Ft Physics notes

Chapter 2
Kinetic particle model of matter
Solid:
- Same shape
- Same volume
- Cannot be compressed

Liquid:
- Same volume
- Shape depends on the container
- Cannot be compressed

Gases:
- Doesn’t have the same volume
- Doesn’t have the same shape
- Can be compressed

Structures
States of Matter
- 2 main factors that determine state:
1. The forces (intermolecular/intramolecular) holding the particles together
2. The kinetic energy present
Notes:
- Gases have a higher kinetic energy because their particles move a lot more
- When the temperature increases, gas particles move faster causing kinetic energy will increase.

Characteristics of gases
- Gases expand to fill any container. (random motion, no attraction)
- Gases are like fluids. (no attraction)
- Gases have very low densities. (no volume = lots of space)
- Gases can be compressed ( no volume = lots of empty spaces)
- Gases undergo diffusion & effusion [across a barrier with small holes] (random motion)

Gases and Pressure

- the volume of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at constant temperature) As the
volume gets bigger, the gas pressure goes down (and vice versa)

Kelvin = °C + 273
Celsius = K + 273

Boyle’s Law
- The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume if the temperature is
kept constant
- Pushing down: volume decreases while pressure increases
- Pushing up: volume increases while pressure decreases

Charles’s Law
- The volume and absolute temperature (K) of a gas are directly proportional (an increase in temp
leads to an increase in volume) at constant mass & pressure

Gay Lussac’s Law

- The pressure and absolute temperature (K) of a gas are directly proportional (as the temperature
rises, so do pressure) at constant mass & volume
Thermal expansion
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in length and volume in response to a
change in temperature. Most materials expand when heated & contract when cooled…Heat =
energy transferred between bodies due to a temperature difference. The degree of expansion
divided by the change in temperature is called the coefficient of thermal expansion.
3 types of thermal expansion:

1. Linear expansion:
Δ l=α ×l 0 × ∆ Τ
With:
Δ l=change∈length ( m )
α (alpha)=coefficient of linear expansion(¿ ∘C)
l 0=initial∨originlength ( m )
∆ Τ =change∈temperature ( Finaltemperature−Initial temperature ) (∘ C )

2. Area expansion:
Δ A=β × A 0 × ∆Τ
With:
2
Δ A=change ∈area(m )
β (beta)=coefficient of area expansion(2 α )(¿ ∘C )
2
A 0=initial∨origin area(m )
∆ Τ =change∈temperature ( Finaltemperature−Initial temperature ) (∘ C )

3. Volume expansion:
Δ V =γ × V 0× ∆ Τ
With:
3
Δ V =change ∈volume (m )
γ (gamm a)=coefficient of volume expansion(3 α )(¿ ∘C)
3
V 0=initial∨origin volume (m )
∆ Τ =change∈temperature ( Finaltemperature−Initial temperature ) (∘ C )
Thermal heat(capacity):

Heat capacity is the amount of energy needed to change the temperature of 1kg of the
substance by 1oC.

Melting, Boiling, Evaporation

Fixed Points of Water

 The melting and boiling points of pure water are known as fixed points
o Ice melts at 0 °C
o Pure water boils at 100 °C

 These are the accepted values for pure water at atmospheric pressure
 Ice melts at 0 °C and water boils at 100 °C

Melting & Boiling

 While a substance is changing state, either

o Melting or freezing
o Boiling or condensing

 The substance does not change temperature, even though energy is being transferred to or
away from the thermal energy stored in the substance

Boiling

 When liquid water is heated by adding thermal energy (say from the gas flame or kettle
element), the temperature of the water rises until the water boils
o At the boiling point, even if more thermal energy is added, the liquid water does
not get any hotter
o This means that the internal energy is not rising
  The additional thermal energy goes into overcoming the intermolecular forces between
the molecules of water
o As the forces are overcome, the liquid water becomes water vapor (steam)
o This is evaporation or vaporization; the water is now a gas

 The process is repeated backwards for cooling as energy is transferred away

o A gas turns back into liquid through condensation

Melting

 When solid water (ice) is heated by adding thermal energy (from the surroundings, or a
flame), the ice melts
o At the melting point, even if more thermal energy is added, the solid water does
not get warmer
o This means that the internal energy is not rising

 The additional thermal energy goes into overcoming the intermolecular forces between
the molecules of the solid ice
o As the forces are overcome, the solid water becomes liquid
o This is melting; the ice is now a liquid

 The process is repeated backward for cooling as heat is transferred away

o A liquid turns back into a solid through freezing

Condensation & Solidification

 Heating and cooling graphs are used to summarise:

o How the temperature of a substance changes when energy is transferred to or
away from it
o Where changes of state occur
 Heating and cooling graphs tend to be the same
o Heating is when energy is transferred to the system and the kinetic energy of the
molecules increases (red arrows to the right)
o Cooling is when energy is transferred away from the system (or dissipated to the
surroundings) and the kinetic energy of the molecules decreases (blue arrows to
the left)

Condensation

 The particle diagrams next to the graph show that as a gas condenses into a liquid
o The gas has already lost heat energy (cooled down)

 The particles lose kinetic energy and move more slowly

o They no longer have enough energy to overcome the intermolecular forces of
attraction between molecules
o The particles get closer together
 o They only have enough energy to flow over one another

 The gas has condensed into a liquid with no change in temperature

Solidification

 The particle diagrams next to the graph show that as a liquid solidifies into a solid
o The liquid has already lost heat energy (cooled down)

 The particles lose kinetic energy and move more slowly

o They no longer have enough energy to overcome the intermolecular forces of
attraction between molecules
o The particles get closer together
o They only have enough energy to vibrate about their fixed position

 The liquid has solidified into a solid with no change in temperature

Heating/cooling curve of a substance showing the energy changes as temperature is

increased/decreased

Evaporation
Cooling by Evaporation

 Evaporation is a change in the state of a liquid to a gas

 It happens;
o At any temperature
o Only from the surface of a liquid

 The molecules in a liquid have a range of energies

 o Some have lots of energy, while others have very little
o Their average energy relates to the temperature of the liquid

 Evaporation occurs when more energetic molecules moving near the surface of the liquid
have enough energy to escape
o The average energy of the liquid is reduced
o Therefore liquids are cooled down by evaporation

Evaporation occurs when more energetic molecules near the surface of a liquid escape

Temperature, Surface Area & Air Movements

These factors all affect the rate of evaporation

 Increased temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecules in the liquid
o Molecules with more energy are more likely to overcome the intermolecular
forces holding them in the liquid state and escape the surface
o Therefore higher temperature leads to a higher rate of evaporation

 Molecules only escape the intermolecular forces of attraction at the surface of the liquid
o Therefore a larger surface area leads to a higher rate of evaporation
 Air movement carries away the water vapour which has just evaporated
o This dries the air and allows more water molecules to escape
o Therefore increasing air movement (when indoors this is sometimes called
draughts) increases the rate of evaporation

Evaporation & Cooling

 The process of evaporation can be used to cool things down:

o If an object is in contact with an evaporating liquid, as the liquid cools the solid
will cool as well
o This process is used in refrigerators and air-conditioning units
Boiling vs Evaporation

 Boiling is also a change in state from liquid to gas

o Boiling happens only at the boiling point of the liquid
o The change of state happens all through the liquid (seen as bubbles in boiling
water, for example)

Latent heat
Latent heat is the amount of energy released/ absorbed during changes of state without change in
temperature.
Latent heat of fusion [Lf] (melting, solidification)
Q= m x Lf (J/kg)
If Q = power x time
Power x time = m x Lf

Latent heat of vaporization [Lv] (evaporation, condensation)

Q= m x Lv (J/kg)
If Q = power x time
Power x time = m x Lv
Thermal prosses
1. Conduction  takes place in solid
- Heat is transferred from one particle of matter to another in an object without the
movement of object.
- Conduction = contact
- Conduction will make the particle to vibrate faster
 - Conducts heat better = conductor
Poor conduct heat = insulator

2. Convection  liquid and gas

- Convection is the movement that transfer heat within fluids and air
- Heat is transferred by currents within the fluids or gas
- Convection = vents (throughout air and liquid particles)
- Convection moves in a circular pattern

3. Radiation  vacuum
- Radiation is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic wave
- Radiation does not requires matter to transfer thermal energy
- Radiation = radiates (heat escaping the sun)
2 types of material
 Absorber (good and bad)
 Emitter (good and bad)

Chp 3 Wave
Wave is a disturbance in a medium that carries energy without a net movement of particle.

Types of waves
- Longitudinal wave
- Transverse wave
Those two waves are considered mechanical wave. Mechanical wave needs a medium to
transmit.

Transverse wave form is a rope while, Longitudinal wave form is a spring

Transverse wave: Waves in which the medium moves at right angle to the direction of the wave.
The directional of wave is in perpendicular to the direction of vicration
Parts of transverse wave:
Crest: the highest point of wave
Trough: the lowest point of wave
e.g: radio wave, light, microwave, infrared, UV

Compressional (or Longitudinal wave): waves in which the medium moves back and forth in the
same direction as the wave. The direction of wave is in parallel to the direction of vibration.
Parts of Longitudinal wave:
Compression: where the particles are close to each other
Rarefaction: where the particles are spread apart
e.g: tsunami wave, music woofers , sound

Wave characteristics:
- Amplitude, A
- Wavelength, λ
- Frequency, f and period, T
- Wave velocity, υ=λ f
Wave properties
Wave properties depend on what type of energy is making the waves.
1. Wavelength ( λ )= The distance one crest, trough to the next crust/trough
Longitudinal wave = λ is the distance between one compression/rarefaction to the next
compression/rarefaction.
2. Frequency: How many waves go past a point in one second (Hz)
The higher the frequency, the more energy in wave
n
f=
t

3. Amplitude: How for the medium moves from rest position

Amplitude is the height of crest or the depth of trough.
*remember it is for transverse wave

4. Wave speed: depends on the medium in which the wave is travelling. It varies in solid,
liquid and gases.
Formula:
Wave speed = wavelength x frequency
v (m/s) = f (Hz) x λ ( m )
 Changing wave direction
1. Reflection: When wave bounce off a surface
If the surface is flat, the angle at which the wave hits the surface will be the same as the angle at
which it leaves the surface.
(angle in = angle out)
θi=θr
This is the law of reflection
2. Refraction: waves can bend
This happens when a wave enters a new medium and its speed changes. The amount of bending
depends on the medium it is entering
3. Diffraction: The bending of waves around an object. The bending of wave
through the narrow gap.
The amount of bending depends the size of the obstacle and the size of the
waves.

Large obstacles, small wavelength = low diffraction

Small obstacles, large wavelength = large diffraction

Time period: Time that needed to complete the vibration.

Formula:
t
T=
n
T= time period (s)
t = time to vibrate (s)
n = the number of vibration
Difference between frequency and time period
1 1
F= ∨T =
T F