THE MARATHAS: 1600-1818

Introduction: historiography and bibliography

The writing of the history of Maharashtra and the Marathas is

almost as old as the polity itself. The first histories, termed
bakhars, and written in Marathi by Brahmin eulogists, were the
product of the late seventeenth century to the mid-eighteenth
century. The current consensus is that much of the genre was
hagiographical and often confused in dating and placing events.
Nevertheless, the best of this literature – the Shabasad Bakhar
and the 91-Kalami Bakhar – is important both for the facts and the
tone of the heroic and tragic events which form the basis of the
popular history of Maharashtra.

Unfortunately, many of the statements of even these two most

reliable bakhars have found their way into scholarly writing
without careful use of corroborating evidence. Considered
critically, however, the bakhar literature does raise several
important issues for our understanding of the Maratha polity. First,
this literature treats Shivaji – founder of the polity – as a near
divine figure, regularly inspired by the goddess Bhavani to great
deeds, which were primarily important as a Hindu resistance to
Muslim domination and as leading to the establishment of a Hindu
state. This theme of some decisive difference between Shivaji's
Maharashtrian kingdom and earlier Muslim Maharashtrian
kingdoms is an important one which runs regularly through the
later historiography on Maharashtra. Just what those differences
were and how they came about are critical to any discussion of
the Maratha polity.
The Geopolitics of Maharashtra
For an understanding of the spatial framework of the Maratha
polity there are several crucial terms which appear throughout this
study. The two most important are the Deccan and Maharashtra.
The Deccan, which translates as “south,” is an old term appearing
in the Vedic literature and the Mahabharata as Dakshinapatha. It
meant the area below the Tapti River, and suggested an area
suitable for conquest. Throughout history, “Deccan” has retained
these overtones, the perspective of a northern conqueror
considering possible domains. What constituted the Deccan, at
any particular moment, depended on where the kingdom's
southern border lay and what lay beyond. Over the whole
historical period, the area from the Tapti to the Godavari was
frequently integrated into northern empires, and the area south of
it, between the Godavari and the Krishna, became the Deccan. In
this sense, I will use the term Deccan not as a fixed place, but
only as a relational term, the area beyond the southern border of
a northern-based kingdom.

The term “Maharashtra” is much easier to define. It is simply the

area where Marathi is the dominant language. As a place,
Maharashtra was mentioned from the first century AD onwards,
but not until inscriptional evidence of the seventh century is it
possible roughly to map the region. Ma ho leska (Maharashtra)
figures prominently in the narrative of the Chinese Buddhist
pilgrim, Hsuan Tsang, in this period. With the further development
of Marathi, between 800 AD and 1300 AD, we can trace a definite
linguistic region. For example, the saint-reformer Chakradhara
travelled all over the Marathi-speaking region, preaching and
plying his trade as a barber.
Marathas and the Deccan Sultanates

In this chapter, we will turn from the more general discussion of

deshmukhs and the political texture of seventeenth-century
Maharashtra to specific events of the Sultanates of Ahmadnagar
and Bijapur. These set the stage for the rise of Shivaji, the
founder of the Maratha polity. Here, we will focus on Shahji,
Shivaji's father, who rose from minor commander to kingmaker
and general in the middle decades of the seventeenth century.

Before embarking on the specifics of the house of Shivaji, we

must look at warfare in the seventeenth century. It will be against
this background that the innovations of Malik Amber early in the
century and Shivaji later in the century will make sense. The
following is somewhat idealized, but is drawn from accounts of
warfare in Khandesh and Malwa, and warfare between the
Deccan kingdoms. Much of it will be familiar from studies of
European, fort-based warfare of two centuries earlier, but there
were many local, Indian features.
In the seventeenth century, a main-force army (be it Mughal, or
from Ahmadnagar or Bijapur) was a moving city. Based on heavy
cavalry, the army had at least three horses for every two riders.
Each mounted fighter had at least a servant and a groom.
Artillery, which supplemented the cavalry, was physically large
and required dozens, sometimes hundreds, of oxen for each
piece. We must add to this picture infantry and the full bazaar that
accompanied the army and supplied it. There were elephants for
the commanders and a large store of treasure to pay the troops,
who normally bought their provisions in the camp bazaar.

Shivaji (1630–80) and the Maratha polity

Let us begin, then, the narrative biography of Shivaji, founder of

the Maratha polity. (Throughout, I have kept to incidents
corroborated in at least two of the most reliable bakhars or
confirmable by outside sources.) The accomplishments of this
extraordinarily capable and charismatic leader must always be set
against the complex context laid out in the previous two chapters.
The most important features of this context were as follows: (1)
the near devastation of much of Maharashtra; (2) warfare
between the major states of Bijapur and the Mughal Empire; (3)
his father's deep involvement in Bijapur; and (4) the presence, in
Maharashtra, of powerful deshmukh families whose authority was
as legitimate as his.

Shivaji was born in February 1630. He was the second son of

Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai, and he was born in the hill fort of
Shivneri in the northern part of the Pune district. Recall that these
years of Shivaji's early childhood were ones of constant warfare
and famine in Maharashtra, particularly the Pune region. Shahji,
his father, was a rebel from brief Mughal service, and a Mughal
army pursued him through the Ghats and down to the Konkan.
Other campaigns against the Mughals followed, but Shahji's
forces, reinforced by Bijapur, were generally unsuccessful against
the Mughals. Shivaji and his mother moved from fort to fort. His
mother's family had gone over to the Mughal side, and mother
and son saw little of Shahji. It was not until 1636, when Shahji
was forced to go into service with Bijapur, that Shivaji and his
mother were able to settle in Pune.
..."an intelligent and insightful new synthesis on the Marathas and their polity....a brilliant and
compelling reading of the Maratha's political and military enterprise." Frank F. Conlon, American
Historical Review
"The Marathas is extremely detailed and covers a great many topics in the two century period it
treats. It is written with an eye to the use that various groups with political and cultural agendas
have made of the history of Maharashtra. The story The Marathas itself tells is dispassionate,
judicious, and absorbing." Rachana Kamtekar, Chicago South Asia Newsletter
"As a synthesis of current interpretations and as a comprehensive reference work, Gordon's
volume amply fulfills the goals of the New Cambridge History of India series of which it forms a
part. Gordon distills a massive array of original and secondary sources into a succinct and
readable summary of Maratha history, while at the same time acquainting readers with the main
issues in the field. Copious bibliographic references and a glossary provide further assistance to
the nonspecialist, as do the nine excellent maps. For the many of us who have yearned to
understand something of Maratha history, yet have been too faint of heart to face the enormity of
the task given the vast (and often rather dense) literature involved, Gordon has performed a
welcome service." Cynthia Talbot, Journal of Asian Studies