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Module 8.1

This document discusses principles of testing and assessment for language learners. It begins by defining the key terms of testing and assessment, noting that assessment is broader and includes observations and feedback over time, while testing refers to more formal, standardized evaluations. It then outlines several fundamental principles of effective assessment: validity, reliability, washback, construct validity, fairness, sufficiency, flexibility, and practicability. The document emphasizes the importance of standardization to ensure consistent evaluation among teachers. It provides strategies for teachers to standardize their assessments, such as collaborating to evaluate student work. Finally, it recommends integrating language skills when evaluating students rather than focusing on separate skills.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
488 views

Module 8.1

This document discusses principles of testing and assessment for language learners. It begins by defining the key terms of testing and assessment, noting that assessment is broader and includes observations and feedback over time, while testing refers to more formal, standardized evaluations. It then outlines several fundamental principles of effective assessment: validity, reliability, washback, construct validity, fairness, sufficiency, flexibility, and practicability. The document emphasizes the importance of standardization to ensure consistent evaluation among teachers. It provides strategies for teachers to standardize their assessments, such as collaborating to evaluate student work. Finally, it recommends integrating language skills when evaluating students rather than focusing on separate skills.

Uploaded by

jbg060595
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 28

8.

5 Testing and Assessment (150)


Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
This is one of the most significant omissions in other TEFL courses. The majority of students complete
their TEFL courses and are expected to construct tests and assessments in their classes, but they
have had little or no input on this.
But put your mind at rest. We will ensure that you know what you need to know.
Take your time with this and aim to grasp the key elements.

8.5.1. Testing And Assessment Explained


Here’s what you need to know:
Testing and assessment is a vast area of study, so we have chosen the key areas you need to grasp. After this,
you can build on it in the future with further reading and exploration. It really is an interesting subject.
You’ll notice that we have already been using the terms testing and assessment. The best way to look at this
is:
Tests are events, snapshots, relatively brief moments in time in the extended process of learning a language,
often standardised and issued at specific moments such as the end-of-term or the end of the course.
Assessment is a broader umbrella term, including different kinds of testing activities, and is potentially based
on more extended samples of language performance. It is likely, to have greater validity as a measure of
overall language proficiency and to be more reliable than the briefer and inevitably more limited sampling
taken by tests.
For example, assessment would include feedback from you on:

 your observations of the student (learning and behavioural)


 the student’s language performance and growth (or non-growth) in class
 regular mini-tests carried out in the classroom on how the student is progressing

So, assessment also covers testing.


Here we’ll generally use the term ‘assessment’, and we’ll drop into using ‘testing’ when we’re talking about
what you and we recognise as a test: the end of term, more formal, usually standardised assessment tool
where grades are given. Don’t get too hung up about the usage of the terms.
When we use the term ‘assessor’ we’re talking about you and your fellow teachers.

8.5.2. Key Principles Of Assessment


Whenever we’re assessing students, we can’t just rush into drawing up an assessment vehicle (a fancy word
for a test) quickly without reflecting on the underlying principles of testing, e.g. is this fair for all the
students in the class? Here’s an easy (and common) trap we can fall into:
Example: A short written piece in English delivered to a class in Spain
Instruction: Some Spanish people are superstitious. Think about someone you know who is superstitious. Give
two examples of their superstitions and how the superstitions affect them.

1. This would be unfair if there is a non-Spanish student in the class.


2. This would be unfair if a student doesn’t know anyone who is superstitious.
3. This would be unfair if the student only knows about one superstition.
Here are the fundamental principles which underpin any assessment vehicle:

1. Validity
An assessment can only be valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure. The assessment must match
the elements and performance criteria of the unit of competence.

2. Reliability (Consistency)
A good test will be a reliable test. This means that if the same students are given the same test on two
different occasions, (and marked by the same or different markers), they should achieve the same or very
similar scores.

3. Washback
Any assessment piece must have positive washback. This means that the effect of the test on the teaching
must be beneficial. Otherwise, what’s the point of the assessment?
It’s essential to ensure a test is not constructed in a way that candidates can achieve high marks by merely
learning material off-by-heart. This type of test is unlikely to assess genuine language skills and would not,
therefore, provide positive washback.

4. Construct Validity
Construct validity is an element within validity. It relates specifically to the construct or trait being measured.
If your test aims to assess your students’ listening skills, then it must test listening and not speaking, reading,
writing or memory skills.

5. Fairness
Fairness means using the same assessment process for all candidates. Fairness is achieved mainly by:

 ensuring assessment methods and procedures are not developed or implemented in such a way that
they exclude or limit individuals due to race, age, gender, disability, employment status, social or
educational background
 ensuring candidates understand the assessment process, assessment methods and expected
outcomes
 ensuring that candidates can perform at their best, e.g. the examination room is not too hot, too cold,
too noisy, etc.

6. Sufficiency
Sufficiency means that there is sufficient evidence or examples of work to make an assessment decision.

7. Flexibility
Flexibility means using a variety of methods of assessment.
8. Practicability
Practicability means that assessments must be capable of being carried out both efficiently and
costeffectively, and to do this, there needs to be adequate resources and time.

Correctness Versus Appropriateness


Remember this! In a communicative-approach classroom, there are occasions where an answer could
contain several errors, but still be appropriate in terms of a response, while another answer could be
grammatically perfect, but an inappropriate response.
As you gain experience, you will decide how best to handle situations like this. Always be aware that in the
TEFL classroom, effective communication with an appropriate response is often more important than
grammatical accuracy.

8.5.3. Standardisation
Standardisation is used here to refer to a process that aims to ensure that:

 each teacher/assessor consistently makes valid decisions


 all assessors make much the same decision on the same evidence base
 all candidates are assessed fairly

One of the primary aims of standardisation is, where possible, to improve reliability. When valid decisions are
made with a tolerable level of reliability, assessment judgements could be said to have been standardised.
How can assessors’ judgements be standardised (made consistent and reliable)?
Assessors make judgements about the competence of students by reference to written standards. They base
their decisions on a variety of evidence accumulated, e.g. observing the student, questioning them and
judging an activity carried out by the students.
The tasks that each student performs and the other evidence they provide to prove that they are competent
may be different for each assessment judgement.
For assessment to be reliable, each assessor’s judgements must be consistent for various students and tasks
and consistent with the judgements of other assessors.
Achieving standardisation is not easy for inexperienced teacher assessors. The following activities help to
cement this skill:

1. Frequent discussion sessions on standardisation, led by the lead assessor/internal verifier,


i.e. someone who heads up the whole area of assessment in the department and verifies that the
assessments by teachers are consistent (e.g. the Head of Department, the Director of Studies)
2. Regular feedback on an assessor’s assessment decisions by the lead assessor/internal verifier
3. Regular training on standardisation skills and techniques
4. Regular sessions during assessment team meetings covering and identifying best and poor
standardisation practice

Here are the fundamental difficulties in achieving standardisation:

1. Some assessors – and lead assessors and internal verifiers – tend to believe that standardisation is the
process of ensuring that all assessors follow the same assessment procedure and that such
standardisation ensures that assessors make reliable judgements.

Of course, it is difficult to entirely separate assessment decisions as they are part of the assessment
process. But standardising the assessment process and operationalising the internal verification
system is certainly not the same as standardising consistency in assessment decisions.
2. Assessment teams are sometimes unsure how much disagreement/inconsistency is tolerable. For
example, with assessment decisions on the borderline between competent and not yet competent, the
teams would have to establish an acceptable level of agreement.
3. Consistency of assessment judgements may be affected by the diversity of evidence that students
can present.

A standardisation process to follow


The easiest way to carry out a standardisation activity is to collate copies of real exam papers and ask each
assessor to make a marking decision. These can then be compared.
They should also note any queries they have, e.g. further information which is needed.
This helps the internal verifier to check that the assessors are asking the right and relevant questions when
looking at evidence and are, hopefully, arriving at the correct decisions.
The following framework should provide ideas for internal verifiers to carry out such an exercise:

1. Select a unit of learning which many of the team assess and ask each to bring along two examples of
their completed assessments.
2. The completed assessments are passed around the team, and each assessor completes an assessment
feedback form as if he/she is assessing.
3. The feedback forms are collected and evaluated by the internal verifier and feedback is given to
individual assessors, confidentially, at a later time.
4. These exercises should be carried out frequently until standardisation is cemented within the assessor
team.

8.5.4. What Language Skills should be Tested?


Whatever the reason you decide for assessing your students’ language skills during the term, the best
approach is to integrate the language skills.
Instead of trying to test each skill individually, the tasks could involve two or more skills at a time so that, for
example, the students could listen to a passage and then do a writing task or read a passage and then write
about it.
The advantage here is that the tasks reflect the realities of language use, and so provide a clearer picture of
the students’ abilities.
Speaking, listening, reading, writing, and the usage of grammar and new vocabulary no longer stand alone in
the communicative approach classroom. They did in the past when perhaps on one day students would have
listening practice, and on another they would have speaking practice.
These days have gone now. These language skills are now treated in union. Therefore, language skills
assessments should integrate two or more of the skills to make the assessment more authentic.
However, you may feel it’s necessary to introduce some discrete point tests, now and again. Discrete point
tests are tests which assess one item of language at a time.
For example, the following multiple-choice item tests only the learners’ knowledge of the correct past form of
the verb eat:
When I was young, I … lots of sweets/candy.
a. eat b. eating c. ate d. eated
Remember that this type of discrete testing only demonstrates the learners’ ability to produce or recognise
an individual item. It does not provide any evidence as to how they would use the language in actual
communication.
8.5.5. Importance Of Regular Assessment And Testing
It’s only logical that there should be regular class assessment activity. It’s a given, as they say.
Only in this way can you identify:

 learner gaps and strengths


 who needs to be taught what next
 what growth in language is really taking place
 what has been taught well and what you need to work on (are your methods effective?)
 what language items need to be re-visited
 what evidence you can use to help you plan your future programme of work with the class

Ensure you don’t just focus on speaking skills. The communicative approach integrates all skills, as we have
stressed several times.
All skills need to be tested.

8.5.6. Summative And Formative Tests


Nowadays, both summative and formative assessments are used to evaluate students’ performance and
learning. However, relying on just one of the methods may lead to student learning needs becoming unclear,
since one form of assessment cannot provide a full picture of the situation.
Let’s explore these two forms of assessment.
1. Summative assessment for students’ performance evaluation (More
FORMAL assessment)
Summative assessment is used to evaluate certain learning needs and usually consists of a form of quiz,
exam, end-of-unit test, end of term test, etc. It is an evaluation conducted by you at the end of specific
periods to judge the level of students’ performance and knowledge.
Such a form of classroom assessment is used to define a student’s final mark, as well as helping educators to
make corrections and adjustments in the current curriculum, where needed, for the learning needs to be met
in future.
However, summative assessment cannot evaluate the efficiency of learning as it is happening because
assessment is carried out only after the learning has taken place. So, any curriculum or methodological
improvements can only be implemented in the future.
Here are some typical types of summative assessment (more formal), some of which we have mentioned
before – but we’ll mention them again.
True/false: Learners are given astatement, which they mark true or false.
Multiple-choice: The question consists of a stem (the question or statement) and a number of options (usually
four), from which the test taker has to select the right one.
Gap-filling and completion: The test taker has to complete a sentence by filling a gap or adding something (e.g.
the correct form).
Matching: There are two groups of words, phrases or sentences. The task is to link each item in the first group
with another item in the second group.
Cloze: In a cloze exercise, you omit words from a passage at regular intervals. This could be every seventh
word. Usually, there are no gaps in the first two or three lines, in order to establish a context for the students.
Students fill the gaps, choosing the appropriate words from a given list.
Transformation: A sentence is given (in written or oral form), and the test taker has to change it according to
some given instruction, e.g. switch to another tense.
Rewriting: A sentence is given; the test taker rewrites it, incorporating a given change of expression, but
preserving the basic meaning.
Example: He came to the meeting in spite of his illness.
Rewrite: Although …
Dictation: You dictate a passage or set of words. The test takers then write them down.
Questions and Answers: Simple questions, very often following a reading or listening text, or as part of an
interview. This task may require either short or long answers.
Example: What is the family relationship between Chen and Hu?
Essay: The test takers are given a topic, such as My Best Friend, and are asked to write an essay of a specific
length.
Monologue or Oral Interview: The test takers are given a topic or question and asked to speak about it for a
minute or two.
Example: Which hobby/pastime do you prefer and why?
2. Formative assessment for students’ learning evaluation (more INFORMAL assessment)
Formative assessment is the type of assessment used to reflect and evaluate the efficiency of learning in its
process, and, consequently, it is a part of the teaching process.
You use it to discover gaps in the learning/teaching. You adjust both the teaching and learning processes to
the learners’ learning needs immediately in the process of learning.
Such an approach enables educators to raise the learning standards in real-time in the process of teaching.
Having evaluated the current needs of each student, including those with lower abilities, you can address
them immediately.
The information provided by formative assessment is used for modifying the teaching and learning activities
in the classroom to get the best possible learning results.
Formative assessment is essential and very useful for getting feedback on students’ progress to identify and
correct any possible errors. As a result, you may change the methodology of developing speaking and
listening skills, for example.
Here are some typical types of formative assessment (more informal):
Some of the activities mentioned above under summative assessment will be used plus a selection from the
following activities:

 Observing learners’ spoken or written work and answers to comprehension tasks


 Keeping notes on the learners’ performance during particular classroom tasks
 Getting learners to complete self or peer assessment sheets
 Getting feedback from students themselves on their learning
 Noting attitude and effort

8.5.7. Multiple-Choice – How To Write Valid And Reliable


Questions
Here we will focus on multiple-choice assessment. Very few inexperienced teachers have ever had any
experience in writing multiple-choice assessments, even although this will be a crucial assessment
instrument in the classroom.
Multiple-choice items can test lower-order and higher-order thinking. Learners can complete these
reasonably quickly, and teachers can mark them swiftly. They are objective tests, widely used in formal tests,
though it can take a long time to devise them correctly.
In devising multiple-choice questions and options, there are several considerations to be borne in mind.
Note that we use stem for the question, and choice or option for the response choices.
Here’s what to do:

 Make the question and requirements unambiguous and in a language appropriate for the candidates.
 Avoid giving clues in the choices/options which help to identify which response is the correct one.
 Provide around four choices to reduce guessing. Ensure that the distractors (options which look like
they may be correct, but they aren’t) are close to the correct response so that the candidate will
consider them. That is, make the options realistic.
 Keep the choices around the same length; ensure the correct answer is not much longer than the
others, where possible.
 Avoid giving grammatical clues. For example, the word an in the stem requires an option that begins
with a vowel; the word is in the stem requires an option written in the singular.
 Avoid using textbook language in the correct choice only. Learners can easily spot that this is the
correct answer.
 Ensure that the questions include significant learning rather than just a simple recalling of facts and
figures.
 Embed the nature of the issue in the stem (the question) of the item, ensuring that the stem is
meaningful in itself.
 Ensure that the stem focuses on as much of the item as possible, with no irrelevancies.
 Keep the readability levels low.
 Ensure that all the options are reasonably plausible, so that guessing of the only possible option is
avoided.
 Avoid the possibility of candidates making the correct choice through incorrect reasoning.

There are several attractions to multiple-choice items, for example:

 They can be completed relatively quickly by a competent question writer, enabling many questions to
be asked which, in turn, enables good coverage of each skill area, thereby increasing reliability and
validity.
 There is limited writing, so candidates’ writing skills (or their lack of these) do not impede
demonstration of knowledge or skill.
 The opportunities for errors or biases in marking can be reduced.

However, they have been criticised by some educationalists:

 Multiple-choice testing may demean and reduce the complexity of knowledge, learning and education
to the trivial, atomised (fragmented) and low level.
 They have little diagnostic or formative potential.
 Scores may be inflated through informed guessing.

However, if you follow our guidelines above, you will construct valid multiple-choice assessments.
Multiple-choice activity
Have a look at these test questions. Is each of them valid and reliable – or not? Please read them and
add Yes or No beside the numbers below and comment on why you think the question is valid and reliable – or
not. Then check what we think, below the questions.
Q1. Who has scored the most goals in one season for Real Madrid, and in which year?

a. Salomón Rondón in 2011


b. Isco in 2012
c. Roque Santa Cruz in 2013
d. Juanmi in 2014

Q2. Which state was the 16th state to join the Union in the USA?

a. A. Tennessee
b. B. Hawaii
c. Vancouver
d. Alaska

Q3. The term ‘side effect’, used in relation to a drug:

A. refers to any drug effect other than the one the doctor wanted the drug to have
B. is the chain effect
C. is an additional benefit
D. is the key effect

Q4. Each organism is made of cells, and every cell comes from another cell. This is the:

A. Relativity Theory
B. Evolution Theory
C. Heat Theory
D. Cell Theory

Q5. A test is valid when it:

A. produces similar scores over time


B. fits well with a similar form
C. measures indubitably what it purports to measure
D. ensures everyone can pass it

Q6. A test which may be scored merely by counting the correct responses is called an
_______________ test.

A. consistent
B. objective
C. stable
D. standardised

Q7. What is the effective number of questions in a test to ensure it is a true test of competence?

A. less than 10
B. less than 20
C. more than 40
D. more than 50

Q8. What is (are) the capital(s) of Bolivia?


A. La Paz B. Sucre C. Santa Cruz

A. A only
B. B only
C. C only
D. both A and B

Answers
Well done! We wonder if you came to the same conclusion as we have: they are all unacceptable as test items.

1. Not acceptable. The answers contain 2 pieces of data. However, it is possible to answer this, knowing
only one piece of data. Let’s say the answer is D. If we know that the highest scorer in recent times is
Juanmi, then we can answer the question without knowing this occurred in 2014.

Similarly, if we know the most goals were scored in 2014, then we can pick Juanmi even although we
did not know at all that he was the highest goal-scorer.
2. Not acceptable. Providing they know that Vancouver is in Canada and Alaska and Hawaii were the 49th
and 50th states – the most recent states which many people (around the world) remember – to join
the Union, then they have too good a chance.
3. Not acceptable. The long answer in A gives a clue that this is likely to be the correct answer.
4. Not acceptable. There is a clue to the answer D in the stem of the question – the word cell.
5. Not acceptable. The intended answer C contains wording which is clearly textbook language and
candidates will likely identify this as the answer.
6. Not acceptable. The word an in the stem of the question indicates that the next word must start with a
vowel – thus, the answer is obviously B.
7. Not acceptable. This is heavily flawed. If the answer is meant to be A, then B is also correct as any
number that is less than 10 is also less than 20. Similarly, if the answer is meant to be D, then C is also
correct as any number that is more than 90 is also more than 80.
8. Not acceptable. Bolivia is one of the few countries which has two capitals. This is easy to remember.
Therefore, this can be answered easily by choosing D without knowing the names of the cities.

So, we can see that writing valid and reliable multiple-choice tests requires a lot of thinking.
8.6 Supplementary Materials (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson.
Supplementary materials are worksheets and other materials you can use in addition to the classroom text if
there is one. They include skills development materials, grammar, vocabulary and phonology practice
materials, collections of communicative activities and your own resource materials.
Supplementary materials may also come from authentic sources. Examples of these authentic materials are
newspaper and magazine articles, pictures, and videos.
You can use supplementary materials to:

 overcome the lack of materials when you are teaching with minimal resources
 replace unsuitable material in the classroom text, if there is one
 fill gaps in the classroom text, if there is one
 provide appropriate material for learners’ specific needs and interests
 give learners extra language or skills practice
 add variety to your teaching

Making your supplementary materials may seem daunting at first, but it’s not if you know what to do. Teacher-
made materials can be very effective, assuming that they are relevant and personalised and answer the needs
of the learners in a way no other materials can.
Our key focus in this Section will be to consider two particular situations:

 where you are teaching with minimal resources and cannot depend on pre-made
supplementary materials being readily available or appropriate
 where you find that the coursebook, if you have one, lacks the types of materials you wish to
have

In these situations, you must resolve this yourself and get or make them.
In the next two Sections, we will focus on worksheets, workcards, and flashcards.

8.6.1. Worksheets And Workcards


Two excellent forms of teacher-made materials are worksheets and workcards.
They can be used for oral practice in pairs or groups, or for listening, reading and writing practice, with
students working with other students or on their own.
Remember this: Many of the examples of worksheets on the internet are pretty dull. Usually, there is just a
list of questions with spaces for the answers. Try and make your materials a bit different and add in a picture
or some colouring.
1. Worksheets

 A worksheet is typically a Letter/A4 sized page (or two) of tasks.


 It is given out to individuals, pairs or groups, depending on the approach required.
 Learners give their answers/responses on the worksheet.
 You circulate during the completion.
 You typically check the answers/responses with the whole class.
 Sometimes they are disposed of; sometimes the learners can keep them; and sometimes you’ll take
them in to study progress, e.g. handwriting, or to include them in the learners’ portfolios.
Here are three simple worksheets we have created for you, to demonstrate that it doesn’t take long to
construct them. We’ve used ready-made pictures, but you could draw or trace these or ask some
artistic teacher or student to help you if need be.
Example 3: The Gruffalo
2. Workcards

 You would typically create these yourself for all kinds of tasks and situations.
 These are typically small, laminated cards, about the size of an index card. You would laminate them so
they can be used repeatedly with different learners. However, if there’s no laminator, keep them in
plastic files.
 The learners complete their activity on a separate blank sheet or in their notebooks, not on the
workcard.
 They are typically for short tasks – individual, pair or group.
 Different learners may be working with varying workcards at the same time.
 Depending on your choice you can colour them and put little pictures on them.

They are excellent for:

 Recycling activities where, for example, some individuals need more practice with some specific item
 Giving out to more able learners who have finished ahead of the others who are still completing the
whole class activity you set
 Giving the class a break from learning after they have all been working hard. Quizzes, small puzzles and
riddles can all be entered on these cards for these relaxing moments.

The workcards are then handed back to you.


Here are some examples which should be self-explanatory:

1. These could be used for a discussion between pairs or groups, for a short, written piece, or a student
presentation to the whole class:

2. This next type could be used for relaxation, and perhaps a little prize could be given to the winning
group. You could encourage them to do some dictionary work for any difficult words, where
dictionaries are available. Remember this: Don’t use examples of animals or things which don’t exist in
their culture. We used this with Spanish students.
It is, of course, the Iberian Wolf. Depending on student levels, you could increase or decrease the level of
difficulty.
Some practical ideas for workcards

1. Stamps
Put different postage stamps on a card. Ask the pairs to identify what countries the stamps are from. A word
bank can be supplied. Higher performing students can be asked to add the capital of the country, the name of
the language spoken, etc.

2. Read And Draw


Read and draw. You could write a description of a place, a person or an unusual animal (e.g. an armadillo) on
the workcard. The students must draw a picture from the description and compare their efforts.
Then you can let them see a real photo/picture of the place, person or animal. This can be good fun. Some may
go right off track as they have misunderstood an essential part of the instructions.
Remember, though, that this is not a drawing task per se. It’s a reading and comprehension activity.

3. Things In Common
Give a list of 3-4 words. The students write what the words have in common. For example, beginners could
get dog, cat, bear: animals. Older learners could be challenged with pint, silver, width. They may take some
time to work out that no other English words rhyme with these words!

4. Matching
You make up two lists, one of countries and the other of capitals. The students match the country with its
capital city.
5. Words That Sound The Same
You present two lists of words that sound the same but have different meanings, e.g. right, write. The
students must match the words that sound alike. This can also be done with opposite words and words that
rhyme.

8.6.2 Flashcards
A flashcard is a laminated picture of, say, a house, garden or kitchen with the name below it or on the back of
the picture that you can hold up for all to see.

Ensure these are culturally appropriate. For example, if all your students come from the inner city,
there may not be many gardens around.
You could make these Letter/A4 size. You could also make smaller versions so that, say, each pair can have
their own to look at. Gradually, through time, you’ll be able to miss out the picture and just show the word.
It’s good to intersperse showing the word with also writing it on the board, to get their minds thinking further
that spoken words can be written down.
It’s a wise idea to colour your flashcards from the start if you can, e.g. nouns in pink, adjectives in blue, verbs
in green, etc. You would typically start with nouns. Of course, you won’t use the metalanguage with them. You
would just call it a thing or an animal.
When you move on to say, adjectives, you’d point out that this card is not in pink like the other card (nouns)
and this will help them a bit to understand categories and differences through time.
With ‘showing’ activities like holding up flashcards, always plan to do some other activity after this to
consolidate the learning. For example, once they have learned some simple words, they can practise in pairs,
reading words to their partners.
Remember! Become familiar with what supplementary materials are available in your school.
When you arrive, draw up a materials needs analysis checklist at the beginning of the course to find out what
you will want to add to the classroom text, if there is one, when you are planning your lessons. Plan ahead!

8.6.3. Practical Tips For Developing Your Own Material

1. Make Them Fit The Context


Several criticisms of commercially made materials continue to be voiced, particularly concerning context.
Here are the main criticisms, which we have mentioned before:

 The coursebook and accompanying materials produced for the global EFL market are too generic.
 Often, they are not geared to specific groups of learners.
 Often, they are not aimed at any specific educational or cultural context.
 Often, they contain functions and speech outputs based on situations that the majority of foreign
language learners may never be in.
 They are often Anglo-centric in their construction and production and therefore do not reflect any
local varieties of English. ‘Anglo-centric’ typically means centred on or giving priority to England or
things English.

Thus, many teachers find it much, much better to make their own materials to make them fit the specific
educational and cultural context.

2. Make Them Fit The Individual Learners


Commercially produced generic materials cannot address the needs of all the unique individual learners in
classrooms. However, you can by:

 creating or adapting materials to the individual needs and learning preferences of students
 creating or modifying materials that take into account the learners’ first language and the learners’
culture and personal experiences
 creating or adapting materials at the right level for specific learners, to ensure the materials present an
appropriate challenge and degree of success
 changing the often-repetitive model and organisation in the coursebook to add more variety within the
classroom to meet developing needs (e.g. using whatever is appropriate to achieve the goal – topics,
situations, functions, etc.)

3. Make Them Fit Today’s Events


Commercially produced materials cannot keep up to date with local and international affairs. World and
country changes can happen rapidly, and learning materials need to keep up with changes and events that are
of particular interest to learners in their situation. Just have a look at a Timeline for the 21st century on
Wikipedia to remind yourself of some local and international affairs that have happened. How can learning
materials keep up with these?
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_21st_century#2011 )
Only teachers on the ground can make the materials relevant to today’s world.

4. Lack Of Finance
A large number of schools may not have the budget to supply modern resources for the TEFL classroom.
Instead of moaning and groaning, most teachers step up to the plate and design their own materials as a
matter of course. The school and your learners will be very appreciative of this.
Guidelines for Designing Your Materials
Remember the words of the Cheshire Cat in Alice in Wonderland: Alice: ‘Would you tell me, please, which way
I ought to go from here?’
‘That depends a good deal on where you want to get to,’ said the Cat.
‘I don’t much care where —’ said Alice.
‘Then it doesn’t matter which way you go,’ said the Cat.
If you haven’t designed materials, you must have a definite route to follow; otherwise, things may not turn
out as planned, and you and your learners may miss out on learning opportunities.
Here are the practical points you need to consider when planning the materials, while constructing
your materials and when reviewing your materials after completion.
Time to reflect
What practical points do you think you would need to consider when planning, constructing
and reviewing YOUR materials?
Try and do this without looking at the next Section.
Take some time out to make a drink or sandwich/biscuit and reflect on this.
Then you can return to check your thoughts with what we think below.

Well done!
Here’s what to do:

1. Meet Your Learners’ Needs


Ensure your materials meet the learners’ needs in terms of their language skills, their cultural and educational
context and experiences, their learning preferences and their interests. Also, ensure you are aware of the
culture-specific learning processes of the learners in their situation.
For example, in some countries, parents/caregivers and educational institutions want to see less fun and more
work, so you will need to take this into account.
Also, in some countries, there is often more emphasis given to rote-learning, e.g. parents/caregivers and
institutions wanting to see you giving the young learners lists of vocabulary to rote-learn even though these
words may be learned out of context with the classroom teaching at that time.
Always ensure the materials link with what the learners already know; otherwise, the materials will not meet
the intended objective without a whole lot of additional input.
Where you do feel that something must be included but is not linked to their knowledge or experience, ensure
you clarify the inclusion before they start working with the materials.

2. Fit Your Materials With The Syllabus And Curriculum


Ensure the materials fit with the goals and objectives of the syllabus and curriculum if these are in place. Make
sure you are au fait with the complete syllabus and curriculum.

3. Consider Your Skill Base


Consider if you have the skills to do a reasonably professional job. Designing materials from scratch needs a
bit of experience to draw on, creativity, competent artistic skills and a sound understanding of materials
design and construction.
Absorb all this Section and, when in situ, ask others for help where you need to. Do not hold back on this.
That being said, it’s not that difficult. There are plenty of internet sites that can guide you in drawing.

4. Ensure You Search For Resources


Ensure you have the resources needed. Don’t spend time on planning the creation or adaptation of materials if
you do not have the ready resources to enable you to do a good job.
Some teachers will say that it’s necessary to be able to access computers and the internet, a good colour
photocopier, a laminator, a CD player or the like, etc. Well, we know teachers who survived nicely for years
without any of these in the school.
But they made friends inside and outside of the school and soon had access to some of these tools. You’ll
never get if you don’t ask. If you don’t have these, it’s not the end of the world.
We mentioned access. Schools are busy places, and often other teachers have planned to use a particular
resource. Ensure you plan well with the school administration so that you can use the resource at a scheduled
time. Book these well in advance.

5. Consider Copyright
Ensure you consider copyright. Yes, you must, not just for your sake but also for the sake of who is employing
you. Unless an artist, writer or producer clearly states that the material can be freely used within your
classroom, then you need to take care.
If you use copyrighted material in your class, which then goes down so well that it’s included in the school
brochure or on the school website, this could cause a problem for the school.
If, say, a writer or producer says you can use their material in class, that’s fine. If they say you need to ask
permission to do so, then you should follow this up and seek approval. If a writer or producer says you cannot
use the material, then steer clear of it.
In general, an idea cannot be copyrighted, so you may see something that sparks your interest, and you can
make up your own material based on that idea. However, the simple lifting of photos and text as they were
initially produced is not generally allowed.
Re pictures and images, numerous sites offer these without any copyright, but at a price,
e.g. https://www.shutterstock.com/

6. Work Out Your Time


Ensure you have adequate time to see this through. Experienced teachers will share one indisputable fact with
you, based on their experiences: it always takes longer than you think it will.

7. Stimulate Interaction Within Cultural ‘Rules’.


Ensure your materials stimulate interaction and provide a communicative purpose. There’s little point
spending lots of time on the production of materials if those materials are not going to encourage interaction
in the classroom. Such interaction should be in line with the types of interaction they will come across in their
outside world.
The materials don’t need to be complicated. A simple information gap activity worksheet will fit the bill nicely.
However, good spoken communication does not just rely on the words spoken.
There are other factors such as turn-taking (me then you then me then you), and recognition of personal
space (proxemics) that you need to take into account when designing interactive activities for a
communicative purpose.

8. Stretch Your Learners


Ensure your materials provide a necessary ‘stretch’. You must produce materials that stretch your learners’
knowledge, understanding and application skills.
This is necessary for the ongoing development of the learners’ language competence.
Your materials should build on what they already know but should include new items (e.g. new vocabulary or a
new structure) which will stretch them to generate new language, e.g. by guessing, predicting, hypothesising,
noticing links, etc.

9. Develop Their ‘How To Learn’ Skills


Ensure your materials ‘push’ learners to develop language learning skills and strategies.
You need to teach your learners how to learn, e.g. understanding learning strategies that can help them
whenever they have difficulties in communicating.
Some examples of learning strategies are re-wording (saying their communicative piece differently,) and the
use of effective body language (facial expressions, nodding, etc.) which can help their communication move
forward.
Also, through time, young learners can be taught how to self-evaluate their work.

10. Focus On Form Too


Ensure your materials focus on form as well as communicative function. In the modern communicative
classroom, the emphasis is often on independent and creative expression with less focus on the form of the
language.
Some teachers may take their learners through a lengthy period of learning without focussing on any aspects
of language form.
For inexperienced teachers, in particular, this may be because their TEFL course focussed entirely on
communicating (at all costs) and little time, if any, on ensuring that issues of form and structure etc. are
addressed.
Alternatively, it could be the inexperienced teacher is unsure of some elements of form which often come
under the heading of grammar.
Nevertheless, you owe it to your learners to help them notice and understand the forms of language so that
they don’t just use speaking and writing to communicate but also understand that knowing the form of the
language will help them speak and write correctly at the same time.
What this means is that you should also include exercises and activities that will encourage learners to analyse
the language and form and test their own hypotheses as to how the English language works, depending on
their level, of course.

11. Integrate All The Language Skills


Lots of language materials focus mainly on speaking and writing. And, in the TEFL classroom, you often see
the same focus – speaking and writing. But listening and reading are also very important.
This phenomenon is peculiar, particularly with listening skills. When communicating, your listeners will not only
speak. In turn, they will listen. Listening is an important skill and plays a critical part in the overall
communication. However, it is not focussed on to the same extent as speaking is.
So, don’t fall into the speaking and writing trap. Create materials that give the learners opportunities to
integrate all the language skills.

12. Ensure Authenticity


It is paramount that your learners are exposed to authentic materials. Authentic materials are materials which
are unscripted and not explicitly developed for language learning purposes. They haven’t been fabricated
for a language learning purpose.
This applies not only to written texts (e.g. newspapers, magazines, original letters, etc.) but also to spoken and
visual texts. Ensure the recording of the spoken voices is real and not fabricated for a learning purpose.
Ensure too that any video you use hasn’t been performed for a language purpose.
If you record your materials, ensure that they consist of people saying and doing things in typical situations,
unaffected by the microphone or camera and making no effort to change their communication to suit a
language purpose, so that your learners have access to authentic language.

13. Link Materials


Ensure your learning materials connect. If you lose sight of your objectives and the need for steady
progression in language learning to achieve goals, you may end up with a pile of unconnected materials which
may confuse your learners.
So, keep a close eye on coherence throughout your development process. Ensure one piece links with another
in a steady progression towards the language learning goal.

14. Impress
Ensure you make a good impression. Ensure your materials look as good as they can, with consistency in the
layout.
Also, ensure you don’t cause anxiety or confusion for the learner. For example, when designing an information
gap or cloze activity ensure there is adequate room for the learners to write their answer.
Ensure they know whether the hatched lines in the gap represent the number of letters or not. Ensure they
know whether to write or print their answer.
In addition, it’s always wise to consider whether you will be using these materials again. If they are materials
which will be used frequently, get them laminated (where possible) so that they still look fresh when used
again and again.

15. Ensure Clear Instructions


Clear and precise instructions are critical. If you need to start the exercise again because the instructions are
weak or unclear, this doesn’t look good and is unfair to your learners. It will be frustrating for you and them.
Also, the language in instructions needs to be appropriate to their level and in simple words. There are no
prizes for you for using complicated words.
Follow all these guidelines, and you won’t go wrong. One of the most rewarding experiences in
teaching is designing and developing your own materials and reflecting later on how well they helped
you and your learners to achieve the language goal. Go for it!

8.6.4. Visual Aids And Realia


Other supplementary materials are visual aids and realia.
Visuals and realia (real-life, authentic language materials), can be brought into the classroom to teach
vocabulary, to prompt grammar practice, to build dialogues and narratives, and to initiate games and quizzes.
We’ve already mentioned a simple visual aid when we were discussing eliciting: full/half-full and
half-empty/empty (using a jug of water and 3 glasses). This simple aid can be used for several activities:

1. Vocabulary: degrees such as half-full


2. Comparatives and superlatives: big, bigger, biggest amounts of water
3. Colours: showing colours or different degrees of colour, e.g. pink. To capture their interest with this,
take a few bottles of baking/icing colouring with you in your suitcase. Put a hidden drop or two of a
different colour in the bottom of each glass, before the class begins. Let it dry. They won’t notice this.
Then, as if by magic, your blue, red and green colours will appear as you pour in the water. They’ll think
you are a magician!
4. The concept of weight and the vocabulary arising from this.

Realia pieces can help to bring the language classroom to life. A carefully assembled collection of materials,
such as restaurant menus, classified ads, flyers, and travel brochures can be excellent supplements to the
primary resources you use. Collect these before you go. Here are some other examples of realia:

 Postcards and letters


 Bulletin board notices
 Extracts from newspapers, including articles, advertisements, classifieds, crosswords, horoscopes,
features, etc.
 Comics and cartoons
 Calendars and planners
 Shopping lists
 Airline tickets and itineraries
 Photographs
 Picture sequences
 Creative texts, such as poems and extracts from plays, short stories, and novels

Audio/visual

 Casual conversations amongst native speakers


 Radio and TV news and weather broadcasts
 Public announcements (e.g. from airports)
 Messages recorded from answering machines
 Telephone conversations
 Transactions in stores and public institutions such as libraries

These pieces of realia can be used as the raw materials or input data for a task, or they can be used to provide
cultural background, to assist in explaining new vocabulary and as a stimulus for a range of learner language
activity.
Good job, as they say.! Another Module completed! What you have learned here will help you better
understand your teacher role and the practical skills and techniques needed to ensure you are
competent and effective at all times.
And there are more skills and techniques to come!
Time for a little break. Then, come back and have a go at Quiz 8.
It’s not taxing. Good luck!
After that, we’ll move on to Module 9, where we will focus indepth on effective classroom
management. It’s vital that you manage your class well, so absorb all the points and put these into
action in your classroom.
End of Module 8 (150)
Congratulations! You have passed this lesson's quiz achieving 93%
There is only one correct answer for each question. Select the correct answer.
Although you will not fail the whole course if you score below 40% in the End Of Module Quiz it will count
towards your final assessment. You will be able to retake this quiz. When you are finished be sure to look
over the questions again and take note of any errors and use this to learn, you may be asked similar questions in
your final assessment.

End of Module 8 (150) Quiz


Congratulations! You have passed this quiz achieving 93% NEXT LESSON

With regard to commercially made materials, which one of the following statements is
generally untrue?1

 The materials are often not geared to specific groups of learners.

 They often contain functions and speech outputs based on situations that the majority of
foreign language learners will be in.

 They are often not geared to any specific educational or cultural context.

 They are often Anglo-centric in their construction and production and therefore do not
reflect any local varieties of English.
Grade: 1
2. Which of the following is unlikely to be a successful body language tip?1

 Stand behind your table.

 Use the whole classroom.

 Project your voice in the classroom.

 Stand next to misbehaving students.


Grade: 1
3. In relation to giving constructive feedback, which of the following is invalid?1

 Refer to behaviour that can be changed.

 Try to be specific.

 You need to own the feedback.

 Be evaluative rather than descriptive.


Grade: 1
4. Which of the following is a poor guideline to follow when developing your own
materials?1

 You need to teach your learners how to learn.

 You need to remember that good spoken communication relies purely on the words
spoken.

 You need to integrate all the language skills.

 You need to stretch your learners’ knowledge, understanding and application skills.
Grade: 1
5. When an assessment measures what it is supposed to measure, it is:1

 fair

 reliable

 sufficient

 valid
Incorrect - Right Answer: valid
6. Always be aware that in the EFL classroom effective communication with an
appropriate response is often more important than grammatical accuracy.1

 True

 False
Grade: 1
7. Constructive feedback means only giving positive feedback.1

 True

 False
Grade: 1
8. Which of the following is unlikely to be regarded as summative assessment activity?1

 You omit words from a passage and your learners have to choose, from a list, the correct
words to fill the gaps.

 You give the learners a sentence and they rewrite it, incorporating a change of expression
but preserving the basic meaning.

 You get feedback from your learners about their learning.

 You dictate a passage and the learners write down a set of words.
Grade: 1
9. One of the primary aims of standardisation is, where possible, to improve:1

 results
 reliability

 practicability

 flexibility
Grade: 1
10. Concept checking:1

 can only be accomplished through verbal techniques

 can be achieved by asking students if they understand the point you are making

 should be restricted to checking vocabulary

 should not use the target language within the question


Grade: 1
11. When correcting writing, try to mark everything.1

 True

 False
Grade: 1
12. Which of the following statements about eliciting is invalid?1

 It increases some students’ fear of guessing.

 It gives you a chance to diagnose weaknesses.

 It keeps the students alert.

 It reduces the need for often unwieldy teacher explanations.


Grade: 1
13. When giving effective instructions, you should:1

 present the instructions once, to avoid confusion

 model the activity

 hand out materials before giving the instructions

 organise the students into pairs and then give out the instructions
Grade: 1
14. Feedback:1

 focusses fully on learners’ language or skills

 motivates learners when they are doing well

 is always verbal
 is always given to individuals, not groups
Grade: 1
15. When using the board, which one of the following actions would need to be improved?1

 Standing in a way that does not hide the board

 Keeping quiet as you write so that they can focus on what you are writing

 Avoiding joined-up writing in the beginner/elementary classes

 Not writing up too much information


Grade: 1

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