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Chapter 1

Cns

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28 views10 pages

Chapter 1

Cns

Uploaded by

Dhanraj Deore
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Contents... <== —<—<$___ 4. Database System Concepts and Architectur 4as4 4.1. Characteristics of Database S 4.2 DBMS ys. File System a3 419 Data Abstraction and Data Independonce a 4.4 Database System Architecture a 1.8 Database Users and Administrators any te. setleaming Topls: Identity the Diferent TYPSS of Databases. ies + References fe + Important Questions . | | Questions Asked in Previous Examinations a | 2. The Entity - Relationship Mod 24-240 2.1. Conceptual Modeling of a Database s 2.1.1. Database Design Process = 2.1.2. Requirement Specification and Analysis a ‘22 Conceptual Database Design = 22: Logical Schema Design = 222 Physical Schema Design ae 23 The Entty-Retationship (ER) Model oe ‘24 Entity, Entty Type and Entity Sets - 25 pnvibutes 23 26 Keys oa 27. Relationship Sets te 2.8 Constraints : j 2.81 Mapping Cardinality 24 j 2.82. Paricipation Constraints eed j 29 Strong Entty and Weak Entity ea j 2.9.1 Strong Entiy 28 292 Weak Entty 28 2.40 Extended Entty-Relationship (EER) Model 28 f 2.10.1 Specialization 26 2.10.2 Generalization 26 2.10.3 Aggregation 27 2.11 E-R diagrams 27 + Important Questions 28 29 + Questions Asked in Previous Examinations 3.4-3.20 ' 3. Relational Model and Relational Algebra at 3.1. Introduction to Relational Model 32 Relational Model Constraints 3 3.2.1 Domain Constraints if 3.22 Key Constraints a 3.2.3 Entity Integrity Constraints 3 3.2.4 Referential Integrity Constraints a 3.3. Relational Database Schemas a 3.4 Concept of Keys z 3.4.1 Super Key —e 3.4.2 Candidate Key st 3.4.3 Primary Key Sa 3.4.4 Secondary Key sa 3.4.5 Foreign Key 2 3.5. Mapping the ER and EER Modelo the Relational Model 8s 3.6. Introduction to Relational Algebra oe + Important Questions one * Questions Asked in Previous Examinations bas ‘4. Structured Query Language (SQL) aad Indexing aona24 44 Overview of SQL Pe 4.2. Data Definition in SQL, 42 4.21 Basie Types ae 4.22 Schema or Database Structure Definition 43 43. Set Operations SG 4.3.1 The Union Operation 46 4.32 The Intersect Operation 47 4.3.3. The Except Operation 47 4.4 Aggregate Functions 48 4.4.1 Basie Aggregation Functions 48 4.42 Aggregation using “group by* Clause 2 4.4.3 Aggregation using “having” Clause “ 4.4.4 Aggregation with Null values and Boolean Values a ‘Null Values ea Data Manipulation Language (DML) a Data Control Language (DCL) ian 47.1. “Grant* Command ob 4.7.2. “Revoke" Command t 42 4.8 Complex Retrieval Queries Using “Group By’ Keyword a - Complex integrity Constraints of SQL : ee 4.10 Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) Driver a 4.11 Procedure in SL and Cursor oF Bs 4 4.12 Command "Create Index’ 4.12.1 *Single-Column” Index 4.42.2 "Unique" Index 4a 4.1223 “Composite” Index ies 4.42.4 “Implicit Index is 4.12.5 Command "DROP INDEX" a + Important Questions 423 + Questions Asked In Previous Examinations 51-546 Relational Database Design 5.1 ules for Relational Schema a 5.2 Functional Dependencies a 5.3. Database Tables and Normalization a 5.4. The Need of Normalization a 55. The Normalization Process Se 56 Improving the Design of DB Schema 58 ae rnston ot Normal Forms ~ INF, 2NF, BNF and the Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) 59 + Important Questions ae + Questions Asked in Previous Examinations 5.16 6. Transactions Management and Concurrency and Recovery. é 6-1 - 6.16 6.1. Transaction ot 6.1.1 Transaction Concept 61 6.41.2 A Transaction Model 61 6.1.3 Transaction Control Commands 62 6.1.4 Desirable Properties of Transactions 63 6.1.5 Concurrent Executions 64 64.6 Serialzabilty ~ Contct 66 6.2 Concurrency Control 68 6.2.1 Lock-Based Protocols 6.2.2. The Two-Phase Locking Protocol a 6.23 Deadlock Handling “ 6.24 Deadlock Prevention 840 6.1.5. Deadlock Detection and Recovery eo 6.26 Deadlock Detection ei 62.7 Timestamp-based Protocols Su 62.8 The Timestamp Ordering Algorithm oe 62.9. Thomas’ Write Rule ep 6.3 Recovery System 6.13 6.3.1. Failure Classtication 614 6.3.2 Recovery Concepts 614 6.3.3 Log based Recovery 615 + Important Questions 6.15 6.16 cod chapter 1 DATABASE SYSTEM CONCEPTS AND ARCHITECTURE syllabus Introduction, Choracteristics of Databases, File system v/s Database system, Data abstraction ond Dota Independence, DBMS system architecture, Database Administrator (DBA), Role of DBA. Self-learning Topics: Identify the types of Databases, Database plays a vital role in human life. All important Websites, Mobile apps are works in alignment with database. Starting from all social media websites like Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, Twitter to All E-Commerce, M-Commerce websites are associated with database. To login to any of your account, performing actions like selling/buying of products, everywhere database is needed. So the question which comes to the mind is what is database. Let us start with Data. What is Data? Simple answer is “Data is a collection of raw facts”. Again a question arises as to how this data is categorized. The answer is that it is categorized into 4 parts ie. Text, Images, Audio and Video. Immediately after understanding what data is, we must want to know what is database. Database is a collection of data in organized manner and database management system is a system which is used to manage the data for retrieving, editing and managing database. . In generalized manner, Managing data means to perform a task by taking care of it to get most efficient output. DBMS helps to make data accessible and integrated with our existing work. We may need to re-sort or access this data for other users also. It consists of + Identifying the needs of users. + Writing reports in analyzed form. * Generating list and managing mailing records. The processing power of DBMS allows to manipulate the data using: + Sort * Aggregate Link + Calculate + Skip + Delete * Update Due to the versatility nature of database, we can link it to * Capturing registered users * Tracking applications for social services Health care system * Personal address book + Contact list Airline reservation system etc. Py ay DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (DBMS) Fe DATABASE SYSTEM CONCEPTS AND ARCUTTECn, [La CHARACTERISTICS OF DATABASE There are number of approaches which describe how database management system is better as compared to j, ‘management system, () Self-Describing Nature of DBMS: DBMS is featured as self-describing nature, because it not only contains t., data but also contains metadata. Metadata is a data about data. It means it defines and describes the data v, relationship between the tables in database. This part makes DBMS completely different from file manager. system as in file management system data definition is a part of application program. (b) Isolation between Program and Data: In DBMS, data structure is stored in system catalogue. It is not stored - Program. So for changing structure, we need to change only the structure of file. In file management syste~ structure is defined in the application program. So if user wants to change the structure of a file, he needs ». change the whole program, This is @ reason in DBMS, itis also called as program-data independence. (©) Multiple views of Data support: Database supports multiple views. As per the user requirement, view can set for each user. It is subset of database. Each view contains the only data which is of user's interest. The bes example is customizing the dashboard on banking login pages. (d) Multiuser system and Sharing of the Data: Current DBMS is developed for Multiple users. Means multiple Users can access it at the same time, by using the concept called concurrency control strategies. It always ensure: correctness and maintains data integrity (6) Data redundancy contro! In File Management System, there is a chance of storing same copy of data 2: ‘multiple places which leads to data redundancy. DBMS has an ability for removing such redundancy by using normalization. In some cases, data redundancy stil exists to improve the performance of system. (f) Sharing of Data: Integration of data in database within an organization has numerous advantages. It allows dat= sharing between employees and others who can have access to database. Also it has the ability to generate mor insights of data without integration. (g) Integrity constraints enforcement: For the purpose of maintaining the integrity or to provide a validation fo user to enter the valid data, many times database has to enforce integrity constraints. For example to enter correct email id, there are constraints or to enter the correct city under the particular district. (h) Restrict the unauthorized access: For most of the users, database is in read-only mode. Users are not able + edit the information into the database. By using access privileges, we can change the access permissions lk read-only or all or write-only. (@ Transaction Processing: DBMS consists of a feature called as concurrency control. Because of this property can use DBMS in Transaction processing. It provides a correctness in data consistency during transaction. @) Backup and Recovery Facilities: This method allows to protect the data in disaster situations. Database syste Provides a separate network backup for backing up or to recover the data during data losses. f computer fais * between, this system is responsible for backing up the data in such situations. [1.2 DBMS VS. FILE SYSTEM sr. Database Management System (DBMS) File System No. 1. | DBMS is Collection of Data where user is not | File system is collection of data where user & required to write the Procedures. required to write the procedure for managing suc information. 2, [It gives an abstract view of data and hides the | It provides detailed representation and storage o! details. data. DATABASE SYSTEM CONCEPTS AND ARCHITECTURE agnast MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS OOM) a en Database Management System (DBMS) File System No. 3, | DBMS has Backup and recovery mechanism, | File system does not have any Backup or recovery which helps to recover the data in case of | mechanism. disasters/mishaps. 4, _ | Data is secured in the DBMS. It is hard to provide a good security in File management system to the data. Gr Jit contains sophisticated technique to store and | It can't efficiently store or retrieve the data retrieve the data. Git takes care of concurrent form of data using | Here concurrent systems have many problems like locking concept. redirecting the file while other editing some information or deleting some information. 7,_ | it supports Multi-User access. It does not support Multi-User access. a | oata consistency is ensured because of | Data Consistency is less or not ensured. Normalization. 9, _ | Data Redundancy is low. Data Redundancy is high. 10,__| Example : NTFS, EXT Example : Oracle, MySQL fia DATA ABSTRACTION AND DATA INDEPENDENCE ‘DBMS is comprised of complicated and complex structure. To make it more effcient in terms of retrieval of data and complesity itis divided into 3 parts. + Physical Level + Logical Level + View Level View View ] View Logical level l Physical level Fig, 1.1: Levels of Data Abstraction Lowest level of the data abstraction is physical level. It gives exact idea about how data is stored into the memary.It gives idea about how data can bie accessed, access methods like random or sequential access or different organization methods. Next level is a logical level which gives view in the form of tables. It is comprised of the information that how database is stored in the form of tables. The information available at this level is unknown to the view level. Last level or upper level is called as view level. It gives idea of the only part allowed to the user by database. User can view data in the form of tables or rows and columns. Multiple views can be available for one Altabase. Main objective of data abstraction Is to achieve the data independence. It minimizes the cost and time ‘equired for the modification of database. ~ DATABASE SYSTEM CONCEPTS AND Ang, [DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (OBMS) 4A ne . Data independence is divided into two parts based on abstraction. Vet, : 2. database to modify physical schema without disturbing logical schem: may indude insertion, deena database to modify logical schema without affecting external application. mM and 9 table attributes, Physical data independence is an a), Logical data independence is an jase system a To achieve data independence and maintain data abstraction, we need Database sy: rchitecty generally divided into three levels. First level or lower level is called as internal level or storage view. It sho, data is stored in physical manner, Second level is called as conceptual level or community user view. It gig, about how data is viewed by user community. Last level or higher level is called as external level or individ, view. It emphasizes on how data is viewed by each or individual user. This is also called as three schema arch (Fig. 12) sete ca —_ es eo ea description ei one OS) a [1.4 DATABASE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE a fith In DBMS, data can be extracted through Centralized system or Decentralized system. The architectur database system is greatly influenced by the underlying computer system on which the database system runs a San Syston i licati ‘Appicaton plication eplcaton ‘Application Database'systems can be centralized, or client-server, where one server machine executes work on bet! ‘multiple client machines. Database systems can also be designed to’ exploit parallel computer architect Distributed databases span multiple geographically separated machines, Most users of a database system tod) “ not present at the site of the database system, but connect to it through a network. We can therefore differe”™ ‘pATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (OBMS) as. DATABASE SYSTEM CONCEPTS AND ARCHITECTURE petween client machines, on which remote database user's work, and server machines, on which the database astern runs. Database system architecture generally depends upon its design Singlo-tor Archtocturo cor can be either Centralized or Decentralized or Hierarchical. As ‘hown in Fig. 12, itcan be single-tier or multi-tier Its influenced by TwoutlorArchitocturo primary system. Initially it started with Single level architecture where ail tasks are performed on single machine, Later on, it is converted FTinee tar Archioctin into two tier architecture where server is required for communication gig, 3.3; acai purpose, Currently it relies on 3-tier architecture, ig. 1.3: Different types In three-tier architecture, another layer is inserted between client and server. In this type, client can't communicate directly with server. Instead of this, client will send message to application server, then application server will check for the database and send the response to the client. The best example of this type is Facebook login page. The advantages are it enhances scalability, maintains data integrity and security Is improved, While performing all these operations, we need to specially focus on data independence. In recent scenario, it also works with distributed architecture or parallel architecture with distributed database. Parallel database system consists of multiple disks and process connected with interconnection network, where tasks are performed in parallel manners by using shared disk, shared memory, shared nothing or hierarchical architectures. In distributed databases, data is spread over multiple machines. Where machines are interconnected with networks. Where data shared by users are stored on multiple machines and tasks are carried out. It supports local as well as global transactions. Database Users (Native Now at this position, we can merge all these components into a single picture and show connection between them. By considering the structure in mind, it is eomiarasdtaeranl Givided into four parts. First is different database users. It ‘Query Processor is categorized on the basis of functions of users. Naive ee oe users use application interface to communicate with database, sophisticated users use query tools to access and modify the database, application programmers are the users who can write an application program and specialized users use administration tools for working on database, Manager, File Manager, ‘Authorization and Integrity Manager and Disk Storage (Indices, Transaction Manager) Data, Data Dictionary and Statistical Data) Fig, 1.4: System Structure Second part is a Query processor. It comprises of Compiler, inker, DDL Interpreter and DML Compiler with query ®*aluation engine to perform query level operations. Third part is a storage manager. It consists of Buffer manager, fle manager, authorization manager and transaction manager. DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (OBM Sopritcaiod Tene ses tare agent, ‘web users) ‘BML compilor engine —fathorzaton aaa ‘and integrity Peer Simanager | ‘Storage manager [Data dictionary, ‘Statistical data Fig. 1.5: System Structure [1] It is used to store all the information like files, authorization and transaction data. Last part is a disk sv2s which consists of mechanism for storing the data in structured manner, It may be data dictionary or ind analysis of data. [1.5 DATABASE USERS AND ADMINISTRATORS © Database users are generally divided into four categories, itis differentiated on the basis of interaction cf with database. Naive users can interact with database system through an application program. They are also

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