SOLAR ENERGY

SOLAR ENERGY TERMS AND DEFINITION

• Solar Radiation: Solar radiation is the energy radiated by the sun.

• Solar irradiation: The radiated energy received on earth surface.
• Solar insolation: Solar radiation received on a flat horizontal surface on
earth.
Solar radiation are of two types:
1. Extraterrestrial solar radiation: The intensity of sun’s radiation
outside the earth’s atmosphere is called “extraterrestrial” and has no
diffuse components. It is the measure of solar radiation that would be
received in the absence of atmosphere.
2. Terrestrial solar radiation: The radiation received on the earth surface
is called terrestrial radiation. It is nearly 70% of extraterrestrial
radiation.
 SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF SOLAR RADIATION
• Light rays radiated from the sun are in the form of electromagnetic
radiations.
• It includes infrared, visible and ultraviolet frequency bands.
• Solar spectrum in which solar irradiance is plotted against the wavelength.

1μm (micrometer)= 10-6 meter= 1/1000000 meter

Wavelength= velocity/frequency
The solar spectrum has the following three basic levels:
i) Infrared band: wavelengths too long for response by human eye.
Frequency range: 4 × 1014 to 7.5 × 1010 Hz;
Wavelengths : between 0.75 micron and 1.95 micron.
(1 micro, mm = 10-6 m).
(ii) Visible band: Frequency range: 6 × 1016 to 7.69 × 1014 Hz;
Wavelengths: Between 0.39 micron and 0.75 micron.
(iii) Ultraviolet band: Frequency range: 6 × 1016 to 7.5 × 1010 Hz.
Wavelengths: Between 0.005 micron to 0.39 micron.
Terms used in solar radiations:
Beam (or direct) radiation (Ib). Solar radiation
received on the surface of earth without change
in directions is known as “beam or direct
radiation”.
Diffuse radiation (Id). The solar radiation
received from the sun after its direction has been
changed by reflection and scattering by
atmosphere is known as “diffuse radiation”.
Total radiation (IT). The sum of beam and
diffuse radiations intercepted at the surface of
earth per unit area of location is known as
“total radiation”. It is also known as
“Insolation”.
Mathematically: IT = Ib + Id
Airmass (ma). It is the path length of radiation through the atmosphere,
considering the vertical path at level as unity.
ma = 1, when sun is at zenith (i.e., directly above head).
ma = 2, when zenith angle (θz) is 60°.
ma = sec θz, when ma > 3
ma = 0 just above the earth’s atmosphere
• Reasons for variation in solar radiations reaching the earth than received on
the outside of the atmosphere: As solar radiations pass through the earth’s
atmosphere the shortwave ‘ultraviolet rays’ are ‘absorbed’ by ozone in
atmosphere and the long wave infrared waves’ are ‘absorbed’ by carbon
dioxide and moisture in the atmosphere. A portion of radiations is ‘scattered’
by the components of atmosphere such as water vapor and dust. A portion of
this scattered radiation always reaches the earth’s surface as ‘diffuse
radiation’. Thus radiations finally received at the earth’s surface consists
partly of beam radiation and partly of diffuse radiation.
Solar Constant (Isc):
The “solar constant” (Isc) is the energy from the sun received on a unit area perpendicular to
solar rays at the mean distance from the sun (1.5 × 108 km) outside the atmosphere.
Solar constant is characterized by the following:
(i) It is constant and not affected by daily, seasonal, atmospheric condition, clarity of
atmosphere etc.
(ii) It is on a unit area on imaginary spherical surface around earth’s atmosphere for mean
distance between the sun and the earth.
(iii) It is on surface normal to sun’s rays. Sun rays are practically parallel (beam radiation).
(iv) It has a measured value of “1353 W/m2”.
• Isc in terms of kJ/m2. hour = ( 1353 × 3600)/1000 = 4870.8 kJ/m2 hour
• The value of solar constant remains constant throughout the year. However, this value
changes with location because earth-sun distance changes seasonally with time. The
standard value of the solar constant based on experimental measurements is 1367 W/m2
with accuracy of ±1.5%
• The extraterrestrial radiation observed on different days is known as apparent
extraterrestrial solar irradiance and can be calculated on any of the year using the
following relation:

The apparent solar irradiance will be maximum during December last or first
week of January as the earth’s center is nearest to the sun during these days.
 SOLAR COLLECTORS
• Solar energy can be converted into ‘thermal energy’ by using solar collector. It
can be converted into ‘electricity’ by using photovoltaic cell.
• ‘Solar collector’ surface is designed for high absorption and low emission.
Collectors in Various Ranges and Applications
The following list gives the thermal applications of solar energy and possible
temperature ranges:
LOW TEMPERATURE MEDIUM TEMPERATURE HIGH TEMPERATURE
T=100°C T=100-200°C T=ABOVE 200°C
WATER HEATING VAPOUR ENGINES AND STEAM ENGINES AND
TURBINES TURBINES
SPACE HEATING PROCESS HEATING STIRLING ENGINE
SPACE COOLING REFRIGERATION THERMOELECTRIC
GENERATORS
DRYING COOKING
FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR CYLINDRICAL PARABOLA PARABOLLOID MIRROR
ARRAYS
 FLAT PLATE
COLLECTOR

PARABOLLOID
CYLINDRICAL
MIRROR ARRAYS
PARABOLA
• The “concentrators or focusing type collectors” can give high temperatures
than flat plate collectors, but they entail the following
shortcomings/limitations.
1. Non-availability and high cost of materials required. Anodised aluminium
and stainless steel are two such materials but they are expensive and not
readily available in sufficient quantities.
2. They require direct light and are not operative when the sun is even partly
covered with clouds.
3. They need tracking systems and reflecting surfaces undergo deterioration
with the passage of time.
4. These devices are also subject to similar vibration and movement
problems as radar antenna dishes.
 Principles (physical) of Conversion of Solar Energy into Heat—
Green-house Effect
When solar radiation from the sun, in the form of light (a shortwave
radiation), reaches earth, visible sunlight is absorbed on the ground and
converted into heat energy but nonvisible light is re-radiated by earth (a
longwave radiation). CO2 in atmosphere absorbs this light and radiates back
a part of it to the earth, which results in the increase in temperature. This
whole process is called Green-house effect. Hence, the Greenhouse effect
brings about an accumulation of energy of the ground.
The name ‘Green-house effect’ related to its first use in green houses, in
which it is possible to grow exotic plants in cold climes through better
utilization of the available light.
Collection Systems
• Solar thermal collection system:
A solar thermal collection system works in the following manner:
(i) It gathers the heat from the solar radiation and gives it to the heat transport fluid (also
called primary coolant).
(ii) The fluid delivers the heat to the thermal storage tank (viz. boiler steam generator, heat
exchanger etc.).
(iii) The storage system stores heat for a few hours. The heat is released during cloudy
hours and at night.
• Thermal-electric conversion system:
This system receives thermal energy and drives steam turbine generator or gas turbine
generator. The electrical energy is supplied to the electrical load or to the grid.
• Co-generation plants:
In co-generation plants heat in the form of hot water or steam may also be supplied to the
consumer in addition to the electrical energy. In this case, hot water/steam from the
reservoir may be pumped through outlet pipes to the load side.
Characteristic Features of a Collector System
1. The type of collector – Focusing or non-focusing.
2. The temperature working fluid attained – Low temperature, medium
temperature, high temperature.
3. Non-tracking type or tracking in one plane or tracking in two planes.
4. Distributed receiver collectors or central receiver collectors.
5. Layout and configuration of collectors in the solar field.
6. Simple and low cost or complex and costly.
• ‘Solar collector cost’ is a significant component of installation cost. Hence
it is important to keep unit cost of collectors low and total surface area of
collectors as small as possible.
• ‘Flat plate collectors’ are used for low temperature applications only. They
are not economical for high temperature applications. They are not suitable
for high temperature applications and solar electric power plants.
TYPES OF COLLECTORS
A. Solar collectors are broadly classified into
the following types:
1. “Non-concentrating” or “Flat-plate type
solar collector”.
In such collectors, the area of a collector to
grasp the solar radiation is equal to the
absorber plate and has concentration ratio of
1.
2. “Concentrating” or “Focusing type solar
collector”.
In these collectors, the area of collector is kept
less than the aperture through which the
radiation passes, to concentrate the solar flux
and has high concentration ratio.
B. Solar collectors may be categorized as follows:
1. Flat-plate collectors 5. Linear-focus collectors
2. Point-focus collectors 6. Evacuated collectors
3. Solar ponds 7. Central receivers.
4. Stationary concentrators

One of the disadvantages of concentrating solar collectors is the need to align the
collector’s aperture with the sun’s direct beam. This not only consumes power
but also increases costs and the risk of failure. A single axis, tracking, time-
focus, solar collector may use a number of “tracking mechanisms”.
 Flat plate collector FPC:
A Flat Plate Collector which consists of four
essential components:
1. An absorber plate: It intercepts and absorbs
solar radiation. This plate is usually metallic
(copper, aluminium or steel), although plastics have
been used in some low temperature applications. In
most cases it is coated with a material to enhance
the absorption of solar radiation. The coating may
also be tailored to minimize the amount of infrared 2. Transparent covers: These are one or
radiation emitted. more sheets of solar radiation
A heat transport fluid (usually air or water) is used transmitting materials and are placed
to extract the energy collected and passes over, above the absorber plate. They allow
under or through passages which form an integral solar energy to reach the absorber plate
part of the plate. while reducing convection, conduction
and re-radiation heat losses.
3. Insulation beneath the absorber plate: It minimizes and protects the
absorbing surface from heat losses.
4. Box-like structure: It contains the above components and keeps them in
position.
• TYPES of FPC: Tube in plate, corrugated type, spiral wound type, Single
exposure, double exposure or exposure and reflector type etc.
• The collector utilizes sheets of any of the highly conducting material viz.
copper, aluminium, or galvanized iron.
• The sheets are painted dead black for increasing the absorptivity. The sheets
are provided with one or more glass or plastic covers with air gap in between
to reduce the heat transfer losses.
• The sides which are not exposed to solar radiation are well insulated. The
whole assembly is fixed in airtight wooden box which is mounted on simple
device to give the desired angle of inclination.
• The dimensions of collectors should be such as to make their handling easy.
The collector will absorb the sun energy (direct as well as diffused) and
transfer it to the fluid (air, water or oil) flowing within the collector.
Basically, a flat-plate collector is effective most of time, reliable for good
many years and also inexpensive.
• Use of flat mirrors in the flat-plate collectors improves the output, permitting
higher temperatures of operation. Side mirrors are used either at north and
south edges or at east and west edges of the collector or a combination of
both. The mirrors may be of reversible or non-reversible type.
• Materials for flat-plate collectors:
• 1. Absorber plate: Copper, Aluminium, Steel, Brass, Silver etc.
• 2. Insulation: Crown white wool, Glass wool, Expanded polystrene, foam
etc.
• 3. Cover plate: Glass, Teflon, Tedlar, Marlex etc.
Selective Absorber Coatings/Surfaces
• In order to reduce thermal losses from the absorber plate of a solar heating
panel, an efficient way is to use selective absorber coatings. An ideal
selective coating is a perfect absorber of solar radiation. A selective
coating, thus, increases the temperature of an absorbing surface.
• A “selective surface” has a high absorptance for shortwave radiation (less
than 2.5 μm) and low emittance of longwave radiation (more than 2.5 μm).
• A selective surface should possess the following characteristics:
(i) Its properties should not change with use
(ii) It should be of reasonable cost
(iii) It should be able to withstand the temperature levels associated with the
absorber plate surface of a collector over extended period of time
(iv) (iv) It should be able to withstand atmospheric corrosion and oxidation.
Some selective coatings are:
(i) Black chrome; (ii) Black nickel; (iii) Black copper; (iv) Silver foil;
Advantages, Disadvantages and Applications of Flat-plate Collectors
Advantages:
1. Both beam and diffuse solar radiations are used.
2. Require little maintenance.
3. The orientation of the sun is not required (i.e. no tracking device needed)
4. Mechanically simpler than the focusing collectors.
Disadvantages:
1. Low temperature is achieved.
2. Heavy in weight.
3. Large heat losses by conduction due to large area.
Applications:
1. Used in solar water heating.
2. Used in solar heating and cooling.
3. Used in low temperature power generation.
• CONCENTRATING (OR FOCUSING) COLLECTORS
Concentrating collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity
of solar radiation on the absorbing surface by the help of reflector or refractor.
• Need of Orientation in Concentrating Collectors
➢ Orientation of sun from earth changes from time to time. So to harness
maximum solar rays it is necessary to keep our collector facing to sun rays
direction. This is the reason why orientation in concentrating collector is
necessary. This is achieved by the use of “Tracking device”.
➢ A concentrating collector is a special form of flat-plate collector modified by
introducing a reflecting (or refracting) surface (concentrator) between the
solar radiations and the absorber.
➢ These types of collectors can have radiation increase from low value of 1.52
to high values of the order of 10,000.
➢ In these collectors radiation falling on a relatively large area is focused on
to a receiver (or absorber) of considerably smaller area. As a result of the
energy concentration, fluids can be heated to temperatures of 500°C or
more.
Types of Concentrating Collectors
The different types of focusing/concentrating type collectors are:
1. Parabolic trough collector.
2. Mirror strip collector.
3. Fresnel lens collector.
4. Flat-plate collector with adjustable mirrors.
5. Compound parabolic concentrator (CPC).
6. Parabolic dish collector.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Concentrating Collectors
Advantages:
1. High concentration ratio.
2. High fluid temperature can be achieved.
3. Less thermal heat losses.
4. System’s efficiency increases at high temperatures.
5. Inexpensive process.
Disadvantages:
1. Non-uniform flux on absorber.
2. Collect only beam radiation components because diffuse radiation components cannot
be reflected, hence these are lost.
3. Need costly tracking device.
4. High initial cost.
5. Need maintenance to retain the quality of reflecting surface against dirt and oxidation.
Parabolic Trough Collector
• Figure shows the principle of the
parabolic trough collector which is often
used in focusing collectors. Solar
radiation coming from the particular
direction is collected over the area of
reflecting surface and is concentrated at
the focus of the parabola, if the reflector
is in the form of a trough with parabolic
cross-section, the solar radiation is
focused along a line.
• Mostly cylindrical parabolic
concentrators are used in which absorber
is placed along focus axis.
Mirror Strip Collector
A mirror strip
collector has a number of planes
or slightly curved or concave
mirror strips which are mounted
on a base. These individual
mirrors are placed at such angles
that the reflected solar radiations
fall on the same focal line where
the pipe is placed. In this system,
collector pipe is rotated so that
the reflected rays on the absorber
remain focused with respect to
changes in sun’s elevation.
Fresnel Lens Collector
In this collector a Fresnel lens is used in which linear grooves are present on
one side and flat surface on the other. The solar radiations which fall normal to
the lens are refracted by the lens and are focused on the absorber (tube) as
shown in figure. Both glass and plastic can be used as refracting materials for
Fresnel lenses.
Flat-plate Collector with Adjustable Mirrors
It consists of a flat plate collector facing south,
with mirrors attached to its north and south
edges. If the mirrors are set at the proper angle,
they reflect solar radiation on to the absorber
plate. Thus, the latter receives reflected
radiation in addition to that normally falling on
it. In order to make the mirrors effective, the
angles should be adjusted continously as the
sun’s altitude changes. Since the mirrors can
provide only a relatively small increase in the
solar radiation falling on the absorber, flat-plate
collectors with mirrors are not widely used.
Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC)

• It was designed by Winston(and Baranov). It consists

of two parabolic segments, oriented such that focus of
one is located at the bottom end point of the other and
vice versa. The receiver is a flat surface parallel to the
aperture joining of two foci of the reflecting surfaces.
• For thermal and economic reasons the fin and the
tubular type of absorbers are preferable. It is claimed
that Winston collectors are capable of competitive
performance at high temperatures of about 300°C
required for power generation, if they are used with
selectively coated, vacuum enclosed receivers.
• The maximum concentration ratio available with
paraboloidal system is of the order of 10,000.
Advantages:
1. High concentration ratio.
2. No need of tracking.
3. Efficiency for accepting diffuse radiation
is much larger that conventional
concentrators.
• Paraboloidal Dish Collector
In this type of collector all the radiations
from the sun are focused at a point. This
collector can generate temperature up to
300°C and concentration ratio from 10 to
few thousands. Its diameter is of the range
between 6 to 7 m and can be commercially
manufactured.
Comparison between Flat-Plate and Concentrating Collectors
INTRODUCTION TO SOLAR ENERGY APPLICATIONS
The solar energy applications may be considered under the following three general
categories:
1. Direct thermal applications
2. Solar electric applications
— Solar thermal electric conversion
— Photovoltaic conversion
— Thermoelectric conversion
— Ocean thermal energy conversion
3. Biomass energy applications.
Based on the above classification, some of the commonly used direct solar energy
applications are enumerated
5. Solar drying.
1. Solar water heating.
6. Solar cooking.
2. Solar heating and cooling.
7. Solar Green-house.
3. Solar distillation.
8. Solar power plant.
4. Solar pumping.
9. Solar photovoltaic system.
SOLAR AIR HEATERS AND DRYING
Solar Air Heaters
• A conventional solar air heater is essentially a flat-plate collector with an
‘absorber plate’, a ‘transparent cover system’ at the top and ‘insulation’
at the bottom and on the sides. The whole assembly is encased in a sheet
metal container. The working fluid is “air”, though the passage for its
flow varies according to the type of air heater.
• ‘Selective coating’ on the absorber plate can be used to improve the
collection efficiency.
Important areas of applications:
The important areas of applications
of non-porous absorber type air
heaters are:
1. Heating and cooling buildings
(such heaters are used only in
actively heated or cooled
buildings).
2. Air heaters are also used as
desiccant beds for solar air-
conditioning.
3. Heating of green-house.
4. Industrial processes such as
drying agricultural crops and
timber.
Advantages:
The solar air heaters claim the following advantages over other solar heat
collectors:
1. The system is compact and less complicated.
2. The pressure inside the collector does not become very high.
3. Leakage of air from the duct does not pose any major problem.
4. Corrosion is completely eliminated.
5. Freezing of working fluid does not exist.
Disadvantages:
1. Poor heat transfer properties.
2. Need for handling large volumes of air.
3. The thermal capacity of air being low, it cannot be used as a storage fluid.
4. In the absence of proper design, the cost of air heater can be very high.
Solar Drying
• Drying has been the oldest and most widely used application of solar energy
in the developing countries. The methods have been based on open air drying.
• In this type of dryer, ambient air is
heated and is passed into drying
chamber by natural convection. The hot
air removes moisture from the crops,
becomes cooler and falls to the bottom
of drying chamber. By this system, yam,
sweet potato, sorrel and grasses can be
dried.
• For large scale drying, i.e. seasoning of
timber, corn drying, tea processing,
tobacco curing, fish and fruit drying,
solar dryers are used.
Advantages:
1. Dried products improve family
nutrition (Dried fruit and vegetables
contain high quantities of vitamins,
minerals and fiber.)
2. Dried fruit can be used in stews, soups,
making ice-cream and baked products.
3. Improves the bargaining position of
farmers.
Disadvantages:
1. The dried product is often of poor
quality as a result of grit and dirt.
2. The product is often unhygienic as a
result of microorganism and insects.
SOLAR COOKING
In India, cooking is the common application of solar energy. Several varieties
of solar cookers are available to suit different requirements.
Following types of cookers will be briefly discussed:
1. Box-type solar cooker.
2. Dish solar cooker.
3. Community solar cooker for indoor cooking.
• Box-type Solar cooker
• It consists of an ‘outer box’ made of either fiber glass or aluminium sheet, a ‘blackened
aluminium tray’, a ‘double glass lid’, a ‘reflector’, ‘insulation’ and ‘cooking pots’. The
blackened aluminium tray is fixed inside the box, and the sides are covered with an
insulation cover to prevent heat loss. The reflecting mirror provided on the box cover
increases the solar energy input. Metal pots are painted black on the outside.
• Food to be cooked is placed in cooking pots and cooker is kept facing the sun to cook the
food. An electric heater may also be installed to serve as a back during non-shine hours.
Technical drawbacks of the design:
1. The temperature obtained is less than 100°C and is insufficient for chapati
making and frying which are very important cooking processes.
2. There is no provision for storage of heat and cooking gas to be carried out while
the sun is shining, which is an odd time for preparing breakfast and dinner.
3. Cooking has to be carried out in open without privacy and in the sun which is
very inconvenient to housewife.
Dish Solar Cooker
• In this type of cooker, a ‘parabolic dish’ is used to concentrate the incident solar
radiation. A typical dish solar cooker has an aperture of diameter 1.4 m with focal
length of 0.8 m. The ‘reflecting material’ is an anodized aluminium sheet having
reflectivity of over 80%.
• The cooker needs to track the sun (which requires power of about 0.6 kW). The
temperature at the bottom of the vessel may reach up to 400°C which is sufficient for
boiling, roasting and frying. Such a cooker can meet the requirements of cooking for
fifteen persons.
Community Solar Cooker for Indoor Cooking
• A community solar cooker is a ‘parabolic reflector cooker’. It has a ‘large
reflector’ ranging from 7 to 12 m2 of aperture area. The reflector is placed
outside the kitchen so as to reflect solar rays into the kitchen.
• A ‘secondary reflector’ further concentrates the rays on to the bottom of the
cooking pot painted black. Temperature can reach up to 400°C and food can
be cooked quickly for fifty persons.
SOLAR FURNACE
• A solar furnace is an optical equipment to get high temperatures by
concentrating solar radiations on to a specimen.
• The “primary components” of a solar furnace are:
1. Concentrator. In solar furnaces, either a paraboloidal reflection
concentrator or a spherical reflector concentrator is used; the former is
considered superior due to acceptable spherical aberration in a spherical
reflector.
2. Heliostat, a movable mirror arrangement to reflect sun light in a
particular direction. In a solar furnace, the function of heliostats is to orient
solar radiation parallel to the optical axis of the concentrator. As a guide, the
size of the heliostat should be 1.4 D × 1.4 D where D represents the size of
aperture of concentrator.
3. Sun tracking. For a solar furnace to function with optimum output, it is
imperative that heliostats should follow the sun from morning till evening.
Solar furnace with multiple heliostat:
• The world’s first 1000 kW solar furnace was operated at Odeillo, France, in
1973. Solar intensity was 1 kW/m2, with bright sunshine for about 1200
hours a year. It consisted of 63 heliostats installed at 8 elevations which
reflected sun rays to the concentrator parallel to its optical axis. The receiver
diameter was changed to obtain different temperatures.
• In a solar furnace the temperatures may reach up to 3500°C.
Advantages and Uses of a Solar Furnace:
Advantages:
1. Simple working.
2. High heat flux is obtainable.
3. Heating without contamination.
4. Easy control of temperature.
Uses:
1. For phase and vaporization studies.
2. Melting behaviour analysis.
3. Purification of ceramic and refractory materials.
SOLAR GREEN-HOUSES AND GLOBAL WARMING
• Solar Green-houses: A green-house is an enclosed space which provides
the required environment for growth and production of plants under adverse
climatic conditions. Its design depends upon the local climatic conditions
and the environment needed for the growth. Plants manufacture their food
by ‘photosynthesis process’ which maintains a balance with respiration.
• The various parameters for a plant growth are:
1. Light intensity: For plant growth a minimum intensity of 25,000 lux is
adequate. A green-house structure, with two glazings can have maximum light
intensity up to 50,000 lux on a clear day.
2. Temperature: Temperature is an important environmental factor for plant
growth. For winter crops, the ideal temperature range is from 5° C to 15° C
with a variation up to 3° C. For summer crops, the range is from 20° C to 30°
C with a variation of 5° C. The soil temperature of 20° C to 25° C, for most
plants, has been reported to be optimum.
3. Humidity: For plant growth, relative humidity (RH) of air between 30 and
70% is good. Saplings and germinating seeds need high humidity 100% but its
value (RH) reduces after they have grown.
4. Air movement: It influences transpiration, evaporation of water from soil,
availability of CO2 etc. The movement of air at a speed of 0.8 to 2 cm/s is
adequate for optimum growth of the plant.
Advantage of green-houses:
This type of structure is less expensive to build than a fully insulated structure.
It provides the following advantages :
1. Inexpensive, good quality food can be grown.
2. An additional heat source (temperature control) is available for the house
attached to it.
3. A source of moderator for the humidity (humidity control) in the house.
Global Warming
• Global warming is the term which indicates the increase in the average
temperature of the atmosphere. The increased volume of CO2 and other
green-house gases released by the burning of fossil fuels and other human
activities contribute to the warming of the earth. The amount of heat trapped
in the atmosphere depends mostly on the concentrations of greenhouse
gases.
• The major green-house gases are: Carbon dioxide, ozone, methane,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and water vapours. Due to anthropogenic activities,
there is an increase in the concentration of the green-house gases in the air, which
results in the increase in average surface temperature.
• Detrimental effects:
1. If the emission of green-house gases continues, the global temperature will increase.
2. With the increase in global temperature sea water will expand, which will result in
rise in sea level. Heating will melt the polar ice caps resulting in further rise in sea level.
3. Results in floods.
4. Global warming will lead to changes in the rainfall pattern.
Control measures:
1. Use of renewable energy sources.
2. Afforestation.
3. Stabilization of population growth.
4. To cut down the current rate of use of CFCs and fossil fuels.
SOLAR POWER PLANTS
• The solar thermal power generation involves the collection
of solar heat which is utilized to increase the temperature
of a fluid in a turbine operating on a cycle such as Rankine
or Brayton. In another method, hot fluid is allowed to pass
through a heat exchanger to evaporate a working fluid that
operates a turbine coupled with a generator.
• These may be classified as : Low temperature, medium
temperature and high temperature systems.
• Low Temperature Solar Power
Plant
In this system an array of flat-plate
collectors is used to heat water to about
70°C and then this heat is used to boil
butane in a heat exchanger. The high
pressure butane vapour thus obtained runs a
butane turbine which in turn operates a
hydraulic pump. The pump pumps the
water from a well which is used for
irrigation purposes. The exhaust butane
vapour (from butane turbine) is condensed
with the help of water which is pumped by
the pump and the condensate is returned to
the heat exchanger (or boiler).
• Medium Temperature Systems Using
Focusing Collectors
A circular or rectangular parabolic mirror can
collect the radiation and focus it on to a small
area, a mechanism for moving the collector to
follow the sun being necessary. Such devices
are used for metallurgical research where high
purity and high temperatures are essential, an
example being a 55 m diameter collector giving
about 1 MW at Mont Louis in Pyrenees.
Smaller units having 20 m diameter reflector
can give temperatures of about 300°C over an Figure shows a concave solar energy
area of about 50 m2. The collector efficiency is collector focusing sun’s rays on
about 50%. On a small scale, units about 1 m boiler at a focal point. Generation of
diameter giving temperatures of about 300°C steam at 250°C could give turbine
have been used for cooking purposes. efficiencies up to 20–25 per cent.
High Temperature Systems—Solar Farm and Solar Power Plant
For a large scale production of process-heat the following two concepts are available:
1. The solar farm: It consists of a whole field covered with parabolic trough
concentrators. In case of a ‘solar farm‘ temperature at the point of focus can reach
several hundred degrees Celsius.
2. The solar tower: It consists of a central receiver on a tower and a whole field of
tracking. In case of central receiver “solar tower” concentrators, temperature can
reach thousands of degrees celsius, since a field of reflectors (heliostats) are
arranged separately on sun tracking frames to reflect the sun on to a boiler
mounted on a central tower.
With both systems (‘solar farm’ and ‘solar tower‘), a heat transfer fluid or gas is passed
through the point or line of insolation concentration to collect the heat and transfer it to
the point of use. Such heat can be used either directly in industrial or commercial
processes or indirectly in electricity production via. Steam and a turbine.
The solar technologies such as the above two systems that produce very hot
water or steam are currently still under development and, in general, these
technologies are not cost competitive with conventional power sources such as
oil or gas.
Solar Photovoltaic Cells
• The “photovoltaic or solar cell“ is a semiconductor device. The
‘photovoltaic effect‘ was first observed in 1839 by Becquerel who found
that, when light was directed on to one side of an electrochemical cell, a
voltage was created. In the late 1950s, silicon solar cells were made with a
conversion efficiency high enough for power generators.
• Photovoltaic materials
The solar cells are made of various materials and with different structures in
order to reduce the cost and optimize efficiency. Various types of solar cell
materials available in the market are:
• The single crystal, polycrystalline and amorphous silicon, compound thin
material and also semiconductor absorbing layer which gives highly
efficient cells for specialized applications.
• Thin film solar cells are manufactured from CuInSe2, CdS, CdTe, Cu2S,
InP.
• The amorphous silicon thin solar cells are less expensive while crystalline
silicon cells are expensive and more popular. The amorphous silicon layer is
used with both hydrogen and fluorine incorporated in the structure.
• Higher efficiency of photovoltaic generator can be achieved by combination
of different band gap materials in the tandem configurations.
Silicon photovoltaic cell (Single crystal solar cell)
• The main feature of a silicon photovoltaic cell is a thin wafer of high purity
silicon crystal, doped with a minute quantity of boron.
• Phosphorous is diffused into the active surface of the slice by means of a
high temperature process. The top electrical contact is made by a metallic
grid, and the back metal contact covers the whole surface. The top surface
usually has an anti-reflective coating (ARC).
Working theory :
• The ‘phosphorous’ in the silicon causes an excess of conduction-band electrons, and the
‘boron’ causes an excess of valence electron vacancies, or holes, which act like positive
charges. At the “junction“ between the two types of silicon, conduction electrons from
the negative (n) region diffuse into the positive (p) region and combine with holes, thus
cancelling their charges.
• The opposite action also occurs, with holes from the p-region crossing into the n-region
and combining electrons. The area around the junction is thus ‘depleted’ by
disappearance of electrons and nearby holes. Layers of charged impurity atoms, positive
in the n-region and negative in the p-region, are formed on either side of the junction,
which sets up a ‘reverse‘ electric field.
• When light falls on the active-surface, photons with energy exceeding a certain critical
level known as band or energy gap (1.1 electron volt in the case of silicon) interact with
the valence electrons and elevate them to the conduction band. This activity also leaves
holes, so that the photons are said to generate ‘electron-hole pairs‘. These electron-hole
pairs are produced throughout the thickness of the silicon in concentrations that depend
on the intensity and spectral distribution of the light.
• The electrons move throughout the crystal, and the less mobile holes also move by
valence-electron substitution from atom to atom. Some recombine, neutralising their
charges and their energy is converted into heat. Others reach the junction and are
separated by the reverse field, at which point the electrons are accelerated towards the
negative contact and the holes towards the positive. A potential difference is established
across the cell, and this will drive a current through an external load.
• Polycrystalline silicon cells
• The cost of production of single crystal silicon cell is quite high compared to the
polycrystalline silicon cell. Polysilicon can be obtained in thin ribbons drawn from
molten silicon bath and cooled very slowly to obtain large size crystallites. Cells are made
with care so that the grain boundaries cause no major interference with the flow of
electrons and grains are larger in size than the thickness of the cell.
Following are the three designs in which the polycrystalline silicon solar cell
can be fabricated:
1. p-n junction cells. In such a cell, a polycrystalline silicon film is deposited
by chemical vapour deposition on substrates like glass, graphite, metallurgical
grade silicon and metal.
2. Metal insulator semiconductor (MIS) cells. This type of cell can be
developed by inserting a thin insulating layer of SO2 between the metal and the
semiconductor.
3. Conducting oxide-insulator semiconductor cells.
 Water Pumping Systems
The photovoltaic water pumping systems
(major application of PV systems)
essentially
consist of:
(i) A photovoltaic (PV) array,
(ii) Storage battery,
(iii) Power control equipment,
(iv) Motor pump sets, and
(v) Water storage tank.
• Solar pump configurations:
Because the batteries have several disadvantages (e.g. power loss, increased risk of failure,
shorter operational life than the rest of the solar pump and regular maintenance requirement),
at present, most solar pumping systems do not include batteries, although where water storage
is needed, a viable alternative may be provided. The four principal combinations of motor and
pump that are suitable for solar pump are: 1. Submerged motor pump set; 2. Submerged pump
with surface motor; 3. Floating motor-pump set; 4. Surface motor with surface mounted pump.
SPV Lighting System
Solar street light, as shown in Fig. 4.33, describes a stand-alone PV power
generating device.
SPV lighting system has the following advantages:
1. Compact in size.
2. Highly durable.
3. Highly efficient.
4. Low maintenance.
PV Hybrid System
A dedicated PV system cannot give continuous supply even with the use of the storage
batteries. The stand-alone PV systems are not reliable during the periods when the solar
incidence is low and days and nights are cloudy.
In order to meet with these difficulties, a ‘‘hybrid system’’ has been evolved to meet the load
requirements regularly.
l A PV system with a diesel generator along with batteries was installed in 1987 in an island
isolated from main power grid. A 100 kW solar cell module and the associated devices
including the power conditioner was supplied by M/s. Hitachi. This design has the following
two features:
(i) Stand-alone operation mode;
(ii) A parallel operation mode with a diesel unit; an additional diesel generator
can also be added in the system.
SOLAR DISTILLATION (SOLAR STILL)
Solar still is a device which is used to convert saline water into pure water by using solar
energy. Soft drinking water, an essential requirement for supporting life, is scarce in arid,
semi-arid and coastal areas. Saline water, at such places, is available in underground or in
the ocean. This water can be distilled utilizing abundant solar radiation available in that area,
by solar still(s). The simplest ‘solar still’, generally known as, ‘basin type solar still’.
Construction. It is a shallow basin having blackened surface called basin liner. The filler
supplies the saline water to the basin and an overflow pipe allows the excess water to flow
out from the basin. The top of the basin is covered with a sloping airtight transparent cover
that encloses the space above the basin. This cover is made of glass or plastic and slope is
provided towards a collection trough.
Working. Solar radiation passes through the transparent cover and is absorbed and
converted into heat by the black surface of the still. The saline water is then heated and the
water vapours condense over the cool interior surface of the transparent cover. The
condensate flows down the sloping roof and gets collected in troughs installed at the outer
frame of the solar still. The distilled water is then transferred into a storage tank.
“Desalination output” increases with the rise in ambient temperature and is independent of
the salt content in raw feed water. The “solar still performance” is expressed as the quantity
of water produced by each unit of basin area per day.
Solar still installations may provide about 15 to 50 liters/day/10 m2.
Advantages of distilling process:
1. Low energy consumption. 2. Less skilled labour required. 3. Simple technique required.
4. Low maintenance cost.