5.

1 Grammar (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Remember: If you are unsure about any aspect of grammar, take a look at
the reliable recommendations sources we have listed at the beginning of Module 4.
In the teaching grammar arena, it’s often said that there are two kinds of teachers:

 those who worry about teaching grammar, and

 those who don’t

It’s as plain and simple as that.

Those who worry about teaching grammar probably don’t have a full grasp of it. We’ve observed teachers who
have allowed themselves to get into this stressful situation.
Some often use delaying tactics such as: We’ll come back to that later, but they seldom do.
Or they stand by some unfounded principle that communication is king and grammar is not essential. Oh,
really?
Or they wing it, and learners get confused.
Even from the point of view that it makes for a happier life inside the classroom, knowing and understanding
grammar is an excellent skill.
More than that, though, is the satisfying feeling that we are helping learners on their language journey and we’re
doing as best as we can to ensure that they get to their destination.

5.1.1. What Do We Mean By The Term

‘Grammar’?
The term grammar generally refers to the rules and conventions by which words are ordered and
changed to form a sentence.
Grammar can be prescriptive or descriptive.

 Prescriptive grammar sets out rules which should be followed if you wish to write ‘correct’ English.
 Descriptive grammar describes how language is used in the real world.

We must explore prescriptive and descriptive approaches because you need to decide how you will approach
the teaching of grammar.
Prescriptive grammar sets out rules which should be followed if you wish to write ‘correct’ English. Sometimes,
these ‘rules’ are based on observation of how ‘educated’ speakers use the language. At other times, they are
based on what the speaker was taught at school, many moons ago.
For example: My teacher always said you should never start a sentence with And or But. Oh, really?
Prescriptive grammar rules are the ‘right’ rules, according to some ‘experts’. Prescriptive rules make a
judgement about how and why an utterance is correct or not.
Descriptive grammar aims to describe how language is actually used in the real world.
Descriptive ‘rules’ accept the patterns a speaker uses and attempts to account for them. Descriptive rules allow
for varieties in a language; a construction is not ignored because some prescriptive grammarian doesn’t like it.
Descriptive rules describe the way grammar is actually used. Descriptive grammar is a reaction to the way
people speak and is accepting of alternative, less nit-picking forms.
Descriptive rules also tend to change because language itself is always changing.
Have a look at these example sentences:

1. Let’s Start At The Very Beginning.

Prescriptive rules of grammar would tell us that this is wrong because the beginning is a specific start point, and
you can’t make it any more specific. However, descriptive rules say that this type of phrase is common in
spoken English. So, we’ll align with the descriptive side, and we’ll keep very in.

2. That’s Absolutely True.

Native speakers also say absolutely true. Again, prescriptive rules of grammar would tell us that this is wrong
because you can’t have anything stronger than true. Something cannot be more true. However, again,
descriptive rules say that this type of phrase is common in spoken English. So, again, we’ll align with the
descriptive side.

3. Whom Do You Wish To Speak To?

Proponents of descriptive rules would say this sentence is fine.
Proponents of prescriptive rules would say the sentence is incorrect; we should never end a sentence with a
preposition, they say. To satisfy the prescriptive group, we would need to change this to: To whom do you wish
to speak?
To us, this seems cumbersome and outdated, so we’re happy with the construction: Whom do you wish to speak
to? But you decide which is best.

4. You Must Not Start A Sentence With And Or But.

How often have we heard this? Thousands of times. Let’s have a look at this prescriptive rule a bit further by
exploring these sentences:
Sentence 1: It’s a pretty smart long-term business plan but do you think those amendments go far enough?
Sentence 2: It’s a pretty smart long-term business plan. But do you think those amendments go far enough?
Sentence 1 fits with the prescriptive rule. Sentence 2 does not and fits with the descriptive approach. There’s no
doubt in our minds that Sentence 2 creates a more powerful effect. The introductory conjunction But gives more
weight to the thought expressed in the sentence and is more emphatic.
So, again, we’ll align with the descriptive side.
However, don’t get the impression that prescriptive rules are not important:
 1. When we adhere to most prescriptive rules, we are adhering to a standard and acceptable form of a
language that is accepted and recognised by most speakers of that language. By doing so, this allows us
to be understood by the highest possible number of individuals.
2. Most prescriptive rules are critical for those who are learning a foreign language. It just wouldn’t work if
there were no guidelines for English grammar.
3. Most prescriptive rules allow a speaker of a non-standard dialect to learn and accept the rules of the
standard dialect and use them in appropriate social circumstances – if they wish to.

Unfortunately, non-standard dialects are still frowned upon and not accepted by many groups and can inhibit a
person’s progress in society, and business.
Here are some standard prescriptive rules relating to English. If these didn’t exist, there would be lots of
confusion:

 The subject in a sentence must always agree with the verb. We mustn’t say: He go to school.
 In English, capitalise the first letter of a sentence: My computer isn’t working. I need to get someone to
fix it.
 Use subject pronouns after the verb be (It was I who phoned you NOT It was me who phoned.)
 Always use the definite article the before names of rivers and geographical areas but not before the
names of lakes or continents (the Amazon, the Far East; Lake Superior, Europe).

Being able to distinguish between the two approaches is crucial since you will need to ensure that your learners
are familiar with critical prescriptive grammar rules, while also alerting them to alternative or more informal
descriptive uses.
Both types of grammar have their supporters and their detractors, which probably suggests that both approaches
have their strengths and weaknesses.
So, you need to decide how you will approach the teaching of grammar.

5.1.2. Key Reasons For Teaching Grammar

1. Metalanguage
Grammar is essential because it is the language that makes it possible for us to talk about language
(called metalanguage); for example, noun, verb, tense, subject.
It enables us to talk about how sentences are built, and about the types of words and word groups that make up
sentences. This is ‘knowing’ about grammar. People always seem to associate grammar with errors and
correctness. But knowing about grammar also helps us understand what makes sentences and paragraphs clear
and engaging and precise.
If your learners understand grammar and put it into practice, there are great possibilities that they can construct
language that others will understand. The more they know and understand, the better they will communicate and
make themselves understood.

2. Comprehensible Communication
When we know how to build certain structures and know-how and when to use these structures, it enables us to
make understandable communication. Without these structures, there may be little comprehension.
3. Acceptability
However, there is often a need for more than just comprehensible (understandable) communication.
We alluded to this a few moments ago when we said that non-standard dialects are still frowned upon and not
accepted by many groups and can inhibit a person’s progress in society, and business.
Any divergence from the usual or accepted standards in a society may hinder integration and even produce a
form of prejudice.
So, your learners need to be inspired and motivated to strive for more than just comprehensible communication,
particularly where potential employers and examiners require grammatical competence. Grammatical
competence is the goal.
However, remember this! All of the above will depend on the learners’ situations and aims. You will need to
decide on what elements of grammar are necessary to meet these situations and aims.
And remember this! Your role is to teach communicative English and not just teach grammar. There’s just no
point in going on and on about modal structures per se if learners can’t go into a café and say: Can I have a
cappuccino, please?

5.1.3. Myths About Teaching Grammar

1. Grammar Is Boring.
 Not if you are creative.
 Not if you avoid repetition of models delivered repetitively and boringly.

2. I Don’t Know Enough To Teach Grammar.

 You’ll know more than they think.
 Feelings are often based on past experiences of learning grammar traditionally.
 What better way is there to learn it than by teaching it?
 The more creative and enthusiastic you become, the more your grammar lessons will become
stimulating and enjoyable.

3. I Can Wing It
If we try to get by winging it, we’re doing a disservice to our learners. In the end, will they come out saying I’m
not knowing that because the teacher didn’t put in the effort? Let’s hope any ‘Winging-It’ teachers don’t
continue that habit of winging it when they later become taxi drivers or airline pilots. We wouldn’t want to
travel with them at the wheel.
5.2 English Language Grammar (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

5.2.1. Word Classes (9 Parts Of Speech)

In grammar, all the words that we use in everyday communication can be classified into specific word groups.
The classification is based on the way the word is used grammatically. We call these groups word
classes or parts of speech. We’ll use the term word class as the term parts of speech is a bit dated.
So, for example, lion, which is a noun (a naming word), will be classified under the noun class. It all seems nice
and easy. However, some words can belong to more than one class:

 I am looking forward to Grisham’s next book. (noun, a naming word for people, places and things)
 Thank goodness! It’s time to book our holiday. (verb, a doing word)

We use a combination of three criteria for determining what class a word belongs to:

1. The meaning of the word

2. The form of the word – its shape and structure
3. The position of the word in a sentence. This is also called the word’s environment.

There are nine word classes in English:

 Verbs
 Nouns
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Interjections**
 Conjunctions
 Determiners
 Prepositions
 Pronouns

** Interjections are a small group of ‘words’. They are used to express emotions such as pleasure, surprise,
shock and disgust. Many interjections are sounds, rather than actual words, and come at the beginning or at the
end of what we say. Linguists continually debate whether this is a class or not. Just in case you teach in a school
where nine classes is the rule, we have included interjections as a class.
We shall explore every one of these classes. It is critical that:

 you can identify each class

 you know what each class means
 you know how to use these individual words

Word classes can be classified into two groups:

1. The Major/Lexical (Or Open) Word Class

The five major word classes are:
  Verbs
 Nouns
 Adjectives
 Adverbs
 Interjections

They are termed major or lexical because they carry most of the content or meaning of a sentence.
They are also called open because new words can still be added to these classes.
For example, recent new nouns added to Merriam-Webster’s dictionary include:

 crowdfunding: obtaining funding (as for a new enterprise) by asking for contributions from a large
number of people, especially from the online community
 freegan: an activist who scavenges for free food (as in waste receptacles at stores and restaurants) as a
means of reducing consumption of resources
 catfish: a person who sets up a false social networking profile for deceptive purposes

2. The Minor Or Grammatical (Or Closed) Word Class

The four minor word classes are:

 Conjunctions
 Determiners
 Prepositions
 Pronouns

They are termed minor or grammatical because they tend to perform grammatical functions such as relating
expressions to each other: for example, of relates the hill to brow in brow of the hill.
These are also called closed classes as no new words will be added to these groups in the future.
They are sometimes referred to as structure words because their function is to contribute to the structure of
phrases, clauses and sentences, rather than to add to the meaning content. Note that:

 A phrase is a short, single piece of information. It can be a word, or a small group of words, that forms a
meaningful unit within a sentence.
 A phrase does not consist of a subject and a verb.
 A clause is a group of words that typically has its own subject and verb.

Here are the word classes, with short explanations to whet your appetite. Take your time as you explore these,
they’re not difficult to grasp.

1. Verb
This is a word or phrase that describes an action, condition or experience.

 They are often called ‘doing’ words.

 Verbs are categorised as doing verbs (e.g., read; study) or being or linking verbs, which also encompass
feeling (e.g., be; feel).
  Verbs are conjugated. To conjugate is to list the different forms of a verb that show number, person,
tense, etc. (e.g., I eat; He eats)
 They can be transitive, i.e. taking a direct object (He throws the ball). Note that a direct object is the
person or thing that receives the action of a verb.
 Or they can be intransitive, where there is never an object (I live in Shanghai.)
 Depending on the context, some verbs can be both.

2. Noun
A noun is a word that refers to a person, place, thing, occurrence, quality or substance. It’s often called
a naming word.
Nouns function as:

 a subject (The baby is crying)

 an object (Juan threw the ball)
 a complement of a verb (Manuel is a fireman)

Remember! A compliment is simply a word or group of words (a phrase) added to a sentence to make it
complete. Complements usually tell us more about the subject, e.g. what it is, how it feels, or what it is like.
Here is a complement consisting of a noun phrase:
He became a better worker.
Nouns also come after prepositions in a prepositional phrase (It is on the table.).
Nouns can further be categorised as:

 common: city; man

 proper: Beijing; Santiago Bernabéu Stadium. Proper nouns name a specific person, place, event, or
thing. Proper nouns always begin with a capital letter.
 countable: cat; city. Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form (cats; cities). Countable nouns
refer to things that can be counted.
 uncountable: mud, snow, butter. These do not regularly have a plural form and are called uncountable.
Abstract nouns are normally uncountable, e.g. happiness, dread, darkness, information, furniture.

3. Adjective
Adjectives are words that refer to qualities of people, things or ideas or which group them into classes. They are
often called ‘describing’ words.
Key points:
• Most adjectives can be linked with a noun and usually come immediately before the noun,
e.g. a red car, a fast car. These adjectives are said to modify the noun. Remember: A modifier is any word
or group of words that changes or adds to the meaning of another word.

 Most adjectives can follow verbs like to be, to seem, to appear, e.g. She seemed happy. In sentences like
this, the adjective forms the complement of the sentence and completes the meaning of the sentence
subject.
  Many adjectives are gradable. They can be graded by adding a modifier before or after them,
e.g. a very fast car. Others are non-gradable, i.e. you cannot add a modifier, e.g. They split up after 20
years. They are very divorced (incorrect).
 Many adjectives have a comparative and superlative form, e.g. big, bigger, biggest; unusual, more
unusual, most unusual
 When two nouns are placed together, the first one functions as an adjective, as
in hair products or learner groups.

4. Adverb
This is a word that describes or gives more information about a verb, adjective or phrase.
Adverbs have several elements. They are often used as adverbials, providing information about, for example,
time, manner and place:

 Time: soon, already, still

 Manner: easily, fast, slowly
 Place: here, away, somewhere

They can also be used as modifiers. They can modify verbs:

He speaks fast.
They can modify adjectives and thus form adjective phrases:

 You are terribly wrong.

 That was very easy.

They can modify other adverbs to make adverb phrases:

He speaks quite fast.
Adverbs can also function as transition phrases (Consequently, he had to move to Paris.)
We all learned that adverbs end in –ly, but also remember those other endings such as -wise, as in clockwise.
Also, all words that end in -ly are not adverbs. Take the words lovely and weekly: these are adjectives since the
root word form, love and week, are nouns; adding -ly makes them adjectives.

5. Interjection
We use interjections to express spontaneous emotions or reactions such as pleasure, surprise, shock and disgust.
An interjection is an utterance on its own, and it may be just a sound rather than a word.
This class includes such things as exclamations (great!, awesome!, ouch!, wow!), greetings (hi!, hey!
bye!), responses (okay, oh!, m-hm, huh?), and hesitation fillers (uh, er, um).

6. Conjunction
This is a word such as and, but, or, while, and although that connects words, phrases and clauses in a sentence.
Conjunctions show a connection between words. The most used conjunctions are and, but, and or:
  Chen and Chung
 slowly but surely
 fast or slow

But they can also connect longer units:

 Chen plays football, and Chung plays the guitar.

 I play the guitar, but I don’t play well.
 We can go now, or we can wait till later.

Conjunctions fall into two groups:

Coordinating Conjunctions
These link items that have equal status/importance grammatically:

 Uncomfortable but happy

 Apple pie or jelly
 Their parents arrived, and they called room service.
 I thought it would snow, but it didn’t.

The commonest coordinating conjunctions are and, or, but

Subordinating Conjunctions
If the two items being linked do not have equal status/importance grammatically, then a subordinating
conjunction is used. Most commonly, this happens in complex sentences when a main clause is connected to a
subordinate clause:
Complex sentence: Businesses fail because they can’t pay their bills.

 Businesses fail (main clause)

 because (subordinating conjunction)
 they can’t pay their bills. (subordinate clause)

Another example: I passed the test although I didn’t study.

Other subordinating conjunctions include before, since, till, unless, whereas, whether.
Note that others consist of two or more words, e.g. as if, as soon as, as long as, in that, in order that, so that,
such that:
The burglars ran away as soon as they heard the alarm.

7. Determiner
In grammar, this is a word that is used before a noun to show which particular example of the noun we are
referring to.
These are words that ‘determine’ the nouns that follow them.
For example, articles are determiners (The cat is drinking milk). In this case, ‘the’ as a determiner tells us that
the cat is specific, defined.
Possessive adjectives (not to be confused with possessive pronouns), such as my, your, his are also determiners.
Essentially, anything that serves to qualify and quantify a noun is a determiner.
Here are some common determiners:
a an the
this that these those
some any no
my our your his her its their many few little much other last next one two three, etc.
first second third, etc.
all both
half third, etc.

8. Preposition
This is a word that is used before a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun, connecting it to another word.
These are typically paired with nouns to form prepositional phrases. For example: The letter is on
the table. Prepositions give learners lots of problems, particularly when they are linked to more than one
preposition, as in out of and in spite of or in the face of.
English has many prepositions, much more than many other languages. Most English prepositions have multiple
meanings. Also, many are monosyllabic and are thus difficult to pick up in rapid speech.
Also, non-native speakers cannot depend on prepositional knowledge from their first language. For example,
the Spanish por could be expressed in English by the prepositions by, for, during and through. You can see the
potential for error when learners are attempting to use English prepositions.

9. Pronoun
This is a word that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase (a group of words built upon a single noun).
Pronouns replace nouns or noun phrases and, similar to nouns, function as subject, object, object of a
preposition, or complement. Pronouns have different categories:

 subject pronouns (I, he, we)

 object pronouns (me, him, us)
 demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those)
 possessive pronouns (his, hers, ours, theirs)
 reflexive pronouns: (myself, yourself, himself, ourselves)

5.2.2. Verb Tenses

There are 12 tenses in English. They are all in the chart below. They’re not difficult. Examples of constructions
are given in each box. Study these carefully and get to grips with the name of the tense and its construction.
So, what is tense?
Tense refers to the location of an event or action in time. There is an inflection of the verb in the present and
past tenses. Remember from before: Inflection is the name given to an additional letter or additional letters
added to nouns, verbs and adjectives in their different grammatical forms, e.g. cat, cats; eat, eats; big, bigger
Cristina cycles to the gym. (Present tense)
Cristina cycled to the gym. (Past tense)
Reference to other times – the future, for instance – can be made in a number of ways, by using the modal
auxiliary will, or the semi-auxiliary be going to.
Remember from before: For us to use tenses and some passive forms, we need to use auxiliary verbs.
Auxiliary verbs are sometimes called helping verbs.
The verbs be, do and have are the most common auxiliary verbs.
For example, the auxiliary do is needed to ask questions in the present and past simple tenses.
The verb be is necessary for the present and past continuous, and all the passive forms.
The auxiliary have is used in the present and past perfect tenses. Some tenses need more than one auxiliary (e.g.
the present perfect continuous),
Here is the tense chart. Study it well and keep it by your side.
Time to reflect
Go to a comfortable, quiet place to study the tense chart. It’s not difficult; it just takes a bit of time if
you’re a little bit rusty. Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich and reflect on this.

Twelve tenses in modern English

A. There are three simple tenses:
1. Present Simple: showing whether an action or condition occurs
2. Past Simple: showing whether an action or condition occurred
3. Future Simple: showing whether an action or condition will occur
B. There are three perfect tenses
4. Present Perfect: showing whether an action or condition has occurred relative to the present
5. Past Perfect: showing whether an action or condition had occurred relative to the past
6. Future Perfect: showing whether an action or condition will have occurred relative to the future.
C. There are six continuous (also called progressive) tenses:
7. Present Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition is occurring in the present
8. Past Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition was occurring in the past
9. Future Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition will be occurring in the future
10. Present Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition has been occurring relative
to the present
11. Past Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition had been occurring relative to
the past
12. Future Perfect Continuous: showing whether a continuous action or condition will have been
occurring relative to the future.
Tense 1: Present Simple Tense (also called the Simple Present Tense)
With regular verbs, this tense is formed by using the verb stem, adding -s in the third person singular (he, she,
it).

Subject Verb Stem

I like

you (singular) like

he/she/it likes

we like

you (plural) like

they like

Positive: You like Real Madrid.

Question: Do you like Real Madrid?
Negative: You do not like Real Madrid.
Tense 2: Past Simple Tense (sometimes called the Simple Past Tense)
This tense refers to actions in the past. With regular verbs, it is formed by adding –ed to the verb stem (or -d if
the verb stem already ends in e):

Subject Verb Stem (adding –ed) Verb stem (adding -d)

 I requested liked

you (singular) requested liked

he/she/it requested liked

we requested liked

you (plural) requested liked

they requested liked

Positive: You played tennis.

Question: Did you play tennis?
Negative: You didn’t play tennis.
Note: In irregular verbs, there is a variety of past tense forms: become → became, blow → blew, catch →
caught. These have to be learned.
Note: The past simple can also be formed with the verb be. The past of be, i.e. was and were, is used:
Positive: I was annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment.
Question: Were you annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment?
Negative: I wasn’t annoyed because the show was cancelled at the last moment.
Tense 3: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future Tense) Form 1
For this tense, we use will or shall, followed by the verb stem:

Subject will, shall Verb Stem

I ‘ll, will, and shall close the door.

 you (singular) ‘ll, will close the door.

he/she/it ‘ll, will close the door.

we ‘ll, will, and shall close the door.

you (plural) ‘ll, will close the door.

they ‘ll, will close the door.

Note that we often use contractions when using will and shall, e.g. I’ll and We shan’t. Shall is less common in
American English than British English.
With will:
Positive: You will see her on Sunday
Question: Will you see her on Sunday?
Negative: You won’t see her on Sunday.
With shall:
Positive: We shall see her on Sunday.
Question: Shall we see her on Sunday?
Negative: We shan’t see her on Sunday.
Tense 3 continued: Future Simple Tense (also called the Simple Future Tense) Form 2
Often called the going to future, this form is a combination of be + going to + verb stem.

Subject am/is/are going to Verb Stem

I am; ‘m going to object.

you (singular) are; ‘re going to object.

he/she/it is; ‘s going to object.

 we are; ‘re going to object.

you (plural) are; ‘re going to object.

they are; ‘re going to object.

Note that we often use contractions when using the verb be, e.g. I’m, you’re.
Positive: You are going to see the show tonight.
Question: Are you going to see the show tonight?
Negative: You are not going to see the show tonight.
Tense 4: Present Perfect Tense
The present perfect tense is formed by joining the present tense of the verb have with the past participle of the
main verb.

Subject Present Tense of the verb have Past Participle of the Main Verb

I have washed the dishes.

you (singular) have washed the dishes.

he/she/it has washed the dishes.

we have washed the dishes.

you (plural) have washed the dishes.

they have washed the dishes.

Note that we often use contractions when using have, e.g. I’ve and we’ve.
Positive: You have visited the Great Wall before.
Question: Have you visited the Great Wall before?
Negative: You have not visited the Great Wall before.
Tense 5: Past Perfect Tense
This tense is formed by had, which is followed by the past participle:

Subject had Past Participle of the Main Verb

I had failed again!

you (singular) had failed again!

he/she/it had failed again!

we had failed again!

you (plural) had failed again!

they had failed again!

Note that we often use contractions when using had, e.g. I hadn’t.
Positive: You had studied Mandarin before you went to China.
Question: Had you studied Mandarin before you went to China?
Negative: You hadn’t studied Mandarin before you went to China.
Tense 6: Future Perfect Tense
This is a tense formed by will have followed by the past participle.

Subject will have Past Participle of the Main Verb

I will have finished my work by 7 pm.

you(singular) will have finished my work by 7 pm.

 he/she/it will have finished my work by 7 pm.

we will have finished my work by 7 pm.

you (plural) will have finished my work by 7 pm.

they will have finished my work by 7 pm.

Positive: Dad will have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Question: Will Dad have cooked dinner by the time we get back?
Negative: Dad won’t have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Sometimes, the going to format is used (am/is/are + going to have + past participle]:
Positive: Dad is going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Question: Is Dad going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back?
Negative: Dad is not going to have cooked dinner by the time we get back.
Either form can usually be used.
Tense 7: Present Continuous Tense (also called the Present Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by using the present tense of the verb be and the present participle of the main verb.

Subject am/is/are Present Participle of the Main Verb

I am drinking Coke.

you (singular) are drinking Coke.

he/she/it is drinking Coke.

we are drinking Coke.

 you (plural) are drinking Coke.

they are drinking Coke.

Positive: You are watching TV.

Question: Are you watching TV?
Negative: You are not watching TV.
Tense 8: Past Continuous Tense (also called the Past Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by the words was or were, which are followed by the present participle of the main verb.

Subject was/were Present Participle of the Main Verb

I was drinking Coke.

you (singular) were drinking Coke.

he/she/it was drinking Coke.

we were drinking Coke.

you (plural) were drinking Coke.

they were drinking Coke.

Positive: You were sleeping when she phoned.

Question: Were you sleeping when she phoned?
Negative: You were not sleeping when she phoned.
Tense 9: Future Continuous Tense (also called the Future Progressive Tense) Form 1
There are two forms.
Form 1: This tense is formed by will be followed by the present participle.

Subject will be Present Participle of the Main Verb

I will be dining late.

you (singular) will be dining late.

he/she/it will be dining late.

we will be dining late.

you (plural) will be dining late.

they will be dining late.

Positive: You’ll be cooking dinner when they arrive.

Question: Will you be cooking dinner when they arrive?
Negative: You won’t be cooking dinner when they arrive.
Tense 9 continued: Future Continuous Tense (also called the Future Progressive Tense) Form 2
Form 2: This form is made up of: am/is/are + going to be + present participle

Subject am/is/are going to be Present Participle

I am going to be jogging to work.

you (singular) are going to be jogging to work.

he/she/it is going to be jogging to work.

 we are going to be jogging to work.

you (plural) are going to be jogging to work.

they are going to be jogging to work.

Positive: You are going to be sleeping when she gets home.

Question: Are you going to be sleeping when she gets home?
Negative: You are not going to be sleeping when she gets home.
Remember this: It is possible to use either will be or be going to in order to create the Future Continuous tense.
There’s not much difference.
Tense 10: Present Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the Present Perfect Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by joining the present perfect of the verb be and the present participle of the main verb.

Subject has/have been Present Participle of the Main Verb

I have been serving customers for nine hours.

you (singular) have been serving customers for nine hours.

he/she/it has been serving customers for nine hours.

we have been serving customers for nine hours.

you (plural) have been serving customers for nine hours.

they have been serving customers for nine hours.

Positive: You have been standing here for two hours.
Question: Have you been standing here for two hours?
Negative: You have not been standing here for two hours.
Tense 11: Past Perfect Continuous Tense (also called the Past Perfect Progressive Tense)
This tense is formed by using had been followed by the present participle.

Subject had been Present Participle of the Main Verb

I had been waiting for four hours.

you (singular) had been waiting for four hours.

he/she/it had been waiting for four hours.

we had been waiting for four hours.

you (plural) had been waiting for four hours.

they had been waiting for four hours.

Positive: You had been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.
Question: Had you been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived?
Negative: You had not been sitting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.
Tense 12: Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Usual Form: This tense is formed by using will have been followed by the present participle.

Subject will have been Present Participle of the Main Verb

I will have been studying for three hours.

you (singular) will have been studying for three hours.

 he/she/it will have been studying for three hours.

we will have been studying for three hours

you (plural) will have been studying for three hours.

they will have been studying for three hours.

Positive: You will have been waiting here for two hours.
Question: Will you have been waiting here for two hours?
Negative: You will not have been waiting here for two hours.
Another Form: am/is/are + going to have been + present participle. This is not used as much as the usual form
above.
Positive: You are going to have been driving for more than six hours by the time you get back.
Question: Are you going to have been driving for more than six hours by the time you get back?
Negative: You are not going to have been driving for more than six hours by the time you get back.
NOTE: It’s possible to use either form with little or no difference in meaning. Remember to print off the tense
chart and keep it close by you. Unless, of course, you know it all off-by-heart!
5.3 Conditional Forms (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Let’s first set out a short definition for the word clause: A clause is a part of a sentence that typically has its
own subject and verb.
A definition of a conditional clause would be something like this: This is a clause which describes something
possible or probable, depending on something else happening.
Such clauses usually begin with if or unless. In the classroom, we often call these if-clauses. They all focus on
what may or may not happen and what might have happened but didn’t happen. They express different
degrees of reality.
There are set constructions for these, which learners need to grasp.
Examples
Note that we can put the if or unless clause before or behind the main clause.

 If it snows, we won’t get the car out.

 If we go now, we’ll arrive on time.
 I’m not going shopping unless Jane comes too.
 We’ll never succeed if we don’t study hard.

Note: If we put the condition before the main clause, we use a comma.
Here’s what you need to know:

1. Conditions Can Be Categorised As Real

And Unreal
Real Conditions
With real conditions, we do not know if the condition is, will be or was true. Here are some examples:

 If it rains tomorrow, I’ll stay in.

 If Lisa is coming to the party, you can tell her the news.
 I’m sure she’ll come if Chen has remembered to tell her.

Note: We cannot use will for future time in a condition:

 We say If it snows tomorrow … Not If it will snow tomorrow …(incorrect).

 We say If she’s coming Not If she will be coming (incorrect).

We sometimes use unless at the beginning of a condition:

 Unless it rains tomorrow, I’ll for a walk.

 Unless she’s in Scotland, I’m sure she’ll come.

Unreal Conditions
With unreal conditions for present and future time, the condition is not true, or probably will not be true. We
use a simple or continuous verb formation.

 If Jane were coming to the party, you could tell her the news. (But Jane isn’t coming; you can’t tell
her.)
 I would have more cash in my pocket if I didn’t gamble. (But I do gamble; I have less cash.)
 I’d phone Jane if only I could find her number. (But I can’t find her number; I can’t phone her.)
 If I found a pile of money in the road, I’d hand it to the police. (I don’t expect to find any; I’m imagining.)

For past time (the condition was not true), we use a perfect verb formation in the condition:

 If Jane had come, you could have told her the news. (But Jane didn’t come; you couldn’t tell her.)
 I’d have phoned Jane if only I could have found her number. (But I couldn’t find her number; I didn’t
phone.)
 If I had found that pile of money, I would have given it to the police. (I didn’t find it; I’m just imagining.)
 I’m sure Jane would’ve come if Michael hadn’t forgotten to tell her. (But Michael forgot; she didn’t
come.)

2. There Are Different Types Of Conditional

Constructions
There are four types:

1. The Zero Conditional

2. The First Conditional
3. The Second Conditional
4. The Third Conditional

1. The Zero Conditional (Certainty) Form

if + present simple tense (for the condition) and verb stem in the present simple tense in the main clause (for
the result).

Examples
 If people don’t eat (condition), they get hungry (result).
 If you heat ice (condition), it melts (result).
 Babies cry (result) if they are hungry (condition).

Remember this: It doesn’t matter if the if clause is placed at the start of the sentence or in the middle of the
sentence.
Note that it’s possible to replace if with when in a zero conditional.

Use
We use this conditional construction when the result is always true for this type of condition.
The result is certain. It’s a fact.
There is no thought given to the future or past.

2. First Conditional (A Real Possibility) Form

if + present simple (for the condition) and will + verb stem in the main clause (for the result) Examples

 If I see Fang tomorrow, I’ll tell her about the party.

 If it rains, I won’t go shopping.
 If I study hard, I’ll pass my exams.
 I’ll walk to work if the bus is late.
 Will you walk to work if the bus is late?
 Will you go shopping if it rains?

Use
There is a good possibility that the condition will happen at a future time. I may not see Fang tomorrow,
but I might. There is a good possibility that the condition will happen.

3. Second Conditional (Unreal Possibility) Form

if + past simple (for the condition) and would + verb stem in the main clause (for the result)

 If I married Taylor Swift, I’d be the happiest person on earth.

 If I won the bet, I would quit my job.
 I would be happy if I married Lan.
 Would Lan be happy if she married you?
 Would you quit your job if you won the lottery?

Use
We are talking about a specific condition in the future (although we use the past tense in the condition) but
there is not a real possibility that this condition will ever happen. It’s all a bit of a dream, an unreal
possibility that this condition will ever happen.
Note that we sometimes use the second conditional, with the same structure, to talk about certain situations
in the present. These are when the condition is pretty impossible and far from a true situation, and
therefore the result won’t come to fruition.

Examples
 If I knew where he was, I’d contact him. (but you have no idea where he is, and so you cannot contact
him at all)
 If I were you, I wouldn’t go there. (but I’m not you and never will be)

4. Third Conditional (No Possibility) Form

if + past perfect (for the condition) and would + have + past participle in the main clause (for the result)
Examples
 If I had seen Chen, I would have asked him. (but I didn’t see him at all, so I wasn’t able to talk to him)
 If he had not passed, he wouldn’t have entered university. (but he did pass)
 If we had grabbed a taxi, we wouldn’t have missed the train. (but we didn’t grab a taxi, and therefore
we did miss the train)
 If it had snowed yesterday, I would have stayed at home. (but it didn’t snow yesterday, and so I went
out)

Use
Here the focus is on the past. We are speaking about a condition in the past that didn’t happen. We use it to
describe a situation or event that didn’t happen, and we imagine the result of the situation.
There is no possibility for this condition, and therefore no possibility of the result happening. Not then
and not now.

3. Teaching Conditional Forms

Conditional forms are tricky for learners. Usually, the key problem lies with an inexperienced teacher who
attempts to take the learners too far too quickly. Learners’ ages and levels will be the critical factors in
deciding whether they are ready for a particular conditional construction.
Then you can wait your time, see how well the learning is embedded in their memory banks and then decide to
try another type of construction.
As we have said before, take it softly, softly.
Here’s what to do:

1. Awareness In Context
When they are ready, start by raising their awareness of conditionals. Get them to notice the use of
conditionals in written pieces/activities you are using in class. Make up your own pieces containing the odd
conditional, for whichever conditional form you plan to teach.
Point attention to the construction and get them to have a go at the meaning. They can then try and mirror
the construction with other situations. Don’t get too hung up about tenses at this time.

2. Start At The Beginning

Some teachers start with the first conditional, leaving the zero conditional till last. We don’t know why. We
have always started with the zero conditional as it’s good fun getting them to think about certainties in life: If
you heat ice, it melts.
Once they’ve come up with lots of suggestions, including some you have written on the board, see if they can
work out the structure and tenses for a particular conditional structure. Then it’s time to practise them. 3.
Practice
You can use lots of activities to embed the learning of conditionals. Here are some of them:
Matching exercises: matching the condition with the result and matching the result with the condition.
Cloze activities: where they try to insert a selection of if-clauses into a piece which has six or seven blanks in
it.
Partnering activity: one learner states the condition, and the other completes it with some sensible result.
Then they reverse roles.
Learner surveys: Learners can survey each other about what they will and would like to do in the future, using
the appropriate conditional forms.
Wish lists: emphasising the unreal conditionals, learners can interview each other and make up wish lists for
their partners.
Advice columns: Learners can write letters of advice to each other or famous figures, such as the President or
Prime Minister, using the conditional. Probability Discussions: Guessing the probability of certain events, using
the conditional, e.g. If Manchester United are on form, they’ll win the match.
5.4 Main Parts of a Sentence (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
In this Section, we will cover the main parts of a sentence – morpheme, word, phrase, clause, subject and
predicate. This will ensure you can discuss sentences and the critical elements of sentences in your class
without having any great hang-ups or difficulties with meaning.
You’ll remember that we have mentioned the meanings of phrase and clause before. However, they are vital
parts of a sentence, and so we’ll explore them further.
If you were to look for a dictionary definition of a sentence, it could be something like this:
A sentence is a group of words that is complete in itself. It typically contains a subject and predicate,
conveying a statement, question, exclamation or command. It consists of a main clause and sometimes one
or more subordinate clauses.
A sentence is made up of a range of words to complete a purpose. There are several purposes: one might be to
make a statement, or another might be to ask a question.
Here’s what you need to know:
1. Sentence
A sentence is a set of words standing on their own as a unit of sense. Its conclusion is marked by a full stop or
equivalent (question mark; exclamation mark).
In English, of course, sentences begin with a capital letter and include a verb. There is no minimum number of
words a sentence must contain to be a sentence. The only prerequisite is a main subject and a main verb.
For example, I exist is as much of a sentence as is The early bird catches the worm.

2. Morpheme
A good definition of a morpheme is that it is the smallest unit of language that can convey meaning. You
cannot break a morpheme down into anything smaller that has meaning. Many simple words are morphemes,
e.g. boy, hut, talk.
Note that some words may consist of two or more morphemes:

 child + ren
 talk + s
 blind + ness

ren, s and ness all provide some meaning, even though none of them is a word in its own right. If we try to
break them down any further, we end up with graphemes or phonemes:
r+e+n
A grapheme is a term from linguistics, meaning the smallest unit in writing that can change meaning. This is a
letter or group of letters representing a single phoneme, e.g.
b ng ea
A phoneme is a distinctive speech sound. We express ourselves using words. In writing, each word is made up
of letters, and in speech, a word is made up of a series of phonemes. There are 44 phonemes in standard
modern English, fairly evenly divided between vowels and consonants. The phonemes in a word do not
correspond to the letters with which we write it.
For example, the word singing contains 7 letters but only 5 sounds: s-i-ng-i-ng.
3. Word
A word is the smallest meaningful bit of sense in a sentence. Each of these words has a different job to do.
Here are four words:
roared, mighty, lion, the

 Roared is a verb. Its job is to tell us what happens in a sentence.

 Mighty is an adjective. Its job is to tell us more about a noun. We don’t have to have an adjective in a
group of words when we are trying to make a sentence.
 Lion is a noun. Its job here is to name things or people or places in a sentence.
 The is called a definite article. We always use the definite article before a noun when we believe the
hearer/reader knows precisely what we are referring to or because there is only one of this thing in
that place or those surroundings. As you know, articles form part of a larger class of words known as
‘determiners’.

So, a definite article’s job is to tell us which particular noun we are talking about. We don’t have to have a
definite article in a group of words when we are trying to make a sentence.
We put words together to make a phrase.
4. Phrase
A phrase is a short, single piece of information. It can be a word, or a small group of words, that forms a
meaningful unit within a sentence:
mighty lion
Two important types are the noun phrase and the verb phrase.

Noun Phrase
The noun phrase can be a word or group of words built around a single noun or pronoun. In a sentence, it can
function as a subject, object or prepositional object; it can be very simple or very complex. For example
(bolded):

 A pile of books lay on the table.

 He was reading a book about the rise and fall of Napoleon.

Verb Phrase
In grammar, a verb phrase is a verb of more than one word. It includes one or more helping (auxiliary) verbs
and one main verb:

 can see (helping verb can + main verb see)

 would have sent (helping verbs would + have + past participle of main verb send)
 may have been planning (helping verbs may + have + be + present participle of main verb plan)

The main verb expresses the chief idea in the verb phrase. The other verbs are there only to support it.
The main verb is always the last verb in the phrase. Often its form changes as in the previous two
examples in which send becomes sent, and plan becomes planning.
We use phrases to make a clause.
5. Clause
A clause is a larger word group that includes a bit more information. It consists of at least two phrases – one is
a noun phrase known as the subject, and the other is the verb.
A clause is kind of a mini-sentence: a set of words that makes a sense unit, but it might not be concluded by a
full stop. A sentence can be made up of two or more clauses, e.g. She left (1) because it was late (2) and she
was tired (3); this sentence contains three clauses.
We know we have a clause when there is a group of related words which contain a subject and a verb. For
example:
The mighty lion / roared.
In this clause, the noun phrase is the mighty lion, and the verb is roared.
A useful way to begin identifying clauses in sentences is to count the main verbs. For each main verb, there
will be a clause.
This all leads us to the sentence.
6. Subject
The subject in a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is being or doing something. If you can find
the verb, then you can find the subject of a sentence.
For example, in the sentence The laptops in the self-access centre must be updated, the verb is must be
updated. What must be updated? The laptops. So, the subject is laptops.
A simple subject in a sentence is the subject left when all modifiers are removed. Remember: Modifiers are
any word or group of words that change or add to the meaning of another word. The simple subject in the
sentence below is issue:
The really important issue of the debate, when we take away all other considerations, is the nation’s morality.
Note that a simple subject can be more than one word, even a whole clause:
What he had already forgotten about computer repair could fill a book.
The simple subject is not he, nor is it what he had already forgotten, nor is it computer repair. Ask what it is
that could fill a book. Your answer should be that the entire bolded clause is the simple subject, i.e. What he
had already forgotten about computer repair
7. Predicate
A predicate is often called the completer of a sentence. This is just a term used to label the part of a sentence
or clause which contains a verb and states something about the subject.
So, the subject names the ‘do-er’ or ‘be-er’; the predicate completes the rest of the sentence. A simple
predicate can be a verb on its own, a verb string, or a compound verb (all bolded):

 The glacier melted.

 The glacier has been melting.
 The glacier melted, broke apart, and slipped into the sea.

More Examples
The part before the slash is the subject and the part after it is the predicate:
People in glasshouses/shouldn’t throw stones.
Chen and Chung/went on vacation.
I/love eating gazpachuelo malagueño.
8. More about sentences and clauses
We explored some of this before, but it will be of great use to you if we explore this further.
Now that you’ve grasped the terminology, particularly ‘sentence’ and ‘clause’, we’re sure you’re ready to move
on a bit further to types of sentences and clauses.
If we put a capital letter at the beginning of the clause we’ve used, and a full stop at the end, we have a
sentence. From a linguistic point of view, sentences are the largest grammatical units.
They are also intuitively complete in two senses:

 first, they may stand alone as informative units

 second, and more importantly, they include all required grammatical elements The mighty lion
roared. (This has a subject and verb and can stand alone as a meaningful unit)

This is a simple sentence.

1. Simple Sentences
A simple sentence is comprised of a single clause that has a subject and a verb. A simple sentence puts
across one simple idea or thought. It’s a sense unit – a complete unit of meaning.
Here are some examples of simple sentences:

 Fang smiled. (Fang is the subject; smiled is the verb)

 The dog barked. (The dog is the subject; barked is the verb)
 The boys are playing soccer. (The boys is the subject; are playing is the verb)
 Will you help me? (you is the subject; will help is the verb)

There is no minimum number of words a sentence must contain to be a sentence. Again the only prerequisite
is a main subject and a main verb. For example, He phoned is as much of a sentence as is Barcelona is one of
the best teams in Europe.
Note: A simple sentence is a complete unit of meaning which contains a subject and a verb. It may have other
words which help to make up the meaning.
But look at this group of words:
Made in France.
This is correct English, but it is not a sentence. It doesn’t have a subject. To make it into a complete sentence
with a subject and verb, we would need to change it to something like:
My fridge was made in France.
So, that’s simple sentences done.

2. Compound Sentences
Another main type of sentence that speakers and writers use is called a compound sentence. This is a
sentence which is comprised of two or more main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (also called a
connective).
Compound sentences have two or more pieces of information, and connectives link the pieces of information.
Coordinating conjunctions are connectives which link text together, such as:

 but
 and
 or

Two simple sentences can be linked together with a connective to make a compound sentence. For example:
  I do not like eating strawberries is a simple sentence.
 I love eating carrots is also a simple sentence.
 If we join them together, we have a compound sentence: I do not like eating strawberries, but I love
eating carrots.

Note: but is the connective

Here are other examples of compound sentences with the connectives written in bold:

 The boys walked down the road, and they met their friends at the bus stop.
 The postman came to the door, so the dog barked loudly.

One benefit of compound sentences is that a writer can build more variety into her writing. On the other hand,
one big problem is that some writers can get carried away and write long rambling sentences:
We went to the park, and we met some friends, and then we went into town which was not too far, but I was
quite tired when I got there, so I sat down.
Writers and speakers need to take care with connectives. Two in a sentence is usually adequate, and they
don’t need to be used in every sentence.
There is one other main sentence type – complex sentences.

3. Complex Sentences
A complex sentence is used to put across more detailed ideas. A complex sentence consists of:

1. one main clause that can make sense on its own

2. one or more minor (or subordinate) clauses that are linked to it.

We’ll call these minor clauses subordinate clauses from now on. It just sounds better.
When the noisy vehicle passed, the mighty lion roared.
The main clause is the mighty lion roared because it has a subject and a verb and makes sense by itself.
The subordinate clause is when the noisy vehicle passed. Although it is a clause with both a subject and a
verb, it doesn’t make sense on its own. It must be linked to a main clause for it to make sense.
We can add more subordinate clauses to make a more complex sentence. In the following example, the main
clause is in bold, and the two subordinate clauses are underlined.
When the vehicle passed, the mighty lion roared because it was annoyed.
We can even interrupt the main clause with a minor clause and still have a complex sentence.
When the vehicle passed, the mighty lion, which was annoyed, roared.
In a complex sentence, there is one main idea and one or more subordinate ideas. We can take the main idea
out of a complex sentence so that the idea stands on its own. Let’s consider this sentence:
The alarm was raised as soon as the fire was spotted.
We can cut out the main idea (the main clause), and it will stand on its own as a meaningful unit:
The alarm was raised (main idea/main clause because it is meaningful on its own, has a subject and a verb)
What we are left with is:
as soon as the fire was spotted (even although it has a subject and verb, this clause cannot stand on its own;
it’s not a meaningful unit as it stands and is therefore regarded as subordinate to the main clause, i.e. it is
a subordinate clause.
Note:

 The main clause in the example above is also called an independent clause. It contains both a subject
and a verb and can stand alone as a sentence.

The subordinate clause in the example above is called a dependent clause. It contains a subject and verb but
cannot stand alone as a sentence. It’s dependent on the main clause for it to make sense.
5.5 Modals (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Modals are complex and very challenging to present, and they are complex and challenging for learners to
learn.
They are a set of auxiliary verbs and are often called modal auxiliary verbs.
Modal verbs are used to enable the speaker to express feelings about, say, the probability of an event, or the
ability of a person to carry out a certain action or the level of an obligation – but seldom the actuality (reality)
of it happening.
Other uses of modals are to express one’s attitude, politeness, or advice; modals are also used for making
requests or giving permission.
The modal verbs in this category, although there are some different views on this, are:

can could may might will

would must shall should ought to

Examples
 Can you speak French?
 He could speak it well if he studied more.
 May I come in?
 It might rain tomorrow.
 He will speak German once he feels confident.

Here’s what you need to know:

1. Key Points
1.Modals do not change their form at any time. Must remains must however you use it. There is
no musted or musting. They have no infinitive or past or present participle. There is no infinitive to can or to
must. There are no participles such as canning, musting, canned or musted.
Just plain and straightforward must, can, should etc. at all times.
2. In the verb phrase, a modal verb must always be the first word. After a modal verb, we put the base form of
the verb (the verb stem – without to).

 It will be windy.
 You should look after your money.
 You could go on Saturday.

3. As with the other auxiliary verbs (be, have, and do), modal verbs are of great significance in questions,
negatives, and tags. A modal verb is placed before the subject in questions and can have not after it.
  Positive: Your room should be tidier.
 Negative: Your room shouldn’t be untidy.
 Question: How should I organise my room?
 Question tag: You should tidy it each Saturday, shouldn’t you? I suppose I should.

We do not use do with a modal. NOT How do I should organise my work? (Incorrect)
4. Modal verbs do not take -s in the third person.

Examples
 She should be here by now. (no –s)
 He must try again. (no –s)


5. Will and would have the written short forms ‘ll and ‘d.

 I’ll call her now.

 I wouldn’t do that.

6. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.

Examples
 She musted travel there last year. (Incorrect)
 She will can travel with us. (Incorrect)


7. We can stress a modal if we want to emphasise its meaning.

 You really must be quiet. (Meaning: It is very necessary.)

8. A modal verb does not typically include a tense. It can allude to the present or the future.

 Present: We must act now. The instructions might be in my in-tray.

 Future: We must act soon. The instructions might arrive this afternoon.
 For the past, we use was able to, had to, etc. or we use a modal verb + have.
 Past: We had to know then. The instructions might have arrived yesterday.

But in some contexts/situations, could, would, should and might are past forms of can, will, shall and may.

 I can’t remember the password. (present)

 I couldn’t remember the password. (past)


9. A modal verb can link with the perfect, the continuous, or the passive.

 Perfect: She may have told you this before.

 Continuous: They may be waiting at the airport.
 Passive: We may be shown the proposals later.
 Perfect + continuous: You must have been distracted.
 Perfect + passive: The evidence must have been destroyed.
10. We cannot use two modals together. NOT You will must come soon. (Incorrect)

2. Common Uses
Below is a table showing the most useful modals and their most common uses.
This is not definitive as there are a few other constructions that some people deem to be modals.
We’ve stuck by what we think are the frequent and typical modals used on an everyday basis. The tricky bit
with modals is that there are nuances in meaning, so even one native user may choose a different modal from
another native speaker.
That said, the table below will serve you well.

Modal Example Typical Uses

Ability / Possibility / Inability /

I can speak four languages. They can work out their own travel
Impossibility / Asking for
Can plans. You can make it if you try. We can’t do that. Can I sit
permission / Request /
down? Can you give me a hand, please? We can try that when we arrive.
Opportunity

Could I open the window a little bit? Could you repeat that? We could try Asking for permission / Request

to repair it ourselves. The bad winter could affect next spring’s crop. He had Suggestion / Future possibility /
Could
done it before so he could do it again. We could get the bus or phone a Ability in the past / Suggestion /

taxi. We could go if I didn’t have to attend that meeting. Conditional

May I sit down? You may play with the iPad once you’ve finished. The rain Asking for permission / Giving

May forests may soon disappear. She may be in Walmart or perhaps Dairy permission / Future possibility /

Queen. Present possibility

Your keys might be in your coat pocket. They might give us a Present possibility / Future

Might lift. You might drop in on Uncle Bill during your trip. Might I open the possibility / Suggestion /

window? If I had tried harder, I might have succeeded. Request / Conditional

Must We must leave now. Lucy, you mustn’t touch that. This must be Uncle Necessity / Obligation /
 Prohibition / Certainty /
Bill’s house! You must do a bit more training before you compete.
Recommendation

Doing what’s right /

We ought to own up to that. You ought to stop smoking. Lisa ought
Ought Recommendation / Deserving of
to win. The exchange rate ought to drop this quarter. You ought to try it.
to it / Probability / Giving advice for
You ought not try it. (notice that the to is omitted)
/ Giving advice against

Shall I help you with that? Shall we meet at the exact same time next
Offer / Suggestion / Asking
week? Shall I do that, or will you? I shall never forget the first time we
what to do / Promise / Belief
Shall met. We shall overcome. With the economy in its present state, I’m afraid
it will happen / Sense of
we shall lose our jobs. (Shall is more common in British English than American
inevitability
English)

We should resolve this now. I think we should action this Doing what’s right /

now. Profits should rise next quarter. You should strive for a better work/life Recommending action /
Should
balance. I really should be studying right now. I think they should already be Uncertain prediction / Advice

in the hotel. / Obligation / Expectation

I’ll phone her right now. I’ll do that for you if you like. I promise that I will get Instant decisions / Offer /

Will in touch as soon as I arrive. Profits will increase next year. He thinks the Promise / Certain prediction /

office will be closed due to the snow. Less certain prediction

Would Would you mind if I brought my wife along? Would you pass the milk, Asking for permission /

please? Would 8 pm in Billy’s Bar suit you? Would you like to join Request / Making

us? Would you prefer red or white? If he were more ambitious, he would be the arrangements / Invitation /

CEO by now. When he first got the car, he would wash it every Saturday. Preferences / Conditional /
 Repetition

3. Teaching Modals
We’ve already said that modals are very challenging. One of the best ways to teach modals is to use visual
representations of the modals, where it’s easier to show the degrees of probability, prediction, etc.
This helps to keep the learners’ attention when you are teaching this challenging topic.

Example
The following context shows the least probability:
Chen: Somebody is at the door.
Chung: It could be Mum.
Now look at the range of probability expressed through different modals:
High Probability

 It must be Fang.
 It should be Fang.
 It may be Fang.
 It could be Fang.

Low Probability
Here are the past forms of these modals:
High Probability

 It must have been Fang.

 It should have been Fang.
 It may have been Fang.
 It could have been Fang.

Low Probability
Here is another set of modals that express degrees of prediction:
High Probability

 It will snow in January.

 It should snow in January.
 It may snow in January.
 It could snow in January.

Low Probability
Finally, here’s a visual representation of modals for giving advice; as you can see, a general suggestion
escalates into urgency:
Urgency
  You must discuss it with your tutor.
 You had better talk to your tutor.
 You should/ought to talk to your tutor.
 You could talk to your tutor.

Suggestion
5.6 Voice, Mood and Theme (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

Voice
When we talk about sentences, we also talk about ‘voice’; as with an actual voice, we can look at the way a
sentence speaks to us.

Active And Passive Voices

If the subject of a sentence is the doer of the action, the verb is said to be in the active voice:
The Vikings invaded Britain. (Subject: Vikings; what they were doing: invading Britain)
If the subject is the victim or the receiver of the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice:
Britain was invaded by the Vikings. (Subject: Britain; what was done to Britain: it was invaded)
By choosing which of these two forms we use, we can emphasise certain words or contrast one statement
with another.
We can even use both forms in one sentence: Liu performed well, but the finest performance was given by
Mei.
Simply put, the verb changes its form to suit whether we say the subject did something or something did
something to the subject. In the end, the meaning is much the same. The point is that the verb needs to
change form to match how something is being said or reported.
Generally, the active voice is much more direct and more forceful than the passive.

Mood
Mood in grammar relates to the form a verb takes to show how it is to be regarded. Verbs change their form to
match the mood of a sentence. For example, a verb tells whether we should regard the information as a fact or
a question, a command or request, or a wish or uncertainty.
Here are examples of verbs changing their form to match the mood of a sentence:

 She is eating an apple. (statement, fact)

 Is she eating an apple? (question)
 Keep quiet! (command)
 Please keep quiet. (request)
 I suggest that she take the bus. (wish)
 I urge that he try to work harder. (uncertainty about him passing his exam)

The verbs in the last two examples (bolded and underlined)) are correct. They belong to a form called the
subjunctive which is only used in specific constructions after certain verbs. It’s all a bit archaic. We needed to
put this in as it is an element of mood.
Don’t concern yourself about it. You won’t be talking about the subjunctive in your classrooms apart from the
very odd occasion with an advanced adult learner, if ever.
Theme
English has a somewhat fixed word order compared with many other languages; still, some variation is
possible. For example:

1. The Girl Guides held the sale despite the rain.

2. The sale was held by the Girl Guides despite the rain.
3. Despite the rain, the Girl Guides held the sale.

The question that should come to your mind is the following: What is the difference in these three word
orders?
Well, the sentences appear to have the same core meaning, so what purpose does word order variation serve?
The theme provides the point of departure of the message; that is, the part of the sentence where the
emphasis of the message is placed. For example, in 1, the emphasis is on the Girl Guides; in 2, the focus is on
the sale; and in 3, the emphasis is on the rain. In other words, the theme provides the framework for
interpreting what follows.
5.7 Cohesion (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Cohesion is the lexical linking within a written or spoken text or sentence that holds a text together and gives it
meaning. It gives it unity. It is linked to the broader concept of coherence.
Let’s imagine you write a well-constructed paragraph that all makes sense, one sentence leading into the next.
Afterwards, generally, you cannot move the sentences around willy-nilly unless you alter them in some way.
It’s the same, generally, with a completed and well-constructed sentence. You can’t often move words around
in a sentence willy-nilly either without making some other modifications.
This is because of cohesion. Five fundamental linguistic mechanisms give writing and speech their cohesion or
unified structure:

1. Reference: The boy wanted to surprise her. The next day, he … (he refers back to the boy)
2. Ellipsis: A: Who wrote the letter? B: Bianca. (The response Bianca elliptically signals that Bianca
wrote the letter.) Ellipsis is when we leave out of a word or words that are redundant or able to be
understood from contextual clues.
3. Substitution: I aim to run a marathon next year. If I do, . . . (do substitutes to run a marathon)
4. Conjunction: Mike needed to lose some weight. He, therefore, decided to buy an exercise
bike. (therefore shows the causal relationship between the first and second sentences)
5. Lexical cohesion: (here through synonymy): He was grateful for the money he had been given. He put
the cash in his wallet and drove to the shop. (Cash refers back to money.)

We do this naturally, but it can be very challenging for L2 learners, mainly when they are listening to
conversations.
5.8 Register (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Remember this from before! Register is a variety of a language or a level of usage, as determined by the
degree of formality and choice of lexis, pronunciation, and syntax (word order), according to the
communicative purpose, social context, and standing of the user.
Learners need to use language appropriately and in the right context. Selecting the correct language for the
right situation is vital to demonstrate expertise and to save problems arising.
Register denotes the choice of formal or informal language we use to match a given situation.
These examples should make it clear.

1. Situation: Receptionist introducing to her boss a professor she doesn’t know.

Dr Brown. I’d like to introduce you to Professor White. He’s the guy who gave the speech at last year’s
conference.
Guy is far too informal
2. Situation: A husband talking to his wife.
Let’s go to the 8pm show. I’ll accompany you at 7.30pm.
Accompany is far too formal.
3. Situation: A letter of complaint.
Last Tuesday, while shopping in your San Diego store, I was dissed by one of your assistants. Dissed is
a slang word and is far too informal for this very formal situation.
5.9 Teaching Grammar (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.

Remember: Avoid standalone grammar sessions as much as possible.

5.9.1. How To Teach Grammar

Teaching grammar in the EFL classroom is no different from teaching other skills, in that you need to consider
a range of factors, e.g. age, level of competence, previous grammar experiences in the native language and
the like.
It would be a bit rash (and silly) for anyone to say that a specific grammar structure should always be
presented to a particular learner at a specific age. There are several variables at play.
So, bearing this in mind, it’s best to look at grammar presentations in fairly general age groups. You’ll soon
know it’s time to focus more on grammar when learners start asking you questions, such as: Mr Thomson, why
does this word have an extra letter (dogs) but the other one hasn’t (dog)?
Here is a pretty useful grouping:

 Very Young learners: younger young learners

 Young learners: older young learners
 Teenagers
 Adults

1. Teaching Grammar To Younger Young Learners

Here are some key points relating to teaching grammar to younger young learners – those ranging from, say, 3
years old up to around 7 years old or so.
Key points

1. It just wouldn’t be appropriate to teach grammar formally and explicitly under the age of, say, 7 years
old. That’s a general age guide. However, that doesn’t mean you won’t be involved in grammar-type
activities!
2. You should not use any metalanguage (e.g. the words noun, verb, etc.) with your younger young
learners. However, there is the possibility that your very young learners may already be aware of some
metalanguage, e.g. naming word, noun, and adjective – from their learning in their native/first
language (L1) classes. You need to find out if this is the case. If so, you can use the terms naming
word and noun, etc.
3. Your aim is to get them to notice some forms and patterns, and then use them automatically after lots
of practice.
4. The grammar you help them to notice must emerge from meaningful contexts, and there should be
some meaningful communication that leads to a focus on grammar, e.g. listening to you reading a
story or singing a song such as This is the way we wash our hands.

Remember this: Never teach grammar in isolation when teaching younger young learners. This would
be a recipe for disaster.

2. Teaching Grammar To Older Young Learners

Some would say that grammar learning and metalanguage are best left until children are aged about 8
or so. So, this Section focuses on these older young learners from around age 8 up to the age of 12 or
so.
If they are ready for it, you can start to introduce some language analysis and some metalanguage.
1. Key points
1. Use activities such as

 Rhymes
 Chats with individual learners and groups – and discussions amongst themselves
 Some drilling
 Cloze activities
 Questionnaires and surveys
 Information gap activities
 Presentations
 Fun activities and games for motivation and learning

2. Gradually, for older young learners, it will be possible to introduce some specific activities which focus on
separating grammar for study. If the school organisation does not prescribe a set curriculum, you need to
decide when to do this.
You’ll know it’s time to do it when your older young learners show an active interest in grammar forms such
as: Why is it that eat becomes ate, but beat doesn’t become bate?
3. Ensure you are aware of what grammar they have learned and are learning in their first language and make
yourself aware of what metalanguage they know. Don’t overdo this. Sometimes it may be necessary to
introduce some metalanguage.
4. Generally, they should be ready for work on some tenses and punctuation and may be ready for some self-
correcting.
5. Also, they should enjoy puzzles and crosswords where they can start to discover some basic grammar rules
for themselves, e.g. most nouns are formed in the plural with adding –s or –es but other groups make the
plural in different ways.
6. They may be ready for creating basic sentences with models, e.g. Pronoun + Verb + Noun, e.g. I like
apples or Pronoun + Verb + Adjective + Noun, e.g. I like green apples.
Remember this: Always think: How can I make this easier for them to grasp. So, for example, you could give
all the word classes a different colour.
To make it more challenging, you could mix up the order of the words and your learners rearrange them to the
order of the model.
7. Fun grammar activities are essential for older young learners, so include puzzles where learners are
encouraged to discover grammar rules for themselves, e.g. describing differences between two pictures,
which can be used to practise prepositions. Also use some of the grammar activities we will explore later,
adapting them accordingly.
8. As with all learning, recycling is critical for success. So, ensure you follow this up in later lessons.
Learning grammar can be a tricky business for older young learners. It needs much meaningful practice,
recycling and guidance in attending to language form.

3. Teaching Grammar To Teenagers

The Sections above have focussed on young learners up to about age 12. Young teenagers up to age 16 to 17
or so will continue their progress in grammar in the school environment, doing more of the type of study we
have cited for the older young learners but at a more complex level.
Some will continue to progress during that period, and some will reach a plateau in their learning and further
progress in grammar may be difficult for them.
So, for teenagers, there’s not much to add in terms of grammar input. It will be a continuation of the grammar
syllabus.
Sometimes, this group can be a bit challenging, often because the learners have reached a plateau or because
some of them act as if they are a bit ‘too cool for school’ and they lack interest in learning grammar.
Here’s what to do to make your grammar input more attractive for teenagers, particularly with those
who are struggling a bit or are a bit disenchanted with grammar:

1. Avoid Using Metalanguage

Instead, you could say, for example: Let’s look at another way of describing things you’ll be doing tomorrow
by using an –ing word (i.e. am going to)

2. Empathise With Them

Tell them you also had struggles with some aspects of grammar when you were younger. But, with a bit of
effort, you came through. And look at you now!
Remind them, from time to time, how useful grammar is for writing blogs and stories that others will admire,
for passing examinations (not only in English), for helping them in later years when they may wish to travel or
work in an English-speaking country, and so on.

3. Play To Their Interests As Much As Possible

Make a massive effort to find out what they really like. It may be watching action movies, or soccer or fashion
programmes on video. Catch their interest.
Then it’s easier to introduce some grammatical aspect by stopping the video at one or two specific parts, to
ask, for example, why the character made two similar meaning statements but used different words for each
statement.

4. Add In A Bit Of Controlled Competitiveness

Always do the competitive grammar activity in pairs or groups, so that learners are not alone and may feel
embarrassed if they can’t find the solution. Put time limits on these types of activities to heighten the tension.
The activity shouldn’t be complicated in any way.
Using the am going to example above, it could be:
I‘m going to give out a sheet to each group. On the worksheet, you’ll see the words will and won’t several
times. Put in am going to or am not going to in place of will or won’t. Be careful. There may be some parts
where you can’t do this. (For example, the text may include the construction Will you come back tomorrow?)
One person in each group must put their hand up when their group has finished the exercise and has checked
it all over. Remember, it needs to be correct to get points added for your end-of-term group prize. If it’s not
entirely correct, no marks. I’ll then pass it to the second group to have a go at getting points for the prize. Are
you ready?
Remember this: When doing this type of competitive activity, ensure that it’s not the same group that wins all
the time. You may have to change the groups around from time to time to achieve a better balance, but you
wouldn’t tell them the reason for this.
5. Inspire Them By Giving Them More Autonomy
For example:

 Let them do the dictionary work to find synonyms they can use in a passage.
 On occasions, ask those who have grasped a concept to help teach those who haven’t.
 Sometimes, let them choose the video they want to watch or the story they want to read (say, from a
choice of three). With lots of effort beforehand, you will have chosen areas of grammar that you want
to major on.

6. Make It Fun
Use lots of games to keep up their interest such as snakes and ladders where they pick up cards you have
prepared, and they must decide whether the sentence is correct or not if they are to move up the board.
Again, give the groups some autonomy in deciding what’s correct or not, but you need to be moving around,
monitoring and listening to ensure they’ve got it right.

4. Teaching Grammar To Adults

In this section, we focus on the older teenager as a young adult, and adults themselves. Let’s call them
all adults.
Our key focus is not on the grammar items you will cover, because these may very much be the same as we
have discussed for older young learners above.
So, what is our key focus? It’s to ensure you have the best practices and approaches in place for meeting the
needs of this group.
This adult class will be a diverse group, diverse in educational background (and therefore competency), age,
employment history and culture.
They will have different goals for attending your English class. Some may be immigrants who need to grasp
English quickly if they are to secure a job and some may be young adults who need this learning to help them
achieve entry to university, college or a vocational programme.
Some may be adults who need this additional learning for their job, and some may be young or older adults
who want to travel, work overseas or want to learn English as it’s good to have. There may be other goals.
The challenge is evident. How do you satisfy the grammar needs of a diverse group with diverse goals? There
is no easy answer to this. However, the challenge is lessened for you due to one essential characteristic of this
group.
All the learners in your group have a desire to succeed in learning English. Otherwise, why would they be
there?
So, they will be motivated. This is a huge plus point. So, what remains to be resolved is deciding on the best
practices and approaches to meet their needs.
Here’s what you need to do:

1. Don’t Assume Adults Are Competent In Grammar

Remember this: Do not fall into the trap of thinking that teaching young and older adults will be easier
because they will have made more progress in grammar learning. It may be the case sometimes; however,
there is no guarantee.
Some may not be any more competent in grammar than a young learner.

2. Don’t Worry About The Level

When you are teaching grammar to young and older adults, all the above information about young learners
and teenagers is wholly relevant. The key differences will be that there will likely be more explicit sessions on
grammar, and you will be helping them to be much more autonomous, identifying and fixing the errors
themselves where possible.
And with all the work you have completed during this course, you’ll be armed and dangerous, ready to handle
any query about the Present Perfect Continuous or Phrasal Verbs.

3. Do A Needs Analysis.
This is imperative.
A needs analysis is a process of finding out what needs a learner has. Don’t make this into a big formal event.
Do it informally. You could do it during your first meeting with the class or an individual where you explain that
you need to find out their purpose for attending your class.
What you’re trying to find out is:
1. What are the learner’s communicative competence needs at present?
While chatting, think about questions such as:

 How good is her use of English at present?

 What aspects of her English need to be improved to get her to the target situation?
 What are her grammar needs?

2. What are the learner’s communicative needs in terms of her goal for learning English?
Ask directly, questions such as:

 When you go to college next year, what do you have to do in English?

 When you’re at work, what do you have to do in English?

Later, analyse, identify and decide what needs to be done, via your teaching, to get the learners to their
desired situation in the future.

4. Help Them To Become Grammar Detectives

In general, young adults and adults will be able to handle tricky concepts much easier than young learners
can. This is a crucial difference between adult and younger learner classes.
Because of their adult ability to handle concepts, you can introduce them to some concepts directly, while
using the appropriate metalanguage. By doing so, all of this will save time and get them faster to their goals.
They will appreciate your plan.
Your aim is not just to introduce them to concepts: it is to ensure they can put these into practice.
Let’s explore 4 concepts that are critical in the grammar classroom. They relate to words and their positions
and functions in a sentence. By understanding what these are, your adult learners can quickly become
grammar detectives.
They will better and faster understand word classes, word order and the nature of words themselves.
If you ensure that they are entirely au fait with the terminology and meaning of these concepts, you’ll be off to
an excellent start. These concepts are:

 Meaning
 Form
 Framework
 Function

If adult learners understand these terms, it will make their grammar learning easier. Not only that, it will
involve them in analysing a sentence and working out by themselves where something may have gone
wrong. They will be able to self-correct, to a degree. Adults enjoy and get great benefit from this technique.

1. Meaning
This seems easy. However, it’s not that easy. Words can have two meanings:

1. A literal meaning- what the word means typically in everyday communication

2. A meaning for the context it’s being used in

Example
The literal and usual meaning of wet is something like this: not dry; covered in water or another liquid, as in:
I slipped on the wet floor.
However, in the next sentence, the meaning of wet bears no resemblance to the meaning above:
Come on, John, don’t be such a tiresome wet.
In the UK, wet is a disapproving term for someone who displays weak character and does not express any
forceful opinions. He ‘sits on the fence’ most of the time.
So, understanding meaning is crucial. However, it’s not just dictionary definitions which help us to know the
meaning. Grammar constructions help us to work out meanings by creating mental images in our mind, which
help us to work out the meaning.
For example, when reading John was a tiresome … and coming to the last part of the sentence, we expect the
sentence to finish with a compliment, some explanation as to who he was. In this case, it’s a wet.
We can then work out that the meaning of wet here is not the not-dry wet (adjective), but a wet (noun), some
kind of person. We know that it can’t be wet with the meaning not-dry, as that wouldn’t make sense after the
word a.
So, grammatical constructions help us to work out meaning. Grammar and meaning are intertwined. If the
adult learner understands this process, in many cases she will be able to identify the meaning of a word from
grammatical analysis.

2. Form
As you know by now, form is what a word looks like, how it is structured, e.g. boy, boy’s in this sentence:

Example
The big boy took the small boy’s ball.
In our analysis, we can have a good go at working out that boy is a noun, not just because we know its
meaning. We know that nearly all nouns add endings in the plural and in possession, so that’s a good clue to
this being a noun.
We can add –s to boy and it still makes sense. We know too, for example, that adjectives, adverbs,
determiners, etc. don’t do this – they don’t add plural or possessive endings.
There are other ways to confirm this is a noun, but these are not related to form, e.g. it immediately precedes
the verb, so it’s likely to be a noun or pronoun. Then we can eliminate the pronoun forms, e.g. he, she, it. Yes,
it’s a noun
Knowing all about form can help us work out what part a word is playing in a sentence.

3. Function
Function is another critical element.
Function is what a word does in a sentence. Earlier, you will have taught your learners that nouns are primarily
subjects, objects and complements in a sentence. That is, the noun can function as a subject, the object or
the complement in a sentence. (It can function as other things too.) Example
With this bit of knowledge, learners can better analyse a sentence. Have a look at this intriguing sentence:
The ugggawagga kicked a thnollanugga.
Even if they don’t know what an ugggawagga is, they can work out its function from analysis. They know that
nouns commonly function as subjects, so this is likely to be a noun. It can’t be a pronoun, as there
is The before it.
Plus, the verb functions as a doing word and the shape of the verb tells us that the ugggawagga is doing
something, i.e., something is not being done to it. So, they can work out that ugggawagga is functioning as
the subject of the sentence, and it is a noun.

4. Setting
In a sentence, words form a setting into which other words can fit.
If we recognise the setting, we have a good idea of what type of word can be placed in that setting.

Examples
1. The/A/An —————- ate the apple.

We know that most nouns can fit after the, a, an. So, the word to complete the sentence is likely to be a noun.
It’s not a pronoun, verb, adjective, etc. We could work out again that the missing word is the subject due to the
action word ate and the object word apple.
At this stage, we don’t know if the noun is singular or plural. If we take away The, then we know it’s singular. If
we take away The and A, we know it’s singular and begins with a vowel. In any case, we know it’s a noun that
fits this frame.

 The big boy —————the small boy’s ball.

If we are told that when this is completed it will be a sentence, then it’s easy. Into the frame steps a verb. We
don’t know which verb it is, but we do know it is a verb because it can’t be a sentence without a verb. We also
know it’s a transitive verb because there is an object.
Encourage your adult learners to become grammar detectives applying these four tests/tools to work
out word classes, to find what or who is doing what in the sentence, to find out what’s wrong, and most of all
to enable them to identify and repair errors on their own, where possible.

5. Use Games And Drills Sparingly

Use games and drills sparingly with adults. All of them are there to achieve a goal within a time limit. Although
you may see great benefit in these, some of your learners are unlikely to look at it the same way. This could
have a negative effect on the class atmosphere.
You could use the odd game or two, so long as you carefully explain the end goal.
Many adults see drilling as a childish activity. You can often see a disgruntled look on some of the faces. Why
let this spoil the excellent atmosphere you have built up?
You’ll need to play this by ear. If you feel it’s right to introduce games and drills now and again, then we’re sure
it will work out fine.

5.9.2 Making An Effective Grammar Presentation

These practical tips will ensure you make an effective grammar presentation:

1. Elicit frequent learner responses. Remember this: Eliciting is a term which describes a range of
techniques which enable you to get learners to provide information rather than you giving it to them.
2. Maintain an appropriate (but fairly brisk) pace.
3. Get their attention: ensure learners are alert, focussing their attention on you and the material to be
learned.
4. Keep your learners’ attention.
5. Monitor and, when necessary, correct your learners’ comprehension and responses.
6. Ensure there is equal participation of all learners in the process.
7. Ensure understanding via a range of ways, e.g. written and spoken exercises to ensure your learners
understand the meaning of the material you are introducing. Also, importantly, ensure learners can
make connections with other things they already know.
8. Concept check again before leaving the session, i.e. check understanding via random questions around
the class.

Learners need to take the material into their short-term memory. This is required for learners to remember it
until later in the lesson when you will get them to do further practice. So, the more impact the original
presentation has, the better it will be.
Again, we repeat: beware of using too much metalanguage unless you are confident they can handle
this. You’d need to be sure of this before introducing any metalanguage, particularly with young
learners. In any case, don’t over-burden them with this.
Build a fun atmosphere along the way with mime, gestures, funny pictures, cartoons, etc.

5.9.3. Inductive And Deductive Presentations

A vital element you need to grasp is the difference between inductive and deductive approaches to grammar
teaching and learning.
A deductive thinker draws out specific facts from a general principle that you have presented. For example,
using a deductive approach, you will stand at the front of the class and explain how to form a verb tense and
what it means.
Your learners will then try out this new knowledge on a set of sample sentences in an exercise.
On the other hand, an inductive thinker develops a rule or general principle for himself by looking at a set of
examples illustrating that rule or principle.
For example, he notices from the words and pictures that he has been given that the letter a goes before
some of them and the letters an goes before others. He then identifies which are which and develops the rule
for himself: an goes before words beginning with the letters a, e, i, o and u, and a goes before all other letters.
He may not know that a, e, i, o, and u are called ‘vowels’, which may not be important at his stage of learning.
And, he may not know there are some exceptions, e.g. an hour but that can be covered later. He has formed a
pretty solid principle on his own.
Within an inductive approach, you may provide a text, or examples of sentences that illustrate the rule, and
then step back to allow the learners the time and space needed to work out the generalisation. In other words,
you will not explicitly state the rule.
Your role is to facilitate learning. That is why your best route is to provide learners
with inductive learning activities as much as possible.
However, there are moments when you will need to go the deductive way to explain grammar
concepts to the class, particularly with a complex concept such as modals.
Remember this: It’s better to treat grammar as a skill much like speaking, listening, reading and writing, and
integrate it into speaking, listening, reading and writing teaching, rather than teaching grammar as an area of
knowledge.

Conveying The Meaning Inductively And Deductively

The advantage of an inductive presentation is that learners are not overwhelmed with grammar
metalanguage.
The other significant advantage is that by discovering language on their own, learners gain learner autonomy.
Autonomy gives learners the feeling that they are responsible for their learning. And learner autonomy is a
crucial factor in a learner’s overall motivation.
It’s OK if learners don’t grasp the language at first. After all, it is the process of asking several learners the
same question and eliciting answers that would get learners to eventually perceive the pattern being used and
thus discover the language form and meaning on their own.
Should there still be any questions, you could then fill in the gaps with more examples or, when necessary, a
grammar explanation.
In reality, when presenting grammar, you will need to be able to do so both deductively and inductively.
You will also have to do so in a clear and concise manner and, of course, this will necessitate your needing to
be familiar with the terminology and concepts. It will also require you to be adept at presenting structures in
different ways.
The reality is that learners won’t always be able to infer all the rules, particularly when it comes to achieving
accuracy of form.
Striking a balance between using an inductive and deductive approach, even within the same presentation,
can be very effective.

5.9.4. Different Modes Of Presenting Grammar To

Learners
There is no doubt that a strong knowledge and understanding of fundamental grammatical rules is essential
for the mastery of a language. However, it’s the way that you teach these rules that paves the road to success
by better embedding the learning.
Here are some practical ideas you can implement:

1. Present Material Visually

One effective way to show how a given structure is formed, what it means, and how it is used is to present the
material visually, using board drawings, illustrations, pictures, objects or props.
You could show them pictures and ask: What differences do you notice in the pictures? To practise, for
example, must/must have (as in He must have fallen.) and could/could have (as in He could have been hit by
a falling branch.).

2. Use Timelines
Another powerful visual is the timeline, which you can draw on the board. Timelines are simple diagrams that
can help learners see relationships between verb forms and their time reference. They are a visual
representation of the passage of time. Learners can see how the verb ‘works’.
We have made this simple timeline to explain the simple past tense.
Yesterday, I walked to school.

There is no definitive format for making a timeline. Just make sure you explain it first of all. You can use an X or
any symbol to mark the event.
Here’s another one to demonstrate the simple future progressive (continuous) tense:
Next year he will be climbing Kilimanjaro.

Here we have used a squiggly line to demonstrate the event continuing.

The following exercise will give you enormous opportunities for embedding timelines – and it will make
grammar learning intriguing and fun. The critical point is that the grammar part is integrated into the vital
skills of speaking, reading, writing, listening as much as possible.
Exercise –Timelines
As they get used to these timelines, you could introduce the idea of My Timeline, where learners draw up a
timeline of notable events in their lives from the past till now.
Older learners will quickly come up with a range of notable events. Young learners could ask their
parents/caregivers for essential dates in the learners’ short lives– when the learner was born, when the
learner first walked and talked, when the learner first went to school, etc.
And you could add in when the learner did something silly (this last one will create lots of fun later when they
read out what they’ve completed).
Then you can change the format – learner A interviews learner B and draws up a timeline for learner B. Then
they switch roles, and after this, they read out the other learner’s timeline to the class.
You can also give them a list of important historical events that have happened in their country and future
events the country hopes to accomplish by some date in the future and get them to plot them on the timeline.
These dates could be mixed up on the list. Keep away from serious ‘political’ events such as attempted coups.
Alternatively, you could centre it on a world event such as space exploration or the Olympic Games or the
critical successes in the development of medicine.
You could also give the learners a short written text and ask them to read it for comprehension, and then they
prepare a timeline based on the main facts in that text.
As they progress with the verb timelines, their My Timeline can be expanded to marking future events on their
personal timeline, for example: when will they be going to the ‘big’ school, when they hope to accomplish
something; when they think they will start working, etc.
Remember! Ensure the grammar part – relationships between verb forms and their time reference – is
integrated into, and reinforced by, the critical skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing.

3. Present Material Through Situations

Let’s imagine you are presenting the concept of going to. Draw a face on the board with a name under it.
Name her Maria. Put a thought bubble above her. Introduce Maria. Say: This is Maria and she’s thinking about
something nice. I wonder what it is.
Draw an aeroplane. Say: Ah, she’s thinking of her holiday next week. Next week. (Using gestures of forward
movement.) She’s going to fly on an aeroplane. She’s going to fly. Repeat this class: She’s going to fly. Class
repeats.
Ask: I wonder where she is going.
Draw or show a big picture of the Great Wall in China – elicit until you get the response. Yes, she’s going to
visit the Great Wall. Repeat this class: She’s going to visit the Great Wall. Class repeats. She’s so lucky.
Ask: I wonder what she will do there.
Next, draw a camera on the board. She’s going to take pictures. She’s going to take pictures. What is she going
to do? Class repeats.
Say: I wish I were her. What other things is she going to do? Elicit answers to this.
When the correct response comes up, e.g. She’s going to walk along the Great Wall, drill this (with the whole
class and some individuals). Write this response on the board.
Follow the same format now with some additional going to questions, then write the correct response on the
board. Then check with concept questions (checking understanding) at random. Say: So, tell me: What is Maria
going to do next week. Where is she going to visit?
You can then recap on the structure, avoiding metalanguage, and move them on to practising it with different
activities, e.g. a gap-fill exercise and then move them on to produce the correct structure, say, by conversing
in pairs and a writing activity.
By giving several different examples through a situation, or specific context, you help the class to build up a
clear idea of what the structure means and how it is used. After giving a few examples, you can simply present
the situation and try to get the learners to provide the example.
This will verify how well the learners have understood the concept, and this also helps to get the class more
involved.

4. Present Material Through Demonstration

Another way of showing meaning is to present the learning material via physical demonstration.
Let’s use the language item above – going to. You could also demonstrate the concept of going to. You could
tell them that you’re:

 going to open the door

 going to give a prize in a few minutes to whoever is best behaved
 going to open the window because it’s too hot
  going to close the window because it’s too cold and so on.

Using the same format above for situations, it will be another successful way for you to get them to grasp the
concept.

5.9.5 Drilling
We’ve mentioned drilling before. Let’s explore this further.
Drilling means repetition. It involves your learners, either individually or as a group, repeating whatever you
say. Drilling is a way for your learners to practise new language, both lexis and grammatical structures, in a
controlled setting.
As you will tell them what to repeat, learners can focus fully on pronunciation and usage. It can be as simple as
repeating a word or repeating entire sentences.
Drilling is best used after new language has been introduced and explained.
People have different ideas about the value of writing the target language on the board before drilling. On the
one hand, it’s a way to familiarise the learners with the written form, but on the other hand, it could hinder
their ability to remember the structure and may draw some of their attention away from meaning and
pronunciation.
In drilling exercises, rhythm, intonation and stress are very important. You can illustrate this through gestures
or by over-emphasising certain features.
Here are the most common types of drills:
‘Q and A’ drills utilise fairly basic conversation elements to mimic improvised language production. Typically,
you will ask a question, and the class responds – the trick is that the target language has already been
specified. The learners can continue the drill by asking a question to the next person in line.
Substitution drills allow parts of the sentence to be changed and adapted. This provides a more practical
and absorbing way of using drilled language.
1. Simple Substitution Drill: The learners substitute one short item after another in the framework of a single
unvarying sentence. You could provide the next item, but it’s best to get the learners involved. They can shout
out the next item for the drill. For example:
Where can I buy a magazine?
Where can I buy a ticket?
Where can I buy a bottle of water?
2. The Substitution Table: Another widely used drill is the substitution table. The substitution table is a
summary of a number of possible substitution drills derived from a single sentence.
Where can I buy a bottle of water?
Where might he find a light bulb?
Where will she get a ticket?
Where do they sell drinks?
You can do vigorous drills in front of your class with a table like this, concentrating on having the learners
repeat the sentences of the drill and getting the learners to give you complete sentences in response to cues
that you provide.
The Transformation Drill: This drill requires the learners to produce sentences in response to cues, but this
time the cues are whole sentences. The simplest drills of this type are the familiar Change this sentence to
the negative or Change these sentences to the past tense.
Drilling Pros

 It gives learners initial confidence.

 Choral drills allow learners to ‘have a go’ at new language without feeling self-conscious.
 Repetition can aid memory.
 Drilling serves to highlight the key language items in a lesson.

Drilling Cons

 It can become mindless parroting.

 If overdone, it can have a childish effect which may not be appropriate for older learners.
 Repetition is no guarantee that new language items are stored in long-term memory.
 Drilling has limitations when used in the later stages of a CLT lesson since it downplays contextualised
use of the structure.

You should keep in mind that not all new language items may need to be, or can be, drilled.

5.9.6. Grammar Activities

You must introduce as many communicative and interactive activities as possible when doing
grammar practice. By communicative and interactive, we mean activities that tend to be more
engaging due to the format of the activity and which promote more open-ended, uncontrolled
responses.
Communicative and interactive activities consist of reaching an outcome that depends on the learners
listening to one another and processing what they hear.
In such cases, learners will need to negotiate and repair communication breakdowns and adapt their
contributions accordingly.
In other words, there is some unpredictability in exercises that are more communicative and interactive.
Here are some activities which we’ve used to liven up our grammar sessions. They can be adapted for
different levels. They have served us well, and they will serve you well too.
Grammar mimes
Divide your learners into groups or pairs.
Give each group or pair a sentence that includes grammar already practised and underline the words that
should be guessed precisely.
One of the learners in the group/pair A must mime the sentence, and a learner in group/pair B must guess
what it is, in correct grammatical form. Then roles are reversed.
Examples will depend on recent grammar learning, such as the past tense or comparatives/superlatives:

 I swam yesterday
 I lost my watch last week.
 An aeroplane is bigger than a pencil.
 Mice have smaller teeth than crocodiles.

Get them moving

They are going to practise the simple past of regular or irregular verbs. Form a circle. Say a verb out loud and
throw a ball to a learner who has to say its past form.
She responds and throws the ball back to you, and you choose another learner. Whenever a learner makes a
mistake, he has to leave the circle. The last learner left standing gets a reward sticker or other prize. This
activity can be adapted to any grammar point.
Celebrity profiles
Contrasting the simple past and present perfect tenses by using biographies.
Find out which celebrities or sports stars your learners admire. Then find a short biography or write one
yourself summarising a celebrity’s main achievements. Read the biography with your learners and make sure
they understand the tense differences.
Point out examples that clearly illustrate this: e.g. He starred in his first hit film in 2008. However, he has
worked in 5 other films throughout his career.
Celebrity photos
Cut out relevant celebrity photos from entertainment or sport magazines. Use these photos to teach
comparatives and superlatives: Katie Holmes is taller than Tom Cruise; or, in the European football arena,
Neymar is good, Ronaldo is better, but Messi is the best.
Articles
This activity works great with beginners, including young learners. Cut up a list of several words that either
take a or an and mix them up.
Then divide learners into pairs of groups and get them to put the words into two bundles, depending on the
article. Once you have checked their bundles, ask them if they can figure out the rule by themselves.
For very young learners, you could use pictures instead of words.
Nonsense sentences
This works great with beginners and elementary learners. Use nonsense sentences when teaching grammar,
to make it fun, e.g. The cat smiled at the giraffe in the dentist’s waiting room; Green lions love sparkling
bottled water. Also, jumble up the words to see if they can put the sentences together correctly.
Words and more words
This activity practises word order and the placing of grammar items correctly in the sentence.
Write a short phrase on the board. For example: The giraffe … The learners’ task is to expand the phrase by
adding not more than one word at any one time.
Encourage them to give you suggestions, and they can write them into the sentence. For example: The giraffe
drank; The giraffe drank water; The thirsty giraffe drank water; The thirsty giraffe drank bottled water … and
so on.
If the suggestion put forward is incorrect, see if another learner can spot what’s wrong; if not, gesture that
there may be a mistake. If they cannot correct it, do it yourself as a last resort.
Speak as little as possible to encourage the learners to speak, make suggestions and point out any errors. Let
the sentence build as long as possible. Note they are involved in listening, speaking, and writing.
Fewer and fewer words
An alternative to the activity above is to give your learners a very long sentence and ask them to make it
smaller in any way that they can, one word at a time, while still retaining a grammatically correct sentence.
Changing the words
Give the learners a short sentence. Their written task is to change one word at a time in that sentence while
still retaining a grammatically correct sentence. For example: I like playing in summer; I like playing in Seville;
We like playing in Seville …
Construct a sentence
Construct a sentence and put each word is on a separate card. Give your groups the cards in jumbled order
and ask them to try to write a sentence using all the words.
They might construct the one you made, but they could construct other sentences. Any grammatically
correct sentence is fine.
Or you could ask them to make as many different sentences as they can with the words that they have. Words
can be used and reused.
This is excellent word order and writing practice.
Remember that written exercises like this one are another effective way to get learners to practise grammar.
Dialogues
Let’s imagine that you have presented the simple past. They have practised it and are now left in pairs to
produce the concept orally. You give clear instructions and then give out a handout and guide them through
it.
On the handout, there are 7 regular verbs, e.g. answer, argue, close, collect, comb, dream, and watch. Learner
A asks learner B: What did you do last night? Learner B answers I watched television. B asks A the same
question, and A responds using a different verb in the past tense, e.g. I combed my hair.
Other pairs are doing the same, responding with verbs on the list.
Move around, monitoring and helping, as necessary.
Once you are satisfied that a pair have grasped it, you can let them loose to ask the same question, but the
response from the partner now includes a new verb in the simple past tense which is not on the list.
They are now taking risks with the new structure, which is what you are aiming for. Again, you are walking
around, monitoring, and helping, as necessary.
Prove it, please
Give your learner groups one or more statements to prove or disprove. The statements can tie in with the
topic or the grammar point of the class. Examples: Nobody in this class likes winter. Everyone here loves
Taylor Swift.
Your learners talk to as many other learners in the class as possible to prove/disprove the statements. Then
they give feedback to the class: This statement is not true. There are at least 3 people in this class who don’t
love Taylor Swift.
People who …
This is an activity where the aim is to complete grammatically correct sentences and prompt debate.
Hand out the following sheet and tell the learners they must complete the sentences with a bit of realism-not
just adding on a grammatically correct ending:
People who …

 park their cars on the sidewalk/pavement …

 throw litter on the ground …
 talk during a movie at the cinema …
 drink and drive …
 snore …

Remember this: The examples above are fine. But take great care when you choose other ‘People who’
examples. For example, in some cultures, spitting is acceptable behaviour. You could cause a bit of a
stramash if you don’t take cultural considerations into account.
Grammar auction
Construct a worksheet with 20 or so sentences using grammar points you have recently taught. Half of the
sentences should include a grammatical mistake.
Divide the learners into groups. Give each group a set amount of fake money. Keep a pile of money for
yourself.
Read out a sentence. Auction it off. The learners should aim to buy correct sentences. The groups bid, and you
sell to the highest bidder. You then say whether the sentence is correct or not.
If it’s correct, the team wins the amount which they bid for it.
If it is incorrect, the team loses the amount which they bid and pass it to you. Any group may bid again, stating
the correct form. Again, if they get it right, pay them. If they get it wrong, they need to pay you their bid
amount.
If the sentence is correct and no group bids for it, all groups must pay a fine.
For each incorrect sentence which any group identifies, ask them to explain why it is incorrect. If no group
identifies an incorrect sentence, then explain why it is incorrect. To ensure they remain interested while you
are explaining, suggest there may be other sentences like this that may come up later.
After you have read out all the sentences, the team with the most money wins.
Hold your breath
Prepare some cut-up sentences from the grammar area you’ve been working on and stick them on the board
with Blu-Tack – one mixed-up list on the left and one mixed-up list on the right.
Mix the sentence words at random so that the lists have the same sentences, but a different word order.
Put the learners into teams, standing behind a line or marker in front of the board. The first learner in each
team runs to the board and arranges the words in sentence 1 into a correct sentence; however, they are not
allowed to breathe in. To prevent this, the learners must repeat a word over and over, e.g. teacher, ice cream,
elephant, China etc.
If they stop saying the word, they must return to their teams. As soon as the first learner finishes, the second
person in the team runs to the board to do sentence 2 and so on.
The winner is the first team to arrange all their sentences correctly. You’ll need to tell them when any
completed sentence is incorrect, and hopefully, someone in their group will be able to suggest how it should
be. It’s noisy but great fun.
Well done! Halfway through the course! What you have learned here will help you better understand
the key elements of grammar. Hopefully, we will have demonstrated that it’s not too difficult.
And there’s lots more good stuff to come!

Time for a little break.

Then, come back and have a go at Quiz 5. It’s not too stretching. Good luck!
After that, we’ll move on to Module 6, where we will explore the 4 key skills: Listening, Speaking,
Reading, and Writing, in this order. And we’ll add in a bit about Lesson Planning again. There’s quite a
bit to cover. In time to come, you’ll be very happy that you studied all the material.
End of Module 5 (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson's quiz achieving 100%
There is only one correct answer for each question. Select the correct answer.
Although you will not fail the whole course if you score below 40% in the End Of Module Quiz it will count
towards your final assessment. You will be able to retake this quiz. When you are finished be sure to look
over the questions again and take note of any errors and use this to learn, you may be asked similar questions in
your final assessment.

End of Module 5 (150) Quiz

Congratulations! You have passed this quiz achieving 100% NEXT LESSON

This tense can be formed by a combination of be + going to + verb stem. Which is it?1

 Future Simple Tense

 Future Perfect Tense

 Present Simple Tense

 Present Continuous Tense

Grade: 1
2. With regard to modals, which of the following is correct?1

 Modals change their form, depending upon the situation.

 You cannot use two modals together.

 Modal verbs take -s in the third person.

 A modal is always the last word in a verb phrase.

Grade: 1
3. This tense is formed by using the present tense of the verb be and the present
participle of the main verb. Which is it?1

 Present Perfect Tense

 Present Continuous Tense

 Present Simple Tense

 Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Grade: 1
4. Which one of the following pieces of advice is it best to ignore when teaching grammar
to adults?1

 Help them to become grammar detectives.

 Carry out a needs analysis.

 Don’t assume adults are competent in grammar.

 Use lots of games and drills.

Grade: 1
5. If you use drilling too much, this may not be appropriate for older learners who may see
it as a childish activity.1

 True

 False
Grade: 1
6. Which of the following statements about prescriptive and descriptive grammar
is correct?1

 Prescriptive grammar seeks to describe how language is actually used in the real world.

 Descriptive grammar seeks to describe how language is actually used in the real world.

 There is no difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar.

 Descriptive grammar ‘rules’ are the ‘right’ rules, according to some ‘experts’.
Grade: 1
7. The English language has:1

 14 tenses

 12 tenses

 10 tenses

 8 tenses
Grade: 1
8. Re linguistic structures for cohesion in writing and speech, which of the following
is invalid?1

 Register

 Ellipsis

 Substitution

 Reference
Grade: 1
9. Which of the following statements about adverbs is untrue?1

 They can describe nouns and pronouns.

 They can provide information about time, manner and place.

 They can modify adjectives.

 They can modify verbs.

Grade: 1
10. The 5 major word classes are:1

 Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and interjections

 Nouns, verbs, conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns

 Nouns, adjectives, verbs, prepositions and adverbs

 Conjunctions, determiners, prepositions, nouns and adverbs

Grade: 1
11. This conditional form is used when the result is always true for this type of condition.
Which is it?1

 First Conditional

 Second Conditional

 Third Conditional

 Zero Conditional
Grade: 1
12. This type of sentence contains two or more main clauses linked by a connective. Which
is it?1

 Simple sentence

 Complex sentence

 Compound sentence

 Independent sentence
Grade: 1
13. In relation to the main parts of a sentence, which of the following is incorrect?1

 A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb.

 The main verb is always the first verb in a verb phrase.

 A predicate is a term used to label the part of a sentence or clause which contains a verb
and states something about the subject.
  The only pre-requisite for a sentence is a main subject and a main verb.
Grade: 1
14. Re categories of pronouns, which of the following is invalid?1

 Object pronouns

 Coordinating pronouns

 Subject pronouns

 Reflexive pronouns
Grade: 1
15. When aiming for the best way to teach grammar, which one of the following pieces of
advice should you ignore?1

 Aim for an inductive approach as much as possible.

 Avoid standalone grammar sessions as much as possible.

 Aim for a deductive approach as much as possible.

 Avoid using metalanguage unless they are aware of this.

Grade: 1