UNIT -- I

Introduction: Application of Computer - Different types of Computer systems -

Basic components of Digital Computer System - Programming Languages;
Number Systems.

What is Computer:

• Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with Information. The

Term computer is derived from the Latinterm‘computare’, this means to calculateor

Programmable machine.

• Computer cannot do any thing without a Program. It represents the decimal

numbers through a string of binary digits. The Word 'Computer' usually refers to the

Central Processing unit plus InternalMemory.

• Charles Babbage is called the "Grand Father" of the computer. The First mechanical

computer designed by Charles Babbage was called Analytical Engine.It uses read-

only memory in the form of punch cards.

• Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user

and processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and

gives the result (output) and saves output for the future use. It can process both

numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations

.

Digital Computer

• The basic components of a modern digital computer are:Input

Device, Output Device, Central Processor Unit(CPU), mass storage

device and memory. A Typical modern computer uses LSI Chips.

• Four Functions about computer are:

Input(Data):

• Input is the raw information entered into a computer from the input devices. It is the collection of
letters, numbers, images etc.

Process:

• Process is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is totally internal process of the
computer system.

Output:

• Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is also called as
Result. We can save these results in the storage devices for the future use.
Applications of Computer
Business

• A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
made it an integrated part in all business organisations.
• Computer is used in business organisations for: •Payroll
calculations
• Budgeting
• Sales analysis
• Financial forecasting
• Managing employees database
• Maintenance of stocks etc

Banking

• Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer.

• Banks provide following facilities:

• Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances,deposits, overdrafts, interest
charges, shares, and trustee records.

• ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

Insurance

• Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. The insurance
companies, finance houses and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.

• Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing
• procedure to continue with policies

• starting date of the policies

• next due installment of a policy

• maturity date
• interests due
• survival benefits
• bonus

Education

• The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system.

• The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE

(Computer Based Education).

• CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.

• The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.

• There are number of methods in which educational institutions can use computer to educate the students.

• It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out on this basis

Marketing
• In marketing, uses of computer are following:

• Advertising-With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy,
and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.

• At Home Shopping-Home shopping has been made possible through use of computerized catalogues that
provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers

HealthCare

• Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries.

The computers are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients

and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases.

ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc., are also done by computerized

machines.

• Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:
• Diagnostic System-Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
• Lab-diagnostic System-All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
• Patient Monitoring System-These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality such as in
Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
• Pharma Information System-Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful drug’s side
effects etc.
• Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing
surgery.

Engineering Design

•Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose.

• One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design). That provides creation and
modification of images. Some fields are:
• Structural Engineering- Requires stress and strain analysis for design of Ships, Buildings,
Budgets, Airplanes etc.
• Industrial Engineering-Computers deal with design, implementation and improvement of
integrated systems of people, materials and equipments.
• Architectural Engineering-Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings, determining a
range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.
Government

• Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this category are:

• Budgets

• Sales tax department

• Income tax department

• Male/Female ratio

• Computerization of voters lists

• Computerization of driving licensing system

• Computerization of PAN card

• Weather forecasting
Different Types of computer System
Basic components of Digital Computer System

All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following
five basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful their users.

S.No. Operation Description

1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer
system.

2 Store Data Saving data and instructions so that they are available for
processing as and when required.

Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in

3 Processing Data
order to convert them into useful information.
 Output The process of producing useful information or results for the
4
Informatio user,such as a printed report or visual display.
n

Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above
5 operations are performed.

Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit
creates a link between the user and the computer. The input devices translate the information into a form
understandable by the computer.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the operation of all
parts of the computer.
CPU itself has the following three components −

 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

 Memory Unit
 Control Unit

Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the
computer. This unit is a link between the computer and the users. Output devices translate the computer's
output into a form understandable by the users.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or
the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of
memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Control Unit
 This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a
computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the
computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,

 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section

Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above
operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching,
and merging of data.

Types of Programming Languages

There are two types of programming languages, which can be categorized into the following way

1. Low level language

Machine language (1GL)

Assembly language (2GL)

2. High level language

Procedural-Oriented language (3GL)

Problem-Oriented language (4GL)

Natural language (5GL)

1. Low level language

This language is the most understandable language used by computer to perform its operations. It can
be further categorized into:

MachineLanguage(1GL)
Machine language consists of strings of binary numbers (i.e. 0s and 1s) and it is the only one language, the
processor directly understands. Machine language has an Merits of very fast execution speed and efficient
use of primary memory.
Merits:
¨ It is directly understood by the processor so has faster execution time since the programs written
in this language need not to be translated.
¨ It doesn’t need larger memory.
Demerits:
¨ It is very difficult to program using 1GL since all the instructions are to be represented by 0s
and 1s.
¨ Use of this language makes programming time consuming. It is difficult to
find error and to debug.
¨ It can be used by experts only.

Assembly Language

Assembly language is also known as low-level language because to design

a program programmer requires detailed knowledge of hardware specification. This

language uses mnemonics code (symbolic operation code like ‘ADD’ for addition) in

place of 0s and 1s. The program is converted into machine code by assembler. The

resulting program is referred to as an object code.

Merits:

¨ It is makes programming easier than 1GL since it uses mnemonics code for

programming. Eg: ADD for addition, SUB for subtraction, DIV for division, etc.

¨ It makes programming process faster.

¨ Error can be identified much easily compared to 1GL.

¨ It is easier to debug than machine language.

Demerits:

Programs written in this language is not directly understandable by computer so translators should be
used.

¨ It is hardware dependent language so programmers are forced to think in

terms of computer’s architecture rather than to the problem being solved.

¨ Being machine dependent language, programs written in this language are

very less or not protable.

¨ Programmers must know its mnemonics codes to perform any task.

2. High level language

Instructions of this language closely resembles to human language or English like words. It uses
mathematical notations to perform the task. The high level language is easier to learn. It requires less time
to write and is easier to maintain the errors. The high level language is converted into machine language
by one of the two different languages translator programs;inter preteror compiler.

Procedural-Oriented language(3GL)

Procedural Programming is a methodology for modeling the problem being solved, by determining the
steps and the order of those steps that must be followed in order to reach a desired outcome or specific
program state. These languages are designed to express the logic and the procedure of a problem to be
solved. It includes languages such as Pascal, COBOL, C, FORTAN, etc.

Merits:

¨ Because of their flexibility, procedural languages are able to solve a variety of problems.

¨ Programmer does not need to think in term of computer architecture which makes them focused on
the problem.

¨ Programs written in this language are portable.

Demerits:

¨ It is easier but needs higher processor and larger memory.

¨ It needs to be translated therefore its execution time is more.

 Problem-Oriented language(4GL)

It allows the users to specify what the output should be, without describing all the details
of how the data should be manipulated to produce the result. This is one step ahead from 3GL. These are
result oriented and include database query language.
Eg: Visual Basic, C#, PHP, etc.
The objectives of 4GL are to:
 Increase the speed of developing programs.
 Minimize user’s effort to botain information from computer.
 Reduce errors while writing programs.

Merits:
¨ Programmer need not to think about the procedure of the program. So, programming is much
easier.

Demerits:
¨ It is easier but needs higher processor and larger memory.
¨ It needs to be translated therefore its execution time is more.

Natural language(5GL)

Natural language are stil in developing stage where we could write statrments that
would look like normal sentences.

Merits:
¨ Easy to program.
¨ Since, the program uses normal sentences, they are easy to understand.¨ The programs
designed using 5GL will have artificial intelligence (AI). ¨ The programs would be much more
interactive and interesting.

Demerits:
¨ It is slower than previous generation language as it should be completely translated into
binary code which is a tedious task.
¨ Highly advanced and expensive electronic devices are required to run programs
developed in 5GL. Therefore, it is an expensive approach.
These are the different types of programming languages with their merits and demerits.
Memory

Number systems

A Number system defines a set of values used to represent the quantity. It has different types
of number systems

 Convert decimal numbers to binary.

• Convert binary numbers to decimal.

• Convert decimal numbers to Octal.

• Convert Octal number to decimal numbers.

• Convert decimal numbers to hexadecimal.

• Convert hexadecimal numbers.

• Convert binary numbers to Octal.

• Convert binary numbers to hexadecimal.

• Convert Octal number to binary.

• Convert hexadecimal Numbers to binary.

Bits and Bytes

• A binary digitis a single numeral in a binary number.

• Each 1 and 0 in the number below is a binary digit: – 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1

• The term “binary digit” is commonly called a “bit.”

• The total number of digits used in a number system is called its base or radix. its grouped together is
called a “byte.”
DecimalNumberSystem

• The prefix “deci-” stands for 10

• The decimal number system is a Base 10 number system:

1. There are 10 symbols that represent quantities:

2.0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
4. Each place value in a decimal number is a power of 10.

Background Information

• Any number to the 0 (zero) power is 1.

0 0 0
4 =1 16 = 1 1,482 = 1.
• Any number to the 1st power is the number itself.
1 1 1
10 = 10 49 = 49 827 = 827

Binary Numbers

• The prefix “bi-” stands for 2

• The binary number system is a Base 2 number system:

*There are 2 symbols that represent quantities:0, 1

*Each place value in a binary number is a power of 2.

1) Binary Number System

A Binary number system has only two digits, which are 0 and 1. Every number (value) is represented
with 0 and 1 in this number system. The base of binary number system is 2, because it has only two
digits. Though DECIMAL (No 3) is more frequently used in Number representation,
BINARY is the number system form which the system/machine accepts.

2) Octal number system

Octal number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7. Every number (value) is represented with
0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 in this number system. The base of octal number system is 8, because it has only
8 digits.
3) Decimal number system

Decimal number system has only ten (10) digits from 0 to 9. Every number(value) is represented
with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8 and 9 in this number system. The base of decimal number system is 10, because it
has only 10 digits.

4) Hexadecimal number system

A Hexadecimal number system has sixteen (16) alphanumeric values from 0 to 9 and A to F. Every
number (value) represents with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F in this number system. The
base of hexadecimal number system is 16, because it has 16 alphanumeric values. Here, we have 0 to 9,
representing 0 – 9 but from 10, we have A is 10, B is 11, C is 12, D is 13, E is

NUMBER SYSTEM BASE USED DIGIT EXAMPLE

BINARY 2 0,1 (111011)2
OCTAL 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 (360)8
DECIMAL 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, (240)10
HEXA DECIMAL 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9, A, B, (F0)16
C, D, E, F.

Convert decimal numbers to binary

• 16
2 16
2 8 - 0 MSB
2 4 - 0
2 2 - 0
1 - 0 LSB

ANS: (16)10 = (1000)2

Convert binary numbers to decimal

• A binary number can be converted into a decimal number by adding the products of each bit
and its weight.
METHOD: 1

• (101)
2 1 0
101 = 1 x 2 + 0 x 2 + 1 x 2 = 4 + 0+1
2
= 5
ANS: (101)2 = (5)10

Binary Fractions

METHOD:2

(1101.0111 ) 2

101.0111 = (1 × 23 ) + (1×22) + (0×21) + (1×20) + (0×2-1) + (1×2-2) + (1×2-3) + (1×2-4)

 = 8 + 4 + 0+ 1 + 0 + 1/4 + 1/8+ 1/16

= 8 + 4 + 0+ 1 + 0 + 0.25 + 0.125+ 0.0625

Ans:

(1101.0111 )2 = 13.437510

Octal Number System

• The prefix “Oct -” stands for 8

• The Octal number system is a Base 8 number system:

1. There are 8 symbols that represent quantities:
2. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
3. Each place value in a decimal number is a power of 8.

Convert decimal numbers to Octal

•To convert a decimal number to octal, we have to divide the decimal number by 8 repeatedly and
collect the remainders from top to bottom
Convert Octal numbers to decimal number
Hexadecimal Number System

• The prefix “Hexa -” stands for 16

 •The Hexa number system is a Base 16 number system:
 There are 16 symbols that represent quantities:
 2.0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
 Each place value in a decimal number is a power of 16.
Convert decimal numbers to hexadecimal

• To convert a decimal number to octal, we have to divide the decimal number by 8 repeatedly and collect
the remainders from top to bottom.

Convert hexadecimal numbers to decimal

Convert binary numbers to Octal

1) 10111.12
010111 . 1002
(2 7 . 4 )8

Convert binary numbers to hexadecimal

1) (110.101)
2
(0110.1010)2
(6 . A)16
Convert Octal number to binary

Convert hexadecimal Numbers to binary

 UNIT -- II
Boolean Algebra and Gate Networks: Fundamentals concepts of Boolean Algebra – Logical
Multiplication AND Gates, OR Gates, and Inverters – Evaluation of logical Expressions –
Basic Law of Boolean Algebra – Simplification of expressions – De Morgan’s theorems –
Basic Duality of Boolean Algebra - Derivation of a Boolean Expression.

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND GATE NETWORKS

Modern Computers are designed and maintained, and their operation is analyzed, by using
techniques and symbology from a field of mathematics called modern algebra.Algebraists have
studied forover ahundred years mathematicalsystems called Booleanalgebra.
 ThenameBooleanalgebrahonorsafascinatingEnglishmathematician,GeorgeBoole.
 He published a classic book on 1854, an investigation of the laws of thought, on which are founded
themathematical theories of logic and probabilities.
 Calculus of propositions and the algebra of sets, were based principally on Boole’s work.

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA.

The fundamental concepts may include the following that
 The variable used in Boolean equation has a unique characteristic.
 The two values assumed by a variable may be represented by the symbols 0
and 1.
 The original symbol proposed by Boole was ‘+’.
 For a given value of the variable, the function can be either 0 or 1.
 Therulesforthisoperationcanbegivenas
follows: 0+0 =0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1+1=1
Thisislogicaladditiontableandrepresentsastandardbinaryadditiontableexceptforthe last
entry.
Both x and y represent 1s, the value of x+y is 1.

LOGICAL MULTIPLICATION AND GATES

In Boolean Algebra ‘.’ Symbol is used to represent Logical multiplication and AND
operation.
Therulesforthisoperation are as follows: 0.0=0
0.1=0
1.0=0
1.1=1
Both (+) and (.) obey a mathematical rule called the associative law. For instance
(X+Y)+Z = X+(Y+Z)
(X.Y). Z = X. (Y.Z)
Wecan simplywriteas X + Y + Z andX. Y. Z.Fornomatterin whatordertheoperation
is performed, the result is same.
 The+ and . operations arephysicallyrealized by two types of electroniccircuitscalled OR
gates and AND gates.
GATE
Agateissimplyanelectroniccircuit,whichoperatesononeormoreinputsignalsto produce an
output signal.

AND GATE
The AND gate is the logical circuit with the operation similar to logical multiplication.
Theyproducethehighoutputifalltheinputsareinhighstate,thisgateproducelow output, when any one of
the inputs is low

OR GATE
The OR gate is similar to the operation of arithmetic addition. The OR gate
produce thehigh output when any one of the input is in high state. We get low output if either of the input
is low.
Complementation and inverters or NOT gate
 In Booleanalgebra,wehaveanoperation calledcomplementationandthe symbol is
“ –”.
 The complement is physically realized by agatecalled inverter or NOTgate.
 The NOT gate produce high output, when the input is low and low output when the input ishigh.

EVALUATION OF LOGICAL EXPRESSION

 The table of values for the three operations is calledtables of combinations.
 To study a logical expression, it is very useful to construct a table of values for the variables.
 Consider the expression X+ YZ. There are three variables in this expression X, Y, Z, each of which can
assume the value 0 or 1.

X Y Z Z’ YZ’ X + YZ’
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1

 The above is the truth table for the expression X + YZ’. The value Z is complemented
and the complemented value is multiplied with Y to get YZ’.
 This column will have the value 1 only when both Y is a 1 and Z’ is a 1.
 Now the value of YZ’ is performed logical addition with the value of X and the final
value is evaluated.
BASIC LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
 A listof basic rules by which Boolean algebra expressions may be manipulated are
contained in this table.
 Each rule may be proved by using the proof by perfect induction.

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA RULES

SIMPLIFICATION OF EXPRESSIONS

The rules may be used to simplify Boolean expression.

Consider the expression (X + Y)(X+Y’)(X’+Z).

This can be simplified by

(X + Y) (X + Y) (X + Z)
Consider the two terms,

(X+Y) (X+Y’)
XX + XY’ + XY + YY’
X + XY’ + XY + 0 (YY = 0, XX = X)
X + X(Y’ +Y) ( Y’ + Y = 1)
X + X(1)
X+X (X+X=1)

X
Now multiply the term (X + Z)
X(X’+Z) X’ + XZ.

XZ. XX’ =0

So the expression (X + Y) (X+Y’) (X’+Z) is reduced to XZ.

DEMORGAN’S THEOREM
Demorgan’s theorem is very useful to design circuits in Boolean algebra.
The following two rules are the Demorgan’s theorem.

1. X’ + Y’ = X’ . Y’
2. (X . Y)’ = X’ + Y’
 ThecomplementofanyBooleanexpressionorapartofanyexpressionmaybefound by
means of these theorems.
 Two steps are used to form a complement.
1. The(+) symbols arereplaced with (.) and (.) symbol are replaced
with (+) symbol.
2. Each of the terms in the expression is complemented.
The complement of W’X+YZ’ is done by two steps:
 The addition symbol is changed
 The complement of each term is
formed. Ex:
(W’.X)’(Y.Z’)’
can be written as
(W+X’)(Y’+Z)
SinceWand Zwerealreadycomplemented,theybecomeuncomplemented bythe
theorem
X’ = X.
It is sometimes necessary to complement both sides of an equation. This may be done in
the same way as before:
WX+YZ =0
Complementing both sides gives
(WX+YZ)’ = 0’
(W’+X’)(Y’+Z’) =1

TRUTH TABLE FOR DEMORGAN’S THEOREM

INPUTS OUTPUT
X Y Z
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 1
BASIC DUALITY OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
 Thepostulatesandtheoremswhichhavebeenpresentedcanallbedividedintopairs.
 Boolean algebra is defined as (0,1) and by the two binary operator (+, .)
Example:
i. (X+Y)+Z = X+(Y+Z) is the dual of (XY)Z = X(YZ)
ii. X + 0 =X is the dual ofX. 1 = X.
iii. X + X = X is the dual X.X =X
iv. X +Y = Y + X is the dual X .Y = Y. X
DERIVATION OF A BOOLEAN EXPRESSION
When designing a logical circuit, the logical designer works from two sets of known values.
1. The various states which the inputs to the logical network can take , and
2. The desired outputs for each input condition.
The logical expression is derived from these sets of values.
Thetruth tablefor two inputs Xand Yin alogicalnetworkto give an outputZ isas
follows:
X Y Z
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 1

 It is necessary to add another column to the table.

 This consists of list of product terms obtained from input variables.
 The input is complemented when the input value is 0 and not complemented when the
value is 1.
X Y Z Product of terms
0 0 1 (XY)’
0 1 0 (XY)’
1 0 1 (XY)’
1 1 1 (XY)’
 Whenever Z is equal to 1, the X and Y product term from the same row is removed and formed into
sum of products.

 The table for the expression X + Y is evaluated.

X Y Y’ X + Y’
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
 Thelastcolumnof this tableagrees withthelastcolumnofthedesired function(the value of Z) and
they are equivalent.
There are now three terms, each product of two variables. The logical sum of these is
equal to the expression desired. This type of expression is often referred to as canonical
expansion for the function.

 The complete expression in normal form is

 (XY)’ + XY’ + XY = Z
The left-hand side of the expression may be simplified as follows:

(XY)’ + X (Y’ + Y) = Z
(XY)’ + X (1) = Z (XY)’ + X = Z
X + Y ‘= Z
Truth table for three input values X,Y and Z
X Y Z Output
A
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

A column is added to listing the inputs, A, Y,and Z according to their values in the input
columns.
The product terms from each row in which the output is a 1 are collected ((XYZ)’, X’YZ’,
XY’Z’, and XYZ’) and the desired expression is the sum of these products (X’Y’Z’+
X’YZ’+XY’Z’+XYZ’).
Therefore, the complete expression in standard form for the desired network is

X’Y’Z’ + X’YZ ‘+ XY’Z’ + XYZ’ =A

X’(Y’Z’+YZ’)+X(Y’Z’+YZ’) =A
X’(Z’(Y’+Y))+X(Z’((Y’+Y)) =A
X’Z’+XZ’ =A
Z’ =A