant cell which
contains chlorophyll. Decomposition The breaking down of more
complex substances into simpler ones.
Chromatography A method of separating coloured
substances by allowing them to spread over filter Decomposition reaction This is a type of chemical
paper which has been soaked in a solvent. reaction where one reactant yields two or more
products.
Chromosomes Threadlike structures in the nuclei of
cells which carry the cell’s genetic information. They Diabetes A condition in humans caused by the lack
are made up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). of insulin in the body. People suffering from diabetes
are unable to control the amount of glucose in their
Cilia The microscopic hair found in the trachea
blood.
bronchi.
Diffraction The deflection or spreading out of a
Circuit A path for an electric current.
wave as it passes through a narrow gap.
Community a group of different organisms which
Diffusion The process by which particles spread out
live together.
in a gas or in a liquid, due to their random motion.
Compound A substance which contains two or more
Digestive enzymes Proteins which break down
elements that a chemically combined.
large food molecules into smaller soluble ones in a
Condensation A process which turns a vapour into process called digestion.
liquid.
Direct current An electric current that does not
Conduction of electricity The transfer of electrical change direction.
energy along a material.
Dispersion The separation of light into different
Conduction of heat The transfer of heat energy colours.
along a material.
Displacement Distance measured in a particular
Conductivity The transfer of heat energy along a direction. Unit: meter (m).
material.
Distance A basic quantity referring to the length of
Consumers Animals which eat plants or other space between two points irrespective of the
animals. direction. Unit: meter (m)
Convection The transfer of heat energy by the Double circulation The system of blood flow in
movement of a liquid or a gas. humans through two circuits. One circuit goes to the
Crenation Is the contraction of a cell due to water lungs and then back to the heart. The second circuit
loss by osmosis when it is in a hypertonic solution. goes to the organs of the body and then back to the
heart.

272
Dynamo A device which produces current when a Flaccidity A condition when the cell loses water and
magnet moves inside a coil of wire. its contents pull away from the cell wall.
Echo A reflected sound wave. Fluorescent object This is an object that produces
light in a relatively cold state.
Ecosystem The community of living things and the
habitat where they live. Food chain A flow diagram showing the feeding
relationship between consumers and producers.
Efficiency The ratio of the useful energy output to
total energy input. Food web A flow diagrams which links together
food chains.
Electrical resistance A measurement which describe
the difficulty of current flow in a conductor. Unit: ohm Force of gravity The force of attraction which act
(Ω). between all objects.
Electrolysis The decomposition of compounds by Fossil fuel Natural fuel such as coal or gas, formed
electricity. from the remains of living organisms.
Electrolyte The compound which is decomposed Fractional distillation A process used to separate
during electrolysis. miscible liquids whose boiling points are close.
Electromagnetism The magnetism produced when Frequency The number of waves which pass a point
an electric current flows through a wire. in one second. Unit: hertz (Hz).
Electron A negatively charged particle which moves Galvanizing Putting a layer of unreactive zinc on a
rapidly around the nucleus of an atom. more reactive metal, usually steel in order to stop the
more reactive metal from corroding.
Electrovalent bond The force of attraction between
oppositely charged ions. Gamete A sperm or egg cell produced by meiosis.
Element The simplest substances which cannot be Gamma rays A type of radiation consisting of high
broken down. energy electromagnetic waves.
Energy The capacity to do work. Unit: joule (J). Genes Short sections of DNA on a chromosome
which control one characteristic.
Enzyme see digestive enzyme.
Gland (endocrine) An organ that produces
Eutrophication The enrichment of rivers and lakes
hormones.
with nutrients such as fertilizers.
Global warming The increase in the average
Evaporation A process which turns liquid into
temperature of the earth.
vapour.
Group elements in one of the vertical columns of the
Excretion The process of removing waste from
periodic table which have similar chemical
plants and animals.
properties.
Exhalation To breath out.
Habitat The environment in which a plant or an
Exothermic reaction A reaction which gives out animal lives.
energy in the form of heat.
Haemoglobin The red pigment found in red blood
Fertilisation The fusing of the nucleus of a sperm cell cells which combines with oxygen to form
and the nucleus of an egg cell. oxyhaemoglobin.
Filtering A process used to separate a mixture of Halogen Very reactive non-metals found in group
an insoluble solid and a liquid. The liquid that runs seven of the periodic table.
out of the filter is called the filtrate. The solid left
Herbivores Plant eaters which are also called
behind is called residue.
primary consumers.

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Homeostasis The process through which organisms Isotopes Atoms having the same number of protons
keep their internal conditions constant e.g. blood but different number of neutrons.
glucose levels, temperature and water content of
Kinetic energy The energy an object has due to its
blood.
motion.
Hormones The chemicals produced in the glands
Latent heat of fusion The quantity of heat required
which controls many processes in the body.
to change a unit mass of solid to liquid without
Hydrocarbons Compounds which contain only change of temperature (at melting point).
hydrogen and carbon.
Latent heat of vaporisation The amount of heat
Hypertonic solution This is a solution that is higher in required to change a unit mass of liquid to gas
concentration. It has less water than a hypotonic without changing the temperature.
solution.
Lateral inversion The side inversion of an image.
Hypotonic solution This is a solution which is lower
Locomotion The movement of the whole body from
in concentration than another solution. It has more
one place to another.
water than hypertonic solution.
Longitudinal wave A wave whose vibrations are in
Image (real) The image formed on a screen and the
the same direction as the waves are travelling.
retina of the eye.
Luminous object This is an object that can produce
Image (virtual) An image that only appears to be
light.
there. For example the image of a plane mirror
appears to be behind the mirror. It cannot be put on Lymphocytes White blood cells that make anti
a screen. bodies which kill bacteria and neutralise poisonous
chemicals.
Incandescent object This is an object that produces
light when it is hot. Magnet An object which attracts magnetic materials
such as iron, cobalt and nickel.
Incident ray A ray of light which goes on to an
object. Magnetic field The region around a magnet in which
a magnetic force can be detected.
Inertia Is the tendency of an object at rest to stay
at rest or an object in motion to remain in motion. It Malleability The ability of a substance to change its
is the object’s apparent resistance to a force. shape.
Inhalation To breathe in Mass number The sum of the number of protons
and neutrons in an atom.
Insulation of electricity A substance which does not
let electric current to flow along it. Metalloids A group of elements which have some
of the properties of metals and some of the
Insulator of heat A substance which does not let
properties of non- metals.
heat energy along it.
Mineral A single substance which has a chemical
Insulin A hormone which controls the blood sugar
name and a formula.
level.
Mixture Two or more substances which are not
Intermolecular bond A weak force between
chemically combined.
separate molecules.
Mutation Is a change in the code of a gene resulting
Ion A charged particle formed when atoms gain or
in a variant form which may be transferred to
lose electrons.
subsequent generations.
Isotonic solution This is a solution which is equal in
Neutron An uncharged particle in the nucleus of an
concentration to another solution.
atom.

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Noble gas A group of unreactive gases in group Partially permeable membrane A cell membrane
zero ( group eight) of the periodic table. which allows certain particles to pass through but not
others.
Non–biodegradable Materials which will not
decompose. Period The horizontal row of elements in the
periodic table.
Non-luminous object This is an object that cannot
produce light. Peristalsis The muscular contraction of the gut which
squeezes the food along.
Non–metals Elements usually with low melting
points and boiling points, non-conductors and brittle Phagocytes White blood cells which engulf bacteria.
in their solid states.
Phloem tissue Vessels which carry food around the
Nucleus (of a cell) The part of a cell containing plant.
genetic information.
Photosynthesis The process of making food in
Nucleus (of an atom) The positively charged core plants where carbon dioxide and water are
of the atom, containing nearly all its mass. changed into glucose using light energy from the sun.
Chlorophyll in chloroplast absorbs the light.
Nutrition The process of taking in food and water.
Plasma The liquid part of blood in which red blood
Opaque object This is an object that does not allow
cells, white blood cells and platelets float.
light to pass through it.
Plasmolysis This is a condition in the plant cell where
Optical fibres/fibre optics A glass or plastic fibre
the cytoplasm of the plant cell shrinks away from the
having two layers so that light entering it is reflected
cell wall due to water loss by osmosis.
internally.
Polymer A long chain molecule synthesised from
Organ Part of an organism which has a particular
small molecules called monomers.
job to do. It is made up of tissues.
Polymerisation A reaction in which monomers join
Organ system A group of organs which work
up to form polymers.
together.
Population Group of organisms of the same species
Organism Living things, both plants and animals.
living together.
Osmo–regulation The control of the concentration
Potential difference The difference in electrical
in a cell.
potential (voltage) between the terminals of a cell.
Osmosis A process by which solvent molecules pass Unit: volt (V).
through a semi-permeable membrane from a low
Power The rate of transfer of energy. Unit: watt
concentration region to a high concentration region.
(W).
Oxidation reaction A reaction in which a substance
Prey The animals eaten by predators.
gains oxygen or looses electrons.
Producers Plants that make their food by
Oxygenated blood Blood which is rich in oxygen.
photosynthesis.
Palisade layer A layer of cells near the top of a
Product The new materials produced from a
leaf where most photosynthesis takes place.
chemical reaction.
Pancreas An organ in the body which make a large
Proton A positive particle in the nucleus of an atom.
number of digestive enzymes and also produces
insulin which controls the blood sugar level. Pyramid of biomass A diagram used to represent
the mass of an organism at each stage of a food
Parallel circuit A circuit which provides two or more
chain.
pathways for an electric current.

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Pyramid of numbers A diagram used to represent Roughage A food containing fibres. It prevents
the number of organism at each stage of the food constipation.
chain.
Saliva A substance that lubricates food making it
Radiation (nuclear) The energy given out when an easier to swallow.
unstable atomic nucleus breaks down.
Salivary gland An organ that produces saliva. It
Radiation of heat A process where heat is also produces amylase.
transferred by electromagnetic waves.
Satellite An object that orbits the earth.
Radioactive decay The breakdown of unstable
Series circuit A circuit which gives only one pathway
radioactive atoms.
for an electric current.
Radioactive emissions Particles or rays given out
Sewage Waste water and excrement.
from unstable nucleus. They may be alpha particles,
beta particles or gamma rays. Sexual reproduction Reproduction that involves
male and female parents.
Radioisotope A radioactive isotope.
Solution A mixture of a dissolved solute in a solvent.
Ray of light This is a narrow path taken by light.
Spectrum A continuous band of colours
Reactant The starting material in a chemical
(wavelengths) when whit light passes through a
reaction.
prism.
Reaction rate The speed at which a reaction takes.
Speed Rate of change of distance with time. Unit:
Reactivity series A table showing order of m/s
reactivity of metals.
Stimulus A change in the environment which can be
Reduction reaction A reaction in which a substance detected by receptors in our sense organs.
looses oxygen to gains electrons.
Stomata Microscopic pores fond on the underside
Reflected ray A ray of light which has been of a leaf which control the movement of gases into
reflected. and out of a leaf.
Reflex action Rapid, automatic responses to stimuli Substrate The reactant on which an enzyme works.
e.g. pulling your hand away from a flame.
Synapse This is a region were impulses are able to
Refraction The change in direction of a ray of light cross from one neurone to the next.
(wave) when it hits a new material at an angle.
Synthesis The building up of more complex
Respiration The process which releases energy in all substances by joining together simpler ones.
living things.
Target cells Cells usually affected by hormones.
Response A reaction to a stimulus.
Temperature A measure of how hot or cold
Reversible Reaction A reaction that can go in either something is. Unit: Kelvin (K).
direction. The reactants can be changed into
Tension A stretching force.
products and the products can be changed into
reactants. Thromboplastin It converts prothrombin to
thrombin in blood clotting.
Tissue A group of similar cells. Transformer A device which changes the size of
alternating current.
Total internal reflection The reflection that takes
place at the boundary of two materials when light Transition metals The name given to a group of
travelling in the more dense material hits the elements in the periodic table. They can be found
boundary at an angle of incidence greater than he between groups two and three.
critical angle.

276
Translucent object This is an object that allows little Ventricles The powerful lower chambers of the
light to pass through it. heart.
Transparent object This is an object that allows light Voltage (see potential difference).
to pass through it.
Voltmeter An instrument that measures voltage.
Transpiration The evaporation of water from the
Wave An oscillating motion that moves outwards
leaves.
from the source of some disturbance. Waves transmit
Transverse waves Waves whose vibrations are at the energy of disturbance away from its source.
right angles to the direction of travel of the waves.
Wavelength The distance between successive crests
Turgidity A fully expanded state of a plant cell due or successive troughs of a wave.
to water intake by osmosis.
Weight The downward force of gravity on an object.
Ultrasound A sound wave whose frequency is too Unit: Newton (N).
high for humans to hear.
Work The product of the force applied on an object
Unstable nuclei This is a nucleus that undergoes and the distance moved by the object. Work is done
radioactive decay. when a force makes something to move. Unit: joules
(J).
Vacuole (food) An organelle found mainly in plant
cells which contains dissolved food called cell sap. Xylem tissue Vessels which carry water around the
plant.
Vasoconstriction The contraction of blood vessels
near the skin when it is cold. Zygote A fertilised egg which divides to form an
embryo.
Vasodilation The expansion of blood vessels in the
skin when it is hot.
Velocity Speed in a particular direction. Unit: m/s.

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 DRAWING GRAPHS
Here are some hints for plotting graphs.

1. Draw the y–axis (vertical or ordinate) and the x–axis (horizontal or the abscissa).

2. Label the axis correctly with the dimensions and units.

3. Make the scale units as simple as possible making sure that the interval is uniform. For
example; 2, 4, 6, 8… or 5, 10, 15, 20… and so on.

4. Choose a scale which will allow the graph to cover as much of the piece of the graph paper
as possible. There is no need to start at zero if the points lie for instance between 80 and
100, to start at zero will cramp your graph into a small section at the top of the page.

5. Choose a scale which will make plotting the data and reading the graph as simple as
possible.

6. Plot the coordinates.

7. Join the points at once using a ruler. Do not allow the breaking of the line. Let it be
continuous with uniform thickness. Owing to experimental errors, not all the points fall on
the line. Draw a straight line if you can, to pass through, or close to, as many points as
possible. Whenever possible, data should be plotted in a form that gives a straight line
graph. It is easier to draw the best straight line graph.

8. To calculate the slope, draw a right angle triangle on the straight line at any convenient
point and use the formula below.
change in y
slope =
change in x

9. The intercept on the y – axis is the value of y when x = 0 and the intercept on the x – axis
is the value of x when y = 0.

10. If you’re a drawing a curve, draw a smooth curve. Do not join up the points with straight
lines.

11. Note that the curve may not pass through every point.

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 COMMON LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND THEIR USES
Laboratory equipment Use
• It is used for holding solutions.
• It is used for pouring solutions.
• It is used for heating solutions.
• Graduated beakers are used to roughly estimate the volume of
Beaker solution.

• It is used hold, mix and heat small quantities of substance during

experiments.
• It is used to carryout reactions during experiments.
Test tube

• Typically used during titrations

• Graduated conical flasks can be used to estimate the volumes of
solutions.
Conical flask

• It is used for filtration under suction. It also allows solids to be

sucked dry.
Buchner funnel

• Used for holding solutions.

Flat bottom flask

• It is used during distillation.

Distillation flask

• It is used for filtration under suction.

Filter flask

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 • It is used for preparing standard solution.

V o lu m e t r i c F l a s k
Volumetric flask

• It is used for holding filter paper during filtration.

• It is used for pouring liquids into burettes, volumetric flasks,
reagent bottles, etc.
Filter funnel

• It is used for separating immiscible liquids.

Separating funnel

• It is used for adding reagent during experiment.

Thistle funnel

• Is placed on a tripod stand when heating.

• It supports flasks when heating.

Wire gauze

• It is use to hold hot objects.

Tongs

• It is used for weighing solids.

Watch glass • It is used for drying solids in a desiccator or in air.

Microspatula
Micro spatula
• It is used for fetching small quantities of solids.

Spatula

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 • It used fitted to the retort stand for holding funnels and flasks.
Iron ring

• They are fitted to the retort stand for holding burettes, flasks and
other appropriate apparatus.

Utility clamps

• It is used for measuring volumes of liquids.

Measuring cylinder

• They are used for filling a pipette with solution.

Pipet fillers

• It is used for filling volumetric flasks.

• It is used for filling precipitates.
• It is used for holding solvents.
Wash bottle

• It is used for keeping and storing reagents.

Reagent bottle

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 • It is used to withdraw fluids from substances.

Aspirator bottle

• It is used with iron ring for holding funnels and flasks.

• It is used with clamps for holding burettes.

Ring stand (retort stand)

• It is used for heating during experiment.

Bunsen burner

• It is also called triangular pipe clay. It is placed on the Bunsen

burner to support crucibles and evaporating dish when heating.
Clay triangle

• It is used for grinding solids.

Mortar and pestle

• It is used for heating substances to dryness.

Evaporating dish

• It is used for cleaning test tubes

Test tube brush

• It is used for keeping and transferring reagent that are required

in drops.

Dropping bottle

282
 • It is used for holding test tubes.

Test tube rack

• It is used for drying substances.

Desiccator

Rubber policeman • They are used for stirring and removing precipitates
from containers.
Stirring rodpoliceman
Rubber

• It is used for measuring temperature.

Thermometer

Volumetric pipette • They are used for measuring fixed volume

of liquid.

Measuring pipette

• It is used together with the gas jar to collect gases.

Beehive shelf

• It is used for collecting gases.

Gas jar

• It is used for cooling vapour and converting it to liquid during

distillation.

Condenser

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 • It is used for distillation

Retort flask

• It is placed over the bunsen burner to support flasks when heating.

Tripod stand

• It is used a source of heat. It is connected to a gas tank.

Bunsen burner

• It is used for heating substances.

Crucible and cover

• It is used to measure volumes of gases during experiments.

Syringe

• It used for delivering liquids such a indicators in small amounts.

Dropper

• It is used for holding test tubes while heating.

Test tube holder

284
 • It is used for holding hot objects such as crucibles.

Crucible holder

285
 CIRCUIT COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Component Symbol Function
Wire

Wires joined
To pass current from one part of the circuit
to another.

Wires not joined

Cell Supplies electrical energy. The large

terminal (on the left) is positive.
A single cell is often called a battery, but
strictly, a battery is two or more cells joined
Battery together.

DC supply
Supplies electrical energy.
AC supply
A safety device which will melt if the
Fuse current flowing through it exceeds a
specified value.
Two coils of wire linked by an iron core.
Transformers are used to step up (increase)
and step down (decrease) AC voltages.
Transformer
Energy is transferred between the coils by
the magnetic field in the core. There is no
electrical connection between the coils.
A connection to earth. For many electronic
circuits this is the zero volts of the power
Earth (ground) supply, but for mains electricity and some
radio circuits it really means the earth. It is
also known as ground.

Converts electrical energy to light. It

Lamp (lighting)
provides illumination.

Converts electrical energy to light. It is used

Lamp
for a lamp which is used as an indicator. For
(indicator)
example warning lights in cars.
Heater Converts electrical energy to heat.

286
 Converts electrical energy to kinetic energy
Motor
(motion)

It allows current to flow when it is in closed

On-Off switch
(on) position and stops the flow of current
(opened)
when it is in open (off) position.
Used to control the circuit from two
Two-way switch
locations.

Allows current to flow when the button is

Push-to-make pressed.
Push switches
Stops the flow of current when the button is
Push-to-break pressed.

Restricts the flow of current. Used in timing

Resistor or circuits.

Used to control current. For example in

Variable resistor
adjusting lamp brightness, adjusting motor
(rheostat)
speed, etc.

It stores electric charge. It is used together

Capacitor
with a resistor in timing circuit.

Variable
It is used in radio tuner.
capacitor

Microphone Converts sound to electrical energy.

Earphone Converts electrical energy to sound.

Loud speaker Converts electrical energy to sound

Antenna Receives or transmits signals.

Voltmeter Measures voltage.

287
 Ammeter Measures current.

Is a very sensitive meter used to measure

Galvanometer
tiny currents.

Ohmmeter Measures resistance

288
Bibliography
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Ann and Patric Fullick, Chemistry for AQA, Heinmann Educational Publishers, Oxford, 2001
Bryan Milner and Jean Martin, New edition Chemistry, 2001
Cambridge Advanced Sciences, Environmental Chemistry, 2001
DG Mackean, GCSE Biology, 1989
Gareth Williams, Biology For You, second edition, 2002
Glen Toole, Susan Toole, New Understanding Biology for Advance Level, Fourth Edition, London,
1999
Graham Hill, David Rowlands, George Snape, Foundation Science for GCSE, 2001
Graham Hill, Revise GCSE Science, Letts educational Ltd, 1997
Graham Hill, Science for GCSE, 1998
Iain Brand and Richard Grime, Longman Chemistry, 2002
Jackie Hardie, Chris Avery, Graham Well, Human biology, 1981
John T. Moore, Chemistry Essentials for Dummies, Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana,
2010
Nicolas Twoli and Delaide Mungai, School Certificate Chemistry, East African Educational
Publishers, Nirobi, 2004
Rose Marie Gallagher, Paul Ingram, Peter Whitehead, New Coordinated Science, Chemistry,
second edition, 2000

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