~N lll1illlll:'I ION

Cell is the basic Uving st1ructural, and functional unit. o,f the body. CeHs, ,are grouped
1
1

't,ogether to fo. rm tissues., eac:h of which has ,a sp ecialised function, e.g. bone and blood tissue.
1 1

Di'fferent tissues are grouped together· to• form org.ans, e.g. liver_ stomach and kidney.
Organs, are grouped together to form systems, each of which performs a particular function
responsible for maintaining homeostasis and health of the individual Eg1. Urinary system,
Respiratory system and Cardiovascul.ar system.
• Cytal,ogy is the branch of science that dealls. with the mic.ras,capic study· of ceUs, their
origil n, struc:tu re and function.
The cell is divided i1nto two major parts:
• Pl asma membrane
1

• Sub .. ceHular organelles

Sub ..cellular components of a ce:11 includes:
• Cytoplasrm
• Nrucfeus
• N,rucl eolus
1

• Mi:tocho·ndria
• Goig i com pl ex
• Endopl!asmic reticulum
• Lysosome
• Ribosome
 Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum

Nucleus

Rough
endoplasmic -lr--tc!N~
reticulum
(with
ribosomes

Golgi
apparatus

Secretory Plasma
granules membrane

Fig. 2.1: The Human Ce ll

I2.1 PLUMA MEMBRANE (CFJ 1 •MBRANE)
The thin barrier that separates the internal components of the cell from the extracellular
materials and external environment is the plasma membrane. The plasma membrane
regulates the passage of substances into and out of the cell.

Carbohydrate Integral
Integral of glycoprotein glycoprotein
glycoprolein Membrane
channel

Lipid
bilayer

Peripheral Integral
protein protein
Composition of Membrane:
The cell membrane is principally made-up of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. The
lipids are mainly phospholipids, cholesterol and glycolipids. The carbohydrates in the
membrane are linked to either proteins or lipids.
Membrane Uplds:
• Phospholipids (75%) are the most abundant lipids present in the cell membrane.
These are arranged in lipid bilayer.
• Phospholipids are amphipathic in nature and are divided into two parts;
Polar head (Hydrophilic) and Hydrocarbon tails (Hydrophobic)
• Polar hydrophilic head is exposed to the external surface and non-polar hydrophobic
tail is arranged in the core of the lipid bilayer.
• The hydrophilic region helps to anchor the proteins on the inside of the cell
membrane.
• The hydrophobic region helps to maintain the selectivity by not allowing the polar
molecules to enter the cell.
• Glycolipids (5%) are the lipids with one or more sugar groups attached to it
• Glycolipids are amphipathic in nature.
• The remaining 20% of membrane lipids are cholesterol molecules.
• Cholesterol is distributed throughout the lipid bilayer.
• The steroid ring of the cholesterol strengthens the membrane but decreases its
flexibility.
• Plant cell membrane lacks cholesterol.
Membrane Proteins:
• Proteins comprise about 50% of the total mass of the cell membrane.
• Membrane proteins are responsible for most of the membrane properties.
• There are two types of membrane proteins.
✓ Integral proteins
✓ Peripheral proteins
• The integral proteins are completely embedded in the lipid bilayer.
• The hydrophilic region projects from both surfaces of the bilayer and the
hydrophobic regions are embedded within the membranes.
• These integral proteins are also called as trans-membrane proteins.
• These proteins can be further differentiated as:
✓ Channel proteins: These are responsible for the transfer of small water-soluble
molecules.
✓ Carrier proteins: These are responsible for transfer of material across the bilayer
through the active transport.
✓ Receptor proteins: These proteins bind with different neurotransmitters or other
chemical substances leading to the changes in intracellular reactions.
✓ Pumps: These are also called as proteins and they actively transfer the ions
across the bilayer, against concentration gradient (Lower to higher
concentration).
 • The peripheral proteins are also called as extrinsic proteins.
• They do not penetrate the lipid membrane completely but remains attached either to
the polar head of lipids or to the integral proteins.
• Membrane pr-oteins serve as electron carriers, pumps for active transport channels
for passive transport and cell adhesion sites.

Cytoplasm:
• The gel like substance enclosed within the plasma membrane and present external to
the nucleus is called as cytoplasm.
• The semifluid portion of the cytoplasm in which cell organelles and inclusions are
suspended is called as cytosol or intracellular fluid.
• Cytosol is transparent, viscous gel like fluid containing 75 to 90% of water, suspended
and dissolved components such as proteins, lipids and carbohydrate, different
inorganic substances and salts.
• The cell organelles are embedded in the cytosol.
Nucleus:
• The nucleus is usually a spherical or oval in shape and largest structure in the cell.
• The nuclear membrane is a double membrane which separates the nucleus from the
cytoplasm.
• Both the inner and outer membrane are phospholipids bilayer.
• Nuclear membrane is externally continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.
• The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores in the membrane where inner and
outer parts of membrane fuses.
• Theses pores act as channel for transfer of ions and water soluble molecules between
the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
• Nucleus contains a spherical structure called as nucleolus.
• The nucleolus contains aggregations of protein, DNA and RNA.

..lr,,lr--- - -Nud eolus

L.:U-- - Chromatin
•u..--- Nuclear
membrane

~~;~:::=:~~---- Nuclear pore

Ribosomes:
• These are tiny spheres that contain ribosomal RNA and several ribosomal proteins.
• These are the site for protein synthesis.
• These are made of two subunits;
✓ Smaller sub-unit (40S): RNA of smal ler size
✓ Larger sub-unit (60S): RNA of larger size
• Ribosomes are of two types;
✓ Membrane bound ribosomes: These are attached to endoplasmic reticulum.
✓ Free ribosomes: These are free In cytosol.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
• The endoplasmic reticulum is a pattern of membrane enclosed channels called as
cisterns of varying shapes.
• It is an Interconnected network of internal membrane.
• Based on its association with ribosomes, the ER is divided into two types.
✓ Rough ER
✓ Smooth ER
• Rough ER: The ribosomes are attached on the surface. Hence, they are granular in
appearance and rough.
• 1t is responsible for synthesis of many secretory proteins.
• Smooth ER: The ribosomes are not attached to the surface. Hence, they are smooth
in nature.
• It is the site of fatty acid, phospholipids and steroid synthesis.
• It can inactivate or detoxify a variety of chemicals, including alcohol, pesticides and
carcinogens.

Ribosomes

- - Rough endoplasmic
reticulum

Fig. 2.4: Endoplasmic reticulum

Golgl Complex:
• Golgi apparatus or complex is present near the nucleus.
• It consists of four to six flattened sacs called as cisterns, placed upon each other like a
pile of p lates w ith expanded bulges at their ends.
 • The stack of Golgi sacs has two defined regions-Cis and Trans.
• Proteins synthesized by the ribosomes are brought to the lumen of endoplasmic
reticulum and then to Golgi apparatus through transfer vesicles.
• The vesicles fuse with the cis region of the Golgi complex releasing their contents into
the internal portion.
• These proteins are modified and secreted outside the cell when needed through the
secretory vesicles on the trans end.
• Golgi apparatus stores proteins and is also responsible for modifying them.
Q Secretory vesiciQaving the trans region

---• Trans
region

M~ial
region
}

Cis
region
}
Golgl
sacs • • g •
o Transfer vesicles from the rough ER

Fig. 2.5: Golgl complex

Mitochondria:
• The mitochondria generate ATP and are therefore called as power house of cells.
• The numbers of mitochondria vary from cell to cell depending on their energy
requirement.
• The mitochondria consist of two lipoprotein membranes.
✓ Outer mitochondrial membrane: It is intact and covers the whole structure.
✓ Inner mitochondrial membrane: It contains a series of folds called as cristae.
• The region between the two membranes is called as the interrnembrane space.
• The folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane increase the surface area thereby
increasing the output of cellular respiration.
• The large central fluid -filled cavity enclosed by the inner mitochondrial membrane is
called as mitochondrial matrix.
• The process of cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondrial matrix.
• The oxidative enzymes of mitochondria cause oxidation of nutrients, carbon dioxide
and water, releases energy which is utilized in formation of adenosine triphosphate.
• Mitochondria also plays a crucial role in apoptosis. cell signalling, cell growth and
control of cell cycle.
 DNA Ribosomes Matrix Outer Inner
Membrane Membrane

FO, F1 Cristae junction lntermembrane

Complexes space

Fig. 2.6: Mitochondria

lysosomes:
• Lysosomes are secretory vesicles formed from the Golgi complex.
• These are membrane bound spherical vacuoles which function as the digestive
system of the cell.
• It contains 60 kinds of powerful digestive and hydrolytic enzymes that can hydrolyse
large molecules such as RNA, DNA. proteins and lipids.
• Lysosomal enzymes work best at acidic pH = 5 and inactivated at neutral pH value.
Pero>elsomes:
• These organelles are similar in structure to lysosomes, but comparatively smaller in
structure.
• It contains many oxidases enzyme that can oxidize (remove hydrogen atom) various
organic substances such as fatty acids, amino acids and uric acid.
• In order to protect the cell from the toxic effects of hydrogen peroxide (H 20 2),
peroxisomes also contain the enzyme catalase.
• Catalase decomposes hydrogen peroxide or utilizes it to oxidise another organic
compound.

• It is divided into two sub-headings;

Movement of small molecules across the membrane:
(A) Diffusion
✓ Simple diffusion
✓ Facilitated diffusion
✓ Osmosis
(B) Active transport
Movement of large molecules across the membrane
✓ Endocytosis
✓ Exocytosis

Simple Diffusion or Passive Transport

• It is a passive process where the solute molecules in a solution are carried in the
direction of their concentration gradient i.e. from higher concentration to lower
concentration without utilization of energy.
• Substances moves across the cell membrane by three basic mechanisms.
✓ The molecules remains in the aqueous phase and diffuse through aqueous
channels or pores in the membrane.
✓ The molecule leaves the aqueous phase on one side of the membrane, dissolves
in lipid bilayer and crosses it and again enters the aqueous phase on opposite
side of membrane.
✓ The molecules combine with carrier molecules and help them across the cell
membrane.
Q
Q
Q Q Q Q
0 Q Q High concentration
Q
Q Q Q

- - -Low concentration

Fig. 2.7: Passive transport

Facilitated Diffusion:
• It also called as carrier-mediated diffusion.
• The carrier protein facilitates the diffusion of the substances to the other side of
membrane.
• Energy is not required for such t ransfer.
• Many lipid insoluble substances like certain vitamins, glucose, urea cross the
membrane by this process.
• The transfer is in the direction of concentration gradient, from higher concentration
to lower concentration.
• This transfer achieved through the structural changes in the protein, when it binds
with the material to be transferred.
 • ••••
•• Solute •
• • •
• High concentration

- Plasma
membrane
• • • Low concentration • • Transport

• • • • • • protein•

Diffusion
• •
Facilitated diffusion

Fig. 2.8: Facilitated diffusion

Osmosis:
• It is defined as movement of solvent molecules across a semi-permeable membrane
from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
• Osmosis occurs only when a membrane is permeable to water but it is not permeable
to certain solutes.
• Consider a U-shaped tube containing a selectively permeable membrane that
separates the left and right arms of the tube.
• A volume of water is poured into the left arm, and the same volume of a solution
containing a solute that cannot pass through the membrane is poured into the rig.h t
arm.
• Because the water concentration is higher on the left arm and lowers on the rig:ht
arm, the net movement of water molecules (osmosis) occurs from left to right
• Water moves down its concentration gradient.
• At the same time, the membrane prevents diffusion of the solute from right arm in.to
the left arm.
• As a result, the volume of water in the left arm decreases and the volume of solution
in the right arm increases.
• Hydrostatic pressure: Pressure excreted by a liquid is known as hydrostatic pressure
that forces the water molecules to move back into the left arm.
• Osmotic pressure: Pressure excreted by the solute on a semipermeable membrane
through which it cannot penetrate.
• The osmotic pressure of a solution is proportional to the concentration of the solute
particles that cannot cross the membrane.
• Higher the solute concentration, higher is the solution's osmotic pressure.
 ..
Left arm

-m
Right ann
Applled pressure
osmotic pressure

I..
I I I
i
I
,
•
I

1 •
·, 1
,:
....
Selectively Movement due
permeable to hydrostatic pressure
membrane
(a) Starting conditions (b) Equilibrium (c:) Restoring starting conditions

Fig. 2.9: Osmosis

Active Transport
• When the material is transported out against the concentration gradient i.e. from
lower concentration to higher concentration with utilization of energy then the
process called as active transport.
• Energy is obtained from the hydrolysis of ATP.
• Active transport is of two types:
(a) Primary Active Transport
• Energy is derived from hydrolysis of ATP which changes the shape of carrier protein.
• The carrier protein pumps a substance across a plasma membrane against its
concentration gradient
Active transport Membrane protein
Low concentration • pumps

fftt -~ fTT TTT

Ui~ 111-111 ~ !11
ADP+ Pi
..:
,,••••
High concentration

Fig. 2.10: Primary active transport

(b) Secondary Active Transport
• In this process, the electrochemical potential difference created by pumping ions out
of the cell is used to transport molecules across the membrane.
• The electrochemical gradient is used to drive other substances across the plasma
membrane against their concentration gradient.
 • A symport is an active transport protein that transports two different molecules
across the cell membrane at the same time.
• The material transferred along with some ions is called as symport or co-transport.
• An anti-port is an active transport protein that transports two molecules in opposite
directions against their concentration gradients.
• An uni-port is an active transport protein that transports single molecule across the
cell membrane.
Unlporter Symporter
A A B

I
B
Fig. 2.11: Secondary active transport
Endocytosls:
• It is a transport mechanism that involves engulfing extracellular materials within a
segment of the cell membrane to form a vesicle called as corpuscular or vesicular
transport.
• For example, Macromolecular nutrients like fats and starches, oil soluble vitami ns A.
D, E, K and drugs such as insulin.
• Endocytosis includes two types of processes:
(a) Phagocytosls: It is a form of endocytosis in which the cell engulfs large solid
particles, such as worn out cells, whole bacteria or viruses.
(b) Plnocytosls: It is a form of endocytosis in which tiny droplets of extracellular
fluid are taken up.

Large particle to engulf Outside cell

• .;,;::::====; Plasma membrane

~ . ~ tr.f;'"' '"""
Membrane encloses ® a••:.:
' ..
Inside cell
Digestion of the particle
Fig. 2.12: Endocytosis
Exocytosis:
• Undigested substance called as residual body is excreted through the cell membrane by a
process called as exocytosis.
• The undigested substances produced within the cytoplasm may be enclosed in a
membrane to form vesicle called as exocytic vesicle.
• These cytoplasm exocytic vesicles fuse with the internal surface of the plasma membrane.
• The vesicle then ruptures releasing their content into the extracellular space and their
membranes are left behind and refused.

• It is the process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.
• These cells divide once in approximately every 24 hours.
• The duration of cell cycle can vary with organism and the cell type.
• The two types of cell division are:
✓ Somatic cell division
✓ Reproductive cell division
• Somatic cell division: A cell undergoes a nuclear division called mitosis and a
cytoplasmic division called cytokinesis to produce two identical cells, each with the
same number and kind of chromosomes as the original cell.
• Reproductive cell division: A cell undergoes a division called as meiosis, In which
the number of chromosomes in the nucleus is reduced by half. This mechanism
produces gametes - the cells needed to form the next generation of sexually
reproducing organisms.
Somatic Cell Division:
Cell Cycle:
• The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events by which a somatic cell duplicates its
contents and divides into two.
• Human cell, contain 23 pairs of chromosomes with a total of 46 chromosomes.
• One member of each pair is inherited from each parent.
• The two chromosomes that make up each pair are called as homologous
chromosomes.
• Somatic cells contain two sets of chromosomes; they are called as diploid cells,
denoted as 2n.
• The cell cycle is divided into two basic phases:
✓ lnterphase: When a cell is not dividing.
✓ Mitotic phase: When a cell is dividing.
 Mitotic phase

Growth
Growth and
and normal
preparation metabolic
for mitosis roles

DNA
replication

Fig. 2.13: Cell division

Interphase:
• During interphase replication of DNA takes place and additional cell organelles and
cytosolic components are formed.
• lnterphase is a state of high metabolic activity; during this time the cell grows.
• lnterphase consists of three phases: G1, S, and G2.
• 6 1 phase: It is the interval between the mitotic phase and the S phase. During G1
phase, the cell is metabolically active; it replicates most of its organelles and cytosolic
components but not its DNA. Replication of centrosomes also begins in the G1 phase.
G1 phase lasts for 8 to 10 hours.
• S phase: It is the interval between G1 and G2 phase, lasts about for 8 hours. During
the S phase, DNA replication occurs. As a result. the two identical cells are formed
during cell division will have the same genetic material.
• 6 2 phase: It is the interval between the S phase and the mitotic phase. It lasts for 4 to
6 hours. During G2 phase, cell growth continues, enzymes and other proteins ,are
synthesized in preparation for cell division, and replication of centrosomes is
completed.
• Once a cell completes its activities during the G1, S, and G2 phases of interphase, the
mitotic phase begins.
Mitotic (M) Phase:
• This is the most dramatic period of the cell cycle, invollving a major reorganization of
virtually all components of the cell.
• Since, the number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny cells are the same, it is
also called as equational division.
 • The mitotic phase of the cell cycle consists of a nuclear division (mitosis) and a
cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis) to form two identical cells.
• The process results in the exact distribution of genetic information.
• It i s divided into four stages:
✓ Prophase
✓ Metaphase
✓ Anaphase
✓ Telophase
Prophase:
• In early prophase, the chromatin fibers condense and shorten into chromosomes.
• Each prophase chromosome consists of a pair of identical strands called as
chromatids.
• A constricted region called as a centromere holds the chromatid pair together. At the
outside of each centromere is a protein complex known as kinetochore.
• In late prophase, tubulins in the pericentriolar material of the centrosomes start to
form the mitotic spindle, a football shape of microtubules that attach to the
kinetochore.
• As the microtubules lengthen, they push the centrosomes to the ends of the cell so
that the spindle extends from pole to pole.
• The nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope breaks down.
Metaphase:
• During metaphase, the microtubules of the mitotic spindle align the centromeres of
the chromatid pairs at the exact center of the mitotic spindle called as metaphase
plate.
• This arrangement of the chromosomes at the metaphase plate ensures that each
nlllcleus after cell division will receive one copy of each chromosome.
Anaphase:
• During anaphase, the centromeres split, separating the two members of each
chromatid pair, which move toward opposite poles of the cell.
• Once separated, the chromatids are termed as chromosomes.
• As the chromosomes are pulled by the microtubules of the mitotic spindle during
anaphase appears as a V-shaped.
Telophase:
• Telophase begins after the chromosomal movement gets stops.
• The identical sets of chromosomes, now at opposite poles of the cell, uncoil and
forms thread-like chromatin.
• A nuclear envelope forms around each chromatin mass, nucleoli reappear and the
mitotic spindle breaks up.
Cytoklnesls:
• Division of a cell's cytoplasm and organelles Into two identical cells is called as
cytokinesis.
• The process usually begins in late anaphase with the formation of cleavage furrow, a
slight indentation of the plasma membrane, and is completed after telophase.
• The cleavage furrow usually appears midway between the centrosomes and extends
around the periphery of the cell.
• Actin microfilaments that lie just inside the plasma membrane form a contractile ring
that pulls the plasma membrane progressively inward.
• When cytokinesis is complete, interphase begins.
• The sequence of events can be summarized as
• G1 phase ➔ S phase ➔ G2 phase ➔ Mitosis ➔ Cytokinesis

Chromatin
~----
XX

Cytoplasm Nuclear Spindle

envelope fibres
lnterphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase

-
'
Chromosomes \
Chrornatin
Cleavage furrow
Telophase and Cytokinesis
Fig. 2.14: Stages of mitosis

• Cell junctions are also called as intercellular bridge.

• Cell junctions are contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells.
• Cell junctions consist of multi-protein complexes that provide contact between
neighbouring cells or between a cell and the extracellular matrix.
• There are five different types of cell junctions:
✓ Tight junctions
✓ Adherens junctions
✓ Desmosomes
✓ Hemidesmosomes
✓ Gap junctions
Tight Junctions
• It acts as barriers that regulate the movement off water and solutes between the
epithelial layers.
• The cells of epithelial tissues that line the stomach, intestines and urinary bladder
have many tight junctions to retard the passage of substances between cells and
prevent the leaking of contents into the blood or suirrounding tissues.
• Tight junctions present in different types of epithelia are selective for solutes of
differing size, charge a111d polarity.
• These are composed of a branching network of sealing strands acting independently
from the others.
• Each strand is formed from a row of trans-memb:rane proteins embedded in both
plasma membranes, with extracellular domains joining one another directly.
• The major proteins present are claudins and occludins.
• These associate with different peripheral membrane proteins such as Z0-1 located on
the plasma membrane, which anchor the strands to the actin component of
the cytoskeleton.
• Functions:
• They hold the cells together.
• They help to maintain the polarity of cells by preventing the lateral diffusion of
proteins between the apical and lateral/basal surfaces.
• They prevent the passage of molecules and ions through the space between the
plasma membranes of adjacent cells.

Plasma _,., - - _
membranes

Tight-junction-+ -
proteins

Extracellular•......;:o....i:--Ti
space

Fig. 2.15: Tight junctions

Adherens Junctions:
• These are also called as intermediate junction or belt desmosome.
• These are protein complexes that occur at cell-cell junctions in epithelial and
endothelial tissues.
• Adherens junctions contain plaque, a dense layer of proteins on the inside of the
plasma membrane that attaches both to membrane proteins and microfilaments of
the cytoskeleton.
 • The trans-membrane glycoproteins present in adherens junctions called as cadherins
that joins the cells.
• In epithelial cells, adherens junctions forms the extensive zones called as adhesion
belts.
• Adherens junctions helps to epithelial surfaces to resist separation during various
contractile activities such as movement of food through the intestines.

space

Fig. 2.16: Adherens junctions

Desmosomes:
• Desmosomes contain plaque and trans-membrane glycoproteins such as cadherins
that extend into the intercellular space between adjacent cell membranes and
attaches cells to one another.
• A desmosome plaque attaches to cytoskeleton known as intermediate filaments that
consist of keratin protein.
• The intermediate filaments e.xtend from desmosome.s on one side of t he cell across
the cytosol to desmosome.s on the opposite side of the cell.
• S'Uch a type of structural arrangement helps in the stability of cells and tissues.
• These types of junctions are more common in the epidermis (the outermost layer of
the skin) and cardiac muscle cells of the heart.

Intermediate linker
filament glycoproteins
(keratin)

Fig, 2.17: Desrnosomes

Hemidesmosomes:
• Hemidesmosomes resemble like desmosomes but they do not link the adjacent cells.
• The structure of hemidesmosomes is like half of a desmosome
• The trans-membrane glycoproteins present in hemidesmosomes are integrins.
• To the inner side of plasma membrane, integrins attaches to the intermediate
filaments made up of keratin protein.
• To the outer side of plasma membrane, the integrins attaches to the protein laminin
present in the basement membrane.
• Hence, it plays an important ro le in anchoring cells to the basement membrane.
Intermediate
filament
(keratin)

_ _ Basement
membrane
Plasma membrane
Transmembrane
glycoprotein (integrin)
In extracellular space

Fig. 2.18: Hemldesmosomu

G•p Junctions:
• The membrane proteins present in gap junctions are ca llled as connexins, form tiny
fluid-filled tunnels called connexons that connect neighbouring cells.
• The p lasma membranes of gap junctions are separated by a very narrow intercellular
gap (2 to 4 nm).
• Through the connexons the ions and small molecules can diffuses from the cytoplasm
of one cell to another cell.
• A gap junction allows the communication of cells with one another.
• Gap junctions enable nerve or muscle impulses to spread rapidly among nervous
c:ells.
• Dissolved substances such as ions or glucose can pass through the gap junctions.

membranes I
Plasma...;..._ _
\
~ 1 :1
I

Membrane
channels t-.:)111
~ IJ
Extracellular i '
space
. r~I
Fig. 2.19: Gap junctions
 • Cell signalling is part of any communication process that governs the basic activities
of cells and co-ordinates cell actions.
• It is the ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to their microenvironment is
the basis of development, tissue repair, immunity and homeostasis.
• Communication between cells is common in nature.
• The cells of multicellular organisms uses a variety of molecules as signals, such as
peptides, proteins, amino acids, nucleotides, steroids and lipids.
Cell Surface Receptors:
• Any cell of a multicellular organism is exposed to variety of signals.
• At any time, hundreds of different chemical signals in the environment surrounds the
cell.
• The receptor proteins are located on or within the cell having a three-dimensional
shape that fits in to specific signal molecule.
• When a signal molecule binds with receptor protein of the right shape, the activation
of receptor occurs.
• This binding produces a change in the receptor protein's shape, producing a
response in the cell.

Sign:~~

♦-6 l),,
~,
Cytoplasm

Fig. 2.20: Cell surface receptors bind with specific molecules

Intracellular Receptors:
• Many cell signals are lipid soluble or very small molecules that can readily pass across the
plasma membrane of the target cell and into the cell, where they interact with a receptor.
• Some cell signals bind to protein receptors present in the cytoplasm whereas; others pass
across the nuclear membrane as well and bind to receptors within the nucleus.
• These intracellular receptors may trigger a variety of responses in the cell, depending on
the receptor.
Cell Surface Receptors:
• Most of the signal molecules are water-soluble such as peptide hormones,
neurotransmitters and proteins that act as growth factors during development.
• Water soluble signal molecules cannot diffuse through the cell membranes.
• Therefore, for generation of responses, they must bind to receptor proteins on the
surface of cell.
• These cell surface recept,ors convert the extracellular signal to an intracellular signal,
by binding with the signal molecule by producing a change within the cytoplasm of
cell.
• These are of three types;
✓ Chemically gated ion channels
✓ Enzymatic receptors
✓ G-protein linked receptors
Chemically Gated Ion Channels:
• These are the protein receptors through which ions passes.
• In the plasma membrane many protein molecules are embedded.
• At the centre of protein pore is present that connects the extracellular fluid with the
cytoplasm.
• The size of pore is big so that Ions can easily pass through it so the protein functions
as an ion channel.
• The channel is known as chemically gated because it opens when a chemical
(neurotransmitter) binds w ith it.
• When a chemically gated ion channel gets opens, different variety of ion such as
sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride flows across the membrane depending on the
structure of the channel.

Fig. 2.23: Chemically gated ion channels

t.nzymat1c Keceptors:
• Many cell surface receptors either act as enzymes or are directly linked to enzyme.
• When a signal molecule binds to the enzymatic receptor, it activates the enzyme.
• The enzymes that get activates called as protein kinases, which add phosphate
groups to the proteins.
• The enzymatic receptor consists of signal trans-membrane protein; the portion that
binds to signal molecule lies outside the cell, and the portion that carries out the
enzyme activity is exposed to the cytoplasm.

Fig. 2.24: Enzymatic receptors

G-protein Unked Receptors:
• G-protein linked receptors acts indirectly on enzymes or ion channels in the plasma
membrane with the help of protein, called a guanosine triphosphate (GTP) binding
protein, or G-protein.
• In this type, G-proteins are used to transmit signal from the membrane surface into
the inside of cell.
• G-proteins are the mediators that init iate a diffusible signal in the cytoplasm.
• They form a link between the cell surface receptor and signal pathway within the
cytoplasm.
• As the signal arrives, it finds the G-protein present in the G-protein linked receptor on
the cytoplasmic side of the plasma membrane.
• Once the signal molecule binds to the receptor, the shape of G-protein linked
receptor get changes.
• This change in receptor shape twists the G protein, causing it to bind with GTP.
• The G-protein can now diffuse away from the receptor.
• The ·activated" complex of a G-protein with attached GTP is then free to initiate a
number of events.
 -Enzyme or
,,....._____,, ion channel enzyme or
Ion channel

Fig. 2.25: G-Proteln linked receptors

• Cell signalling can be classified as mechanical and biochemical based on the type of
the signal.
• Mechanical signals are the forces exerted on the cell and produced by the cell.
• Biochemical signals are the biochemical molecules such as proteins, lipids, ions and
gases.
• These signals can be classified based on the distance between signalling and
responder cells.
• Signalling between and amongst cells is divided into the following:
✓ Contact dependant signalling
✓ Paracrine signalling
✓ Synaptic signalling
✓ Autocrine signalling
Contact Dependant Signalling:
• Gap junctions in animals are connections between the plasma membranes of
neighbouring cells.
• These water filled channels allow small signalling molecules, called as intracellular
mediators, to diffuse between the two cells.
• Small molecules, such as calcium ions (Ca 2•). are able to move between cells, but
large molecules, like proteins and DNA, cannot fit through the channels.
• The specificity of the channels ensures that the cells remain independent, but can
quickly and easily transmit signals.
• The transfer of signalling molecules communicates the current state of the cell that is
directly next to the target cell; this allows a group of cells to co-ordinate their
response to a signal that only one of them may have received.
Paracrine Signalling:
• Signals that act locally between cells that are close together are called as paracrine
signals.
• Paracrine signals move by diffusion through the extracellular matrix.
• These types of signals usually elicit quick responses and last for short duration.
• Paracrine ligand molecules are quickly degraded by enzymes or removed by
neighbouring cells.
• Paracrine signalling plays an Important role In early development, co-ordinating the
activities of neighbouring cells
• One example of paracrine signalling is the transfer of signals across synapses
between nerve cells.
Synaptic Signalling:
• The cells of the nervous system provide rapid communication with distant cells.
• Their signal molecules, neurotransmitters, do not travel to the distant cells through
the circulatory system like hormones.
• The long, fiber like extensions of nerve cells release neurotransmitters from their tips
very close to the target cells.
• The narrow gap between the two cells is called as chemical synapse.
Endocrine Signalling:
• Signals from distant cells are called as endocrine signals; they originate from
endocrine cells.
• In human body, many endocrine cells are located in endocrine glands such as the
thyroid gland, hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
• These types of signals usually produce a slower response, but have a long lasting
effect.
• The ligands released in endocrine signalling are called as hormones, signalling
molecules that are produced in one part of the body, but affect other body regions
some distance away.
• Hormones travel the large distances between endocrine cells and their target
cells via the bloodstream.
 Signaling cell Target cell Signaling cell

Target

> ·-
cells

Membrane-
local
bound signal
molecule mediator

(a) Contact-dependent (b) Parac;rine

Endocrine cell Receptor

Target cell
Synapse
Neuron
Hormone

-..
'
Cell body
Axon
.
Ne urotransm,tter
Target cell

Bloodstream
....
..
--.
Target cell

(c) Synaptic; {d) Endocrine

Fig. 2.26: Four forms of cell signalling