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Rudra’s IAS CLASS NOTES MPPSC (Pre) New Syllabs 2020

Rudra’s IAS
A PREMIER INSTITUTE OF CIVIL SERVICES

MPPSC (Pre) 2020

UNIT -2
IN ENGLISH
FOR
MPPSC
(New Pattern)

By- C.M. MISHRA

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Indus Valley civilization

Indus valley is one among the oldest civilizations of world. It is one among the main civilizations of
Ancient period such as Mesopotamia, Egypt and China. With radio carbon dating its period is recognized
in between 2600 BC to 1900 BC. Indus valley civilization is the first urban civilization of India. This was
the first narration of Harappa civilization by Charles Masson in 1842, which revealed fact that there is an
Indian history is divided into three different parts- Ancient Indian history, Medieval Indian history and
Modern Indian history. The ancient people of India have a continuous civilization since the pre- historic
age of 40000 BC, when the first people of the World began to live. Most probably the first people came
to India from Africa. They initially gathered in the northern part of India and hunting was their only
profession. But after a long time in 4000 BC, they moved to the Indus river valley and took farming as
their main profession.
Meaning of Political, Economic, Social and Cultural History

Political means related to politics. Politics is related to state craft. State craftincludesexecutive, legislature,
judiciary, military power, diplomacy and works related to peace and war. There was monarchy form of
government was in existence in India from 6th century BC to before arrival of British.
In monarchy all the powers of state were centralized in hand of king. It means powers related to executive,
legislature, judiciary, military power, diplomacy and works related to peace and war vested in king.
Executive means decision maker, legislative means law maker, judicial means judgment maker and
military head means decision maker of war and peace. King was responsible to make all the important
decisions of state. He was legislature means there was no parliament for law making. The words of king
were considered equivalent to law. Mera vachan hi mera shashan hai. It means there was no democracy.
King was appointed on the ground of heredity. An ideal king is one who possesses the highest qualities of
leadership, intellect, energy and other personal attributes, because the king was the moral and legal
embodiment of sovereign authority.
But it is not possible for a man to handle all affairs of state. So, there was a council of ministers.
Ministers were appointed by King. They were conferred responsibility of departments given him by king.
Economy is the study of production, supply and consumption of goods and services. Man is also an
economic animal. Through the economic system man fulfils his needs. Economy refers to the ways
people use and interact with their environment to meet their needs. Economy includes how goods are
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produced, exchanged, distributed and consumed. Human activities which generate income are known as
economic activities. It includes food gathering, hunting, fishing, pastoral activities, agriculture, mining
and industrial activities are economic activities. Here we can recognize dominant economic activities of
human in India in different period of history-

Indus valley Civilization Agriculture and Trade

Vedic Period Pastoral and animal herding
Post Vedic and onward Agriculture

Social means related to society. Society is networking of social relations. In social history we discuss all
the groups made on the basis of social relation. Family is first among them. In family we discuss type of
family, type of marriage, status of women in family, role of family. Next is different forms of social
stratification means class or class. Next is religion.
Indus valley civilization

A glorious civilization flourished in the valley of the river Indus and its neighboring regions after
Chalcolithic Age. This civilization is known as the Indus Valley civilization. During the second decade of
the 20th century, archaeological excavations were carried out by Sir John Marshal, Director-General of
the Archaeological Department and his colleagues at Harappa in the Montgomery district of the Punjab
(Pakistan) and Mohenjo-Daro in the Larkana district of Sind (Pakistan) in 1921-22. Excavations brought
light on the remains of a great civilization which flourished there in the past. It arose in the north-western
part of India. It is generally called the Harappan Culture because this civilization was discovered first at
the modern site of Harappa.
Time and Extension
At first it was believed that this splendid civilization flourished in the valley of the Indus only. But recent
researches and excavations have brought to light the extensive nature of this civilization. It had spread
over various parts of Northern and Central India.
The exact period of this civilization is a matter of dispute among scholars. This is due to the failure of
deciphering the Indus script. Sir John Marshall has assigned this culture to the period 3150-2750 BC. But
in recent years, archaeologists have made use of scientific tests like carbon test and fixed the period of this
civilization from 2300 to 1750 BC.
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Harappa
The first city excavated of this civilization was Harappa. It is considered as the prime city in terms of its
size and the variety of objects discovered. The city of Harappa had existed on the banks of the river Ravi
in western Punjab. It was excavated by archaeologists like Dayaram Sahni, M. S. Vats and Mortimer
Wheeler from the early 1920‘s onwards.
The ruins of the city now scattered in an area of about three miles. It is assumed that a major section of the
people of Harappa was engaged in non-food producing activities like administration, craft and trade.
Naturally some other might have produced food for the Harappan people. The people of the neighboring
villages were involved in food production and the food grains produced in the villages were brought to the
city with the help of bullock carts and boats. The city of Harappa had existed on a trade route stretching
from Jammu to Central Asia through Afghanistan.
Mohenjo-Daro
Mohenjo-Daro was the large city of the Harappan civilization. It had a population of nearly 35,000. It is
located in the Larkana district of Sind on the banks of the river Indus. The excavation at Mohenjo-Daro
was first started in 1922 by Sir John Marshall with R. D. Banerji and later carried on by Mackay and
George Dales. Better evidences of town planning and seals are available from this site. It is viewed that
the people of Mohenjo-Daro had been building and rebuilding their houses due to floods. The height of
the remains is very high because of the rebuilding process.
Kalibanga
Kalibanga in Rajasthan along the dried-up bed of the river Ghaghar is another important Harappan city.
This site was excavated by B. K. Thapar in the 1960‘s which have the evidences of pre-Harappan and
Harappan habitations.
Lothal
Lothal in Gujarat is another important city excavated. S.R. Rao was in charge of the excavations of the
Harappan sites in Gujarat. It located in the coastal area of the Gulf of Cambay. A dock-yard was also
excavated from there. Therefore, it is believed that Lothal was an outpost for sea trade with the West-
Asian territories. The remains of a great artificial platform with streets and houses of regular plan have
been discovered at Lothal.
Characteristics of Harappan Culture
The Harappan or Indus culture was essentially an urban culture. The city of Mohenjo-Daro was fairly big,
beautiful and well planned. Lamp posts at intervals indicate the existence of street lighting. The streets of
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the city were wide and straight. They ran from east to west from north to south cutting each other at right
angles. The streets were built in such a way as to be cleaned automatically by winds. The elaborate
drainage system was a unique feature of the city. There was a pillared hall probably used as a municipal
hall at the center of the city. The city was surrounded by a massive wall built of burnt bricks.
The dwelling houses were many in number. They varied in size from a small building with two rooms to
palatial structures with two or more stories. There were many architectural devices to beautify them. They
were made of burnt bricks. The houses were generally well ventilated and well furnished. They had paved
floors, courtyards and staircases. All houses had wells, bathrooms and drains.
The most important structure of the city was the Great Bath with pillared corridors on all sides. It
consisted of a large swimming pool at the center with galleries and rooms on all sides. There were steps
leading to the pool. Proper arrangements were made for filling the pool with good water from one way and
for discharging the dirty water through another way. The Great Bath was a marvel of their engineering
skill.
City life was well developed and well organized in the Indus valley. The citizens were provided with all
the civic amenities. The city was divided into several wards. An efficient police force protected the life
and property of the citizens. On the whole, the ruins of the city indicate the existence of a well-developed
municipal life in the Indus valley civilization.
Harrapan Economy
Agriculture formed the backbone of their economy. In addition to food crops, they cultivated corn.
Perhaps they were the first people in the ancient world to learn and practice the art of spinning cotton and
dying cotton cloth. Vessels of copper, bronze and silver were made by them. Pottery making had reached
a high level of perfection and they had colored and glazed pottery.
The Harappans conducted trade both within the northern and western area of the sub-continent and with
Persian Gulf and Mesopotamian regions. Many Harappan seals have been discovered in Mesopotamia.
Trade was necessitated by the absence of raw materials in Harappa. Probably the barter system existed.
Social life of Harrapan
The people of the Indus valley had a highly developed social organization. The majority of the people
belonged to the high or the middle class. They lead a simple life. The society was democratically
organized and there was no caste system. The main food crops were wheat and barley. Beef, mutton, fish,
milk and vegetables were also used as food. Ornaments of gold, silver and precious stones were used by
men and women.
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Hair styles were common. Men kept short beards and women used cosmetics. The garments were
generally made of cotton and occasionally of wool. The Indus people had their own sports past times.
Hunting, bull fighting, cock fighting etc. were quite common. They were also fond of dance and music.
They adopted different methods for the disposal of the dead. Complete burial and cremation were
common among them. In the words of John Marshall, the Indus religion was ―the lineal progenitor of
modern Hinduism‖.
Religious life of Harrapan
The Indus people had a fairly advanced type of religion. The idols as well as the images and pictures on
the seals indicated the salient features of their faith. Their chief deity was the Mother Goddess – Shakti.
Further there was a male god with three faces in Yogic pose surrounded by four animals depicted on the
seals. It is identified as the pre-historic Siva or Pasupathi.
The worship of stones, trees, animals etc. were popular among them. The most common animals of
worship were the bull, the rhinoceros, the goat, the crocodile and the snake. The dove was worshiped as a
sacred bird.
Art and craft of Harrapan
The Indus people were highly interested in arts and crafts. The artistic and aesthetic sense of the people
found expression in their painted pottery. Making utensils and ornaments of various shapes and designs
was their hobby. The Indus seals have been considered as master pieces of the engraver‘s art. More than
2000 seals with beautiful engravings have been discovered.
The bronze figure of the dancing girl found at Mohenjo-Daro was an excellent piece of art. There were
also numerous figures of animals and birds. They also produced wonderful toys of terracotta for their
children. Pots painted with attractive designs were also produced on a large scale.
Harrapan Script
The Indus people had developed the art of writing and even developed a script. This script has not been
deciphered as yet and is a mystery for the scholars. But some say that it is pictographic where each letter
stands for some object, idea or sound. They have discovered about 250 to 400 pictographs.
There are also controversies as regards the direction of the script. Sir John Marshall is of the view that the
Indus script was read from left to right. Dr. Prem Nath, however, believes that the Indus script can be read
from right to left. As far as the language of the script is concerned, some scholars take it to be Sanskrit
while other as Dravidian, but nothing final can be said until this script is read. In order to decipher this
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script some writers try to show the resemblance of the Indus script with other scripts in the ancient
Civilizations, especially with the Sumerian script.
Political life of Harrapan
There is no idea about the political organization of the Harappans. Perhaps the Harappan rulers were more
concerned with commerce that with conquests and Harappa was possibly ruled by a class of merchants.
Evidences, like drainage, town planning, trading items suggests that there was an organization like a
municipal corporation to look after the civil amenities of the people.
Early excavations indicated that the cities were oligarchic commercial republics. But later discoveries
suggest a centralized state rather than a number of independent communities. According to some scholars
the ruler was most probably a Priest King. It is difficult to say a final word on the subject till the
availability of more relevant materials.
Decline
The decline and fall of the Indus civilization is a tangled problem and no single explanation can claim
infallible truth. The decline was progressive and the city was already slowly dying before its ultimate end.
Houses mounting on artificial platforms or upon the ruins in their endeavor to check the floods were
shoddy in construction, older buildings were subdivided, even domestic courtyards were partitioned.
Many competent scholars led by Wheeler postulate that the final blow was delivered by the Aryan
invaders. With the narrowing gap between the end of the Indus cities and the invasion of the Aryans, this
seems to be possible. The unburied skeletons lying in the streets of Mohenjo-Daro are very suggestive of
the above view. It is widely accepted that somewhere about the middle of the 2nd millennium BC the
Aryan invasion of India took place which assumed the form of an onslaught upon the walled cities of the
aborigines. This is the theme of the Rig Vedic hymns, the earliest literature of India.
The scene of a battle, mentioned in the Rig-Veda was Hariyupiya, a place which does not seem to be
unrelated with the name of Harappa itself. The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift horses which
enabled them to become masters of the Indus cities.
The complete ruin of the Indus cities could also have been due to the wiping out of their system of
agriculture. The rivers might have changed their courses which would make irrigation impossible and ruin
the city.
Pestilence and the erosion of the surrounding landscapes owing to over-exploitation may also be reasons
for the end of certain settlements like Kalibanga. Moreover, the conquerors might have shattered the dams
by which flood irrigation was made to deposit silt on a vast expanse of land. This made cereal production
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impossible and dealt a great blow to the endurance of the cities which had already begun to decay from
long stagnation.
Pre Vedic-Culture

After decline of Indus valley civilization, a new Civilization was immerged on the land of India. This
civilization was completely different to its preceding Indus valley civilization. Indus valley civilization
was an urban civilization while it was a completely rural civilization.
The Vedic society developed in the north and northwestern India (Sapt Saindhav region) after the decline
of mature phase of the Indus civilization. In fact, it developed as a continuation of the late Harappan rural
culture. This particular phase of the ancient history of India is called the Vedic period as its history is
reconstructed mainly on the basis of the information available from the four Vedas namely Rig-Veda,
Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.
The word Veda is derived from Sanskrit word ‗vid‘ which means ‗knowledge‘. The Vedas are essentially
a compilation of prayers and hymns, offered by different families of poets and sages to various Gods. The
Vedas are also ‗samhitas‘ in the sense that they represent the oral tradition of that period. They were not
recorded when they were first composed. The recording took place after a long period of their
composition.
Archaeological Evidences for Vedic Culture
The history of the Indus civilization is reconstructed on the basis of archaeological evidences only. But
when we come to the historical period of the Vedic culture more information is derived from the literary
sources. Here archaeological sources act as supplementary to the available literary sources. The
archaeological sources mainly throw light upon the material life of the then people and the society.
Excavations conducted in Punjab, Northern Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh along the Indus and Ghaghar Rivers
over the last forty years have unearthed many settlements which had existed roughly between 1700 BC to
600 BC. The important materials excavated from these sites are pottery called ‗ochre colored pottery (xs:
e`nHkkM)‘, Black and Red ware and ‗Painted Gray ware‘ cultures.
The Ochre colored pottery (OCP) culture is associated with a particular type of pottery. More than 100
sites have yielded this characteristic pottery in the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
The OCP culture is succeeded by Black and Red Ware (BRW) and painted Gray Ware (PGW) cultures.
Black and Red Ware (BRW) have been found at Atranjikhera. Some of the pots are wheel made and some
others are handmade.
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The BRW recovered from Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan have paintings, while those found in the
doab area have no painting at all. Waste flakes, chips, heads of shell and copper, copper ring and
fragments of comb made of bone and found in the BRW sites at Atranjikhera. BRW are received from a
wider area with some variations from region to regions. It covers a period between 2400 BC and the early
centuries of the Christian era.
Literary Sources: Vedic literature
The most important literary source for the study of the Vedic society is the ‗Vedic literature‘ consisting of
the Vedas, Brahmans, Aranyakas, Upanishadsand Puranas. Though they were not recorded in any
chronological order, they provide useful information about the Vedic society. Rig-Veda, Samaveda,
Yajurveda and Atharva Veda are the four Vedas.
Veda
The Rig-Veda was the oldest and the most important book of the Aryans. It consists of 1017 hymns
divided into ten mandalas or chapters. The hymns are addressed to various Gods imploring them to send
material blessings to the people. They throw light on the early Aryan culture and society.
The Yajurveda contains both hymns and commentaries. It describes the performance of sacrifices. The
Samaveda is a collection of hymns that were meant to be sung by a special class of priests. According to
R. C. Majumdar, ‗the Samaveda has great significance in the history of Indian music. It also throws
interesting light on the growth of sacrificial ceremonies‖. The Atharvaveda is partly prose and partly
poetry. It deals with magic and spells to overcome enemies.
Brahmana
The Brahmans are commentaries useful for the easy comprehension of the Vedas. They also contain
instructions to the priests regarding the correct chanting and pronunciation of the ‗mantras.
Aranyaka
The Aranyaka are part of the Brahmans. They are also called forest books, which are considered too
sacred to be read only in the loneliness of the forest. Aranyaka are the great philosophical thoughts of the
great saints of the past.
Upanishads
The Upanishads describe the religious and spiritual thoughts of the Aryans. They discuss serious problems
like Karma, soul and salvation. Max Muller called the Upanishads as, ―the most wonderful composition of
human mind‖.
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The Vedic literature throws light on the life, culture and civilization of the Aryans. The political, social,
economic and religious life of the Aryans also reflects in the Vedic literature. The Sutra, Smriti, the
Purana, Dharma shastras, the epics etc. are come under the category of the later Vedic literature. The
Sutras contains rules relating to Vedic rituals and customary laws. The Smritis deal with laws, customs
and practices of the various Aryan groups. The Puranas are legends. They are helpful in bridging the gaps
of several royal dynasties in the history of ancient India.
The great epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata deal with the achievement of the great heroes in the
early days of the Indo-Aryans. The Ramayana was composed by the great saint Valmiki. It deals with the
conflict between the Aryan and non- Aryan civilizations.
The Mahabharata describes the war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. According to tradition,
Vyasa was its compiler. Both the epics are inverses and discuss about life, culture and religion of the
people of the later Vedic period.
Origin and Home of the Aryans
This civilization was established by Aryans who compiled Vedas. So, this civilization is also known as
Vedic civilization. In Hindi the Antonym of Arya is Anarya. Whose literal meaning is ‗Anari‘ means one
who does not have knowledge. It indicates that Aryans were intelligent or excellent. Sanskrit was the
speaking language of Aryans. It is the reason Max Mueller called them a linguistic group.
It has long been a matter of controversy as to what region the Indo-Europeans inhabited before the arrival
of one or more of their branches to India. Ganganath Jha tried to prove that the Vedic Aryans were neither
foreigner nor did they migrate into India, but were the indigenous people, who regarded Sapta Sindhu as
their original home. Gangadhar Tilak suggested the Polar region as the original home of the Aryans.
Some inscriptions of about 1350 BC found at Boghaz- Koi in Cilicia (Asia Minor), the capital of the
ancient Hittites, mention some Aryan deities such as Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatyas (Aswins).

Max Mueller Central Asia

B.G. Tilak Arctic Region
A.C. Das Sapta Sindhu or the Punjab region
Swami Dayanand Saraswati Tibet

Aryans were initially established in Sapta Saindhva region means the region of seven Rivers.
Aryan Settlements in India
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The hymns of the Rig-Veda afford an interesting glimpse of the Aryan settlements in India. The centre of
their activities was the Punjab. The rivers most often referred to are the Indus itself, the Sarasvati and the
Drishadvati and the five streams -Sutudri (Sutlej), Vipas (Beas), Parushni (Ravi), Asikni (Chenab) and
Vitasta (Jhelum). The Rig-Veda also mentions some rivers of Afghanistan namely Kubha (Kabul), Gomati
(Gomal) Krumu (Kurram) and Suvastu (Swat).
Dasrag Yuddha
The Rig-Veda mentions one outstanding historical event, i.e., the victory of King Sudas over the Ten-
king confederacy. Sudas was the chief of the Bharatas. At first Visvamitra was the priest of Sudas who,
however, dismissed the former and appointed Vasishta as his priest.
There upon a long and bitter struggle ensued between the two rival priests. Vishvamitra led a tribal
confederacy of ten kings against the Bharatas, the federation consisting of the five Arya tribes - Puru,
Yadu, Turvasa, Adu and Druhya along with five Non-Arya tribes namely -Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas, Siva
and Vishanin. The Bharatas utterly routed the confederacy on the bank of the River Parushni (Ravi).
The Bharatas were settled in the region between the Sarasvati and the Yamuna while the Purus remained
in the Harappa region. Though defeated the Purus were a very important tribe and were closely connected
with Bharatas. Out of the amalgamation of these rival tribes in later Vedic period emerged the Kurus.
Political Life of early Vedic Period

The lowest unit of the Rig-Vedic society was the patriarchal family. A number of families bound together
by ties of blood formed a clan, several clans formed a Gram and a number of Gram composed a Vis. Jan
was the highest political unit formed through the composition of Vis.
The head of family was known as Kulap. The ‗grama‘ consisted of several families. It was under a
headman known as ‗Gramani‘. During war or battle he used to lead the soldiers from his village. He
attended the meetings of the ‗Sabha‘ and ‗Samiti‘. Several villages formed a ‗Vis‘. It was placed under a
‗Visapati‘. He was a military leader.
A group of ‗Vish‘ formed a ‗Jan' whose members were bound together by real or supposed ties of kinship.
Rajan or Gopa was the head of one ‗Jan‘. Rig Veda mentions about various Jans such as Bharatas,
Matsyas, Krivis and Tritsus. But the tribes which acquired great importance are the Purus, Trigvasas,
Yadus, Aus and Drahyus.
Form of Government
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Monarchy was the normal form of Government. Kingship was hereditary. But there was a sort of
hierarchy in some states, several members of the royal family exercising the power in common. There
were references of democratic form of government and their chiefs were elected by the assembled people.
The King
The kingdom was small in extent. The king enjoyed a position of pre-eminence in the tribe. Kingship was
hereditary. He was appointed by the priest as king in the ‗Abhisheka‘ Ceremony. The king had the duty to
protect the life and property of his people. He was required to be ‗Indra‘ in valour, ‗Mitra‘ in kindness and
‗Varuna‘ in virtues. He maintained justice with the help of Purohits. He collected tributes known as ‗Bali‘
in kind from his subjects.
Officials
The king was assisted 12 Ratnins. The 12 Ratnins were as follows: Purohit- King's chief counselor,
Senani- Army chief, Gramni- village soldier, Mahishi- King's wife, Suta- Raja's charioteer, Kshatri -
Pratihara, Sangrahit - Treasurer, Bhagududh - Tax collector, Akshavap - Accountant, Govikrit - Forest
officer, Palagal - Raja's friend. Purohita was the most important officer of the state.
The Army
The army was mainly consisting of Patti (infantry) and Rathins (chariots). The weapons used by the
soldiers were bows, arrows, swords, axes and spears. These weapons were made up of irons. The soldiers
were organized into units known as Sardha, Vrata and Gana.
Popular Assemblies
Two popular assemblies of Vedic period were Sabha and Samiti. In the Atharva Veda, the Sabha and
Samiti have been called the two daughters of Prajapati. In the work of administration king was consulted
by these two bodies and act according to their suggestions. Sabha was a selected body of elders. Sabhapati
was the head of the sabha. It also functioned as a court of law and tried the cases of criminals and
punished them.
The Samiti was the most popular assembly and included common people. The head of Samiti was known
as ‗Ishan or Pati‘. The Samiti mainly dealt with the political business of the state. It was also responsible
for election of king. Both women and men were involved in Vidath. Social work such as welcoming of the
newlyweds, religious rituals were done in the Vidath.
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Economic life of the Early Vedic period

In the early Vedic age, economy was Agro-pastoral in character. It means agriculture along with animal
husbandry played equally important role in strengthening the economic standard of the people. Cattle-
rearing was an important occupation and the cow was treated by the Aryans with veneration and respect as
the source of wealth and economic prosperity. Gopa was in charge of daily pasture-feeding of cows,
buffaloes, sheep etc. the Aryans had also domesticated other animal like horse, dog, donkeys, goat etc. the
animals specially stamped, by their owners for their identity among large herds of cattle.
The Vedic Aryans were not indifferent to the other branches of economic growth that is craft and
Technology. In fact, they had exhibited great expertise in woodwork, Metallurgy, earthenware and
tannery. Chariots, cars and boats were the chief products for carpenters. Metal-smiths used to prepare
different types of ornaments and weapons. The waver community was in charge of spinning and weaving.
Special class of artisans where there for preparing leather goods, mat-stitching and horn-works. Vedic
literature affirms the existence of physicians who had the knowledge for preparing medicines from various
herbal plants.
Advent of iron changed life of Vedic people. Iron was a hard metal that was used in making strong and
sharp tools and weapons. Socketed hand axe made of iron were extensively used to clear the forests and
develop cultivating land. Iron became backbone of agriculture. Growth in agriculture introduced
numerous changes in socio-economic life of people. They started to live in permanent settlements. Their
life got security and stability. Animal husbandry and agriculture became complimentary of each other.
Thus, scholars believed that the knowledge of Iron technology was an important factor for the
development of agrarian economy. The objects which are found in the excavations are iron tipped
arrowheads, spearheads, etc. i.e., weapons of which the largest number comes from the Ahichhatra
excavations.
Social life of Pre-Vedic culture

The Rig Vedic Society was a tribal society. The term ‗Kula‘ for families is mentioned rarely in Rig-Veda.
Kul comprised father, mother, sons, slaves and so on. Kulapa was the head of the family. Kulapa is often
described not only as householder but as fighter.
The term used for color was ‗Varna‘. Vedic people were categorized into four Varna. Four basic
categories are defined under this system - Brahmins (priests, teachers and intellectuals), Kshatriyas
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(warriors, kings and administrators), Vaishyas (agriculturalists, traders, farmers) and Shudras (workers,
laborers, artisans).
The women had also an honorable place in the society, even though it was patriarchal. They were
educated and had been admitted in the assembly. They enjoyed the privilege of choosing their partners and
to marry late. However, they were always considered as the dependents of father, brother or husband. The
Rig Veda mentions the names of learned women like Apala, Ghoshala, Lopamudra and Vishwara etc. who
had even composed hymns.
In religion, the Aryans of the Rig Vedic age were nature worshippers; Indra occupied the important place
among the Vedic gods. Varuna (sky god), Rudra (storm god), Vayu (god of wind) Ushas (goddess of
dawn) Agni (god of fire) etc. were also venerated by them. The Vedic religion was mainly ritualistic.
Prayers and sacrifices formed the important part of their worship.
Gana
The term Gana derives from the root ‗Gan‘ which means to count. It is a technical word for ‗republic‘.
However, it is used in Vedic literature to refer tribal or clan solidarity. In every case member of the Gana
are represented as having the same ancestor. The term Gana is found at forty-six places in the Rig-Veda,
at nine in Atharvaveda and at several places in the Brahmans. In Vedic literature the term is used in the
sense of a tribal or clan solidarity.
Gotra
The literary meaning of ‗gotra‘ in the Rigvedic period was Cowden or cow shed or stable. In the course of
time, significance of gotra changes correspondingly to mean ‗household‘ as well as ‗clan‘. The term gotra
might have been used in the tribal stages to mention a unit of kinship. People of the unit kinship when
lived together with their cows came to be known as gotra to the Rigvedic period. However, it is not
necessary that the members of a gotra descended.
Later Vedic Periods

The later Vedic age roughly 1000-600 BC witnessed significant changes in the political, social, economic
and religious life of the Aryans. Advent of iron is most important achievement of this age. Iron was called
shyama or Krishana Ayas (Black metal). The small tribal states of Rig Vedic period were replaced by
powerful states. The term ―Rashtra‖, which means territory, first appeared in later Vedic period. With the
emergence of big kingdoms in the Later Vedic Age the struggle for supremacy among different states was
of frequent occurrence.
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The sacrifices like Rajasuya and Ashvamedha were performed to signify the imperial sway of monarchs
over the rivals. These rituals impressed the people with the increasing power and prestige of the king. The
Rig Vedic title of ―Rajan‖ was replaced by the impressive titles like Samrat, Ekrat, Virat, Bhoj etc. These
titles marked the growth of imperialism and feudal ideas.
The later Vedic period witnessed the widening and shifting of the geographical horizations. During this
period the Vedic tribe had moved from the Sapta-Saindhav region to the region of the Ganga-Yamuna a
whole of western Uttar Pradesh. The Kurus occupied Delhi and the upper portions of doab, the area called
Kurukshetra or the land of the Kurus. Gradually they merged with Panchalas, which occupied the middle
portions of doab and established their capital at Hastinapur. The history of the Kurus is important for the
Kurukshetra war which was fought between the Kurus and the Pandavas of the Kuru clan. Towards the
end of the later Vedic period, they further moved east to Kosala in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Videha in
north Bihar.
They fought against the users of copper implements and the black and red pottery. In western U. P they
fought against the users of ochre or red pottery and copper implements. In some areas they fought against
the natives who were considered as the late Harappans. The later Vedic people attained victory over the
natives because of the use of horse drawn chariots and iron weapons.
PGW Culture (Painted Gray Ware)
It was first excavated from Ahichatra in 1946. It is wide spread in North India. Thirty sites of PGW
culture have been excavated so far including Bhagwanpura in Haryana, Now in Rajasthan, Rupar in
Punjab etc. These settlements are located along the river banks and are mostly small villages. The pottery
of this culture is wheels made and is gray in color. Bowls and dishes are the common types of this culture.
The people of this period lived in circular or rectangular houses. Certain houses had more than a dozen
rooms. Several objects made out of copper, bone, iron and glass and found in the PGW sites. Iron objects
are found in all most all sites. Ornaments had been used by the people. Remains of rice, barley and wheat
were discovered at the sites of Hastinapur and Atranjikhera.
Political Life of Later Vedic Period

The king had absolute power. He became the master of all subjects. The Sabha of the Rig Vedic Period
died. The king sought the aid and support of the Samiti on matters like war, peace and fiscal policies. In
the work of administration, the king was assisted by a group of officers who were known as Ratnins
(Jewels).
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They included Purohita, Senani (general), Gramani (leader of the village), Bhagadugha (collector of
taxes), Rathakara (Chariot marker) Suta (charioteer), Akshavapa (superintendent of gambling), ksattr ({kr`
door keeper), Govikartana (king‘s companion in the chase), Palogala (courtier) Takshan (r{kuCarpenter).
In the Later Vedic Period Gramani was both a civil and military officer Gramani was the medium through
which the royal power was exercised in the village. The king administered justice. Occasionally he
delegated his judicial power to Adhyakshas. In the villages, Gramyavadin (Village judge) and Sabha
(court) decided the cases. Punishments for crimes were severe. The father was the head of the property of
the family. In case of inheritance of property, the law of primogeniture was applied. By this rule the eldest
son would inherit the property of the deceased father. Neither the women nor the sudras had any right to
property.
Later Vedic Ministers
Name Function
Vrajapati Officer-in-charge of pasture land
Purohita Priest of highest order
Jivagribha Police official
Senani Supreme commander-in-chief
Gramani Head of the village
Kulapati Head of the family
Spasas Spies & Messengers
Bhagadugha Revenue collector
Madhyamasi Mediator for dispute solving
Palagala Messenger
Sanghrahriti Treasurer
Suta Charioteer
Kshatri Chamberlain (an officer who managed the
household of a monarch or noble)
Sthapati Chief Judge
Mahishi Chief Queen
Govikartana Keeper of forests & games
Akshavapa Accountant
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Takshan Carpenter

Economy life of the Later Vedic period

Agriculture became chief occupation of the people. They ploughed the ground and as many as twenty-four
oxen were used to drag the large and heavy plough. The furrow (Sita) was known. The use of manure was
well understood for increasing production. A cultivator or ploughman was called Kinasa. Many kinds of
grains were grown – such as barley, rice wheat, beans,sesame (til) and lentils (masur). There were two
harvests in a year.
The expansion of the Aryans coupled with the increase in the material prosperity gave rise to numerous
occupations to meet the growing needs of the people. Thus, there were fishermen, fire-rangers, ploughers,
weavers, dyers, washer men, barbers, butchers, footmen, messengers, makers of jewels, baskets, ropes,
chariots and bows, smiths, potters, professional acrobatsand musicians.
There was no regular system of currency of coinage. But some improvised coinage like Krishnala,
Satamana and Nishka made their appearance. Krishnala was a unit of weight which usually weighed one
ratti, that is 1.8 grains. Satamana, a piece of gold equivalent to weight of 100 Krishnalas, was used by the
merchants as currency.
The Nishka replaced the cow as a unit of value. The advance of civilization was marked by the extended
use of metals – gold (hiranya), silver (rajata), bronze (ayas), iron (krishnayas), copper (red ayas), lead
(sisa). Gold and silver were used to make ornaments.
Social life of post Vedic period

Society
The later Vedic period witnessed a transformation of the pastoral society to a sedentary agrarian society.
This transformation was made a reality with the discovery and use of iron implements. The excavated
objects of this period include iron tipped arrow- heads, spear heads, sickles and axes. However, iron
technology was not developed and not widely used in the agricultural activities. Iron is called ‗Shyama‘ or
‗Krishna ayas‘ in the later Vedic texts.
During the later Vedic period iron was used in eastern Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Western
Uttar Pradesh. It seems that iron was used mainly for making weapons. Iron did not influence the
agricultural technology until the second half of the first millennium BC
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The later Vedic society was divided into four varnas namely Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and
Shudras. The hymn in the later portion of the Rig Veda for the first time describes the origin of the four
Varna. The doctrine of Varnashrama Dharma and Chaturvarna were introduced during this period.
The Brahmins formed the priestly class. The Kshatriyas were trained in war fare, the Vaishyas in trade and
agriculture and the shudras took to menial jobs. The Varna was elastic at first, but in course of time it
became rigid. Change of caste and inter marriages with the shudras were looked upon with growing
disfavor.
There was a marked deterioration in the status of women during this period. Daughters were regarded as a
source of misery. Women were deprived of their right to attend the Samiti. They had no right to inherit
property. Thus, they became mere dependents of their fathers, husbands or sons. The Shudras formed the
lowest section of the Varna society. The later Vedic text Aitereya Brahmana mentioned the worst position
of the shudras. He is called the servant of the other, to be made to work at the will of the other and to be
beaten at will.
Rituals and the Role of Brahmins
The later Vedic age witnessed the growth of ceremonial religion and priesthood religion became more
ritualistic and superstitious. The simple religious worship of the Rig Vedic period gave place to elaborate
rituals and complex sacrifices. As a result, the power of the priest/Brahmin increased. The worship of
Brahma, Vishnu and Siva became more popular among the people.
They were believed as creator, the preserver and the destroyer of mankind respectively. Besides the nature
worship, the worship of Krishna and Rama was also known to them. Modern Hinduism which assimilated
many non-Aryan practices and beliefs was gradually taking shape during this period.
Idol worship, belief in good and evil spirits was absorbed in the religion of the Aryans. The cardinal tenets
of Hinduism like the transmigration of soul, moksha, Karma and Maya were enunciated during this
period. Thus, the organization of Hinduism was the main achievement of the later Vedic age.
Mahajanpad Periods (from 6th century BC to 3rd century BC)

In 6th century B.C. 16 Mahajanpads came in existence. The 6 century BC is often regarded as a major
turning point in early Indian history. It is an era associated with early states, cities; the growing use of
iron, the development of coinage etc. It also witnessed the growth of diverse systems of thought including
Buddhism and Jainism. Early Buddhist and Jain texts mentioned sixteen states known as Mahajanpadas.
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Although the lists vary, some names such as Vajji, Magadha, Koshala, Kuru, Panchal, Gandhara and
Avanti occur frequently. Clearly these were amongst the most important Mahajanpdas. While most
Mahajanpdas were ruled by kings some known as Ganas or sanghas were oligarchies where power was
shared by a number of men often collectively called Rajas. Both Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to
such ganas. Each Mahajanpada had a capital city which was later fortified.
16th Mahajanpada

Name of Mahajanpada Capital Location

Magadha Rajgirih and Patliputra Southern Bihar
Anga Champa East Bihar
Vajji Vaishali North Bihar
Malla Kushinara Eastern Uttar Pradesh
Kashi Varanasi Varanasi
Vatsa Koshambi Allahabad
Panchal Kampilya Rampur, Bareli
Kuru Hastinapur Meerut, Saharanpur
Koshal Shravasti/Ayodhya Ayodhya, Bahraich
Sursen Mathura Mathura and Aligarh
Matsya Virathanagar Eastern Rajasthan
Chedi Shuktimati Bundelkhand
Avantika Mahishmati and Ujjain Malwa
Ashmak Potana/Prathistanpur Maharashtra
Gandhar Takshila Pakistan-Afghanistan Border
Kamboj Rajpur (Rajauri in Kashmir) Gandhar

Republics of 6 century BC

In the sixth century B.C. some states in northern India were not ruled by kings but formed petty republics
or oligarchies. That was the age of the Buddha and therefore, the republican states of this period have been
called ‗Republics of the age of the Buddha‘.
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The Buddhist sources provide sufficient information regarding the then republican state of the
Lichchhavis. The republican states which had a unitary character were called City-republics or Nigamas,
while the republics having a federal character were called State-republics or Janapadas.
In all these states, the people who had the right to rule according to settled laws of the state used to
assemble at an assembly-hall called the Santhagara discussed all important matters concerning the state.
The members of this assembly elected members of the executive, Commander-in-Chief of the forces, the
Treasurer, etc.
The members of the executive were called Rajana and the head of executive was sometimes given the title
of Raja (King). In many republics the office of the Raja and also that of other executive members had
become hereditary but they could be displaced by election. In certain other republics the head of the
executive was not called Raja but Ganapati and he as well as other members of the executive were elected
for a fixed period.
The Sakyas of Kapilavastu (situated near the border of Nepal), Lichchavis of Vaisali (Bihar) Mallas of
Pava (Uttar Pradesh) Mallas of Kushinara (Uttar Pradesh) Koliya of Ramagrama (Uttar Pradesh), Bhagya
of Sunsamagiri (Mirzapur district Uttar Pradesh), Mauryas of Piphalivana (situated near the border of
Nepal). Videhas of Mithila (situated near the border of Nepal) were some important republics of 6 th
century BC. Most of them brought about their ruin because of their mutual conflicts and the rest of it was
completed by the rising power of Magadha which was able to annex them all.
Jainism and Buddhism
The 6th century BC was a period of great spiritual and religious unrest in the world. It was an age of
spiritual analysis, synthesis and innovations. In India, the period saw the rise of two new religions Jainism
and Buddhism.
Causes/Background for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism
1. Vedic religion lost its original purity and decayed into a lifeless and mechanical system. It attached
greater importance to sacrifices and ceremonies than to acts real piety.
2. The cruelty in killing and sacrificing animals in the name of religion shocked many people. It created a
feeling of revolt and contempt against the Vedic religion.
3. The Brahmins as priests and teachers claimed the highest status in society. They became earthly gods.
Hence the people were in need of a new system of faith free from Brahminical domination.
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4. The rigidity of the caste system was another important cause for the rise of new religions. Caste
created great social inequalities. Naturally, the people desired for a new social order based on the
principles of equality and justice.
5. The religious literature and scriptures of the Vedic religion were in Sanskrit which has beyond the
comprehension of the common people. Hence there was the need for a new religion which was easy to
understand in their language.
6. The ascendancy of the Brahmins and their arrogant class pride were especially galling to the governing
class of Kshatriyas. The Kshatriya reaction against the Brahmin domination was one of the causes of
the origin of new religions. It is significant that the reform movement was led by two Kshatriyas of the
royal family Mahavira and Gautama.
7. Socio-Economic factors also favored the rise of new religions. The agricultural economy of the period
required the use of bullocks and it could not flourish without animal husbandry. But the Vedic Practice
of killing cattle for sacrifices stood in the way of the progress of agriculture.
More over the use of coins, the growth of trade and commerce, rise of new towns and cities etc. increased
the importance of the Vaishyas as a wealthy class. But the Brahmins looked down upon the Vaisyas as
the third caste. Naturally the Vaisyas looked for some new religions which would improve their position.
It is generally believed that the founder of Jainism was Mahavira. But it is now recognized that Mahavira
was the 24th Tirthankara. The sacred books of Jain tell us that their first Tirthankara was Rishabh Deva.
He is also known as Adinatha. He is the founder of Jainism. He was the father of Bharata the first Vedic
king of India. Rishabh was followed by 23 Tirthankara. The Vishnu Purana and Bhagavat Purana
described Rishabh deva as an incarnation of Narayana. Parashva Nath was 23rd Tirthankara. He was son of
Ashwasena a king of Varanasi. He died at Summed Shikar Paras hills, Jharkhand (Hazaribagh). His four
main teachings were- Not to injure life, not to tell a lie, not to steal, not to possess property.
Mahavir Swami
Mahavira was the twenty-fourth tirthankara in Jainism who revived and reorganized the religion.
Historically, Mahavira was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha who preached Jainism in ancient India. A
member of the Kashyapa gotra Mahavira was born into the royal Kshatriya family of King Siddhartha and
Queen Trishala of the Ikshvaku dynasty in 540 B.C. Kunda Gram (Vaishali) Bihar. This is the dynasty in
which Hindu epics place Rama and the Ramayana.
His real name was Vardhaman. His father Siddhartha was the head of Jatrik Kul. It was a part of Vajji
federation. ‗Trishala‘ was the mother of Mahavir Swami she was the sister of famous Lichchavi king
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Chetak. ‗Chelana‘ was daughter of Chetak she married with Bimbisar. Yashodhara was wife of
Vardhaman. They had a child Anojya Priyadarshani, who was married with Jamali. Jamali was the 1 st
disciple of Mahaveer swami. Mahavira grew up as a prince. According to the second chapter of the
Svetambara Acharanga Sutra, his parents were lay devotees of Parsvanatha.
At age thirty, Mahavira abandoned royal life and left his home and family to live an ascetic life in the
pursuit of spiritual awakening. He undertook severe fasts and bodily mortifications, meditated under the
Ashoka treeand discarded his clothes. According to traditional accounts, Mahavira achieved Kevala Jnana
(omniscience, or infinite knowledge) under a Sala tree on the bank of the River Rijupalika near
Jambhikagrama at age 43 after twelve years of rigorous penance.
Other names of Mahaveer Swami:
Mahavira Great hero
Arihanta Killer of enemies
Jin Conqueror
Jitendriya Who conquered his senses
Nirgranth Freedom from bonds

Doctrines of Jainism

Mahavira accepted most of the religious doctrines of Parsava and codified the unsystematic mass of
beliefs into an organized and rigid religion. He rejected the authority of Vedas and the Vedic rituals. He
did not believe in the existence of God. He believed in Karma and transmigration of soul. Attainment of
Nirvana or Moksha was the most important human desire. It could be attained through Tri-Ratna:Right
faith (Samyak Vishwas), Right knowledge (Samyak Jnan) and Right conduct (Samyak Karma)
Five Great Vows
Jainism believes in five Great Vows. They are 5 principles, out of which 4 were given by Rishabh Nath
and 5th by Mahaveer Swami.
Satya – Speaking truth
Ahimsa – Non violence
Asteya – Non-stealing
Aparigrah – Non-possession
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Bramhcharya – added by Mahaveer Swami

Five instruments of knowledge

According to Jainism there are five types of knowledge:
Matijanya Gyan knowledge develop by Brain or mind
Avdhijanya Gyan knowledge develop by experience
Shrutjanya Gyan knowledge which is develop by a study of literature
Manhparyay Gyan Telepathic knowledge
Kevalaya Gyan (Supreme knowledge) person who attain this knowledge
is known as Kevlin
Sanlekhna
Sanlekhana also known as Samlehna, Santhara, Samadhi-marana or Sanyasana-marana; is a
supplementary vow to the ethical code of conduct of Jainism. It is the religious practice of voluntarily
fasting to death by gradually reducing the intake of food and liquids.
Sects of Jainism
There was a twelve-year famine around fourth century BCE. At that time, Chandragupta Maurya was the
ruler of Magadha and Bhadra bahu was the head of Jain community. Bhadra bahu went south to Karnataka
with his adherents and Sthula Bhadra, another Jain leader remained behind. During this time the
knowledge of the doctrine was getting lost. A council was formed at Pataliputra where eleven scriptures
called Angas were compiled and the remnant of fourteen Purvas was written down in 12th Anga,
Ditthivaya by the adherents of Sthul Bhadra. When followers of Bhadra bahu returned, there was a dispute
between them regarding the authenticity of the Angas. Also, those who stayed at Magadha started wearing
white clothes which was unacceptable to the other who remain naked. This is how the Digambar and
Svetambara sect came about. The Digambar being the naked ones where as Svetambara being the white
clothed. According to Digambar, the parvas and the angas were lost. In course of time, the cannons of
Svetambara were also getting lost.
Jain Council
First council was held at Pataliputra by Sthala Bahu in the beginning of the third century BC and resulted
in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14 Parvas. Second Council was held at Vallabhi in the
5th century AD under the leadership of Devaradhi Kshamasramana and resulted in final compilation of 12
Angas and 12 Upangas.
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Mahavira's teachings were compiled by Gautama Swami, his Ganadhara (chief disciple).
Anekantavada

Mahavira taught the doctrine of Anekantavada (many-sided reality). Although the word does not appear in
the earliest Jain literature or the Agamas, but the doctrine is illustrated in Mahavira's answers to questions
posed by his followers. Truth and reality are complex and have a number of aspects. Reality can be
experienced, but it is impossible to express it fully with language alone; human attempts to communicate
are nayas ("partial expression[s] of the truth"). Language itself is not truth, but a means of expressing it.
One can experience the "truth" of a taste, but cannot fully express that taste through language. Any
attempt to express the experience is syat: valid "in some respect", but still a "perhaps, just one perspective,
incomplete". Spiritual truths are also complex, with multiple aspects and language cannot express their
plurality; however, they can be experienced through effort and appropriate karma. Mahavira's
Anekantavada doctrine is also summarized in Buddhist texts such as the Samannaphala Sutta (in which he
is called Nigantha Nataputta) and is a key difference between the teachings of Mahavira and those of the
Buddha. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting the extremes of "it is" or "it is not"; Mahavira
accepted both "it is" and "it is not", with reconciliation and the qualification of "perhaps". This is called
Syadvad.
Bahubali
Bahubali was the son of Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara of Jainism and the younger brother of Bharata
Chakravartin. He is said to have meditated motionless for twelve years in a standing posture. After his
years of meditation, Bahubali is said to have attained omniscience (Kevala Gyana). Bahubali's other
names are Gommateshwara because of the Gommateshwara statue dedicated to him. The statue was built
by the Ganga dynasty minister and commander Chavundaraya; it is a 57-foot (17m) monolith (statue
carved from a single piece of rock) situated above a hill in Shravanabelagola in the Hassan district,
Karnataka. It was built in 981 A.D. and is one of the largest free-standing statues in the world.
BUDDHISM

Buddhism occupies a unique place in the history of Indian religions. Buddha was born as prince
Siddhartha in the Sakya Kul of Kshatriya in 563 BC at Lumbini (Ruminidei) of Nepal. His father
Sudhodhan was head of ‗Shakya kul‘.
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His mother Maha Maya was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was
conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side and ten
months later Siddhartha was born. The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada
countries as Vesak. Buddha's Birthday is called Buddha Purnima in Nepal, Bangladesh and India. Various
sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later.
Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati. By tradition, he is said to have
been destined by birth to the life of a prince and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him.
When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age
named Yashodhara. She gave birth to a son, named Rahul. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a
prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could
want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's
ultimate goal.
Name:
Siddharth given by his father
Gautam Due to Prajapati Gautami
Sakya Muni Sakya clan
Mahatma Buddha Because, he attained enlighten
Tathagata Because, he attains supreme knowledge

Kanthaka was the horse of Siddhartha. He wanted to learn about life outside his palace. Legend says that
he got out of the castle against his father's orders. He saw the "Four Great Sights": an old man, a sick man,
a dead man and a holy man with no home. When Siddhartha turned 20, he became a leader of the Shakya
clan. After eight years the Shakya and Koliya clans had a dispute. It was about the use of the water from
the Rohini River. People from both the sides fought and some were injured. After seeing this, the Shakya
clan held a meeting and decided to fight a war against the Koliyans to teach them lesson. Siddhartha
opposed the proposal and said, "War is not a solution to any problem. We can form a council with people
from both sides to solve our issues." Almost all the members rejected his opinion. The next day the head
of the clan said, "We are going to recruit new soldiers for the war and it is essential for a man who is
above 20 and below 50 years." Once again, Siddhartha opposed the proposal. The head of the clan
reminded Siddhartha of his oath, but Siddhartha replied that he would not fight.
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In order to search answer of this question, he left his home at age of 24 year he leaved his palace at night.
This is known as Maha-bhi-Niskramana and related with Lumbini. He spends 6 year as wandering ascetic.
In this period, he meets two Brahmin teachers namely Alara- Kalama, who taught him technique of
meditation and second was Rudrak – Rama putra, who taught him Hindu philosophy.
At age of 35 year, he reached at ‗Bodhgaya‘/Urugvella (ancient name) it is situated in Bihar. He took a
bath in Niranjana River and sat under a ‗Banyan tree‘. After eating ‗Kheer‘ made by Sujata, he began
meditation. On 49th day of his meditation he got enlightenment. After that he became ‗Mahatma Buddha‘-
This event is known as Nirvana. When the Buddha became enlightened, he found the answer to suffering
and he knew how to defeat suffering. This answer was called the Four Noble Truths.
Philosophy of Buddhism

The Philosophy of Buddhism includes Four Noble Truths and Eight-fold path.
The First Noble Truth
The first noble truth is called Dukkha, which means suffering. It says that life is full of suffering. To say it
a different way, in life, there is sickness, poverty (being poor), old age and death. People cannot keep what
they want. People cannot avoid what they do not want. If that is all a person learns, they suffer.
The Second Noble Truth
The second noble truth is Samudaya, which says that there is a reason for the suffering in the world. It
says that the reason there is suffering is that people want things. It also says that the reason there is
suffering is that people change what they think is real. They do this because they are ignorant. People do
wrong actions because they want things and because they do not see what is real. Those evil actions lead
to suffering.
The Third Noble Truth
The third noble truth is Nirodha. It says that people can be free from suffering when they no longer want
things.
The Fourth Noble Truth
The fourth noble truth is called Dukh Nirodh Gamini Pratipada. It says that for a person to stop wanting
things, they must follow a set of rules. The rules are called the Noble Eightfold Path.
The Eightfold Path
The eightfold path says that truth is found in the Middle Way. A person can get to the Middle Way by
following the eightfold path. The eight parts are these:
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1) Right Vision- A person should try to see things the way they really are.
2) Right Values- A person should try to turn their mind away from the world and towards the Dharma.
3) Right Speech- A person should try to be truthful and kind when they talk.
4) Right Actions- A person should try to do good things. If they cannot do a good thing, then they
should try to not do a bad thing.
5) Right Livelihood- A person should not work at something that can hurt themselves or other people.
6) Right Effort- A person should try to increase their goodness and get rid of their evil.
7) Right Mindfulness- A person must remember the Dharma and use it all the time.
8) Right Meditation- A person must try to reach enlightenment through meditation.
Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath (Rishipattanam) where his five former disciples had settled. To
these five ascetics he preached his first sermon and called it Dharma Chakra-pravartana. Buddha
emphasized on the importance of non-violence and forbade the killing of animals as part of religious
practices. He urged people to lead good life according to which the purpose of life was to purify the mind
and attain Nirvana, i.e., no more rebirths. He started monasteries which were places where Buddhist
monks lived and spent their lives praying and preaching Buddhism. These monasteries or viharas were
used as schools also. Many people joined Buddhism and very soon it spread in many parts of India.
Buddha died at the age of 80 in 483 BC at Kushinagar in the Malla republic. His last words were all
composite things decay, strive diligently.
Four places related to Mahatma Buddha
Place Event Symbol
Lumbini Birth Lotus and Bull
Lumbini The Great Departure (Maha-bhinishkramana) Horse
Gaya Enlighten Bodhi Tree
Sarnath First Sermon (Dhammachakraparivartan) Wheel
Kushinagar Death (Par nirvana) Stupa

Tri Pitak

The Tipitaka is composed of three main categories of texts that collectively constitute the Buddhist canon:
the Sutta Piṭaka, the Vinaya Piṭaka and the Abhidhamma Piṭaka.
(1) Vinaya Pitak
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It is the collection of rules and regulations of monastic life that range from dress code and dietary rules
to prohibitions of certain personal conducts.
(2) Suta Pitak
The Buddha delivered all his sermons in Pali, the local language of Bihar. These sermons were
rehearsed orally during the meeting of the First Buddhist council just after the Pari-nirvana of the
Buddha. The teachings continued to be transmitted orally until they were written down in the first
century BC. It is divided into five parts. Each part is known as Nikay. (i) Dirgha Nikay (ii) Majham
Nikay (iii) Sanyukt Nikay (iv) Anguttar Nikay (5) Khudak Nikay.
(3) Abhidhamma Pitak
It is the collection of philosophical and psychological analysis and interpretation of Buddhist doctrine.
Other Text of Buddhism
(1) Jatak
Collection of 500 stories related to the previous births of Mahatma Buddha.
(2) Millind-panho
Milind was an Indo-Greek ruler (original name was Menander) he was influenced with Buddhism but
he had some queries. So, he met with Buddha-Monk Nagarjuna and asked a lot of questions related to
Buddhism. Nagarjuna answered all the questions. Millind-Panho means a ‗question of Milind‘ and it is
collection of question raised by Milind and answer presented by Nagarjuna. This book is written in
‗Pali‘ language.
Buddhist councils

After a death of Mahatma Buddha four Buddhist councils had been held in order to secure proper
development of Buddhism.
Buddhist Council Year Venue Patron Chairman
1st 483 BC Rajgriha Ajatshatru Mahakashyap
Vinay and Sutta Pitak were compiled in this council.
Vinay Pitak was compiled under a direction of Upali.
2nd 383BC Vaishali Kalashok Sabbkami
Sthavirvadi and Mahasanghik
3rd 247BC Patliputra Ashok Mogaliputta tissa
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Abhidham pitak was compiled in 3rd Buddhist council.
Missionaries to a different part of a world. He sent his son Mahindra and daughter Samhita to
SriLanka.
4th 92 AD kundal van Kashmir Kanishka Vasumitra
Vasu-mitra was a president of this council who was help by ‗Ashwaghosh‘ i.e., writer of Buddha
Charita.
In this conference Buddhism was divided into two schools Mahayana and Hinayana

Difference between Mahayana and Hinyana

1. The Buddha monks who attend 4th Buddhist council were called Mahayanist means great vehicle and
those who did not attend this council were called Hinayan means small vehicle. Hinayanies are also
known as ‗Theravadin‘.
2. Mahayanies wanted to change in rules and regulations of Buddhism according to demand of society and
time, while ‗Theravadins or Hinayani were no-changers.
3. Mahayanies had wide view on every issue while Hinayanies were narrowing minded.
4. Mahayanies favored to the idol worship of Mahatma Buddha, while Hinayanies denied it.
5. Texts of Mahayanies were written in Sanskrit language where texts of Hinayanies were written in ‗Pali‘
language.
6. Mahayanies was modernized while Hinayanies were orthodox.
7. Mahayanies supported entrance of women in a Buddhist Sangh while Hinayanies denied it.
Vajrayana
This was a 3rd school of Buddhism, it become popular in Tibet. Vajrayana believes in magical activities
and attainment of Nirvana by magical activities (vajra). The founder of this sect was ‗Tara Nath‘.
BuddhistArchitecture
There are three types of buildings related to Buddhism Stupa, Chaitya and Vihara.
Stupa
A Stupa is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics- typically the remains of Buddhist
monks) and used as a place of meditation.
Sanchi Stupa
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It was constructed by Ashoka the Great. It is situated in Raisen district at the bank of Betwa River. It is a
complex of Three Stupa. It was discovered by General Taylor in 1818. The biggest among three stupas is
called Mahastupa. It is constructed on relics of Mahatma Buddha and other two are constructed on the
relics of Sariputra and Mahamodglyan the boundary wall of Sanchi Stupa was constructed by Pushy Mitra
shunga. Ashoka also constructed the stupa of Sarnath, Bharhut and Amravati. Bharhut stupa is situated in
Satna District. It was constructed by Ashoka but renovate by Pushy Mitra Shung. Amravati Stupa is
constructed on the Bank of Krishna River in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. Amravati is also known as
Dhanya Katak. In Satavahan period another stupa is also constructed here. In Third century Ikshvaku
dynasty constructed a number of Stupa on Nagarjuna Hills. These stupas are called Stupa of Nagarjuna
Konda.
Buddhist Monastery
Buddhist Monasteries are the temples of the followers of Vajrayana School. They are constructed in the
different part of country. Among them Hemis monastery is the important one situated in Leh region of
Jammu and Kashmir.In spite of it, Tambo Math is situated in Lahul Spitiregion of Himanchal Pradesh.
Due to the wall painting this monastery is also called Ajanta of Himalaya.Tsuglagkhang Monastery
situated in Dharamshala Himachal Pradesh is the official residence Dalai Lama.Thiksey Monasteryis a
twelve story Math of Leh. Twang Math of Arunachal Pradesh situated near Bomdila pass is the biggest
Math of India. Rumtek Math is situated in Sikkim.
Buddhist University
Name of University Situated Constructed by
Nalanda Badagaon Bihar Kumar Gupta
Vikram Shila Bhagalpur Bihar Dharmapala
Odanta puri Bihar Gopal
Vallabhi Gujarat Bhattarak

Bodhisattva

Bodhisattva means, one who attain ‗Nirvana‘ according to Mahayana,

Manjushree Representative of wisdom
Kshitigar Representative of death Protector
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Samantha-Bhadra Representative of Happiness
Avalokiteshwar Protector of world

Emergence of Magadha

The kingdom of Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanpad in 6century B. C. The factors that
contributed to the rise of Magadha Empire were both internal and external.
1. An unbroken chain of very able and extraordinary monarchs ascended the Magadha throne.
Shishunaga, Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Mahapadma and Chandragupta were exceptionally able kings.
2. The geographical factors contributed significantly for the rise of Magadha Empire. Magadha lay on the
main land route connecting Eastern India with the West. She could easily control the trade between the
two regions of the country.
3. Magadha Empire was encircled by the Ganges, the Son and the Champa on the three sides and made it
impregnable for the enemy.
4. Her old capital Rajgriha was strategically situated as it was surrounded on all sides by hills and
cyclopean stone walls. Magadha‘s new capital Pataliputra was still more strategically invincible than
Rajgriha. It was situated on near the confluence of the Ganges and the Son. It was easier to control the
course of the Ganges from the city of Pataliputra.
5. One of the main factors behind the rise of Magadha Power was her economic solvency and growing
prosperity. Magadha had a vast population which could be employed in agriculture, mining and for
manning her army.
6. The Magadhan lands were very fertile due to its location between the Ganges and the Son. The
Magadhan lands yielded multiple crops round the year. People of Magadha Empire became prosperous
due to fertility of the land and the government became automatically rich and powerful.
7. The mineral resources of Magadha were other sources of her power and prosperity. With the dawn of
the Iron Age, iron became an important metal for making implements, plough shears and weapons of
war. Magadha had abundant iron supply from her mines.
8. Culturally, the rise of Magadha can be explained on the ground that Magadha was the meeting ground
of two opposite cultures. The Aryan culture lost its original virility when it reached Magadha and the
lingering traces of non-Aryan culture of Eastern India got mixed up with the Aryan culture. This
interaction of two cultures gave new power and spirit to Magadha Empire.
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9. In the sphere of thought and philosophy Eastern India made her mark in the teaching of Mahavira and
Buddha.
Dynasties ruled over Magadha

Haryanka Dynasty
The Haryanka dynasty is believed to have been the first powerful dynasty of Magadha,
Bimbisara (544 - 492 BC)
Magadha came into prominence under the leadership of Bimbisara who belonged to Haryanka dynasty. He
was a man of determination and political foresight. His first wife was a sister of Prasenjit, the king of
Kosala who gave him a part of the kingdom of Kasi in dowry. His second wife was Chellana, daughter of
the Lichchhavi king, Chetaka who was the most important feudatory chief of the republican state of the
Vajjis with its capital of Vaishali. Another wife of his was Vasavi, princess of the kingdom of Vaideh and
yet another, was Khema daughter of the king of Madra (Central Punjab). These marriage alliances
definitely enhanced his prestige besides helping him in the extension of his territories.
He was a successful diplomat as well. He maintained friendly relations not only with nearby strong states
but also with distant powers. He sent his famous physician, Jivaka, to the neighboring state of Avanti
when its ruler, Chanda Pradhyota fell ill and was, thus, able to maintain good relations with him. All this
must have helped him in pursuing his policy for the extension of his kingdom.
Bimbisara conquered the state of Anga. It was, probably, his only conquest but a very important one.
Bimbisara, for the first time, laid down the foundation of an efficient administration in Magadha. He
constructed several canals and roads, appointed several new officers for administrative purposes and
arranged for the regular collection of revenue. Bimbisara was killed by his own son Ajatasatru (Kunika).
Ajatasatru (493-462 B.C.)
Ajatasatru continued his father‘s policy of expansion through military conquests. First of all, he made a
victory on Kashi. Prasenajit‘s sister who was the wife of Bimbisara died of grief at the death of her
husband. Prasenajit could not tolerate it and asked Ajatasatru to return back Kashi which was given in
dowry to Bimbisara. When it was refused by Ajatasatru, a protracted war began between Magadha and
Kosala. The war remained indecisive for a long time but ultimately Prasenajit agreed to give Kashi to
Ajatasatru and also gave his daughter Vajira in marriage to him, which proves that the outcome of war,
finally, went in favor of Magadha.
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However, the foundation of the political supremacy of Magadha was laid by Ajatasatru by defeating the
strong confederacy of Vriji. The confederacy which dominated Eastern India included 36 republican
states, viz., 9 Mallaki, 9 Lichchhavi and 18 gana-rajyas of Kashi and Kosala. The conflict between
Magadha and the confederacy continued for sixteen years (484-468 B.C.). Ajatasatru attacked the Vaijis
and finally won. This victory gave Magadha an unchallenged supremacy over East India. He became a
devotee of the Buddha. The first General Council of the Buddhists was held under his patronage near
Rajagriha. It is also believed that he built several Buddhist Chaityas.
Shishunaga Dynasty
Shishunaga
According to the Ceylon chronicles he was placed on the throne by the people rebelling against the
previous kings. He was the King's Amatya or Minister. But he had gained respect under the weak
successors of Ajatsatru and probably became the ruler in 413 BC. He proved to be a capable ruler and
extended the territories of Magadha. The neighboring rival state of Avanti, Vatsa and Kosala were
defeated by him and their territories annexed to Magadha. He ruled for 18 years.
Kalasoka
Sishunaga was succeeded by his son Kalasoka in 395 BC. He transferred his capital from Vaishali to
Patliputra. The second Buddhist General Council was held during his time at Vaishali. He ruled for 28
years. According to the Buddhist literature Mahavamsa the 10 sons of Kalasoka ruled one after the other
for 22 years. The Shishunaga dynasty came to an end in 344 BC.
Nanda Dynasty
The Nandas were the successors of the Shishunaga dynasty. The Puranas describe the first Nanda king
named Mahapadma as the son of a Shudra mother while the Greeks say that he was born of the union of a
barber with a courtesan. He defeated the kingdoms of Ikshvaku, Panchala, Kashi, Haihaya, Kalinga,
Ashmak, Kuru, Maithila, Sursena and annexed these territories to Magadha. He has been described as
Ekrata or sole sovereign.
Dhananand was the last Nand rular during his reign Alexander the great invaded on India. In 322 BC
Chandra Gupta Maurya established Maurya Dynasty after Killing Dhananand. The oldest coin of India
was the punch marked coins of Six century BC. These were the coins of Silver. In pre Mauryan period
Panini compile Asthadhyai. It is known as first text of Sanskrit Grammar.
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PERSIAN INVASION ON INDIA

In the first half of sixth century BC, North West India was under the rule of some weak tribes. The
Achaemenid rulers of Persia (Iran) took advantage of the political disunity of this region. Cyrus, the
founder of the Achaemenid dynasty and his successor Darius I annexed parts of Punjab and Sindh. It was
believed to be the most fertile and populous part of the Achaemenid empire.
The Persian rule in north western India lasted for nearly two centuries. Trade and commerce were
encouraged due to this regular contact of India and Iran. It seems that Darius entered India through
Khaybar pass for the first time. Later on, a section of Alexander‘s army traversed the same route, when he
invaded Punjab. It may be mentioned here that the Persian title of satrap (governor) continued to be used
by the Indian provincial governors as strap for quite a long time.
The cultural effects of the contacts with the Persians were also significant. The Persian scribes brought
into India a new style of writing. It is called Kharosthi. It was derived from the Aramaic script, which was
written from right to left. Many of Asoka‘s inscriptions found in north western India are written in
Kharosthi.
The Mauryan art and architecture were also greatly influenced by the Persian art. The monolithic pillar
edicts of Asoka with their bell-shaped capitals are somewhat like the victory pillars of the Achaemenid
emperors which have been found in Persepolis.
ALEXANDER INVASION ON INDIA

Alexander ascended the throne of Macedonia after the death of his father Philip in 334 B.C. He conquered
the whole of Persia by defeating Darius III in the battle of Arbela in 330 B.C. He also aimed at further
conquest eastwards and wanted to recover the lost Persian Satrapy of India.
In 327 B.C. Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains and spent nearly ten months in fighting with the
tribes. He crossed the Indus in February 326 B.C. with the help of the bridge of boats. He was warmly
received by Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila. From there Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit, but
Porus refused and decided to fight against Alexander. Alexander marched from Taxila to the banks of the
river Hydaspes (Jhelum). The famous battle of Hydaspes was fought between Alexander and Porus.
Though Porus had a strong army, he lost the battle.
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Alexander wanted to proceed still further eastwards towards the plane of Ganga, but he could not do so
because his soldiers refused to fight. Hardships of prolonged warfare made them tired and they wanted to
return home and Alexander could not persuade them and therefore decided to return.
Alexander made arrangements to look after his conquered territories in India and divided the whole
territory from the Indus to the Beas into three provinces and put them under his governors. His retreat
began in October 326 B.C. Many republican tribes attacked his army. On his way he reached Babylon
where he fell seriously ill and died in 323 B.C.
Effects of Alexander’s invasion
The immediate effect of Alexander‘s invasion was that it encouraged political unification of north India
under the Mauryan. The system of small independent states came to an end. Alexander‘s invasion had also
paved the way for direct contact between India and Greece. The routes opened by him and his naval
explorations increased the existing facilities for trade between India and West Asia. His authority in the
Indus valley was a short-lived one because of the expansion of Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta
Maurya.
Political History of Mauryan Periods (from 3th century BC to 1rd century BC)

The Mauryan Empire was the first and one of the greatest empires that were established on Indian soil.
Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya was the founder and first ruler of Maurya Dynasty, who unified entire India under
one political unit. From the Greek and Jain sources it seems that Chandragupta took advantage of the
disturbances caused by the invasion of Alexander and his sudden death in 323 BC in Babylon. Different
lessons of politics and war were taught to Chandragupta by Kautilya. Chanakya or Kautilya was a great
scholar, teacher of economics and political science at ancient Taxashila University. Kautilya then became
the mentor of Chandragupta Maurya. By defeating Dhana Nanda of Nanda, Chandragupta Maurya
established Maurya Empire.
He established largest empire in the Indian history. In east the Maurya Empire extended from Bengal and
Assam to Afghanistan and Baluchistan, in west was eastern and south-east Iran, to Kashmir in the north
and to the Deccan Plateau in the south. He was just 20 years old at the time when he founded the empire.
Chandragupta Maurya was conquered Seleucus I Nicator. Then Chandragupta Maurya married to the
daughter of Seleucus to set up a policy of friendship with the Hellenistic kingdoms. This had really pushed
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up the India‘s trade with the western world. After the unification of India, important social and political
reforms were carried out by Chandragupta Maurya under the advice of Kautilya.
A strong central administration was established with extremely ordered bureaucratic structure. Because of
such a strong administration both trade and agriculture were thrived and made the economy very strong.
Art and architecture flourished to a great extent during Mauryan Empire. Buddhism and Jainism became
important religion.
In Greek and Latin Chandragupta is also known by the names of ―Sandracottos‖ or ―Andracottus. He took
a voluntary retirement and handed over his throne to his son Bindusara in 298 BC. He was just 42 years
old at that time. It is believed that Chandragupta Maurya adopted Jainism and became an ascetic under the
Jain saint Bhadrabahu. He ended his days at Sravaṇa Beḷgoḷa (in present day Karnataka) by sallekhana
(death by fasting). Chandragupta Maurya is the most influential ruler along with his grandson Ashoka.
Unification of India under their rule established the foundation of modern-day India.
Asoka (273- 232 BC)

After the death of Bindusara in 273 BC Asoka succeeded to the throne. As a prince he served as a victory
first at Ujjain and then at Taxila. Asoka is the first king in the Indian history that has left his records
engraved on stones. The history of Asoka and his reign can be reconstructed with the help of these
inscriptions and some other literary sources. The inscriptions on rocks are called Rock edicts and those on
pillars, Pillar edicts.
Kalinga war and its impact
The earliest event of Asoka‘s reign recorded in his inscription is his conquest of Kalinga (modern Orissa)
in the 8th year of his reign. This turned out to be first and also the last battle fought by him. The Rock
Edict III describes vividly the horrors and miseries of this war and its impact on Asoka. After this war he
changed his policy of invasion. He adopted Buddhism and Propagated the policy of Dhamma.
Administration
Indian history entered a new era with the beginning of the Mauryan Empire in around 321 B.C. as for the
first time, India attained political unity and administrative uniformity. Chandragupta was not only a great
conqueror; he was also a great administrator. Megasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus and Kautilya were
advisor of Chandragupta.
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King
Muryan administration was centralized around King. He was the source of all legislative, executive,
judicial military and diplomatic powers. He was primarily the protector of public. Kautilya gave him
primacy among the seven components (Saptanga) of the state. His chief function was to promulgate the
social order. It was his moral duty to punish the wrongdoers and to maintain peace in the empire.
Ministers
Kautilya holds that Rajatva (sovereignty) is possible only with assistance. A single wheel can never move.
Hence the king shall employ Sachivas and hear their opinion. There were three types of ministers-
1. Ratnin
At the top of administration was cabinet of Ratnins. It included Crown Prince, Purohit, Mahamatya and
Senapati. it was the cabinet of advisers of the king.
2. Amatyas
Amatyas were some sort of administrative personnel or civil servants who filled the highest
admin-istrative and judicial appointments. Their pay scales, service rules and method of payment were
clearly laid down. Their role and functions were very important, for all governmental work proceeded
from them.
3. Superintendent or Adhyaksha
The Central administration was conducted by a highly skilled Superintendents or Adhyakshas who looked
after various departments. Kautilya in the second book of his Arthasastra, Adhyakshaprachara, gives an
account of the working of nearly 27 adhyaksas.
a) Akshapataladhyaksha was the Accountant-General who was in charge of the two offices of currency and
accounts.
b) Sitadhyaksha was the superintendent of the agriculture of crown lands or government agricultural farms.
c) Akaradhyaksha was the superintendent of mining and possessed scientific knowledge of mines,
metallurgy, gems and precious stones.
d) Lavananyadhyaksha was the salt superintendent, as the manufacture of salt was a government monopoly.
e) Navadhyaksha was the Superintendent of Ports who controlled traffic and transit by waterways.
f) Panyadhyaksha was the controller of commerce who was in the charge of the control of supply, purchase
and sale of commodi-ties.
g) Sulkadhyaksa was the collector of customs and tolls.
h) Suradhyaksha was the Superin-tendent of Excise who controlled the manufacture and sale of liquor.
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i) Pautavadhyaksha was the super-intendent of weights and measures.
j) Lakshanadhyaksha was the superintendent of the mint, etc.
Judicial and Police departments
The King was the head of justice and the fountain head of laws. Kautilya refers to the existence of two
kinds of courts – Dharmasthiyas (dealing with civil matters) and Kantakasodhanas (dealing criminal
cases). There were special courts in the cities and villages presided over by the Pradesika, Mahamatyaand
Rajuka.
Provincial and Local Administration
Apart from the metropolitan area which was directly governed, the empire was divided into four
provinces, each under a prince or member of the royal family (Kumara and Aryaputra). Under Asoka,
there were four provinces: The Northern Province (Uttarapatha) with the capital at Taxila, western
prov-ince (Avantirastra) with the headquarters at Ujjain, eastern province (Prachyapatha) with the center
at Tosali and the southern province (Dakshinapatha) with its capital as Suvarnagiri. The central province
Magadha, with its capital at Pataliputra was also the headquarters of the entire kingdom.
The viceroy had the power to appoint some of his officials such as the Mahamatyas, who went on tour
every five years. The most important provinces such as Taxila and Ujjain were directly under the
command of the princes (Kumaras).
Provinces were subdivided into districts for purposes of administration and groups of officials were in
charge of a district. The three major officials of the provinces were Pradesik, Rajuka and Yukta. The
Pradesikwas in charge of the overall administration of a district supervising the collection of revenue and
of maintaining law and order both in the rural areas and in the towns within his district. The Rajuka was
responsible for surveying and assessing land. Megasthenes probably referred them as Agronomiesand they
formed the backbone of the rural administration. The Yuktas appear to have been subordinate officials
whose duties were largely secretarial work and accounting.
There was an intermediate level of administration between the district level and that of the village. The
unit here was formed by a group of five or ten villages. The two important officials concerned with the
administration of this unit were Gopa and Sthanik. The Gopa worked as an accountant to the unit. His
duties included the setting up of village boundaries, keeping a census of the population of each village
according to their tax-paying capacity, their professions and their age, noting the live-stock of each
village, etc. The tax was collected by the Sthanik who worked directly under the Pradesik.
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Village (grama) was the smallest unit of administration and enjoyed autonomy to a great extent. Individual
villages must have had their own set of officials who were directly responsible to the Gopa. The head of
the village was called Gramika who was assisted by gram-Viddhas or village elders. Gramik was not a
paid servant; he was chosen from amongst the village elders. He may have supervised the tax collection of
the village and other matters such as discipline and defence.

Municipal Administration
The Arthashastra mentions the Nagaraka or city superintendent who was responsible for the main-tenance
of law and order in the city. He was assisted by two subordinate officials, the gopa and the Sthanika.
Asokan inscriptions mention the Nagalaviyohalaka Mahamatya and refer to them largely in their judicial
capacity.
Name Function
Mantrin Chief Minister
Mantriparishad Adhyaksha Head of Council of Ministers
Purohita Chief Priest
Senapati Commander-in-chief
Yuvaraj Crown Prince
Samaharta Revenue collector
Yukta Subordinate revenue officer
Shulkadhyaksha Officer-in-charge of royal income
Prashasti Prison head
Sannidata Treasury head
Koshadhyaksha Treasury officer
Koshthagaradhyaksha Royal treasury manager
Nayaka City Security chief
Vyabharika Chief Judge
Karmantika Head of Industries & Factories
Dandapala Head of Police
Durgapala Head of Royal Fort
Annapala Head of Food grains Department
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Rajjukas Land measurer
Pradeshika District administrator
Akaradhyaksha Mining Officer
Lauhadhyaksha Metallurgy Officer
Lakshanadhyaksha Coin minting
Lavanadhyaksha Officer of salt department
Swarnadhyaksha Officer of gold department
Ayudhadhyaksha Weapon manufacturing & defence department
Kunyadhyaksha Officer of forest
Panyadhyaksha Office of commerce department
Manadhyaksha Office of time & place determining
Sunadhyaksha Slaughter-house officer
Mudradhyaksha Royal symbol, coin etc.
Dyutadhyaksha Gambling department
Naukadhyaksha Shipping department officer
Pattanadhyaksha Officer of Port

Economic life of Mauryan Periods

Mauryan Period was an economically prosperous period. Agriculture was backbone of economy. The state
helped people to bring new areas under cultivation by cleaning the forest. A number of crops like rice,
coarse grains (kodava), sesame, pepper and saffron, pulses, wheat, linseed, mustard, vegetable and fruits
of various kinds and sugarcane were grown. Water reservoirs and dams were built by the state for
irrigation. Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman mentions that Pushyagupta (Chandragupta's governors)
was responsible for building a dam on Sudarshana Lake near Girnar in Kathiawad.
Megasthenese mentioned about the extraordinary skill of craftsmen. They had foreign trade with the
western countries. The main items of trade were indigo, various medicinal substances, cotton and silk. The
foreign trade was carried on by the land as well as by the sea. Special arrangements were made for
facilitation of the trade like security of trade-routes, provisions of warehouses, go-downs and other means
of transport. The trade was regulated by the state and the trader had to get a license to trade.
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The main industries during this period were textile, mining and metallurgy, ship-building, jewelry making,
metal working, pot making, etc. The industries were organized in various guilds. Jesthaka was the chief of
a guild. The guilds were powerful institutions. It gave craftsmen great support and protection. The guilds
settled the disputes of their members. A few guilds issued their own coins.
Sangam Age/Megalithic period

Around 1st Century AD to 3rd century AD in remote southern India three dynasty came in existence they
rule parallel for about 200 year the period of their reign is called Sangam age. This age is also known as
megalithic age. Remote south includes Kerala and Tamil Nadu of present. Three rulers who ruled over this
region are as follow:
Chera (Kerala) Vengi

Chola (South Tamil Nadu) Kaveripattinam (Puhar)

Pandya (North Tamil Nadu) Madurai

Between 1st century BC and 2nd century AD Pandya rulers hold the conference of Tamil scholars in
Madurai. These conferences are called Sangam. Three Tamil epics composed in these Sangam are as
follow-
Shilpadikaram
It was written by Ilango Adigal. The epic is a tragic love story of an ordinary couple, Kannagi and her
husband Kovalan. Kannagi and Kovalan is a newly married couple, in love and living in bliss. Over time,
Kovalan meets Madhavi, a courtesan. He falls for her, leaves Kannagi and moves in with Madhavi.
Kannagi is heartbroken, but as the chaste woman, she waits despite her husband's unfaithfulness. Kovalan
feels Matavi is unfaithful to him and leaves her. Kannagi is still waiting for him. She takes him back.
Manimekalai
It was written by Sattanar. Manimekalai (story of Manimekalai) contains fine poetry written in a grand
style. It is also known for its dramatic element. It is the story of Manimekalai, the daughter of Kovlan, a
merchant of Puhar and the hero of the Shilapadikaram. The work also mentions the excellence of the
Buddhist religion through the travails of Manimekalai as a result of the loss of the city of Puhar due to the
erosion of the coast by the sea. Both the works contain a good deal of historical and social information.
They focus on the Tamil society and the political and economic changes witnessed by it during that
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period. However, Shilapadikaram is considered to be better in terms of its grand style and its peculiar
grace.
Tolkappiyam
Tolkappiyam is considered to be the fountain of all literary conventions in Tamil literature. It is a work on
Tamil grammar, literary tradition and sociology. It can be dated to the 4th or the 5th century AD. It
contains sutras which are elaborate and extensive in range.
Political History of Post Mauryan Periods (from 1stcentury BC to 3rd century)

The Mauryas had done much for Indian unity by bringing the greater part of the country under one
umbrella. After the end ofMaurya rule, India was divided into lot of small local states. Which invited
foreigninvasion. Indo-Greek, Saka, Parthian (Persian)and Kushan (Mongolian) were foreign invaders,
who ruled for a long period in North West of India. In later year‘s Saka‘s were shifted in Gujrat. Shunga
and Kanva ruled in central India. Chedis rules over Kalinga. Satavahans were emerged in Maharashtra and
Andhra Pradesh.
Shunga Dynasty

The Shunga Empire was an ancient Indian dynasty from Magadha that controlled areas of the central and
eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by Pushy Mitra
Shunga, after the fall of the Maurya Empire. Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors such as Bhaga
Bhadra also held court at Besnagar (modern Vidisha) in eastern Malwa. Pushy Mitra Shunga ruled for 36
years and was succeeded by his son Agni Mitra. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of
Agni Mitra, the second king of the dynasty, the empire rapidly disintegrated inscriptions and coins
indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were
independent of any Shunga hegemony.
The dynasty is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought the
Kalinga, the Satavahana dynasty, the Indo-Greek Kingdom and possibly the Panchalas and Mitras of
Mathura. Art, education, philosophyand other forms of learning flowered during this period including
small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures and architectural monuments such as the stupa at Bharhut
and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi. Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal
sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi script and was used
to write Sanskrit. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronizing culture at a time when
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some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place. Patanjali's Mahabhasya
was composed in this period. Artistry also progressed with the rise of the Mathura art style.
Malvikagnimitra is love story of Agni Mitra Shunga and Malavika(the princess of Ujjain).
Kanva Dynasty
The Kanva dynasty was a Brahmin dynasty that replaced the Shunga dynasty in parts of eastern and
central Indiaand ruled from 75 BCE to 30 BCE. Although the Puranic literature indicates that the Kanva
Dynasty ruled in Magadha (in eastern India), their coins are primarily found in and around Vidisha in
central India, which had also been the capital of the later Shunga rulers. The last ruler of the Shunga
dynasty, Devabhuti, was overthrown by his minister Vasudeva, who founded the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC.
The Kanva ruler allowed the kings of the Shunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of
their former dominions. There were four Kanva rulers. According to the Puranas, their dynasty was
brought to an end by the Satavahanas.
Chedi Dynasty

Kharavela was a king of Kalinga in present-day Odisha, India, who ruled during the first or second
century BCE. He was the best-known king of the Mahameghavahana dynasty, which is also known as the
Chedi dynasty by some scholars based on a misreading of his father's name (Cheta-raja).
The primary source for Kharavela is his rock-cut Hathigumpha inscription. The inscription is undated and
only four of its 17 lines are completely legible. Scholars have interpreted it differently, leading to
speculation about his reign. The inscription credits the king with welfare activities, patronage of the arts,
repair works and military victories. Although it exaggerates his achievements, historians agree that
Kharavela was one of Kalinga's strongest rulers. He is believed to have been a follower of Jainism,
although the Hathigumpha inscription describes him as a devotee of all religions.
Satavahan

In the Deccan, the Satavahanas established their independent rule after the decline of the Mauryan Empire.
They ruled for about 450 years. They were also known as the Andhras.
Simuka was the founder of the Satavahana dynasty but he had not founded an independent state.
Independent Satavahan State was founded by Kanha (Krishna), the brother and successor of Simuka after
death of Asoka. He established his Capital at Paithan (Prathisthanpur), Maharashtra.
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The earliest of the Satavahana rulers to receive wide recognition was Satakarni -ll (184 B.C.-128 B.C.).
The wide recognition was due to his policy of military expansion in all directions. He defeated Kharavela
of Kalinga. He was the lord of Pratishthana (modem Paithan in the north-western Deccan. He conquered
eastern Malwa which was being threatened by the Sakas and the Greeks. He gained control of the region
of Sanchi. After conquering the Godavari valley Satakami became the lord of the Southern Regions
(Dakshinapathapati). He supported the brahman orthodoxy and performed an Ashwamegha to establish
his claim to an empire. The Satavahanas did not hold the western Deccan for long. They were gradually
pushed out of the west by the Sakas (Western satraps).
Gautamiputra Satakarni the 23rd king of the dynasty (between 62 A.D.- 86 A.D.) is credited to the
restoration of the fallen prestige of the dynasty. He is also known as ‗Ek-Brahmin‘. His achievements are
mentioned in Nasik inscription. He first won back the territories on his western borders from the
Kshaharata successors of Nahapana. He was conqueror of Asaka, Surashtra, Anupa, Vidarbha and Avanti.
He shared the sorrows and pleasures of his people.
Gautamiputra‘s son and successor Vasisthiputra Pulumavi (86-11 4 A.D.) could not maintain for long his
hold over his vast inheritance. During the last years of his rule, he lost the north-western provinces of the
Andhra Empire to Chashtana, the founder of the Western straps, Kardamaka dynasty. The Karle-caves in
Maharashtra was built by Vasistiputra Pulumavi.
His successors, Siva Sri and Sivaskanda each ruled for seven years during which period the house of
Chashtana expanded its authority up to Cutch in the west by 130 A.D. Gautamiputra Yajna Sri (128 A.D-
157 A.D.) was the last of the great Satavahana rulers. He made attempts to recover the western (Aparanta)
provinces.
Satavahan king Hala was great scholar of Sanskrit. He composed a very famous book ‗Gatha-Saptsati‘. It
is collection of 700 stories. The Andhra Satavahanas ruled for four centuries and a half in the Deccan.
During their rule they came into contact with their neighboring kingdoms, the prominent of which was
that of the Western satraps.
Administration
Satavahana Empire was stretched from the Bay of Bengal in the east to the Arabian Sea in the west and
embraced the entire region between the Narmada in the north and the Krishna in the south. Being the
political successors of the Mauryans, they borrowed much from the Mauryan administrative system. Their
government was based upon hereditary absolute monarchy. The rulers regarded themselves as the
guardians of social and political order and the welfare of their subjects.
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For administrative purposes, the empire was divided into a number of Aharas or Rashtras, each of which
consisted of at least one central town (Nigama) and a number of villages. The Amatyas governed these
Aharas. Gramas (villages) and Nigamas (towns) were the lowest administrative units. Considerable
autonomy was there in managing the affairs of these units. The trade and merchant guilds (shrenies)
played an important part in this regard.
Satavahan were also known as ‗Andhra-Rulers‘. They succeeded Mauryan‘s in Deccan (Andhra Pradesh,
Karnatakaand Maharashtra). According to Purans, they were originated near at Nasik and they move
toward South.Shimuk was the founder of Satavahan dynasty. Nasik was capital of Satavahan. Satavahans
were matrilineal. Gautmiputra Satkarni was the 1st powerful ruler of Satavahan dynasty.
Economic condition of Satavahana Periods

Satavahana period was period of peace and glory. Social cohesion was a major reason behind the
prosperity of the period. The Satavahanas or the Shalivanas ruled entire Godavari Krishna peninsula or
delta. Rich natural resources, availability of water, minerals laid to the growth of trade and commerce in
the Satavahana period.
Tax policy of the Satavahana states was responsible for promoting economic prosperity in the state. The
well-developed economic system was responsible for attracting foreign traders especially in respect of
items of textile and ivory as well as wood work which was well developed by Indian artists. The balance
of trade in the Satavahana period was in favor of India. The growth rate of south India was higher than any
European country. The dream of making India a super power was cherished by Satavahana.
Life of the common man was happy as he was well provided with all facilities of life. Under the
Satavahana agriculture was prosperous and the villages‘ economy was developed. Rice was cultivated in
the territory between the Krishna and Godavari rivers. Cotton was also produced. The peasants used
implements made of iron which were extensively used particularly in Carnatic. There were also wells for
irrigation.
Encouragement was given to trade and industry. The traders and those engaged in those professions had
their own guilds or ‗sanghas‘. Coin dealers, potters, oil pressures and metal workers had their own guilds.
These guilds looked after the collective interest of their trade and worked for their common uplift.
The external or foreign trade was carried through the famous ports of Supara, Broach; and Kalyan. India‘s
trade relations with countries like Arabia, Egypt and Rome were most healthy. In the far eastern countries,
Indian traders established their own settlements and preached Indian culture. Several towns sprang up in
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Maharashtra during this period. Paithan, Nasik, Junar were big markets and centers of trade. In the south
east Vijaypur and Narsela were well known trade centers. There were guilds of traders as well and they
carried trade in groups. To encourage trade, the Satavahana kings struck numerous coins of gold, silver,
copper and bronze. Satavahana‘s economic principles were based on agriculture, industry, trade and
commerce.
Indo-Greek

After Alexander the Great, the greed Seleucid dynasty of Persia held on to the trans-Indus region. After
Seleucus I Nicator was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya in 303 BC Greeks of Bactria came in power
under the leadership of Diodotus. These Greeks were later known as Indo-Greeks when they gained a
foot-hold in the Indian sub-continent. Bactria situated between the Hindu Kush and the Oxus, was a fertile
region and it controlled the trade routes from Gandhara to the West.
Bactria figured in history with the revolt of Diodotus against Antiochus the Seleucidan king. Diodotus was
succeeded by his son Diodotus II, who allied himself with the Parthian Arsaces in his fight against
Seleucus II (the son of Antiochus).
After the death of Diodotus II Euthydemus became the king of Bactria. Euthydemus was son of the Greek
general Apollodotusand by his marriage to a sister of Diodotus II he got kingdom. The son of
Euthydemos, Demetrios, conquered modern southern Afghanistan, Makran area and some parts of Punjab.
Then around 175 BC the homeland of Bactrians came to be ruled by Eucharitids, another branch of the
Bactrians. His son Demetrios-II penetrated deep into the Punjab proceeding along the Indus, he penetrated
till Kutch. The most known Indo-Greek was Menander, whose claim rests on the Buddhist treatise the
Questions of king Milind-discussion between Menander and the Buddhist philosopher; Nagasena and he
ruled the Punjab from 160 to 140 BC.
Indo-Greeks were involved with local faiths, particularly with Buddhism, but also with Hinduism and
Zoroastrianism. Menander I, converted to Buddhism and is described as a great benefactor of the religion.
He is famous for his dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena, transmitted to us in the Milind Panho.
In general, the art of the Indo-Greeks is poorly documented and few works of art (apart from their coins
and a few stone palettes) are directly attributed to them. The coinage of the Indo-Greeks however is
generally considered as some of the most artistically brilliant of Antiquity. The Hellenistic heritage (Ai-
Khanoum) and artistic proficiency of the Indo-Greek world would suggest a rich sculptural tradition as
well, but traditionally very few sculptural remains have been attributed to them. On the contrary, most
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Gandharan Hellenistic works of art are usually attributed to the direct successors of the Indo-Greeks in
India in 1st century AD, such as the nomadic Indo-Scythians, the Indo-Parthians and, in an already
decadent state, the Kushans.
Saka

The Sakas were a group of nomadic tribes of Iranian origin or Scythian tribes, who lived-in present-day
Kazakhstan in Central Asia. They moved from one place to another, from Southern Siberia into Bactria,
Arachosia, Sogdiana, Gandharaand India from the middle of the 2nd century BC to the 4th century CE.
They entered in India through the Bolan and Khyber Pass and conquered states of Kashmir, Punjab,
Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan by defeating the native rulers.
Saka king Maues or Moga (circa 90-60 BC) established Saka rule in Gandhara (modern Kandahar in
eastern Afghanistan). He defeated the Indo-Greek territories (in modern Pakistan) and established his
governance as far as the River Jhelum. But after his death the Indo-Greeks regained their territories. He
made capital in Taxila.
The Sakas ruled over the north-west frontier and in Punjab, Sindh, Kashmir, western Uttar Pradesh,
Saurashtra, Kathiawar, Rajputana, Malwa and the north Konkan belt of Maharashtra. They also fought
against the Satavahanas in India and later entered into matrimonial alliances with them, furthering their
own integration into Indian society. Benefiting from their earlier interaction with the Greeks, the Sakas
kings employed the Greek system of rule and appointed satraps (satraps, governors) to govern each region.
The Sakas were later overpowered by the Kushans when they succeeded in taking control from the Sakas.
The Sakas were forced to accept their suzerainty but, after the Kushans themselves faded, the Sakas' own
western satraps once again rose in prominence. This was especially the case under King Nahapana, who
occupied large swathes of Satavahana territory in western and central India. Eventually he was defeated
by the Satavahana king, Gautamiputra Satkarni.
Nahapana was succeeded by King Chastana who ruled a large area of western India into the second
century AD, especially the area of Ujjain (Ozene), during the reign of the Satavahana king, Vasisthiputra
Sri Pulamavi.
Chastana was the grandfather of the great western Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I. Rudradaman I waged
various successful wars against the Satavahanas. He was the father-in-law of the Satavahana king,
Vashishtaputra Satkarni, whom he defeated twice in battle, which led to the decline of the Satavahanas.
During his reign he converted to Hinduism after taking a Hindu wife. His kingdom extended over Malwa,
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Rajputana, Gujrat and Maharashtra (except Pune and Nasik). The Sakas were finally finished off as a
regional power by the rulers of the Gupta dynasty. In time the remnants of the Sakas, now without any
political power, blended into Indian society.
Kushan

The Kushan is one of the important dynasties in the history of India. It was the time of intense artistic
literary activity. The Kushan period is a fitting prelude to the age of Guptas. It marks an important Epoch
of Indian history. For the first time, after the fall of Mauryan there was a vast empire which not only
embraced the whole of north India but also considerable territories outside it, as far as Central Asia.
Kadphises I is considered as the founder of Kushan dynasty. He was also known as Kujala Kadphises. He
might have ruled from 15 A.D. to 65 A.D. he founded a new kingdom and over Bactria and Gandhara. He
called himself a great king. He might have followed Buddhism.
Kadphises II conquered India proper. He also knew as Vima Kadphises. He assumed the imperial titles
like the Lord of the whole world. He was a Saivite and worshipped Shiva. He had good relationship with
Rome. He issued gold and silver coins. He might have ruled from 65 AD to 75 AD.
Kanishka I
Kanishka was the greatest of the Kushan Empire. Kanishka was the founder of Saka Era and ascended the
throne in 78 A.D. and might have ruled up to 120 A.D. he conquered northern India as far as Pataliputra,
Buddha Gaya, Malwa and Sindh. He brought Kashmir under his control. He built Kanishkapura.
His coins and inscriptions exist from Peshawar to Benares. He defeated Parthian king. He styled himself
as Devaputra. He extended his empire from U.P. in the east to Khotan and Khorasan in the west and from
Kashmir in the North to Konkan in south. His capital was Purusha Pura or modern-day Peshawar. Mathura
was another important city in his empire.
Kanishka adopted Buddhism and established a city Kanishkapur in Kashmir, where he held fourth
Buddhist council. He constructed a stupa in Takshasila. The great scholar Nagarjun, Ashvaghosha,
Vasumittra and Charak (father of Ayurveda) stayed in his court. He played vital role in development of
Gandhar art and Mathura art of Sculpture. Gandhar art is the mixture of India classical art and Greek art,
also known as ‗Hellenistic art‘. Expose of cuts of body, curly hairs and muscular shape are the main
characteristics of this art. This art was focused around the image of Mahatma Buddha. Bamiyan
(Afghanistan) is main center of this art. Bamiyan has declared as the cultural capital of SAARC. Mathura
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art was developed around the Mathura; this was a pure Indian art. In this art the images were formed in
Hinduism and Buddhism.
Political Administration
The Kushan had maintained an efficient administration. He divided his empire into certain provinces
called Satrapies. Head of province was known as satrap. A Military general was known as Strategus.
There were also the other subdivisions of the empire like Ahara/Janapadha/Desha/Vishaya, Grama etc.
The Indian officers like Amatyas and Mahasenapatis, were also there. The officers having foreign names
were stationed in the North West frontier, while officers having Indian names were stationed in the
interior part of India. The Kushan rulers enjoyed the titles like Mahisvara Devaputra etc. The peace and
order were maintained throughout the empire.
Gupta Age

Sri Gupta was the founder of Gupta dynasty. He was succeeded by his son ‗Ghatotkach‘, who adopted
title Maharaja, after the death of Ghatotkach, his son Chandragupta-I became successor of Gupta dynasty.
Chandra Gupta-I
Chandra Gupta I was a king of the Gupta dynasty, who ruled in northern India. His title Maharajadhiraja
(king of great kings) suggests that he was the first emperor of the dynasty. It is not certain how he turned
his small ancestral kingdom into an empire, although a widely-accepted theory among modern historians
is that his marriage to the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi helped him extend his political power.
Samudra Gupta (335-375 AD)
Samudra Gupta was the first significant ruler of the Gupta Dynasty. Having come to the throne, he
decided to extend the boundaries of his empire. The British historian Vincent Smith called him as 'the
Indian Napoleon' for his conquests. His many conquests have been mentioned in Prayag Prashasti,
composed by a high-ranking official named Harishena, who was also a skilled author and poet. He was
also a man of many talents and laid a firm foundation for the empire. The rise of the Gupta Empire and the
beginning of its prosperity are attributed to him, his military conquests and policies. Samudra Gupta
succeeded his father Chandragupta I.
He realized that he could not control directly a vast empire from his capital and hence focused on
annexing those kingdoms which lay on his borders. For the rest, only an acceptance of suzerainty was
needed.
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Samudra Gupta was as devoted to the arts of peace as to war. He was a great musician and played the
Veena. He was a highly intellectual person and an accomplished poet. He was always depicted as an able
and compassionate ruler, who cared a lot for the welfare of his subjects, particularly the poor and the
destitute. He granted permission to the Sri Lankan king to build a Buddhist monastery and rest house for
Sri Lankan pilgrims at Bodhgaya.He held Ashvamedha-Yajna. So, he is also known as Ashvamedha
Parakram. He had two sons - Ram Gupta and Chandra Gupta – II
Chandra Gupta II (375 – 415 AD)
Chandragupta II was the next great Gupta emperor after his father Samudra Gupta. He proved to be an
able ruler and conqueror with many achievements to his credit. He came to be known by his title
Vikramaditya. Succession Chandragupta‘s accession to the throne was not smooth, as he had to depose his
brother Ram Gupta.
There is no historical evidence discovered as yet as to how and why Chandragupta followed his brother on
the throne. The sole mention of it occurs only in literary sources, with the foremost being the Sanskrit play
Devi-Chandraguptam ("Devi and Chandragupta") written by the celebrated playwright Vishakhadatta
sometime between the 4th and 8th centuries AD. According to the story in the play, Ramagupta was a
weak and immoral king. Dhruva Devi was the princess of Mithila and wife of Ram Gupta. According to
his text a Saka ruler threatenedRam Gupta and he decided to Surrendered Dhruva Devi to Saka ruler. But
Chandragupta goes to the enemy camp disguised as the queen and kills the enemy. Disgusted by his
brother‘s cowardice, Chandragupta eventually deposed and killed him. He then married Dhruva Devi and
ascended the throne.
Chandra Gupta continued with Samudra Gupta‘s expansionist policy and led campaigns into Bengal
(eastern India) and Punjab (north-western India). The Shakas of western India (also known as the Western
Satraps) constituted the biggest threat to the Gupta Empire at this time. Chandragupta‘s war was a
protracted one and lasted nearly 20 years, with his coins first appearing in the region in 409 AD.
During his reign art and science reached at its zenith. His reign is known as the golden period of ancient
history. He made Ujjain his second capital. He built Iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi (near Qutub-Minar). It
is the evidence of the development of science and technology during the reign of Vikranmaditya. During
the reign of Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya Chines traveler Fa-Hein (399-414 AD) visited India. He issued
gold coins and that was known as ‗dinar‘. He is also known for his justice. He was also patron of scholars.
Nav Ratna were seated in his court.
Nav Ratna of Chandra Gupta
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(Short Trick to Learn- "KVS AD GK" Known Explanation of Trick- Kendriya Vidyalaya School
Advertise karta hai Gernal Knowledge ki.)
1. Kalidas
Kalidas a was a famous Sanskrit writer and poet in the court of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya). He is
commonly regarded as the greatest poet in the Sanskrit language. Kalidas was the author of three
famous plays- Abhijnanashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram and Vikramorvashiyam and author of two
famous Sanskrit epic Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhava.
2. Vetala Bhatta
Vetala Bhatta was a Sanskrit author. He is known to have attributed the work of the sixteen stanza
"Niti-pradeepa" (Niti-pradipa, literally, the lamp of conduct).
3. Varahamihira
Varahamihira was an Indian astronomer, astrologer and mathematician of Gupta era. He is famously
known for his great work Pancha Siddhantika, a book on mathematical astronomy. His other important
contribution to the Indian Sanskrit literature is the Brihat-Samhita, an encyclopedia of astrology and
other subjects of human interest.
4. Vararuci
Vararuci is often identified with Katyayana. Katyayana is the author of Vartikas which is an
elaboration of certain sutras (rules) in Paṇini's treatise on Sanskrit grammar titled Aṣṭadhyayi.
Vararuci is believed to be the author of Prakrita Prakasha the oldest treatise on the grammar of Prakrit
language.
5. Shanku
Sanku was a great scholar and He was the author of Shilpa shastra.
6. Amarasimha
Amarasimha was one of the nine Gems in the court of Vikramaditya of Gupta era. He is notably
known for his famous Sanskrit thesaurus Amara kosha. It is also known as Namalinganushasana.
7. Dhanvantari
Dhanvantari is regarded as one of the world‘s first surgeons and medical practitioner from Gupta era.
He is considered as the origin exponent of Ayurveda. He is also worshipped as the God of Medicine.
Sushruta, the author of famous Sushruta Samhita was the student of Dhanvantari. He is also credited
for the discovery of the antiseptic properties of turmeric and the preservative properties of salt.
Dhanvantari is considered to be the pioneer of modern plastic surgery.
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8. Ghatakarpura
Those who know Sanskrit can understand that 'Ghatkharpar' cannot be a person's name. This is also
not his real name. It is believed that he had a vow that the poet who would defeat him in alliteration
and Yamak, he would fill water for him from the broken piece of pitcher. Just then, his name
'Ghatkharpar' became famous and the real name disappeared. The name of his composition is also
'Ghatkharpar Kavyam'. That is the inimitable text of Yamak and Anupras. Another book of these is
also known as 'Nitisara'.
9. Kshapanak
He was a Buddhist monk. He wrote some texts in which only 'Bhikshatan' and 'Naanarthakosh' are
said to be available.
Administration of Gupta period

The topmost was the emperor with titles like Parameshvara (Sanskrit: "supreme god"). Below him was the
uparika (viceroy or governor) directly appointed by the emperor and who governed the province (desha or
bhukti). He had military duties as well and headed the provincial troops. The province was divided into
districts (vishaya) headed by a chief (vishayapati) appointed by the uparika. The lowest unit of
administration was the village (grama) which chose its own functionaries, including the chief (gramika)
and a ruling body consisting of village elders.
The emperor was assisted by a council of ministers (mantrins). An important designation was that of the
mahasandhivigrahaka (Minister of Peace and War). Revenue sources consisted chiefly of taxes and tolls,
while the state observed monopoly over sources such as mines and salt reserves.
Officer Function
Mahabaladhikrita Commander-in-Chief
Mahadandanayak Chief Justice
Mahapratihar Maintenance of Royal Palace
Mahasandhivigrahak Post-war conciliation
Dandapashika Police department head
Bhandagaradhikreta Head of Royal treasury
Mahapaksha-patalik Head of account department
Vinayasthitisansathapak Head of education department
Sarvadhyaksha Inspector for all central departments
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Mahashwapati Controller of cavalry
Mahamahipilapati Controller & executor of elephantry
Vinayapura Official to present different guests at the King‘s court
Yuktapurusha Office to keep account of war booty
Khadyatpakika Inspector of Royal Kitchen
Ranabhandagarika Officer in charge of Army Stores
Mahanarpati Head of infantry

Economic life of Gupta Periods

Agriculture was the main occupation of the people of India during the Gupta Period. Almost the entire
land within the Gupta Kingdom was cultivated. The Gupta Kings look after the welfare of the farmers and
peasants. The Kings provide people with facilities like irrigation to increase production. For example,
King Skandagupta constructed a lake to help the farmers.
Gupta kings introduced the system of land grants, where the king would make gifts of land to certain
officials. These officials were given the duty to develop agriculture within that price of land and to collect
revenue from the peasants who were cultivating the land. This led to the emergence of feudalism.
During the Gupta Period Also, the industry was developing and a large number of people were active in
spinning and weaving of cloth. The main centers of the cloth industry were Gujarat and Bengal. The
clothes produced by people include cotton, silk, linen and wool. Other industries that developed during
this period were gold smithy, ivory and metallurgy. The cutting and polishing of diamonds and other
precious stones also made progress.
During the Gupta period, trade flourished both internally and externally. Important centers of trade within
the Gupta kingdom include Banaras, Ujjain, Mathura and others. Important items of exports were
sandalwood, mustard, pepper and other commercial crops. Indian cotton, silk and linen were famous in
many countries. The Gupta traders establish trade contacts with countries like Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Persia,
Arabia, China and a few countries in the Mediterranean. Import items include horses, gold, ivory and
precious stones. It is important to note that foreign trade was very profitable for the Gupta Empire.
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Political Status of Post Gupta Period

The Pushyabhuti dynasty of Thaneshwar was the most important and powerful of the dynasties of North
India after the fall of the Gupta Empire. This dynasty is known in history as Vardhan dynasty. The Gupta
Empire collapsed in 550 CE. From that time, the Vardhan dynasty is arises.
Prabhakarvardhan
The hierarchical history of the Thaneswar Vardhans dates back to the time of Prabhakar Vardhan.
Prabhakar Vardhan was the creator of the independence of the Vardhan dynasty. His independent status is
known by his honorable titles like Parambhattaraka and Maharajadhiraj.
Rajya Vardhan
Rajya Vardhan was the son of Prabhakar Vardhan. When Prabhakar Vardhan died, Rajya Vardhan took
leave after leaving the kingdom, hurt by his father‘s death. He urged his brother Harsh to assume the
throne. Harsh also refused to take the throne. Harsha's sister Rajyashri had been married to the Maukhari
king, Grahavarman. This king, some years later, had been defeated and killed by king Devagupta of
Malwa and after his death Rajyashri had been cast into prison by the victor. Harsha's brother, Rajya
Vardhana, then the king at Thanesar, could not accept this affront on his family. So, he marched against
Devagupta and defeated him. However, Shashank, king of Gaud in Eastern Bengal, then entered Magadha
as a friend of Rajya Vardhan, but in secret alliance with the Malwa king. Accordingly, Shashank
treacherously murdered Rajya Vardhan. On hearing about the murder of his brother, Harsha resolved at
once to march against the treacherous king of Gaud, but this campaign remained inconclusive and beyond
a point he turned back. Harsha ascended the throne at the age of 16.
Harshvardhan
Harshvardhan was born in 591 A.D. as the son of Prabhakar Vardhan. After the death of Rajya Vardhan,
Harsh was seated on the throne of Thaneshwar in 606 AD. His age was characterized by political
fragmentation of North India and after a gap of more than 100 years Harsha established unity and integrity
in whole of North India.
Harsha is mentioned as Sakalouttarapatha (the lord of North India) in the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin
II. This title also indicates that Harsha ruled over whole of North India. His Empire extended from
Himalayas in North to the river Narmada in south and from Punjab in west to Bengal in East. He made
capital at Kannauj and ruled till 647 AD. Harsha was halted by the south Indian Emperor Pulakeshin II of
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the Chalukya dynasty, when Harsha tried to expand his Empire into the southern peninsula of India. The
battle was fought at the bank of River Narmada.
Harsha was not only an efficient administrator but he was also a successful military conqueror as well.
According to contemporary sources Harsha fought number of wars and battles during his reign and
conquered many areas. He did not adopt barbarous methods of conquests. He never ordered mass
slaughter of the civilians and emphasized upon the moral methods. This was also part of his achievements.
The reign of Harsha was also remarkable for his friendly diplomatic relations. Harsha knew the
significance of maintaining friendly relations with other kingdoms and outside world. According to
contemporary sources, Harsha exchanged embassies with China and the Chinese rulers sent three
embassies to the court of Harsha. Harsha also maintained friendly relations with King Bhaskar Varman of
Kamrupa.
The Chinese traveler Xuan Zang (Hiuen-Tsang) visited in his court. He organized an assembly at Kannauj
in the honor of Hiuen Tsang.He patronized Bana Bhatta, the author of Kadambari and Harsha Charita.
Harsha himself was a fine scholar and composed Nagananda, Ratnawali and Piyadashika.
Economic condition of Harsha Periods
We get information about the economic condition of Harsh period India from the texts of Baan and
Chinese sources. It is clear from all sources that the economic condition of the country was advanced at
that time. Agriculture was backbone of economy. Huensang writes that at that time the country‘s
economic condition was advanced. Hiuensang writes that food and fruits were produced in a plentiful
amount. According to Harshcharit, apart from rice and wheat apple, grapes, pomegranate etc. were also
grown.
Most of the lands were in the hands of feudal lords. Some lands were given as a donation to Brahmins. It
was called Brahmadeya. All kinds of rights related to his type of land were available to the donor. Aprda
(Insuperable) Aprahata (Non-Cultivated) and Khil (Barren) were three types of land. There was a good
system of irrigation for agriculture. In Harshacharit there is mention of Tulayantra (water pump) as a
means of irrigation.
Apart from Agriculture, Commerce, Business, Industry and Trade were also in progress. There were many
several major trading towns in the country. Trade Business was done by Guilds. There were different
guilds of different businessmen. Hiuensang tells that trade was the main reason for the prosperity of
Thaneshwar country. Mathura was famous for the manufacture of cotton clothes. Ujjain and Kannauj were
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also very prosperous in economic terms. Kannauj was famous for rare commodities, which were
purchased from merchants from far off countries.
Coins were the medium of exchange. But very few coins of this period are found, which is indicative of
the decline of trade-commerce. There was both internal and external trade in the country. For this, land
and waterways were used.
Central Asia and China were reached through Kashmir. Tamralipti in Eastern India and Bharuch in
Western India were well-known commercial ports. India had close trade relations with China and the
eastern islands. Ships from the Tamralipti traveled to the Malay Peninsula. There was also a trade route
between Ajodhya and Tamralipti.
States of South India

Chalukya dynasty (550-750 AD)

In the 6th century, with the decline of the Gupta dynasty and their immediate successors in northern India,
major changes began to happen in the area south of the Vindhyan – the Deccan and Tamilakam. The age
of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this region.
The Chalukya dynasty was established by Pulakeshin I in 543 AD. Pulakeshin I took Vatapi (modern
Badami in Bagalkot district, Karnataka) under his control and made it his capital. Pulakeshin I and his
descendants are referred to as "Chalukyas of Badami".
They ruled over an empire that comprised the entire state of Karnataka and most of Andhra Pradesh in the
Deccan. Pulakeshin II, whose pre-coronation name was Ereya, commanded control over the entire Deccan
and is perhaps the most well-known emperor of the Badami dynasty. He is considered one of the notable
kings in Indian history.
Pulakeshin II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom and halted
the southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada. He then defeated the
Vishnukundins in the south-eastern Deccan. Pallava Narasimhavarman however reversed this victory in
642 by attacking and occupying Badami temporarily. It is presumed Pulakeshin II, "the great hero", died
fighting. Aihole inscription highlights the achievements of Pulakeshin II.
The Badami Chalukya dynasty went into a brief decline following the death of Pulakeshin II due to
internal feuds when Badami was occupied by the Pallavas for a period of thirteen years. It recovered
during the reign of Vikramaditya I, who succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restoring
order to the empire.
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Vikramaditya I took the title "Rajamalla" (lit "Sovereign of the Mallas" or Pallavas). The thirty-seven-year
rule of Vijayaditya (696–733) was a prosperous one and is known for prolific temple building activity.
The empire was its peak again during the rule of the illustrious Vikramaditya II (733–744) who is known
not only for his repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his subsequent victories over
Pallava Nandivarman II, but also for his benevolence towards the people and the monuments of
Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital.
He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada
inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailash Temple. During his reign Arab intruders of the Umayyad
Caliphate invaded southern Gujarat which was under Chalukya rule but the Arabs were defeated and
driven out by Pulakesin, a Chalukya governor of Navsari. He later overran the other traditional kingdoms
of Tamil country, the Pandyas, the Cholas and the Cheras in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler.
The last Chalukya king, Kirti Varman II, was overthrown by the Rashtrakut King Dantidurga in 753. At
their peak, the Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Kaveri in the south to the Narmada in the
north. Chalukya‘s were played important role in development of Vesar style of Architecture. They built a
number of temples in Aihole.
Pallava dynasty

The Pallava dynasty was an Indian dynasty that existed from 275 AD to 897 AD, ruling a portion of
southern India. They gained prominence after the eclipse of the Satavahana dynasty, which the Pallavas
served as feudatories.
Pallavas became a major power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571–630 AD) and Narasimha
Varman I (630–668 AD) and dominated the Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region for about 600
years until the end of the 9th century. Throughout their reign they were in constant conflict with both
Chalukyas of Badami in the north and the Tamil kingdoms of Chola and Pandya in the south. Pallava was
finally defeated by the Chola ruler Aditya I in the 9th century AD.
Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of architecture, the finest example being the Shore Temple,a
UNESCO World Heritage Site in Mamallapuram. The Pallavas, who left behind magnificent sculptures
and temples, established the foundations of medieval South Indian architecture. They developed the
Pallava script from which Grantha ultimately descended. The Pallava script gave rise to several other
southeast Asian scripts. Chinese traveler Xuan Zang visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled
their benign rule.
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They built a lot of temple at Mahabalipuram-also known as Mammal-Puram and their style of architecture
is known as ‗Mammal Style‘. Panch Rathas (also known as Pandava Rathas or Sapta Paigora) is a
monument complex at Mahabalipuram, on the Coromandel Coast, in the Kancheepuram district of the
state of Tamil Nadu. The complex is under the auspices of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and
is part of the UNESCO World heritage site. In order of their size, they include the DharmarajRath, Bhim
Rath, Arjun Rath, Nakul-Sahadev Rathaand Draupadi Rath. The temple of Mammal style has been
constructed from a single rock; these temples are known as Monolithic Temple.
Early medieval (After the death of Harsh Vardhan -750- 1000 AD)

The period after Harshvardhan can be divided under the following two parts, during 750-1000 AD, three
political powers namely Gurjara-Pratiharas in Northern India, Pal in Eastern India and Rashtrakut in
Southern India emerged. They constantly fought among themselves to establish supremacy over Gangetic
area. This was called as tripartite struggle.
During 1000-1200 AD, these three political powers broke up and this resulted in the rise of huge number
of small kingdoms across India. Period from 1000 to 1200 AD was treated as dark phase because the
whole country was divided into numerous regional states. All of these regional states were busy fighting
with each other. But during this phase India witnessed growth in culture, traditions, art, literature and
language.
As this period is dominated by the presence of large number of regional states, the stronger states tried to
establish their authority over the weaker states in northern India and the Deccan parts. In north India, the
prominent dynasties in this supremacy struggle were the Pratihara, the Pal, and the Rashtrakut. While in
south Chola emerged as the most powerful kingdom. The Chola could manage to bring political
unification in Deccan parts whereas northern parts were still fragmented.
Contacts with Arab traders started in 7th century. Later in 8th century Arabs conquered Sind region.
While in 10th century Turks emerged powerful in parts of central and West Asia. They invaded India
during the late 10th and early 11th century.
Pal dynasty

After the death of Harsha Vardhana, many kingdoms arose in North and Eastern India. After the fall of the
Gaud King Shashank, there was anarchy in the region forming Bengal. The Pal kingdom had a close
relationship Southeast Asia particularly the Sri Vijaya Empire in Sumatra. It also had links with the
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Tibetan Empire and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate. Gopal founded the dynasty in 750 AD. He was a
chieftain or military general who was elected as king by notable men of the area to prevent anarchy.
Gopal (Reign: 750 – 770 AD)
He was the first Pal king and founder of the dynasty. He was elected by a group of people. At the time of
his death, Pal kingdom included Bengal and most of Bihar. He built the monastery at Odantapuri, Bihar.
He is considered the first Buddhist king of Bengal.
Dharmapala (Reign: 770 – 810 AD)
He was son and successor of Gopal. He expanded the kingdom. He was a pious Buddhist. He founded the
Vikramshila University at Bhagalpur, Bihar. He had frequent wars with the Pratiharas and the
Rashtrakuts. The Pals became the most powerful kingdom in northern and eastern India during his rule.
Devapal (Reign: 810 – 850 AD)
He was son of Dharmapala and Rannadevi, a Rashtrakut princess. He extended the kingdom to Assam,
Odisha and Kamarupa. He was a staunch Buddhist and built many monasteries and temples in Magadha.
He defeated the Rashtrakut ruler Amoghavarsha.
Madan Pal (Reign: 1144 – 1162 AD)
He was the last Pal king. The Pal Empire was dethroned by the Hindu Sen dynasty in the 12th century.
Legacy of the Pal Dynasty
The Pal period is also known as a ‗Golden Era‘ in Bengali history. They built magnificent monasteries and
temples: Sompura, Mahavihara (in Bangladesh), Odantapuri Monastery. They also patronized Buddhist
centers of learning like Nalanda University and the Vikramshila University. During this time, the Bengali
language developed. The first Bengali literary work Charyapada is attributed to this period. It was written
in an Avahatta (the common ancestor of Bengali, Assamese, Odia and Maithili.
Balaputradeva, the Shailendra king of Java sent an ambassador to Devapal. Buddhist poet Vajra Datta who
composed Lokesvarashataka was in Deva pal‘s court. Many Buddhist teachers from the Pal kingdom
travelled to Southeast Asia to spread the faith. Atisha preached in Sumatra and Tibet. Sanskrit scholars
were also patronized by the Pal kings. Gaudapada composed Agama Shastra during the time of the Pal.
The Pal art (art seen in Bengal and Bihar during the Pal regime) influence is seen in the art of Nepal, Sri
Lanka, Burma and Java.
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Gurjar-Pratihar dynasty

The early history of Gurjara Pratiharas is not known. Historians believe that after the Gupta period,
Gurjara Pratiharas came to India from the central Asian region and settled in Rajasthan. Gradually, they
gained political importance. It is believed that their ancestor Lakshmana served as a door keeper to his
brother Rama. Therefore, they were called as Pratihara. The geographical name of Gujarat is supposed to
be derived from Gurjara.
The Gwalior inscription 7th century AD constructed by Raja Bhoj Pratihara mentioned the early history of
the family. Raja Bhoj Pratihara was the most notable king of the Gurjara Pratiharas dynasty. Pratihar kings
actively participated in Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj with Rastrakuta and Pal rulers.
Nagabhatta-I was the real founder of the fame of family. He defeated the Muslim forces from the Arabs.
During 775-800 AD Vatsaraja followed an aggressive imperial policy. He defeated Pal king Dharmapal of
Bengal. Nagabhatta II first defeated Chakrayudha and captured Kannauj. He defeated Pal King Dharmapal
and Rashtrakut King Govinda-III. He also defeated Sultan Vega who was the son of the governor of Sind
under the Caliph-l Mamun.
Pratihar King Bhoj-I founded his sovereignty over the Punjab, Avadhand other territories of north India
and consolidated his empire. Bhoj-I was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of ‗Adivaraha.‘ It has
been inscribed in some of his coins. He is also known by other names as ‗Mihir‘ ‗Prabhasa,‘ etc.
Pratihar King Mahendrapal-I was also known as ‗Mahendrayudha‘ and ‗Nirbhayanarendra.‘ He was a
liberal patron of learned men. Rajashehara was learned man of his court. He had written Karpuramanjari,
Bala-Ramayana, Bala Bharata, Kavyamimansa, Bhuvana Kosha and Haravilasa.
The Pratiharas dynasty dominated north India for over two hundred years from the 8th century to the
10th century AD. The Pratihara kings were followers of Hinduism. They build with many fine buildings
and temples at Kannauj. The epigraphic records show that the building of temples and the educational
institutions attached with them, formed community projects, in which the entire village community
participated. Many Indian scholars went to the court of the Caliph at Baghdad along with embassies.
However, the names of the Indian kings are not known who sent these embassies. This interaction
between India and Arab led to the spread of Indian culture, literature and science, especially mathematics,
algebra and medicine to the Arab world from where these were further transmitted to Europe. Arab
scholar, Al-Masudi, visited India in A.D. 915-916. Al-Masudi mentioned about the great powers and
prestige of the Pratihara rulers.
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Rashtrakuts of Deccan

The literal meaning of term ‗Rashtrakut‘ is officer in-charge of territorial divisions. The Rashtrakut were
the officers of Rashtra (province) under the early Chalukyas of Badami. Dantivarman or Dantidurga was
the founder of the Rashtrakut dynasty. He made his capital at Manyakhet or Malkhand near modern
Sholapur, Maharashtra.
Dantivarman was succeeded by his uncle Krishna I about 758 AD. Krishna-I extended his kingdom from
Maharashtra to Karnataka. Dhruva was the most powerful king of dynasty. Dhruva became king in about
779 AD. It was the opening of a new era in the history of Rashtrakut. Dhruva was the first Rashtrakut
ruler from Deccan who had intervenes in the tripartite struggle of supremacy in north India. He had
defeated Pratihara king Vatsaraja and Pal king Dharmapal of Bengal. Dhruva added the emblem of Ganga
and Yamuna to his imperial emblem after his successful campaigns in north India.
Dhruva was succeeded by Govinda-III (793-813 AD). Govinda-III also made invasions into north India
and fought successfully against the Pal king Dharmapal and Chakrayudha the ruler of Kannauj. Govinda-
III shattered the union of the Ganga of Orissa Chera, Pandya and Pallava of south India.
Govind-III was succeeded by his son Amoghavarsha-I (A.D. 814-878). Amoghavarsha-I had been ruled
for 60 years. He is better known for his leanings towards religion and literature. Amoghavarsha was
follower of Jainism. He was a patron of literature and patronized as the men of letter. Amoghavarsha
wrote Kavirajamarga. It was earliest Kannada work on poetics. Amoghavarsha was a great builder. He
built the capital city Manyakhet.
The successor of Amoghavarsha were Indra-III (915-927 AD) and Krishna-III (939- 965 AD). Both were
the great Rashtrakut rulers. Indra-III had defeated the Pratihara king Mahipal-I and ransacked his capital
Kannauj.
Krishna-III was the last famous king of Rashtrakut dynasty. He struggled against the Paramars of Malwa
and eastern Chalukya of Vengi. Krishna-III also struggled against the Chola ruler of Tanjore. He reached
up to Rameshwaram and built a pillar of victory and a temple there. The dominance of the Rashtrakut in
the Deccan is the remarkable period in the history of India.
Arab traveler, Al-Masudi, calls the Rashtrakut king as the greatest king of India. Rashtrakut ruled more
than three hundred years. They patronized Saivismand Vaishnavism. In addition, they also protected
Jainism, Buddhism and Islam. The Rashtrakut rulers permitted the Muslim merchants to settle in their
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kingdom, build mosques and preach their religion. Rashtrakut rulers equally support Sanskrit, Prakritand
Kannada along with Apabhramsa languages.
Rock-cut cave temples excavated at Ellora are the symbols of Rashtrakut‘s religious toleration. They are
one of the splendors of Indian arts. The Kailash temple was built by the Rashtrakut king Krishna-I. It is a
supreme piece of art.
Tripartite Struggle

There were three great powers in India in the early phase of 8th century A.D., namely − Gurjara Pratihara
from north, Pal from east and Rasthrakutafrom Deccan. The main cause of this struggle was the desire to
acquire the city of Kannauj, which was then a symbol of sovereignty and some other causes of this
struggle were to have control over the fertile land of doab.
Chola dynasty

The founder of the Chola Empire was Vijayalaya, who was first feudatory of the Pallavas of Kanchi. He
captured Tanjore in 850 AD. He established a temple of goddess Nishumbhasudini (Durga) there. Aditya,
I succeeded Vijayalaya. By the end of the ninth century, the Cholas had defeated the Pallavas completely.
Aditya I then became a sovereign ruler. The Rashtrakut king, Krishna II gave his daughter in marriage to
Aditya. He erected many Shiva temples. He made his capital at Tanjore.
Parantaka I
He was succeeded in 907 A.D. by Parantaka I, the first important ruler of the Cholas. Parantaka I was an
ambitious ruler and engaged himself in wars of conquest from the beginning of his reign. He conquered
Madurai from the Pandya ruler Rajasimha II. He assumed the title of Maduraikonda (captor of Madurai).
However, he was defeated by Rashtrakut ruler Krishna III in the battle of Tokkolam in 949 AD. At that
point of time the Chola kingdom almost ceased to exist. It was a serious setback to the rising Chola power.
The revival of Chola power began from the accession of Parantaka II.
Rajraja I Chola
The climax in Chola power was achieved under the successor of Parantaka II, Arumolivarman, who
crowned himself as Rajaraja I in 985 AD. The next thirty years of his rule formed the formative periodof
Chola imperialism. The Chola kingdom grew under him into an extensive and well-knit empire, efficiently
organized and administered and possessing a powerful standing army and navy. Rajaraja began his
conquests by attacking the confederation between the rulers of the Pandya and Kerala kingdoms and of
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Ceylon. Polonnaruva became the capital of Chola province in North Ceylon after the defeat of Mahindra
V, the Ceylonese king.
He also annexed the Maldives. Elsewhere, several parts of modern Mysore were conquered and annexed
which intensified their rivalry with the Chalukyas. Rajaraja built the magnificent Shiva temple of
Brihadeshwara or Rajaraja temple at Thanjavur which was completed in 1010. It is considered a
remarkable piece of architecture in South Indian style.
Rajendra Chola
Rajaraja was succeeded by his son Rajendra I in 1014 A.D. He ruled jointly with his father for a few
years. He also followed a policy of conquest and annexation adopted by his father and further raised the
power and prestige of the Cholas.
He followed the expansionist policy and made extensive conquests in Ceylon. The Pandya and Kerala
country after being conquered was constituted as a viceroyalty under the Chola king with the title of
Chola-Pandya. Madurai was its headquarters. Proceeding through Kalinga, Rajendra I attacked Bengal and
defeated the Pal ruler Mahipal in 1022 A.D. But he annexed no territory in north India.
To commemorate the occasion, Rajendra I assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (the Chola conqueror of
Ganga). He built the new capital near the mouth of the Kaveri and called it Gangaikondacholapuram (the
city of the Chola conqueror of the Ganga).
With his naval forces, he invaded Malaya Peninsula and Srivijaya Empire that extended over Sumatra,
Java and the neighboring islands and controlled the overseas trade route to China. He sent two diplomatic
missions to China for political as well as commercial purposes.
Successors of Rajendra Chola
Rajendra was succeeded by his son Rajadhiraja I in 1044 AD. He was also an able ruler. He put down the
hostile forces in Ceylon and suppressed the rebellious Pandya and subjugated their terri-tory. He
celebrated his victory by performing Virabhisheka (coronation of the victor) at Kalyani after sacking
Kalyani and assumed the title of Vijayarajendra. He lost his life in the battle with the Chalukyan king
Someswara I at Koppam. His brother Rajendra II succeeded him. He continued his struggle against
Someswara. He defeated Someswara in the battle of Kudal Sangamam. Next came Virarajendra I, he too
defeated the Chalukyas and erected a pillar of victory on the banks of Tungabhadra. Virarajendra died in
1070 AD.
He was succeeded by Kulottunga I (1070-1122 AD.) the great-grandson of Rajaraja I. He was the son of
Rajendra Narendra of Vengi and Chola princess Ammangadevi (daughter of Rajendra Chola I). Thus,
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Kulottunga I united the two kingdoms of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the Cholas of Thanjavur.
The Chola authority in Ceylon was overthrown by Vijayabahu, the monarch of Ceylon during
Kulottunga‘s reign. The Chola Empire continued for more than a century after him. Weak rulers
succeeded him.
Administration
The form of the Chola government was hereditary monarchy. The king was the head of the Chola
administration. All powers were laid in his hands. The king generally appointed his Yuvaraja (heir) during
his reign. The royal priest Rajguru became the close confidant of the royal family.
The king had council of ministers to assists him. The king gave verbal orders (tiruvakya-kelvi) which
were drafted by the private secretary and confirmed by the Olainayamak (Chief Secretary) and a
Perundaram before its dispatch by the Vidaiyadhikari (despatch clerk). They often advised him on
important matters.
An elaborate and complicated bureaucracy ran the government. The officials tended to form a separate
class in society. Perundaram were higher officials while Sirutaram were lower officials. The general
tendency was to make the officers hereditary. The officials were paid by assignments of land called Jivitas
according to their status.
Military Administration
The army consisted of infantry, cavalry and elephants which formed the three limbs of the great army
Mun-rukai-Mahasenai. The Kaikkolas were soldiers armed with strong arms and the Sengundar were
armed with spears. The Velaikkarars were the most dependable troops in the royal service and were the
bodyguards of the monarch. The Cholas paid special attention to their navy.
Provincial Governance
The whole empire was divided into Mandalams (provinces). Sometimes princes of the royal family were
appointed governors of the provinces. Further provinces were divided into Valanadus (divisions), Nadus
(districts) and Kurrams (villages).
Types of villages
Village was the basic unit of administration. The villages were mainly of three types.
1. Normal Village
This type of villages constituted of an inter-caste population where the land was held by all classes of
people and paid taxes to the king in the form of land revenue. It was the most frequent type.
2. Branhadeya
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Brahmadeya or Agrahara villages were granted to the Brahmins and were entirely inhabited by them.
They were exempted from tax and were prosperous.
3. Devadana
Devadana were villages granted to god. The revenues from these villages were donated to a temple.
Local self-government
The Uttaramerur inscriptions of the Chola monarch Parantaka I of 919 AD and 921 A.D. may be said to
constitute a great landmark in the history of the Chola village assemblies. The Cholas are best known for
their local self-government at the village level. There were three types of assemblies called Ur, Sabha and
Nagaram.
1. Ur
The Ur was a general assembly of the village. The Ur consisted of all the tax-paying residents of an
ordinary village. The Alunganattar was the executive of Ur.
2. Sabha
Sabha was apparently an exclusively Brahmin assembly. The Sabha had more complex machinery,
which functioned largely through its committees called the Variyams.
3. Nagaram
Nagaram was an assembly of merchants and were found more commonly in the trading centers.
Early medieval period (Rajput period 1000 - 1200)

With the break-up of the Pratihara Empire, a number of Rajput states came into existence in north India.
The most important of these were the Gahadavals of Kannauj, the Paramars of Malwa and the Chauhans
of Ajmer. There were other smaller dynasties in different parts of the country, such as the Kalachuris in
the area around modem Jabalpur, the Chandellas in Bundelkhand, the Chalukyas of Gujarat, the Tomars of
Delhi, etc.
Paramar dynasty
The Paramar dynasty ruled Malwa and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th
centuries. The dynasty was established in either 9th or 10th century and its early rulers most probably
ruled as vassals of the Rashtrakuts of Manyakheta. The earliest extant Paramar inscriptions, issued by the
10th century ruler Siyaka, have been found in Gujarat. Around 972 CE, Siyaka sacked the Rashtrakut
capital Manyakheta and established the Paramars as a sovereign power.
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By the time of his successor Munja, the Malwa region in present-day Madhya Pradesh had become the
core Paramar territory, with Dhara as their capital. The dynasty reached its zenith under Munja's nephew
Bhoj, whose kingdom extended from Chittor in the north to Konkan in the south and from the Sabarmati
River in the west to Vidisha in the east.
The later Paramar rulers moved their capital to Mandapa-Durga (now Mandu) after Dhara was sacked
multiple times by their enemies. Mahalakadeva, the last known Paramar king, was defeated and killed by
the forces of Ala-ud-din Khalji of Delhi in 1305 AD.
Raja Bhoj Parmar
Some literary works suggest that Bhoj succeeded his uncle Munja as the Paramar king. These works
include Tilaka-Manjari, Prabandha-Chintamaniand Rasmala. However, several other works as well as
epigraphic evidence indicate that Bhoj succeeded his father Sindhuraja. Bhoj's father and predecessor was
Sindhuraja.
Merutunga's Prabandha-Chintamani states that Bhoj ruled for 55 years, 7 months and 3 days from 1000 to
1055 AD. Bhoj's inscriptions mention his titles as Parama-bhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja and Parameshvara.
While Bhoj became famous as a benevolent king and a patron of arts and culture, he was also renowned as
a warrior.
Historical evidence indicates that Bhoj's kingdom extended from Chittor in the north to upper Konkan in
the south and from the Sabarmati River in the west to Vidisha in the east.Bhoj formed an alliance against
the Chalukyas of Kalyani with Rajendra Chola and Gangeyadeva Kalachuri.
Bhoj is best remembered for his intellect and patronage to cultural activities. Several later kings also
emulated Bhoj. For example, Krishnadeva Raya of the Vijayanagara Empire styled himself as Abhinava-
Bhoj ("the new Bhoj"). Under his rule, Malwa and its capital Dhar became one of the chief intellectual
centers of India. Bhoj is said to have founded the city of Bhojpur. He constructed Bhojeshwar Temple
there. Bhoj established the Bhoj Shala which was a center for Sanskrit studies and a temple of Sarasvati in
present-day Dhar. According to folklore, the Bhopal city was established by and named after him
("Bhojpal"). Bhoj was renowned as a scholar-king and several books are attributed to him.
The Chalukyas of Anhilwara
The Chalukyas of Anhilwara or Solankis, as they are popularly known, ruled in Gujarat and Kathiawar for
nearly three centuries and a half (950-1300). One of the earliest kings of this line of Chalukyas was
Mularaja who consolidated the Chalukya authority in Gujarat.
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The next king of importance was Bhima I (1022-64), during whose reign Mahmud Ghazni, who made
seventeen raids on India between 1001 and 1027, overran Gujarat and plundered the great temple of
Somanath. When Mahmud appeared before the capital city Anhilwara, (modern Siddhpur Patan) Bhima I
took refuge in Kanthkot fort in Kutch. After the withdrawal of Mahmud, Bhima I revived the Chalukya
power and entered into a coalition with Lakshmi karna Kalachuri against Bhoj (1010-55 AD), the greatest
ruler of the Paramar dynasty of Malwa.
Jayasimha Siddharaja was the greatest Solanki ruler who, in commemoration of his victory against the
Paramars, assumed the title of Avantinatha. He also erected a number of religious edifices in his kingdom
and patronized learning.
He was also the patron of the celebrated Jain scholar Hemachandra. Kumarapal (1143-1172) of the
dynasty was a big votary of Jainism. During his reign Swetambaras gained a place of great prominence in
Gujarat. It is said that during his reign, non-violence was enforced so strictly that those who killed even
the flies were severely fined.
During the reign of Bhima II (1178-1241), Muhammad Ghori made an unsuccessful invasion of Gujarat
(AD 1178) and Qutab-ud-din Aibak led two expeditions. Anhilwara was plundered and temporarily
occupied by the Turkish army. In the same period the Vaghela chief carved out an independent
principality in Gujarat between Sabarmati and the Narmada.
During the rule of the Chalukyas in Gujarat, architecture reached its zenith in Western India. The beautiful
Jain shrines at Mount Abu in Rajasthan are the case in point. Since the Solanki kingdom was prosperous
thanks to the sea borne trade with the Arabs and Persians, large amount of money was spent on the
construction of beautiful Hindu and Jain temples.
Sen Dynasty of Bengal
The political space after the decline of the Pal power in Bengal was occupied by the Senas whose king
Vijaya Sen succeeded in conquering a large part of Pal territory. The Sen were the supporters of orthodox
Hinduism. The dynasty traces its origin to the South, to the Chalukyas.
The founder of the Sen rule was Savant Sen who described himself as a kshatriya and born in a family of
―Brahma-Kshatriya" in West Bengal. The title Brahma-Kshatriya indicates that Savant Sen was a Brahmin
but his successors called themselves simply Kshatriyas.
Savant Sen was succeeded by Vijaya Sen who consolidated the Sen power. According to the Deopara
inscription composed by the poet Dhoyi, Vijaya Sen is credited with defeating ―Navya (ruler of Mithila
and Nepal) and Vira. The Gaud kingdom was attacked by him who also humbled the ruler of Kamrupa.
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He also defeated many minor kings and is said to have dispatched his fleet along the course of the Ganga.‖
Vijaya Sen established two capitals, Vikrampura in East Bengal and Vijayapuri in West Bengal.
After the death of Vijaya Sen, Ballal Sen (1165-85) ascended the throne. The literary texts Ballalacharita
and Laghubharata, Mithala formed part of the Sen kingdom as the fifth province. Varendra, Vagdi, Radha
and Vanga were the other four provinces. Ballal Sen was a man of literary taste. He is said to have
authored Adbhuta Sagara, a work on astronomy and Dan Sagara, a work on Smriti. Ballal Sen is known to
have started a social movement known as Kulinism by which the nobility of birth and purity of blood were
carefully protected.
Ballal Sen was succeeded by Lakshman Sen who surrendered meekly to the Turkish invader Muhammad
bin Bakhtiyar Khalji and escaped for his life by flight in 1194. Lakshman Sen fled the Sen capital at Nadia
(renamed Lakhnauti or Lakshmanavati) and took refuge at Vikrampura in East Bengal where his sons
Visvarup Sen and Kesavasen continued to rule.
Visvarup Sen ruled for fourteen years while Kesav Sen for three years. Though politically an effete,
Lakshman Sen, however, was a patron of great literary minds of the day. Jayadev, author of Geet Govind,
Halayudha, author of Pavanadutam, adorned his court.
The Gahadaval dynasty
The Gahadaval dynasty ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during
11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Varanasi. Chandradeva, the first monarch of the
dynasty, established a sovereign kingdom sometime before 1090 AD after the decline of the Kalachuri
power.
The kingdom reached its zenith under his grandson Govindachandra who annexed some of the Kalachuri
territories, warded off Ghaznavid raids and also fought the Pals.
Jayachandra was a son of the Gahadaval king Vijaya Chandra. According to a Kamauli inscription, he was
crowned king on 21 June 1170 AD. According to Prithviraj Raso written by Chand Bardai he was a rival
of Prithviraj Chauhan. His daughter Sanyogita eloped with Prithviraj against his wishes and he allied with
the foreign Ghurids to ensure Prithviraj's downfall.
In 1194 AD Ghurid ruler Muhammad of Ghor decided to attack the Gahadaval kingdom after taking
control of Ajmer, Delhi and Kol. In the Battle of Chandwar Jayachandra was killed. The kingdom ceased
to exist when Jayachandra's successors were defeated by the Delhi Sultanate in the 12th century.
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According to the Gahadaval inscriptions, Govindachandra appreciated and patronized different branches
of learning as indicated by his title Vividha-vidya-vichara-vachaspati). His courtier Lakshmidhara
composed Kṛtya-Kalpataru at the king's request.
Vijayachandra also patronized scholars and poets including Shriharsha, whose works include Naishadha
Charita and the now-lost Shri-Vijaya-Prashasti. Jayachandra's court poet Bhatta Kedar wrote a eulogy
titled Jaichand Prakash on his life, but the work is now lost. Another lost eulogy on his life is the poet
Madhukar's Jaya-Mayank-Jasha-Chandrika.
The Chahaman of Shakambhari

The Chahaman of Shakambhari are also known as the Chauhans of Sambhar Rajasthan. The Chahaman
originally had their capital at Shakambhari (present-day Sambhar Lake Town). Until the 10th century,
they ruled as Pratihara vassals. When the Pratihara power declined after the Tripartite Struggle, the
Chahamana ruler Simharaja assumed the title Maharajadhiraja. Thekings of Chauhan dynasty are known
for their bravery and loyalty. Guvaka I was probably the first independent ruler of Chauhan dynasty.
The most important and powerful ruler of Chauhan‘s was Vigraha raja IV. He conquered the nearby
regions and increased the boundaries of the empire. He ruled between 1153 AD and 1163 AD. He started
his victorious career by conquering small states of Southern Rajputana from the Chalukyas and the
Paramars. After Vigraha Raja, two rulers Prithviraj II and Somesvara ruled Chauhan dynasty.
Someshvara was followed by his son Prithvira III. Prithviraja III (reign 1178–1192 AD) is popularly
known as Prithviraj Chauhan or Rai Pithora. He controlled much of the present-day Rajasthan,
Haryanaand Delhi; and some parts of Punjab, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. His capital was located
at Ajayameru (modern Ajmer).
Much of the information about him comes from Prithviraja Vijaya, Hammira Mahakavya and Prithviraj
Raso. Prithviraj Raso, which popularized Prithviraj as a great king, is purported to be written by the king's
court poet Chand Bardai.
First battle of Tarain (1191 AD)
In 1190–1191 AD Muhammad of Ghor invaded the Chahamana territory and captured Tabar-e-Hind
(identified with Bathinda). When Prithviraj learned about this, marched towards Bathinda with his
feudatories. Muhammad's original plan was to return to his base after conquering Tabarhind, but when he
heard about Prithviraj's march, he decided to put up a fight. He set out with an army and encountered
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Prithviraj's forces at Tarain. In the ensuing battle, Prithviraj's army decisively defeated the Ghurids.
Muhammad of Ghor was injured and forced to retreat.
Second battle of Tarain (1192 AD)
Muhammad of Ghor returned to Ghazna and made preparations to avenge his defeat. According to
Tabaqat-i Nasiri, he gathered a well-equipped army of 120,000 select Afghan, Tajik and Turkic horsemen
over the next few months. He then marched towards the Chahamana kingdom via Multan and Lahore,
aided by Vijayaraja of Jammu. Prithviraj had been left without any allies as a result of his wars against the
neighbouring Hindu kings. Nevertheless, he managed to gather a large army to counter the Ghurids.
Muhammad formed four divisions, with 10,000 archers each. He kept the rest of his army in reserve. He
ordered the four divisions to launch an attack on the Chahamana camp and then pretend a retreat.
Muhammad led his reserve force and attacked the Chahaman, decisively defeating them. Prithviraj himself
tried to escape on a horse, but was pursued and caught near the Sarasvati fort (possibly modern Sirsa).
Subsequently, Muhammad of Ghor captured Ajmer after killing several thousand defenders, enslaved
many more and destroyed the city's temples.
The Kalachuris of Tripuri
The Kalachuris of Tripuri are also known the Kalachuris of Chedi ruled parts of central India during 7th to
13th centuries. Their capital was located at Tripuri (present-day Tewar near Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh).
By the 10th century, the Kalachuris of Tripuri had consolidated their power by raiding neighbouring
territories and by fighting wars with the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Chandelas and the Paramars. They also
had matrimonial relations with the Rashtrakuts and the Chalukyas of Kalyani. In the 1030s, the Kalachuri
king Gangeyadeva assumed imperial titles after achieving military successes at his eastern and northern
frontiers.
The kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of his son Lakshmikarna, who assumed the title
Chakravartin after military campaigns against several neighboring kingdoms. He also controlled a part of
the Paramar and Chandela kingdoms for a brief period. The dynasty gradually declined after
Lakshmikarna; whose successors lost control of their northern territories to the Gahadavals.
Trailokyamalla, the last known ruler of the dynasty, ruled at least until 1212 AD.
The Chandel of Jejakbhuti
The Chandel ruled much of the Bundelkhand region for long periods approximately 500 years between the
9th and the 13th centuries AD. In those days, Bundelkhand region was popularly known by the name of
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Jejakabhukti. The Chandel dynasty is famous in Indian history for Maharaja Rao Vidyadhara, who
repulsed the attacks of Mahmud of Ghazni and also for his temples art and sculpture.
Chandelas were earlier feudatories of Gujara Pratiharas. Once they became week in 9th century, Chandela
declared themselves as independent rulers. As per Khajuraho inscriptions Nannuk, a ruler of small
kingdom was the founder of Chandela Dynasty. Khajuraho was the capital of Nannuk. Vakapati
succeeded his father in the first quarter of tenth century. Jaishakti, the elder son of Vakapati, succeeded
the throne and was successful in extending his empire. Jaishakti was also called Jai Jak and from this
name the region ruled by the Chandelas acquired the name of Jejakbhukti.
Yashorvarman began to take over the neighboring areas of the Rashtrakut kingdom. He proved to be an
able general and a brave warrior. He captured Kalinjar and extended his empire in the north and in the
south. He reached the banks of the Yamuna in one direction and the borders of Chedi and Malwa in the
other.
Dhangdev succeeded Yashodharman and ruled over Khajuraho from 945 A.D. to 1002 A.D. Chandelas
reached the peak of their power during his reign by expanding the territory. He took over the eastern part
of Pratihara's kingdom lying north of the Yamuna. He was a great patron of art and literature. Dhangadev
was an ally of king Jaipal of Punjab when he was defeated by Sabuktigin of Ghazni. This defeat was the
beginning of Chandela dynasty downfall. After death of Dhangadev, Chandel's capital was shifted from
Khajuraho to Mahoba.
In year 1165 CE, Parmardi ascended the Chandela throne. In year 1182-83, Prithviraj Chauhan invaded
Chandela kingdom and sacked Mahoba due to which King Parmardi took shelter in Kalinjar fort but here
also Prithviraj defeated Chandela forces and Parmardi shifted to Gaya. After sometime, he restored
Chandela rule but in year 1202-03 CE, Delhi Sultanate invaded Chandela kingdom and Parmardi decided
to surrender and paid tribute to them but died before he will pay anything. After that, Chandela continues
to become week and other new dynasties emerged in to picture like Bundela in Orchha, Baghels in
Bandhavgarh region.
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UNIT- II
Political, Economic, Social and Cultural History of India from 11th to 18th Century A.D.
Mugal rulers and their administration, Emergence of composite culture
Impact of British Rule on Indian Economy andsociety.

Division of Indian history into periods

The periodical division of history of India is associated with the rule of various races. Usually, the period
prior to the Muslim rule is termed as ancient period and that under the British rule as modern. The
intervening period that of Muslim domination is called mediaeval.
Among Muslims Arabs were the first to come in this country. Although their military success did not
produce far reaching effect on the political history of this country yet Indo Arabian relation have their own
importance in mediaeval Indian history.
Arabia
The peninsula of Arabia is one of the three main peninsulas of Asia. It is situated in Western Sector of
Asian continent. Most of its land is Sandy desert. The climate is very hot and the population thin. Due to
infertility of soil the Peninsula all concentrated in tracks situated on seashore or where there is some
landfall. Date is the main item of Arabian diet. The camel is as important among the Arab animals as the
date is amongst its edible products. The neighboring countries of
Arabia are Persia, Egypt, Greece and beyond the seas India. The
trade with the East and the west has been carried along the Arabian
Sea coast and across the mainland from prehistory days.
Since thousands of years Arab traders has been frequenting the
coastal regions of India and carried her finished goods and other
articles of Merchandise to Europe via Syria and Egypt and brought
the rarities from there to India, the east Indies and further beyond
to China and Japan. This foreign trade was generally in hand of
those Arab who inhabited the towns in hostel strips of
Arabia. These include Mecca and Medina also. The main Indian harbors frequented by Arab traders were
Debal, Thana Cambey, Sopara, Malabar and Cape Camorin. These traders exported a large variety of
goods from India.
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The articles especially mentioned are scented wood, sandalwood, camphor, black paper, clove, cardamom
and other spices, coconut, mango, lemon, linen velvet, cotton cloths, green vitriol, lead, bamboo cane,
shoes, fancy earthenware, teak wood, other useful Timbers, diamond, pearls, Ivory and musk. They
imported into India Egyptian Emerald rings, wines, Roman silk, opium seeds and swords. Rose water
dates and horses were also in good demand in this country.
This trade was not the Monopoly of Arab alone. Indian traders also visited the western countries through
land and sea. They were called baniya in Arabic. The people of this class are even today spread over a
wide territory extending from the coastal region of Arabia to Egypt.
Founder of Islam Prophet Mohammed expensive many years of life in trade and in course of that he came
in contact of a rich women Khadijah. She later on married him being impressed by his honesty. In Islam
society religion and politics are intimately linked together. Great stress has been laid on collective prayer,
moderation, benevolent brotherhood and lack of greed. Bing the children of one God and the follower of
his Prophet all Muhammadans are like real brothers and sisters.
About Islam
Muhammad was born around the year 570 CE to the Banu Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe, one of
Mecca‘s prominent families. His father, Abdullah, died almost six months before Muhammad was born.
At the age of six, Muhammad lost his mother, Amina, to illness and was raised by his paternal
grandfather, Abd-al-Muttalib.
Muhammad worked as a trader for Khadija, a widow, until he married her in 595 CE at the age of 25.
When he was nearly 40, Muhammad began spending many hours alone in prayer and speculating over the
aspects of creation. He was concerned with the ―ignorance of divine guidance‖ (Jahiliyyah), social unrest,
injustice, widespread discrimination (particularly against women), fighting among tribesand abuse of
tribal authorities prevalent in pre-Islamic Arabia. Islamic tradition holds that during one of his visits to
Mount Hira in the year 609, the angel Gabriel appeared to him and commanded Muhammad to recite
verses that would later be included in the Quran.
Quran
Muslims believe that the Quran was orally revealed by God to the final prophet, Muhammad, through the
archangel Gabriel (Jibril), incrementally over a period of some 23 years, beginning on 22 December 609,
when Muhammad was 40 and concluding in 632, the year of his death.
Hadith
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Hadith is record of the traditions or sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. It is received as a major source of
religious law and moral guidance, second only to the authority of the Quran, the holy book of Islam.
Sharia
Sharia is Islamic law or a religious law forming part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the
religious precepts of Islam, particularly the Quran and the Hadith.
According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad‘s wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet. She
was followed by Muhammad‘s ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr and adopted
son Zaid. Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public. Most Meccans ignored and mocked
him, but he did begin to gain followers.
Islam is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion articulated by the Quran. Quran is considered by its
adherents to be the verbatim word of God (Allah). The teachings and normative example of Muhammad is
called the Sunnah, composed of accounts called Hadith. An adherent of Islam is called a Muslim.
Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable and that the purpose of existence is to worship God.
Nearly all Muslims consider Muhammad to be the last prophet of God. Muslims also believe that Islam is
the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times before through
prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus.
The Five Pillars of Islam are five basic acts in Islam; they are considered mandatory by believers and are
the foundation of Muslim life. They are summarized in the famous hadith of Gabriel. The Five Pillars are:
1. Shahada (faith)
There is only one God (Allah)and Muhammad is God‘s messenger. It is a set statement normally recited in
Arabic: la ilaha illa-llahu muḥammadun rasulu-llah ―There is no god but God (and) Muhammad is the
messenger of God.‖
2. Salat (prayer)
It consists of five daily prayers, the names referring to the prayer
Time Name
Dawn Fajr
Noon Dhuhr,
Afternoon Asr
Evening Maghrib
Night Isha
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All of these prayers are recited while facing in the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca and are accompanied
by a series of set positions including bowing with hands on knees, standing, prostrating and sitting in a
special position.
3. Zakat (charity)
The practice of charitable giving based on accumulated wealth. It is the personal responsibility of each
Muslim to ease the economic hardship of others and to strive towards eliminating
inequality. Zakat consists of spending a portion of one‘s wealth for the benefit of the poor or needy, like
debtors or travelers.
4. Sawm (fasting)
Three types of fasting are recognized by the Quran: ritual fasting, fasting as compensation for repentance
and ascetic fasting. Ritual fasting is an obligatory act during the month of Ramadan. The fast is meant to
allow Muslims to seek nearness to and look for forgiveness from God, to express their gratitude to and
dependence on him, to atone for their past sins and to remind them of the needy.
5. Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca)
Every able-bodied Muslim is obliged to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her life. The
main rituals of the Hajj include walking seven times around the Kaaba, termed Tawaf; touching the Black
Stone, termed Istilam; traveling seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwah, termed Sayee; and
symbolically stoning the Devil in Mina, termed Ramee.
The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina, 320 kilometers (200
miles) north, in 622 CE. Muhammad instructed his followers to immigrate to Medina until nearly all of
them left Mecca. According to tradition, the Meccans, alarmed at the departure, plotted to assassinate
Muhammad. In June 622, when he was warned of the plot, Muhammad slipped out of Mecca with his
companion, Abu Bakr.
In March 624, Muhammad led three hundred warriors against Meccan tribes. Muhammad and his
followers saw the victory as confirmation of their faithand Muhammad said the victory was assisted by an
invisible host of angels. The victory strengthened Muhammad‘s position in Medina and dispelled earlier
doubts among his followers.
After eight years of fighting with the Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim
converts and took control on the city of Mecca. Most Meccans converted to Islam. In 632 Muhammad fell
ill and died. By the time Muhammad died, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam and he
had united Arabia into a single Muslim religious polity. He established a new unified Arabian Peninsula,
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which led to the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates and the rapid expansion of Muslim power over the
next century.
Caliphate
With Muhammad‘s death in 632 CE, disagreement broke out among his followers over deciding his
successor. Muhammad‘s prominent companion Umar ibn al-Khattab nominated Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr
(632-634 AD) was confirmed as the first caliph (religious successor to Muhammad). This choice was
opposed by some followers of Muhammad. They wanted to appoint Ali ibn Abi Talib as caliph. Ali was
cousin and his son-in-law, having married Muhammad‘s daughter Fatimah. Ali would eventually become
the fourth Sunni caliph.
These disagreements over Muhammad‘s true successor led to a major split in Islam between what became
the Sunni and Shia denominations, a division that still holds to this day. Sunni Muslims believes and
confirm that Abu Bakr was chosen by the community and that this was the proper procedure. Sunnis
further argue that a caliph should ideally be chosen by election or community consensus. Shia Muslims
believe that just as God alone appoints a prophet, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to
his prophet. They believe God chose Ali to be Muhammad‘s successor and the first caliph of Islam.
After the death of Muhammad many Arabian tribes rejected Islam. They claimed that they had submitted
to Muhammad and that with death of Muhammad their allegiance had ended. To retain the cohesion of the
Islamic state, Abu Bakr divided his Muslim army to force the Arabian tribes into submission. After a
series of successful campaigns, Abu Bakr‘s general Khalid ibn Walid defeated a competing prophet and
the Arabian Peninsula was united under the caliphate in Medina. Muslim armies conquered most of
Arabia by 633, followed by North Africa, Mesopotamia and Persia, significantly shaping the history of the
world through the spread of Islam.
Abu Bakr nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed. Umar ibn Khattab (634-644 AD) the second
caliph was killed by a Persian named Piruz Nahavandi. During his time Arab Empire reached up to the
borders of India.
Umar‘s successor, Usman Ibn Affan, was elected by a council of electors (Majlis). In the time of Usman
(644-656 AD) an officer was deputed to report feasibility of Indian Invasion. He opposed to move. Thus,
the idea of Indian invasion was dropped. Usman was killed by members of a disaffected group.
Ali then took control (656-661 AD) but was not universally accepted as caliph by the governors of Egypt
and later by some of his own guard. He faced two major rebellions and was assassinated by Abdl-al-
Rahman.
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The followers of Ali later became the Shia minority sect of Islam, which rejects the legitimacy of the first
three caliphs. The followers of all four Rashidun caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali) became the
majority Sunni sect. Under the Rashidun, each region (Sultanate) of the caliphate had its own governor
(Sultan).
The Umayyad dynasty came in power and ruled from 661 to 750 AD. In 661 AD Muawiya displaced
Hasan, the son of Ali. He established his capital at Damascus (Syria) instead of Medina. His family ruled
up to 750 AD. Under the Umayyads, the caliphate territory grew rapidly.
The Islamic Caliphate became one of the largest unitary states in history and one of the few states to ever
extend direct rule over three continents (Africa, European Asia). The Umayyads incorporated the
Caucasus, Trans-oxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) into the Muslim
world.
Arab Conquest of Sindh
The main reason for invasion of Sindh was not desire of expansion but revenge. In early years of 8 th
century, the king to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) had sent some ships to Khalifa (Caliph) Walid. These ships were
plundered by pirates near Debal, a port of Sindh. At that time a Hindu King Dahir was ruled over Sindh.
When this news was reached Al-Hijjaj the governor of Basra (Iraq), he demanded compensation but Dahir
refused to pay it and suggested that it was the work of pirates who were not under his control. Hajjaj was
infuriated at this evasive reply and to uphold honor of Caliph he sent three generals in successions but first
two were routed by Dahir. The third general Muhammad Bin Qasim was his nephew and son-in-law. He
came with a big army. On reaching Makran in 712 AD he did not received only assistance of its ruler but
also enlisted army of Jats and Merhs who were dissatisfied with the Brahmin rule of Dahir. The Morale of
invaders went up as they got hold of Western part of Sindh without fighting. Mohammad Bin Qasim first
hold control on Debal and to terrorize populace he massacred all men above seventeen. With local help he
crossed Indus and captured Alor, Sikka and Multan.
Causes behind the success of Arab
Muhammad bin Qasim achieved many successes within a period of one year because his governor Hajjaj
sent him with a strong and well-equipped Army. Qassim also got the support of Indian rulers. Governor
of Makran supplied him not only the help of local soldiers and food materials but also gave him the
important information‘s related to the topography of Indian regions. The terror policy of Muhammad bin
Qassim also helped him. He terrorized the people of Debal by his cruelty and later on enlisted the support
of neutral Kings of Sindh region. He also conferred many concessions to the Brahmins and Buddhist.
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Governing system of Arab
Muhammad bin Qassim established the Arab administrative system during his two years of rule (713-715
AD). He gave religious freedom to all and promised to protect their temples. He did not change the
administrative machinery and allowed Indians to hold administrative offices. Brahmin not only received
some higher posts but was also exempt from Jizya and other taxes. Land revenue was fixed between ⅕ and
⅖ of the total production. All other than Brahmins and Muslims were forced to pay Jizya.
Importance of Arab rule in India
The victory of Arab has its own importance in the history of and that of Arabia. It opened the door of
India for or establishment of future Muslim Empires. They intermarried with the local people and
produced a mixed Indo Arab race.
Islam and Turk
The credit of establishing the Muslim rule in India goes to the Turks. The leadership of Islam was
captured from the Arabs first by the Persians and then by the Turks. In the beginning, the Turks were
barbaric hordes and their only strength was their power of arms. The Turks were new converts to Islam
and therefore, proved more fanatical in their religious zeal as compared to the Persians and the Arabs.
They also believed in the superiority of their race.
Alp-Tegin or Alptigin was a Turkic slave commander of
the Samanid Empire. In 962 AD Alp-Tegin founded
Ymini Dynasty in Afghanistan which is also known as
Ghazni dynasty. He snatched away the kingdom of Jabul,
with its capital Ghazni, from Amir Abu Bakr Lawik in
963 AD but he died the same year.
After some weak rulers Sabuktigin, the son-in-law of
Alptigin became the ruler of Ghazni in 977 AD. Sabuktigin was a capable and ambitious ruler. He
prepared a plan to attack on Hindushahi kingdom of east Afghanistan and Punjab. Jay Pal was king of
Hindushahi dynasty. Jay Pal knew the danger of the rising power of Islam on his border, tried to check its
growth in the very beginning and pursued an aggressive policy for the purpose. With help of certain other
Rajput rulers Jay Pal attacked Ghazni twice. But both his attempts failed. Sabuktigin succeeded in
capturing all the territories which lay from Lamghan to Peshawar. Thus, the Hindushahi kingdom failed to
check the growing power of the Ghaznavids towards the east. Sabuktigin died in 997 AD.
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He nominated his younger son Ismail as his successor before his death but when Ismail ascended the
throne, he was challenged by his elder brother, Mahmud who succeeded in capturing the throne of Ghazni
just after seven months, in 998 AD.
Mahmud justified his accession, became a powerful ruler, repeatedly attacked India and paved the way of
the conquest of India by Islam. Mahmud was born on 1 November 971. He had received a fairly good
education and had participated in many battles during the reign of his father. After ascending the throne,
Mahmud first consolidated his position in Herat, Balkh and Bust and, then conquered Khurasan. In 999
AD Khalifa Al Qadir Billah accepted him as the ruler of these places and conferred on him the titles of
Yamin-ud-Daulah and Amin-ud-Millah.
The Condition of India at the Time of the Invasions of Mahmud
Politically, India was divided. There were many kingdoms which constantly fought against each other for
fame and extension of their territories. Many of them were quite extensive and powerful but, because of
their internal conflicts, none of them could utilize its complete resources, nor could they unite themselves
against Mahmud which constituted their primary weakness.
In the north-west was the Hindushahi kingdom. Kashmir was also an independent state. The Pratihara
ruled over Kannauj. There were independent kingdoms in Gujarat, Malwa and Bundelkhand as well. In
the South, the later Chalukya and the Cholas had their powerful kingdoms.
The Hindus had not attempted to improve their arms and the methods of warfare. They largely depended
on their elephants. Sword was still their chief weapon and their policy was yet defensive. They neither
cared to build forts in the north-west nor adopted any other means to defend their frontiers. Thus,
militarily, too, India was weak.
The one primary cause of the weakness of the Indians was that they did not try to know, understand and
learn from what was happening or the improvements done in neighboring. They, therefore, became
ignorant and also developed a false pride. According to Al Beruni ―The Hindus believed that there is no
country like theirs, no nation like theirs, no king like theirs, no religion like theirs, no science like theirs.‖
The Invasions of Mahmud
Mahmud invaded India seventeen times. There are no sufficient proofs of that, yet, all historians agree that
Mahmud attacked India at least twelve times. His first expedition took place in 1000 AD when he
occupied a few frontier fortresses. After that in 1001 AD he defeated Hindushahi king, Jay Pal. Jay Pal
could not tolerate his humiliation and burnt himself to death. He was succeeded by his son, Anandapal in
1002 AD. In 1004 he defeated Baji Ray king of Bhera. In 1006 he defeated Shia kingdom of Multan and
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Anandapal. In 1008 he again defeated Anandapal and conquered Nagarkot. Anandapal was died in 1012
AD. In 1013 he defeated to successor and son ofAnandapal Trilochanapal.
Trilochanapal took the help of Vidhyadhar, the Chandela ruler of Bundelkhand, but he was again defeated
by Mahmud in 1019 AD. The Hindushahi kingdom was now reduced to the status of a small Jagir. In
1021 AD, Trilochanapal was succeeded by his son, Bhimapal. Bhimapal was last ruler mighty Hindushahi
kingdom of north-western India. The defeat and decay of the Hindushahi kingdom had encouraged
Mahmud to penetrate deeper into India.
He repeated his raids on India and met no challenge anywhere. From 1014 to 1019 he proceeded to attack
Ganga-Yamuna Doab. He attacked and looted Mathura, Thaneshwar and Kannauj. In 1019 AD, Mahmud
reached the border of Bundelkhand. Vidyadhar faced him with a large army but, for some unknown
reason, left the field during the night. Next year he defeated Gwalior and Kalinjar. The siege of the fort
lasted for a long time. Vidyadhar agreed to give Mahmud 300 elephants as tribute and in return, received
the right of governing fifteen fortresses from him.
In 1024 Mahmud came on his famous expedition to Somnath temple. The devotees of the temple offered
him resistance but the next day Mahmud entered the temple, looted it and destroyed it afterwards. He was
troubled on the way by his Hindu guides who led his army to a dreary part of the desert. But, ultimately,
he reached Ghazni safely with his booty. Mahmud came back to India for the last time in 1027 A.D. to
punish the Jats who had troubled him on his return journey from Somnath. The Jats were severely
punished. Mahmud looted their property, killed all males and enslaved their women and children.
Thus, Mahmud attacked India repeatedly. He was never defeated here. He took from India whatever he
could and destroyed the rest. Besides engaging himself in loot and plunder, he annexed Afghanistan,
Punjab, Sindh and Multan to his empire. Mahmud died in 1030 A.D.
Character and Achievements of Mahmud
Mahmud was a courageous soldier and a successful commander. He ranks among those successful
generals of the world who have been regarded born- commanders. He possessed the qualities of leadership
and knew how to utilize his resources and circumstances in the best possible way. His army consisted of
the people of different nationalities like the Arabs, the Turks, the Afghans and even Hindus.
He had inherited from his father only the provinces of Ghazni and Khurasan. He converted this small
inheritance into a mighty empire which extended from Iraq and the Caspian Sea in the west to the river
Ganges in the east and which was, certainly, more extensive than the empire of Khalifa of Baghdad at that
time.
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Mahmud was an educated and cultured person. He was a patron of scholarship and fine arts. He gathered
at his court scholars of repute. Al Beruni, the scholar of Turki, Sanskrit, Mathematics, Philosophy,
Astrology and History was at his court. The same way Farabi, Asjadi, Farrukhi and Firdausi, who were
scholars of repute of his age, were all at his court.
During his rule, Ghazni became not only a beautiful city of the East but also the center of Islamic
scholarship, fine arts and culture. Mahmud was successful in maintaining peace and order protect trade
and agriculture and safeguard the honor and property of his subjects within the boundaries of his empire.
He had agreed to pay Firdausi, his court poet, a golden dinar for every verse composed by him. But when
Firdausi presented before him the Shahnama which consisted of one thousand verses, he offered him one
thousand dinars of silver, which Firdausi refused.
Muhammad lbn Ahmad Alberuni
Muhammad lbn Ahmad Alberuni (973-1043 AD) was an eminent scholar at the court of Mahmud of
Gazni. Historically he is the first Islamic scholar to study Sanskrit. He translated astronomical work of
Brahmagupts and Varahamihira. When Mahmud of Ghazni raided India, Alberuni accompanied him to
India. Alberuni narrated and composed about twenty books on India. The most important work of
Alberuni from the point of view of Indian historiography was his book entitled Tahkik-i-Hind (Reality of
Hindustan). In this book Alberuni gives an account of the religious, literary and scientific traditions of
India. Alberuni tells us that the Hindus were excellent philosophers good mathematicians and
astronomers.
Muiz-Ud-Din Muhammad of Ghur
Ghur is situated at a high altitude of more than ten thousand feet between Ghazni and Herat. With the
decline of the Ghaznavids, the rulers of Ghur began to assert themselves. Sahab-ud- din alias Muiz-ud-din
Muhammad conquered Ghazni in 1173-74. While his elder brother Ghiyas-ud-din tried to extend his
empire towards the west and came in conflict with the Khwarizm Shah of Persia, Muhammad tried to
extend the empire towards the east.
The royal families of Ghur and Ghazni were hereditary enemies and, by that time, the Ghaznavids still
ruled in the Punjab. Muhammad after the capture of Ghazni desired to annex Punjab as well to his
kingdom so that he could finish the remaining strength of his hereditary enemy and also provide security
to its kingdom from towards the east.
India at the Time of the Invasions of Muhammad of Ghur
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Nearly 148 years had lapsed after the last invasion of Mahmud in 1027. as Muhammad‘s first attack on
India took place in 1175 A.D. But there was not a single remarkable change in the condition of India
except changes in the ruling dynasties and territories of their kingdoms. Politically, India was divided into
many kingdoms, both in the North and the South. Many of them were quite extensive and powerful
enough to meet the challenge of a foreign invader but their constant fighting against each other for glory
and power constituted their primary weakness because it did not allow them either to unite themselves
even in the hour of their greatest danger against a foreign enemy or left them free to utilize their complete
resources against him.
At that time, Sindh and Multan were ruled by two independent Shia Muslim rulers while Punjab was in
the hands of the last Ghaznavid ruler, Khusrav Shah. Gujarat and Kathiawar were ruled by the Chalukyas.
Their capital was Anhilwara. Their ruler, then, was Mularaja II. Delhi and Ajmer were ruled by the
Chauhanas. There the then ruler was Prithviraja III. He had defeated and disgraced the Chalukyas of
Gujarat, snatched away Mahoba from the Chandela ruler Paramaladeva and by eloping with the daughter
of Jayachandra, ruler of Kannauj, had provoked his permanent enmity. Prithviraja III was, no doubt,
daring ruler but he lacked diplomatic shrewdness. Therefore, he failed to receive any support from any of
his powerful neighbors in his fight against the Muslim invader.
The Gahadavals ruled over Kannauj. Their empire was most extensive in north India at that time and their
then ruler was Jayachandra. Chandelas ruled in Bundelkhand while the Pal and the Sen ruled in Bengal.
The South was similarly divided politically and was totally indifferent to the fate of north India.
The Invasions of Muhammad
Muhammad first attacked Multan in 1175 and conquered it easily. In 1178 he attacked Gujarat. Mularaja
II faced him near Mount Abu and defeated him. This was the first defeat of Muhammad in India.
Afterwards, he changed his route to India. He next attempted through Punjab. Muhammad conquered
Peshawar in 1179. He imprisoned Khusrav Shah and occupied the entire territories of Punjab.
First battle of Tarain (1191)
Muhammad Ghori had become the master of the Punjab, Multan and Sindh, but he was far from being the
master of Hindustan. There were many wealthy and powerful Rajput kingdoms in the heart of India which
were ready to check his further advance in case he dared to invade their territory.
The Rajputs were proud of their ancestry and jealous of their honor. Fighting was their hobby and they
could never think of surrender. Prithvi Raj Chauhan or Rai Pithora, the ruler of Delhi and Ajmer, decided
to check the advance of Muhammad Ghori. He marched against the Ghori along with a large army which,
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according to Firshta, included 2 lakh horses and 3,000 elephants. The army met at Tarain, a village 14
miles away from Thaneswar in 1191.
Muhammad Ghori attacked Govind Rai, the brother of Prithvi Raj, on the mouth with his sword and
knocked out his teeth. Govind Raj returned the blow and struck Muhammad Ghori turned back and began
to bleed. His potency was exhausted and he was about to fail down from his horse. However, a soldier
helped Muhammad Ghori and carried him off the field of battle. The Muslim army dispersed in all
directions. It was pursued for 40 miles and after that the case was given up. Muhammad Ghori went back
to Ghazni.
Second Battle of Tarain (1192)
Muhammad Ghori punished all those officers and soldiers who had ran away from the battle field. They
were openly mortified and paraded in the city. In 1192 he marched from Ghazni at the head of a large
army consisting of 1,20,000 soldiers. He encamped once again Tarain. There was a bloody battle. As
many as 150 Rajputs princes fought on the side of Prithvi Raj. However, towards the end Muhammad
Ghori with the help of 12,000 horsemen entered into the camp of Rajput soldiers and carried death and
destruction throughout the camp‖. The Rajputs were not able to stand and were defeated. Govind Raj was
killed in battle field. Prithvi Raj got disheartened, got down from his elephant and tried to run away but
was captured near the town of Sirsuti.
There are many versions about the death of Prithvi Raj. According to Minhaj-us-Siraj, Prithviraj was
captured and send to hell. According to Hassan Nizami, Prithvi Raj was taken to Ajmer and later on was
put to death. The view of Chandar Bardai is that Prithvi Raj was taken to Ghazni and there put to death.
Battle of Chandawar
After leaving Qutb-ud-din Aibak as Governor of Delhi and Ajmer, Muhammad went back. Muhammad
came back to India in 1194. This time his target was the kingdom of Kannauj. Muhammad Ghori realized
the significance of Kannauj in India. Its monarch Jai Chandra was considered to be the greatest King of
India, having the largest territory. Such a ruler could not be allowed to remain independent. The battle
between Muhammad and Jayachandra took place near Chandawar on the river Yamuna, between Etawah
and Kannauj. The Rajputs were defeated and Jayachandra was killed in the battle.
Bundelkhand
In 1202-03 A.D. Aibak invaded Kalinjar which was the military capital of Puramardi Deva, the Chandella
ruler of Bundelkhand. The Chandella‘s fought with bravery and gallantry. The fort of Kalinjar was
besieged. The ruler was willing to make peace but he died before he could do so. The resistance was
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continued after his death. Ultimately the Chandella‘s were made to come to terms as the water supply of
the fort was cut off. Thus, Kalinjar, Mahoba and Khajuraho were occupied.
Muhammad‘s elder brother, Ghiyas-ud-din had died in 1202 A.D. and therefore, Muhammad had become
the ruler of the entire Ghur Empire.
Battle against Khokars
While Qutab-ud-din Aibak and one of his commanders named Ikhtiyar-ud-din Muhammad bin Bakhiyar
Khiji were busy to conquer Bihar, Bengal, Kamrupa and Tibet. Muhammad was defeated by Khwarazm
Turks 1205. This defeat lowered his reputation in India as well and it was rumored that he had been killed.
It led to revolts in different parts of India. In the north-west, the Khokhar‘s tried to capture Lahore. The
Khokhar were an indigenous community of the Punjab region. As Aibak failed to handle the situation,
Muhammad came to India in 1205 and fought a battle against Khokars between the rivers Chenab and
Jhelum. The Khokars fought fiercely but were defeated.
Death of Muhammad
After victory on Khokars Muhammad Ghori reached Lahore in February 1206 and made arrangements for
going back to Ghazni in order to carry on his struggle against the Turks. Unfortunately, when he was on
his way back to Ghazni, he was assassinated on the bank of the river Indus on 15 th March, 1206 by some
Shia rebels and the Khokhar‘s. The body of the Sultan was carried Ghazni and buried in his capital.
Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic empire based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian
subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526).Five dynasties ruled over the Delhi Sultanate sequentially: the
Mamluk dynasty (1206–1290), the Khilji dynasty (1290–1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414), the
Sayyid dynasty (1414–1451) and the Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). 1526). Qutb al-Din Aibak is known as
the founder of the Delhi Sultanate.

Mamluk Dynasty
A Mamluk was a soldier of slave origin who had converted to Islam. In 1206 Muhammad of Ghor, was
assassinated. Since he had no children, his empire split into minor sultanates led by his former Mamluk
generals. Taj-ud-Din Yildoz became the ruler of Ghazni, Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji got Bengal and
Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha became the sultan of Multan. Qutb ud-Din Aibak became the sultan of Delhi and
that was the beginning of the Slave dynasty.
Qutubudin Aibak
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Qutb-ud-din Aibak was the governor of Ghori‘s Indian possessions became independent after his death
and began his rule in 1206 in the title of Delhi Sultan. He has been regarded as the real founder of Turkish
rule in India.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak was born of Turkish parents in Turkistan. He was sold as a slave in his childhood and
after passing through few hands was purchased by Sultan Muhammad of Ghur. Very soon he drew the
attention of his master by his talent. Qutb-ud-din rose through the ranks to become Sultan Ghori's most
trusted general responsible for much of the territorial expansion.
Qutb-ud-din remained satisfied with the titles of Malik and Sipahsalar and did not struck coins or read the
Khutba in his name but he became the de facto Sultan of the larger part of the Indian territories of Sultan
Muhammad soon after his death and did not share his power with anybody else.
He established his capital at Lahore. According to one contemporary author, Hasn Nizami, he
administered the country well; dispensed equal handed justice to the people and exerted himself to
promote peace and prosperity of the realm. Because of his generosity he is often called ―Lakh baksha‘‘ or
―Giver of lacs‘‘.
After being recognized as the ruler of India, Aibak focused on consolidating his rule in the territories
already under his control, rather than conquering new territories. In 1210, he fell down from a horse while
playing chaugan (a form of polo) and died instantly.
Quwwat-ul-Islam
Qutb-ud-din Aibak commissioned Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque (Might of Islam) also known as the Qutb
Mosque in 1193 AD, when Aibak was the commander of Muhammad Ghori. It was built over the site of a
large temple located in the center of a citadel. It was the first mosque built in Delhi after the Islamic
conquest of India.
Qutab Minar
Qutab Minar is a 73 m-high tower of victory, built in 1193 by Qutab-ud-din Aibak in respect of sufi saint
Khwaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiar Kaki, immediately after the defeat of Delhi's last Hindu kingdom in the
Mehrauli of Delhi.
Adhai Din Ka Jhopra
Adhai Din Ka Jhopra (literally "shed of 2½ days") is a large structure in the city of Ajmer. It is one of the
oldest mosques in India. Originally it was a Sanskrit college with a temple of Saraswati within it. It was
converted into a mosque by Qutb-ud-Din-Aibak, on the orders of Muhammad Ghori, in 1192 CE. A
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legend states that a part of the mosque was built in two-and-a-half days. The structure was completed in
1199 CE and was further beautified by Iltutmish of Delhi in 1213 CE.
Hasan Nizami
Hasan Nizami was a Persian poet and historian in court of Qutb-ud-din Aibak where he wrote Tajul-
Ma'asir, the first official history of the Delhi Sultanate.The book provides comprehensive details about the
events between 1192 and 1196.
Zia-ud-din Barani
Zia-ud-din Barani (1285-1357) was a Muslim historian and political thinker who lived in Delhi Sultanate
during Mohammed–bin-Tughlaq and Firuz Shah‘s reign. He was best known for composing Tarikh-I-
Firozshahi. It was a major historical work of Medieval India.
Shams-ud-din Iltumish
Shams-ud-din Iltumish (1210-36) who was a slave of Aibak succeeded him at Delhi in 1210. He was
Governor of Badauni when he deposed Qutub-ud-din‘s successor Aram shah and ascended to the throne
of Delhi sultanate in 1211. He shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi, remained the ruler until his death
on May 1236. Iltumish was the greatest of the slave king. He was formally recognized by the Khalifa of
Baghdad. On his coins, Iltumish described himself as the Lieutenants of the Khalifa.
Iltutmish introduced silver Tanka and the copper Jital- the two basic coins of the Sultanate. He was
responsible not only for keeping the Delhi Sultanate together, but made it a well-knit and compact state.
He may thus be called the real founder of what came to be called the Delhi sultanate.
When Iltutmish ascended the throne in 1211, he had large number to face. The position of Iltutmish was
challenged by Taj-ud-din Yalduz, the ruler of Ghazniand Nassir ud-din Qabacha, governor of Sindh. The
Governor of Bengal asserted his independence. But Iltutmish proved himself.
The famous Qutb Minar near Mehrauli in Delhi was got completed by Iltutmish in the year 1231-32. He
started Iqta system. He divided the empire into several iqtas and assigned them to the nobles. Every
Iqtadar had to maintain law and order and collect revenue. Iltutmish set up an official nobility of slaves
known as the Turk-e-Chahalgani or the corps of Fourty. As the members of the Chahalgani were the
personal slaves of the emperor, the latter could depend on their loyalty and allegiance and through them
could keep a grip over the affairs of the Governments.
In 1236, Iltutmish fell ill during a march towards Qarluq's stronghold of Bamiyan and returned to Delhi on
20 April, at the time chosen by his astrologers. He died shortly after, on 30 April 1236. He was buried in
the Qutb complex in Mehrauli.
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Iqta system
The Iqtadari was a unique type of land distribution and administrative system evolved during the Sultanate
period. Under the system, the whole empire was divided into several large and small tracts of land, called
the Iqtas, which were assigned to nobles, officers and soldiers for the purpose of administration and
revenue collection. The Iqtas were transferable, i.e., the holders of Iqtas were known as Iqtadars. They
were transferred from one region to another every three to four years. It means that the grant of Iqta did
not imply a right to the land. It was just an administrative unit.
The Iqtas could be big (whole province) or small. The assignees of bigger Iqtas-known as muqti had dual
obligation, tax collection and administration. They collected revenue from their iqta, defrayed their own
expenses, paid the troops maintained by them and sent the Bawazil (surplus) to the Centre.
Muhammad of Ghur was the first to introduce the Iqta system in India, but it was Iltutmish who gave it an
institutional form. The Iqtadari system witnessed numerous changes during the Sultanate period. Initially,
Iqta was a revenue-yielding piece of land which was assigned in lieu of salary. However, during Firuz
Shah Tughlaq's reign, it became hereditary.
Successors of Iltutmish
The death of Iltutmish was followed by years of political instability at Delhi. During this period, four
descendants of Iltutmish were put on the throne and murdered. In the 1220s, Iltutmish had groomed his
eldest son Nasir-ud-din Mahmud as his successor, but he died unexpectedly in 1229. After which he
trained his daughter Razia. He declared her as his heir apparent in 1231. When Iltutmish died, the nobles
unanimously appointed Rukn-ud-din the son of Iltutmish as the new king. But he was opposed by Qutub-
ud-din and Muhammad Shah sons of Iltutmish. In such circumstances, Razia seized the throne in
November 1236, with support of the public and several nobles and Rukn-ud-din was executed. Razia also
faced rebellions and was deposed and killed in 1240. The nobles then appointed Muizz-ud-din Bahram
Shah another son of Iltutmish on the throne, but subsequently deposed and killed him in 1242. Next, the
nobles placed Rukn-ud-din's son Ala-ud-din Masud on the throne, but he too, was deposed in 1246.
Order was re-established only after Iltutmish's grandson Nasir-ud-din-Mahmud became Sultan with
Iltutmish's prominent slave, Ghias-ud-dinBalban as his deputy (Naib) in 1246. Balban was also the father-
in-law of Nasir-ud-din. Balban held all the power at the time and became Sultan in 1266. Balban's
descendants ruled Delhi until they were overthrown by the Khaljis.
Razia Sultan
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Born to Iltutmish and Qutub Begum in 1205, Razia was trained in professional warfare and was taught
military skills, along with her siblings. Just like most other children of aristocrats, she had a sound
knowledge of how state governance worked.
The assassination of Rukn-ud-din Firuz and her mother on 9 November 1236 led Razia to become the first
Muslim woman ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. She ruled on India from 1236 to 1240. Razia decided to give
up purdah and wear male attire and began to be referred to as a ―People‘s Queen‖. She established centers
for research and public libraries that included books of ancient philosophers along with the Quran. The
schools that she built taught literature, philosophy, the sciences and astronomy. Razia also built roads to
link villages and cities and was also the first to abolish the dreaded ―JizyaTax‖ charged from Hindus. She
was crowned in November 1236 and was given the title of ―Jalalat-al-din Razia Sultan‖.
Some of court nobles of Turk-e- Chahalgani were not in favor of Razia. They began conspiring against
her, but she skillfully managed to divide them and make them fight against each other. Her favorite officer
was Jamal Yakut, a black African. Razia had another childhood friend, Tabarhind (Bhatinda) governor
Malik Altunia, who forgot his friendship and was encouraged by the chiefs to rebel against her and then
imprison her at Taberhind.
Yakut was killed and Razia was imprisoned at Qila Mubarak now known as Bhatinda Fort. To regain her
kingdom from her brother Bahram Shah, Razia finally married Altunia, who was angry with the chiefs for
not giving him any special favors or positions at the court. Altunia and Razia decided to go to Delhi and
marched with their army towards Delhi. But near Kaithal both Razia and Altunia were killed on 14
October 1240.
After her death, the nobles placed Rukn-ud-din's son Ala-ud-din Masud on the throne, but he too, was
deposed in 1246. After his death, Nasir-ud-din Mahmud became Sultan of Delhi.
Nasir-ud-din Mahmud
Nasir-ud-din Mahmud his original name was Nasir-ud-din Firuz Shah (reigned: 1246–1266) was the
eighth sultan of the Mamluk Sultanate (Slave dynasty). He was the son of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (died
1229), the eldest son of Iltutmish. He was named after his father; by Iltutmish.
As a ruler, Mahmud was known to be very religious, spending most of his time in prayer and copying the
Quran. He was known as Darveshi King. However, it was actually his father-in-law and Deputy Sultan or
Naib, Ghiyas ud din Balban, who primarily dealt with the state affairs. After Mahmud's death in 1266,
Balban (1266–87) rose to power as Mahmud had no children to be his heir.
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Ghiyas ud din Balban
Balban was captured by the Mongol, who carried him to Gazni and sold him to one Khwaja Jamal-ud-din
of Basra. The Khwaja took him to Delhi where he was purchased by Iltutmish and enrolled him as a
member of the famous corps of the forty Slaves.
In 1246 he became the principal adviser of the Sultan Nasir-ud-din. A few years, he established
relationship with the Sultan by marrying his daughter to him. He was now given the title of Ulegh Khan
and appointed Naib-i-Mamilikat.
The post of Naib-i-Mamlakat, equivalent of the English term ‗regent‘ was created by the Turkish slave
rulers. It was later called called Naib- i-Mulk or Malik Naib (under Khilji). The Sultan dominated the
central government as he was the legal head of the state and acted as the chief executive and the highest
court of appeal. The Sultan was assisted by number of ministers. In them Naib-i-Mulk or Malik Naib held
highest stature in the central government of the Sultanate.
Restoration of prestige of the crown
Balban usurped all authority but exercised it in the interest of the crown. Balban‘s urgent task was to re-
establish the reputation of the crown. He applied theory of Kingship. He declared his Jil-e-Ilahi
(representative of god). He appointed tall and fearsome bodyguards who were to stand round the king. He
instituted the Sijda (Prostation) and Poibos (kissing the monarch‘s feet) in the court as normal from of
salutation for the king. He introduced the annual celebration of the Persian Naunoz to heighten the
splendor of his court. He prohibited the drinking of wine by his courtiers and official dress and a fixed
ceremonial from which no deviation was permitted.
No one was allowed to laugh or even smile in his court. Balban submitted himself to these rigid
formalities while in public. When the news of the death of his eldest son, Prince Muhammad, reached
him, he remained firm and unmoved and went as usual through the daily routine of administration, though
in his private apartment he wept bitterly. Thus, by rigid ceremonial and dignity, Balban restored the
prestige of the crown.
The Destruction of Turk-e-Chahalgani
Destruction of Turk-e-Chahalgani was another prime tribulation for Balban. Turk-e-Chahalgani came into
existence in the time of Iltutmish and, in fact, all the members of this body were originally Iltutmish‘s
slaves. But after his death of Iltutmish it started to play the role of King maker. In order to make the
throne secure, Balban wanted to wipe out this organization. First of all, he promoted junior Turks to
important positions and placed them on a position of equality with ‗the Forty‘. Then he started to punish
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the members of this group for slights mistake in order to repress them and reduce their importance in the
eyes of the people.
Reorganization of Army
The main reinforcement of Balban‘s despotism was his powerful army. He focused his attention on its
reorganization.From the time of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Turkish soldiers had been granted assignments of
land in lieu of their services. Balban ordered the resumption of these lands from old men. As regards
young men who were fit for military service, he allowed them to retain their assignments but payment
made them in cash. He established Diwan-e-Arz department to look after the military organization. It was
headed by Ariz-i-Mumalik. He was responsible for the administration of military affairs.
Death of Balban
Muiz ud din Qaiqabad became successor of Balaban. He was the grandson of Balaban. In 1290 CE,
Qaiqabad was killed by the Governor of Punjab, Feroze Shah. Feroze Shah sat on the throne of Delhi by
the name of Jalal-ud-din Khilji.Shams ud-Din Kayumars was a son of Muiz ud-Din Qaiqabad, the
eleventh sultan of the Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Jalal-ud-din Khalji assumed the throne after
murdering Kayumars, ending the Mamluk dynasty and starting the Khalji dynasty.
Khilji revolution
Khilji revolutionis a term denotes the replacement of Ilbari dynasty by Khilji dynasty. But it was not
simply the change of government rather it was something more than it.Khiljis came in power not on the
support of either nobility or the common people but by dint of their strength.Secondly, it was the rejection
of the racial policy of Ilbari, Turks, Khiljis opened the gate of the governance not simply to non-Turks but
also to Indian Muslims. The social ground of the state broadened.But this Khilji revolution was having a
negative side as well. It gave too much emphasis over the military aspect of the government but in spite of
that limitation Khilji revolution implies the beginning of a new era.
Khilji dynasty
The Khiljis were another group of Turks who had settled in the Khilji region of Afghanistan. Jalal-ud-din
Khilji founded Khilji Dynasty in 1290. His rule settled down only due to his impeccable character, his
generosity, devotion and his just judgment. He was an aged man of seventy and was mild and weak. Since
he was a peaceful man, he allowed many invaders to peacefully settle down in the country.
Ala-ud-din was the nephew of Jalal-ud-din and was an ambitious person. He appointed him governor of
Kara (Allahabad) in 1291 and of Awadh in 1296.In 1296, Ala-ud-din raided Devagiri (It was latter known
as Daulatabad Maharashtra) and acquired loot to stage a successful revolt against Jalal-ud-din. At the time
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of this raid Yadava king Ramachandra was the ruler of Devagiri. He returned to Delhi in 1296, murdered
Jalal-ud-din and assumed power as Sultan.
Alla-ud-din-Khilji (1296–1316)
Ala-ud-din was known as Ali Gurshasp until his ascension in July 1296. He was the most powerful
emperor of the Khilji dynasty. Ala-ud-din instituted a number of significant administrative changes,
related to revenues, price controls and society. He is noted for repulsing the Mongol invasions of India.
Ala-ud-din was the first sultan to separate religion from the state.
After ascending on throne, he started expansion of Delhi sultanate. Ala-ud-din conquered the kingdoms of
Gujarat (1304), Ranthambore (1301), Chittor (1303), Malwa (1305), Siwana (1308) and Jalore (1311).
These victories ended several Hindu dynasties. His slave-general Malik Kafur led multiple campaigns to
the south of the Vindhyas, obtaining a considerable amount of wealth from Devagiri, Maharashtra
(Yadava king Ramachandra 1308), Warangal, Telangana (Kakatiya king Pratap Rudra 1310) and
Dwarasamudra, also known as Halebidu, Karnataka (Hoysala king Ballala III 1311). The King of
Warangal Rudra Deva surrendered and paid a huge tribute. Amongst the precious stones was the famous
‗Koh-i-Noor‘.
Malik Kafur
Malik Kafur also known as Taj al-Din Izz al-Dawla, was a eunuch slave-general of Ala-ud-din Khalji. He
was captured by Ala-ud-din's general Nusrat Khan during the 1299 invasion of Gujarat. As a commander
of Ala-ud-din's forces, Kafur defeated the Mongol invaders in 1306. He died in 1316.
Famous Mewar invasion
In 1203 Ala-ud-dinturned toward Mewar. Chittor was the capital of Guhila ruler Rana Ratan Singh. Alla-
ud-din's instant objective was to obtain the possession of Rani Padmini renowned for her beauty.
Ultimately, the Rajput's succumbed to the Muslim power while the Rajput ladies, led by Padmavati and
performed Jauhar. Ala-ud-din now bestowed the government of Chittor upon his son Khizr Khan and
named the place Khizrbad. He then returned towards Delhi. Malik Muhammad Jayasi, the author of
Padmavat written in 1549, based his entire work on this legend and attempted to give it a historical
interpretation.
Reforms of Ala-ud-din
The reforms are categorized as follow- (sequence of incidents responsible for reforms- Mangol invasion –
Military Reform – Revenue Reform- Market Reform).
Military reforms
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In order to enforce his theory of kingship, to satisfy his ambition of conquest and to protect the country
from the ever-recurring Mongol invasions, it was necessary for Ala-ud-din to have a powerful army. With
this object in view Ala-ud-din undertook the reform of the army.

He is credited of being the first Sultan of Delhi to lay the foundation of a permanent standing army. The
soldiers were directly recruited by the Ariz-i-Mumalik. It was paid in cash from the royal treasury. The
soldiers were supplied with horses, arms and their equipment at the expense of the state. Ala-ud-din
instituted practice to maintain record (huliya) of individual soldier.
To prevent substitution of a bad horse for a good one, the marking of horses (dagh system) was
introduced. The Sultan bestowed a great deal of personal attention on the organization, equipment and
discipline of his military establishment.
Revenue and land Reforms
A power full and huge army could not be permanently maintained without proper management of revenue
resources of the state. He increased the rate of taxes. Ala-ud-din Khilji established Diwan-i-Mustakhraj.
To know about the revenue arrears and collect them, he introduced a new department of Diwan-i-
Mustakhraj.
Ala-ud-Din changed the system of Khums. Literal meaning of Khums is 20th part of an entity. Khums was
the share of government in booty. As per rule of Shariya it should be 1/5 of total booty and remaining 4/5
should be distributed among soldiers. He reversed it and decided to give only 1/5 part to the soldiers.
His second measure was to withdraw all the privileges which the Hindu muqaddams (headmen), Khuts
(farmers of revenue) and chaudharis (revenue collectors) had enjoyed for generations.
His third measure was to increase the state demand to the highest point possible. He fixed the states share
at fifty percent of the gross produce of the land. Over and above this, he charged, as has been related
already, house tax, grazing tax and export and import duties. He introduced two new taxes Chari and
Ghari tax.The Hindus, of course, were required to pay the jizya in addition.
The net result was that the revenue increased considerably and all classes of the population, including
cultivators, landlords, merchants and traders, were required to shoulder the burden.
Market Reforms
This he did by regulating the prices of grain, cloth and other necessaries of life and cheapening them. He
fixed the prices of food-grains, cloth and other commodities far below the usual market rates. All
merchants in Delhi were required to register themselves in the office of the Shahana-i-Mandi (Inspector of
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market). The merchants had to sell all commodities at the fixed rates and no deviation was permitted. If a
merchant failed to carry out the orders and sold a commodity underweight, the same amount of flesh was
cut off from his body.
All kinds of speculation and black marketing were rigorously put down. The officers of the Doab were
required to furnish guarantee in writing that they would not permit any one to hoard grain. Similarly,
merchants were not to hoard grain or other articles, but must sell them at demand. The result of these
measures was that corn, cloth- and other things became very cheap.
Architecture of Ala-ud-din
Ala-ud-din was also a great constructor. He constructed Alai Darwaza, the southern gateway of the
Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Qutb complex, Mehrauli, Delhi. He begins the construction of Alai-Minar
(beside Qutub Minar) which was proposed three times tall than the height of Qutub minar, but
unfortunately its construction couldn‘t be completed. Siri Fort, in the city of New Delhi, was built during
the rule of Ala-ud-din Khilji, to defend the city from the onslaught of the Mongols. He constructed the
‗Jamat Khana‘ in Delhi near the Nizam-ud-din aluliya.
Amir Khusrau (1253- 1325)
Amir Khusrau was a Sufi musician, poet and scholar from India. He was a mystic and a spiritual disciple
of Nizam-ud-din Auliya of Delhi. Khusrau is sometimes referred to as the "voice of India" or "Parrot of
India" (Tuti-e-Hind) and has been called the "father of Urdu literature.
Khusrau is also regarded as the "father of qawwali" and introduced the ghazal style of singing. Tarana and
Trivat are also credited to Khusrau. Khusrau is credited for the invention of the sitar and Tabla. He was
associated with the royal courts of more than seven rulers of the Delhi Sultanate.
He composed many books such as Miftah ul-Futuh (Key to the Victories) 1290, Khaza'in ul-Futuh (The
Treasures of Victories), 1296 - details of Ala ud-Din Khalji's construction works, wars and administrative
services, Laila-Majnu etc.
Death of Ala-ud-din
Ala-ud-din died on the night of 4 January 1316. Ala-ud-din Khilji had two children. Elder was Qutb-ud-
din and younger was Shihab-ud-din. After death of Ala-ud-din on 4 January 1316, his slave-general Malik
Kafur appointed Ala-ud-din's 6-year-old son Shihab-ud-din as a puppet monarch, and himself held the
power as regent.
Mubarak Shah was imprisoned. The former bodyguards of Ala-ud-din, who disapproved of Kafur's
actions, freed Mubarak Shah after killing Kafur. After Kafur's murder, Mubarak Shah became the regent
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of his younger step-brother Shihab-ud-din. Soon after, he blinded his brother, and usurped the power. He
was murdered because of a conspiracy by his slave Khusrau Khan, who succeeded him on the throne.
TUGLAQ DYNASTY

Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq /Ghazi Mallik

Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq, or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tughluq dynasty. Ghazi Malik was
appointed as the Governor of the North-West Frontier Province by Qutbuddin Mubarak Khalji.Ghazi
Malik and his son Fakrudin Jauna together established the Tughlaq dynasty by killing Khusru Khan.
Ghazi Malik ascended the throne of Delhi on 8 September 1320 with name of Ghias-ud-din.
He followed aggressive policy against Mongols. He had fought various campaigns against the Mongols
defeating them in 1305 at the Battle of Amroha. In 1323 he appointed his son Jauna Khan as his heir and
successor and conferred him title of Ulugh Khan. He also started construction of Tughlaqabad Fort.
Bengal had generally remained independent. Even when it acknowledged suzerainty of Delhi, the
authority of Delhi was only nominal. Ghiyas-ud-din decided to make effective control on Bengal. In 1324
Shamsh-ud-din was ruler of Bengal. After his death a war of succession was started among his sons
Shihab-ud-din and Nasir-ud-din and a commander Ghias-ud-din Bahadur. Nasir-ud-din appealed for help
from Sultan of Delhi. Ghiyas-ud-din saw it as an opportunity. He marched towards Bengal along with a
huge army leaving Ulugh Khan as in-charge of Delhi. Ghias-ud-din Bahadur was defeated and sent away
as prisoner in Delhi. Nasir-ud-din acknowledged suzerainty of Delhi. On his back sultan attacked the ruler
of Tirhut (North Bihar). It was ruled by a Hindu Raja Hari Singh. Hari Singh was defeated. It was a big
Achievement of Ghiyas-ud-din.
After annexation on Bengal and Tirhut Sultan proceed rapidly for Delhi. He received a report that Ulugh
Khan cultivated in company of Sheikh Nizam-ud-din Aulia. Sultan Ghias-ud-din was an orthodox and was
against to Sufism and music. He gave a clear warning to Ulugh that if his conduct did not improve, he
would be obliged to cancel his nomination of heir. At the same time, he wrote to Sheikh Nizam-ud-din
Aulia that he did not want to be assailed by the tune of music and it was therefore desirable that Sheikh
Nizam-ud-din Aulia should leave Dehi before his arrival. Sheikh Nizam-ud-din Aulia has said to have
remarked ‗Dehli hanuz dur ast‘ (literally meaning "Delhi is still far away").
Sultan also sent instructions for the construction of a temporary palace near capital where he would pass
the night and from where he would proceed to the capital next morning in a festive array. On the excuse of
short notice, a wooden palace was constructed. It was so designed that its foundation was very weak.
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When Sultan logged in side palace, during warm salute by elephant the palace was collapsed and Sultan
was crushed under it.
Mohammad bin Tughlaq
Three days after the death of Ghias-ud-din Ulugh Khan was proclaimed Sultan in Tughluqabad and he
assumed the title of Muhammad Shah. But no celebrations were permitted by new Sultan due to the death
of his father. When forty days had expired, he entered in Delhi.
Muhammad Bin Tughaluq occupies a special place in history of medieval India and his reign is highly
important from many points of view. It is during his reign that a major part of Deccan came under rule of
Delhi Sultanate. But decline of sultanate also set at this time.
No sultan of Delhi Sultanate could stand comparison with Muhammad in respect of wide learning and
versatile genius. He encouraged and patronized science, technology, art and literature. But despite his
learning and genius most of his schemes miscarried. His personality was very complex.
He established lot of cities namely Ghazipur, Ghaziabad, Junagarh (Girnar)and Jaunpur. During his reign
Ibrahim Sarki was the governor of Jaunpur. He declares independent and adopted title Siraj-e-Sarki. He
was the constructor of Jaunpur and built Atala Mosque.
During his tenure in 1333 traveler of Morocco Ibn-e-Battuta came in India. Ibn Battuta discussed his
travels history in his book Kitab-ur-Rehla. He was appointed as Qazi by Muhammad Tughlaq and was
also appointed ambassador to China.
Foolish Donor
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq generously scattered almost incredible wealth among the foreign visitors,
learned men, poets, officials, beggars, diseased and so on. He impoverished the treasury. His project to
conquer Persia (Khurasan Expedition), his dream to keep a huge standing army and his plans to invade
China (Quarachil Expedition) finished his finances. His idea of invading China met with a disastrous in
the passes of Himalayas where men and money got split like water.
Tax Reforms
Tax reform in doab is one among the most disputed decisions of Muhammad Bin. If the tax was kept low,
the Hindu chiefs soon grew rich and became disaffected. Hence low taxation found to be inconsistent with
security of realm. He increased land revenue 5–10 percent in 1326 which was already 40 percent of total
production. Under normal conditions this increase would have caused little or no resentment. But increase
of taxes followed by a famine which lasted for three years. Though Sultan fought effectively against
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famine, he established Diwan-e-Amirkohi (Department of agriculture) but peasants revolted against him.
The Tax reforms of Sultan got failed.
Diwan-i-Kohi
Sultan also got enough wisdom to understand the distress caused by the Famine and the result of the
excessive taxation. In 1341, he abolished all the taxes and started sitting twice a week to hear the
complaints of the oppressed. He started distributing daily food to the people of Delhi. He also established
a loan system to the peasants. He created a department of Agriculture named as ‘Diwan-i-Kohi‘. He
established a ‗Famine Code‘ to relive the victims of Famine.
Transfer of Capital (1327)
The inconvenience to rule the wealthy Deccan induced the Sultan to take step and transfer the seat of the
government to Daulatabad (Maharashtra). The idea might have been practical and reasonable if he had
ever thought of shifting the official court of Delhi. But he wanted to transport the whole population of
Delhi to the new capital. The inhabitants of Delhi were made to leave their homes and were forced to
march 700 miles down south with their women, children and all such belongings they could carry. Many
were killed on the way in this journey of forty days and few could survive.
The introduction of token currency (1329-30)
The reign of Muhammad Tughluq is an important landmark in the history of Indian coinage. His most
notable experiment in the field was the introduction of token currency. Owing to famine and harsh
taxation policy in the Doab, there was considerable fall in the sultan's revenue. He was encouraged by the
examples of Chinese and Persian rulers before him who had introduced token currency in their countries
in the thirteenth century. With the above object in view, Muhammad promulgated an order making copper
coins the legal tender and putting these coins on par (in Value) with gold and silver coins. But he took no
steps to make the mint the monopoly of the state. Foreign merchants purchased no Indian commodities
with the token currency in the country, but refused to accept the latter while selling foreign products.
Trade came to a standstill. The result was a great confusion and the Sultan was bewildered to see his
scheme crumbling down before his every eyes. He was compelled to withdraw the token currency and to
order the people to take from the royal treasury gold and silver pieces in exchange for brass and copper
coins. The state was thus defrauded, while private people made huge profits at its expense.
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Military Expedition:

Plan for the conquest of Khurasan

Like Ala-ud-din, Muhammad Tughluq was ambitious of conquering countries beyond the borders of
India. Early during his reign, he formed design of conquering Khurasan and lran. A huge army, numbering
three lakhs and seventy thousand men, was collected and was paid one year's salary in advance. But the
project could' not be undertaken and the army had to be dispersed. It was found that it was not an easy
affair to cross the huge snowbound mountains that lay between India and Khursasan and to fight the
hostile people inhabiting the intervening lands. Moreover, the political condition of Khurasan had taken a
turn for the better. So, the project was given up.
Qarachil expedition (1337-38)
Muhammad was desirous of establishing his authority over the Himalayan states of the Kumaun region
which had not so far been reduced to submission. Hence, he led an expedition to Qarachil which was
situated in the Kumaun hills at a distance of ten day's journey from Delhi. The huge Delhi army attacked
the Hindu stronghold, but it suffered greatly owing to the mountains nature of the country and heavy
rainfall. The sultan was, therefore, obliged to retire, but he succeeded in compelling the chief to pay him
an indemnity.
Death and Succession
The innovations of the Sultan exasperated (grk‖k) the people and Sultan became unpopular. There was
widespread discontent and rebellion. Bit by bit the empire disintegrated, one province after another
revolted. Sultan could suppress the rebels at one point but could not be everywhere. In 1351 Muhammad
Bin Tughlaq died. He had no sons but his cousin Firoz Shah Tughlaq ascended the throne.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq
After the death of Bin Tughlaq in 1351, his cousin Firoz shah Tughlaq became the Sultan of Delhi. He
ruled over the Delhi from 1351 to 1388. The father of Firoz Shah was Razab Bin Tughlaq and his mother
was Punjabi-Hindu. She was the daughter of Ran mall, i.e. the local chief of Punjab. Firuz Tughlaq
described as a man of religious temperament and mild manners.
He attacked on Nagarkot (Sindh). He found 300 religiousbooks in the fort of Nagarkot, he preserve them
in temple of Jwalamukhi and appointed Aazz-ud-din Khalid Khani, a Persian scholar to translate them in
Persian language. The translated book was titled as ‗Daulat-a-Firoz Shahi‘.
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He establishes a department of charity ‗diwan-e-Khairat‘. He was the first ruler of Delhi Sultanate that
created the department of slaves i.e. ‗Diwan-e-Bandgani‘. He establishes a new department ‗Diwan-e-
Sharv‘ (department of irrigation). He constructed several canals. He establishes the city of Hisar
(Haryana), Fatehabad (UP), Firozpur (Punjab) and Firozabad (UP). He introduced two types of coins addh
(Half of Jital) and pauva (Quarter of Jital).
He establishes Public work department. He brought two pillars of Ashoka to Delhi from Topra and
Meerut. He establishes a new city in Delhi, ‗Firozshah Kotla‘. He applied ‗Jizya‘ on Hindus. He
introduces the system of taxation as par the rules of ‗Shariyat‘ i.e. the book of Muslim law. Under this
new system, he abolished all the taxes accept five:
Jizya‘ Taxes lived by Muslim ruler on Non-Muslim.
Kharaj Revenue on cultivated land i.e. agriculture tax
Zakat Tax paid by Muslim for progress of their religion.
Khams The proportion of state in booty looted by the solider during the battles. The
literal meaning of Khams in Arabic is one fifth parts.
Sharb Irrigation tax

The successors of Firoz Shah were very weak and they lost the control on whole empire, it became a great
opportunity for Timur. He was a Mongol invader of central Asia, he had heard about the prosperity of
India, so he attacked on India in 1398. During his attack Nasir-ud-din Mahmud was Sultan of Delhi.
Timor stayed 15 day in Delhi and killed more than 1000 of people and plundered a lot of wealth. Before
living India, he appointed Khizr khan as his governor.
Timur
Timur or Tamer Lang was a Turco-Mongol conqueror who founded the Timurid Empire in and around
modern-day Afghanistan, Iran and Central Asia. He raided Delhi on 17 December 1398. Nasir-ud-Din
Mahmud Shah Tughluq was sultan of Delhi. Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq fled with remnants of
his forces. Delhi was sacked and left in ruins. The capture of the Delhi Sultanate was one of Timur's
greatest victories, as at that time, Delhi was one of the richest cities in the world.
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SAYYID DYNASTY (1414- 1451)

Sayyiad dynasty succeeded to the Tughlaq dynasty. This family claimed to be Sayyids, descendants of
Prophet Muhammad. After attack on Delhi, Timur appointed Sayyids as the governor of Delhi. The
dynasty was established by Khizr Khan, the deputy of Timur.
Khizr Khan took Delhi from Daulat Khan Lodi on 28 May 1414 and founded the Sayyid dynasty. But he
did not take up the title of sultan and nominally, continued to be a Rayat-i-Ala (vassal) of the Timur.
After the death of Khizr Khan on 20 May 1421 his son Mubarak Khan became ruler of Delhi. He styled
himself as Muizz-ud-Din Mubarak Shah in his coins. A detailed account of his reign is available in the
Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi written by Yahya-bin-Ahmad Sirhindi.
After the death of Mubarak Shah, his nephew Muhammad Khan ascended the throne and styled himself as
Sultan Muhammad Shah. Just before his death, he called his son Ala-ud-Din from Badaun and nominated
him as his successor.
The last ruler of this dynasty, Ala-ud-Din Alam Shah voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi
sultanate in favor of Bahlol Khan Lodi on April 19, 1451 and left for Badaun. He continued to live there
till his death in 1478.
Lodi Dynasty

Bahlol Lodi established the Lodhi Dynasty and he ruled from 1451- 1526. He was previously the governor
of Sarhind (in Punjab), under the Sultan of Delhi Ala-ud-din Alam, of the Sayyiad Dynasty (1414-1451).
Due to the weak position of the Sayyiad dynasty, Bahlol Lodhi took advantage, he first occupied the
province of Punjab and later on, captured Delhi and became the Sultan of Delhi on 19 April 1451 under
the title of Sultan Abul Muzzaffar Bahlol Shah Ghazi.
During his rule though there were numerous attempts to destabilize the empire, Bahlol managed to stand
by the Lodhis. He captured a number of nearby states. This was the only Afghan dynasty to rule over the
Delhi Sultanate, with the exception of Sher Shah Suri.
Bahlol Khan seized the throne and managed the kingdom without much resistance from the then ruler,
Alam Shah. Buhlul Khans territory was spread across Jaunpur, Gwalior and Uttar Pradesh. In 1486, he
appointed his eldest son Barbak Shah as the Viceroy of Jaunpur.
Sikandar Lodi
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After death of Buhlul Lodhi in July 1489, his son Nizam Khan succeeded him, under the title Sikandar
Shah. He turned out to be the most capable ruler of the Lodhi Dynasty. Sikandar Shah established a fair
system of administration and founded the historical city of Agra. His empire extended from Punjab to
Bihar and he also signed a treaty with the ruler of Bengal, Ala-ud-din Hussain Shah. Sikandar Shah was
the one who founded a new town where the modern-day Agra stands and was known to be a kind and
generous ruler who cared for his subjects.
Ibrahim Lodhi
Sikandar's death emerged the fight for succession between his sons, which resulted in the decline of rule
of the Lodhi dynasty. Ibrahim Lodhi, son of Sikander, was the last Sultan of the Lodhi Dynasty. Zahir-ud-
din Babur, the Mughal ruler from Central Asia, attacked India and defeated Ibrahim in the first battle of
Panipat on April 21, 1526. As the time came for Ibrahim to ascend the throne of Lodhi Dynasty, the
political structure in the Dynasty had dissolved due to abandoned trade routes and depleted the treasury.
Lodi Gardens
Lodi Gardens is a park in Delhi spread over 90 acres- it has Mohammed Shah's Tomb, SikandarLodi's
Tomb architectural works of the 15th century which ruled much of Northern India during the 16th century
and the site is now protected by Archeological Survey of India (ASI). The gardens are situated between
Khan Market and Safdar Jung‘s Tomb on Lodi Road.
Independent states

MALWA
The founder of Khalji dynasty was Dilawar Khan.He established his capital at Mandu.The greatest ruler of
this dynasty was Hoshang Shah who established Hoshangabad city. He built Hindola and Jahaj Mahal.Baj
Bahadur was the second famous ruler and also famous musician. Roopmati was his queen; he constructed
the Roopmati Palace at Mandu.He was contemporary of Akbar.
Sisodia dynasty of Mewar

Sisodia dynasty of Mewar was founded by Rana Hammir Singh. He ruled from1314–78. This dynasty was
a branch of Guhila dynasty. Chittorgarh was the capital of Sisodiya dynasty of Mewar. He built the
Annapoorna Mata temple located in the Chittor Fort in Chittorgarh.
Rana Kumbha
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Another popular ruler of this dynasty was Kumbhakarna (1433-1468), popularly known as Rana Kumbha.
Kumbha made victory on Gujarat and Malwa. On this occasion he built Vijay Stambh at Chittoor in 1448.
The tower is dedicated to Vishnu. The chief citadel of Mewar, is the fort of Kumbhalgarh, built by
Kumbha. It is the highest fort in Rajasthan (1075m).
Rana Sanga
Sanga was born to Sisodia king Rana Raimal in 1482. He was a grandson of Rana Kumbha. Rana Sanga
or Sangram Singh was defeated by Babur in 1527 in the battle of Khanua.
Rani Karnavati
Rani Karnavati was princess of Bundi and wife of Rana Sanga. She was the mother of the next two Ranas,
Rana Vikramaditya and Rana Uday Singh, and grandmother of Maharana Pratap. After death of Rana
Sanga she refused to flee and performed Jauhar to protect her honor. Rani Karnavati took up the regency
in the name of her elder son Vikramaditya from 1527 until 1533. In the meantime, Mewar was attacked by
Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. Rani Karnavati sent her sons to Bundi and told her trusted maid Panna Dhai to
accompany them and take good care of them. Some later legends say that the Rani also sent a Rakhi to the
Mughal Emperor Humayun, calling him a brother and asking for help. Humayun was on Bengal's invasion
so could not helped her. Rani was defeated and committed Jauhar. In 1535 Humayun captured Mandu and
Chittorfrom Bahadur Shah.
Rana Uday Singh
Rana Uday Singh was the son of Rana Sanga. In 1537, Banbir killed Vikramaditya and usurped the
throne. He tried to kill Udai Singh also, but Udai's nurse Panna Dai sacrificed her own son Chandan to
save him and send him to Kumbhalgarh. She did not ask for anything in return either. She started living in
Bundi and did not allow Udai Singh to come and meet her. He lived secretly in Kumbhalgarh for two
years.
In 1540, he was crowned in Kumbhalgarh by the nobles of Mewar. His eldest son Maharana Pratap was
born in the same year. In 1568 Akbar captured Chittor after a four-month-long siege. He establishes the
city Udaipur and transfers his capital to Udaipur. Udai Singh died in 1572, and Maharana Pratap ascended
the throne.
The Battle of Haldighati
The Battle of Haldighati was fought on 18 June 1576 between Pratap Singh and Akbar's forces led by Man
Singh of Amer. The Mughals were victoriousbut failed to capture the Maharana. He managed to escape to
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the hills. As soon as the Mughal empire's focus shifted north-west India, Pratap and his army came out and
recaptured the Western Mewar including Kumbhalgarh, Udaipur and Gogunda.
During this period, he also built a new capital, Chavand, near modern Dungarpur.Reportedly, Pratap died
of injuries sustained in a hunting accident at Chavand on 19 January 1597, aged 56. He was succeeded by
his eldest son, Amar Singh I.
MARWAR
Founder of Rao dynasty of Marwar was ‗Rao Chanda‘.He was succeeded by son Rao Jodha, who
established Jodhpur city.He was succeeded by his son Rao Bika‘ who establish city Bikaner.
KACHHWAHA DYNASTY OF AMER

Amer (sometimes known as Amber) was one of the Rajput kingdoms of Rajasthan close to modern Jaipur.
Amber was originally a Meena kingdom which was founded by the Meena king, Alan Singh, but was later
captured by the Kachwaha Rajputs around 1036 or 1037.
They claim their descent from Kush, the son of Lord Ram, so they are known as Kushawaha or
Kachwaha. Raja Dulha Rao is generally given as the founder of the kingdom.
Dulharaya or Dhaularaya established the Kachhwaha dynasty in the region of dhundhar (in ancient times
the dhundhari river flowed here) by killing the Meena and Bargoers of Dausa in 1137. He built the temple
of Jamuwai Mata or Annapurna Devi, the total goddess of the dynasty at Jamwa Ramgarh. Jamuwa
Ramgarh is famous for rose flowers. Hence, it is called Pushkar of dhundhar.
The early rulers of this dynasty, Dulharaya and Prithviraj, were very influential, who included Dausa,
Ramgarh, Khah, Jhotwara, Gator and Amer in their kingdom.
Prithviraj, being the feudatory of Rana Sanga, fought against Babur in Khanwa's war (1527). After
Prithviraj's death, the Kachhwaha became weak. In 1547, Bharmal took over the reins of Amer. Bharamal
understood the power of the Mughal Emperor Akbar and in 1562 he accepted Akbar's subordination and
married his eldest daughter Harkubai to Akbar. This Begum of Akbar became known as Maryam-Ujjmani.
Bharamal was the first Rajput to establish matrimonial relations with the Mughals.
Man Singh
Man Singh was a qualified general in Akbar's court. Man Singh and his father Bhagwantdas were with
Akbar at the time of Ranthambore's invasion of 1569. Man Singh was appointed as the Subedar of Kabul,
Bihar and Bengal by Akbar. He was among the Navratnas of Akbar and was granted 7000 mansab by
Akbar. Man Singh built the Shiladvi temple, Jagatshiromani temple etc. in Amer.
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Mirza Raja Jai Singh
Jai Singh (1621–1667) was a powerful ruler of the Kachhwaha dynasty, who ruled for 46 rains. During
this time, he got the opportunity to live in the service of Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb. Shahjaha
conferred upon him the title of 'Mirza Raja'. Aurangzeb appointed Mirza king Jai Singh against the
Marathas in South India. Jai Singh defeated Shivaji at Purandar and forced a treaty with the Mughals. On
11 June 1665, a treaty of Purandar was signed between Shivaji and Jai Singh, according to which Shivaji
pledged to be present in the service of the Mughals when needed. Thus, the Treaty of Purandar was a
successful result of Jai Singh's political foresight. Jai Singh's built in Amer palace and Jai Singhpura in
Jaigarh and Aurangabad show interest in its architecture. In its court was the famous Hindi poet Biharimal
or Kavivar Bihari.
Sawai Jai Singh II
Sawai Jai Singh II (1700-1743) has a unique place in the Kachwaha dynasty. He was a politician,
diplomat, astronomer, scholar and litterateur and a connoisseur of art.
He made a pure table of constellations in 1725 and named it 'Jeez Muhammad Shahi' after the then
emperor. He wrote the Jyotish Granth called 'Jai Singh Karika'. Sawai Jai Singh's great gift is Jaipur,
which he founded in 1727. The architect of Jaipur was Vidyadhar Bhattacharya. He built five
observatories (Jantar-Mantar) in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura and Banaras to make a pure assessment of
the movement of planetary constellations. There is a 'Surya Clock' produced by Sawai Jai Singh at Jantar-
Mantar in Jaipur, known as 'Samrat Yantra', which is famous as the world's largest sun clock.
VIJAY NAGAR EMPIRE
Vijay Nagar dynasty established by two brothers Harihar and Bukka in 1336. They belong to Sangam
dynasty. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surrounded the present
city of Hampi (Hastinavati) now a world Heritage site, in Karnataka. Archeological excavations at
Vijaynagar have revealed the empire‘s supremacy and wealth. Harihar was successful in extending the
boundaries of his little Kingdom. By 1340, he had established his control over the Tungabhadra valley,
portions of the Konkan and the Malabar Coast.
Dev Raya-I was the first most capale ruler of Sangam dynasty, who assumed the title ‗Maharajadhiraj‘.
During his reign (1406), Italian scholar Nicolo-de-Conti visited the Vijaynagar Empire. Dev Raya-II was
the greatest ruler of Sangam dynasty. He adopts title ‗Maharaja-Mahadhiraj‘. He is also known as ‗Gaja
Vetkara‘ (hunter of elephant). After the death of Krishnadev Raya Sangam dynasty was weakened. Last
ruler Virupaksh II ruled from 1465 to 1486. As he was an incompetent ruler, there was confusion and
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disorder in the country. The result was that some of the provinces revolted against the central authority.
The rulers of the Bahamani kingdom also tried to advance into the Doab between the Krishna and the
Tungabhadra. In order to save the Vijayanagar Empire, Narasimha deposed Virupaksha ll in 1486 and
captured the throne.
Saluv dynasty was established by Narsimha in 1486. Narasimha ruled the Vijayanagar Empire from 1486
to 1492. He enjoyed the confidence of the people and was able to subdue most of the revolted provinces.
However, Udayagiri remained under the Raja of Orissa and the Raichur Doab under the Bahamani
kingdom.
After Saluv dynasty Tuluva dynasty was established. Vir Narasimha was the founder of the Tuluva
dunasty. He ruled from 1505 to 1509. He was a pious king who distributed gifts at sacred places. He was
succeeded by Krishna Dev Raya the greatest king of Vijay Nagar. Krishna Dev Raya ruled from 1509 to
1529. He adopted title ‗Andhra Bhoj‘. He became the dominant ruler of the peninsula India by defeating
the Sultan of Bijapur, Golconda and raja of Odisha.
Krishna Deva Raya had very friendly relation with the Portuguese. He gave them many concessions
because he gained by the import of horses and other things. In 1510, Albuquerque, the Portuguese
governor asked for permission to build a fort at Bhatkal and the same was granted.
He patronized a team of 8 scholars, i.e. known as ‗Astha Diggaj‘. Tenaliram was one of them. King
Krishna dev Raya was also a great scholar; he composed ‗Amuktya Malyada‘ in Telgu and Jamvanti
Kalyanam in Sanskrit. Krishna Dev Raya was succeeded by Akchuta Raya and Akchuta Raya was
succeded by Sada Shiva Raya. Ram Raya was prime minister of Sada Shiva Raya, who fought ‗Battle
Talikota‘ in 1565.
Bahamani Kingdom

The Bahmani Kingdom was a Persianate Muslim state of the Deccan and one of the major medieval
Indian kingdoms. Bahmanid Sultanate was the first independent Muslim kingdom in South India. The
empire was established by a military general from Badakhshan (Afganistan), Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah,
after revolting against the Turkic Delhi Sultanate of Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1347. Ala-ud-Din
Bahman Shah is also known as Hasan gangu. He established his capital at Gulbarga, officially known as
Kalaburagi, a city of Karnataka.Bidar was made capital of the sultanate in 1429. Bidar is a hill top city in
the north-eastern part of Karnataka, which borders Maharashtra and Telangana.
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After 1518 the sultanate broke up into five states: Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar, Qutb Shahi of Golconda
(Hyderabad), Barid Shahi of Bidar, Imad Shahi of Berar, Adil Shahi of Bijapur. They are collectively
known as the "Deccan Sultanates".

Dynasty Founder Capital

Nizam Shahi Malik Ahmed Ahmednagar (Maharashtra)
Adil Shahi Yusuf Adi shah Bijapur (Karnataka)
Emad Shahi Fatullah Khan Ellichpur, Berar (Vidarbh, Maharashtra)
Qutub Shahi Quli-Qutub Shah Gol kunda (Hyderabad Telangana)
Varid Shahi dynasty Kasim Varid Bidar (Karnataka)

Trick to remember
Ahmed nagar ke nizam, ka aa gaya dil bijapur ki rani par
Usne bar me ja ke pee aue e mad ho gaya
Use gol qutub minar dikhne laga

Gol Gumbaz is second largest dome of world was built by Adil Shahi ruler, Muhammad Adil Shah at
Bijapur. Paul‘s Church (Rome) is largest dome of world. Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah was greatest ruler
of Qutub Shahi dynasty. He established Hyderabad city its original name was Bhagya Nagar (after the
name of his most loving wife Bhagyamati). He also built Charminar of Hyderabad.
Battle of Talikota (1565)
The combined armies of the four princes began their march on 25th December 1564 towards the south.
The allied Deccan sultans (Alliance of Bijapur, Golkunda, Bidar and Ahmed Nagar) fought against Vijay
Nagar Empire on 23rd January 1565 at a site marked by two villages of Raksas and Tangadi. This is
known as the battle of Talikota and in it the Muslims were victorious. Husain Nizam Shah killed Ram
Raya with his own hand. Barar (Imad shahi dynasty) didn‘t participate in war of ‗Rakshas Tangadi‘.
Administration of Vijaynagar
The administration of Vijay nagar was centralized, elaborate and just. The history of the rise and fall of
Vijay nagar Empire is primarily history of constant wars and conflicts. The king of Vijay nagar Empire
was the fountain-head of all power in the state. He was the supreme authority in civil, military and judicial
matters. He was required to rule according to Dharma. The ideal of Kingship was given by Krishna Deva
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Raya in his Amuktamalyada. According to him, a crowned king should always rule with an eye towards
Dharma.
King was helped in his work by a council which consisted of ministers, provincial governors, military
commanders, men of priestly class and poets. The important officers of the state were the Prime Minister,
Chief Treasurer, Custodian of the Jewels and the Prefect of the police. The Prime Minister advised the
king in all important matters. The perfect was like the Kotwal and his duty was to maintain law and order.
Mughal Rulers
Jahir-ud-din Mohammad Babur was born on 14 February 1483 in the city of Andijan, Fergana Valley,
contemporary Uzbekistan. He was the eldest son of Umar Sheikh Mirza, ruler of the Fergana Valley.
Babur was a descendant of Timur from father‘s side and of Chengiz Khan from mother‘s side. They called
themselves Timurids. He was a ‗Chagtai Turk‘.On the death of his father Umar Shaikh Mirza, Babur
inherited the ancestral kingdom of Farghana in 1494.
First Battle of Panipat
In 1504 he conquered Kabul. Inspite of Central Asia Babur gave full attention to the conquest of North
India, launching a campaign; he reached the Chenab River, now in Pakistan, in 1519.A large part of north
India was ruling under Ibrahim Lodi. He received an invitation from Daulat Khan Lodi, Governor of
Punjab. Babur started for Lahore in 1524 but found that Daulat Khan Lodi had been driven out by forces
sent by Ibrahim Lodi.
Babur marched on to Delhi via Sirhind. He reached Panipat on 20 April 1526 and there met Ibrahim
Lodi's numerically superior army of about 100,000 soldiers and 100 elephants. In the battle that began on
the following day, Babur used the tactic of Tulugma, encircling Ibrahim Lodi's army and forcing it to face
artillery fire directly, as well as frightening its war elephants. Ibrahim Lodi died during the battle, thus
ending the Lodi dynasty. After the battle, Babur occupied Delhi and Agra, took the throne of Lodi.
Battle of Khanwa
Next year on 17 March 1527 the Battle of Khanwa was fought between Babur and the Rajput ruler Rana
Sanga. Rana Sanga was strengthening his powers to overthrow Babur from India. Upon receiving news of
Rana Sangha's movement towards Agra, Babur took a defensive position at Khanwa (currently situated in
Rajasthan). Babur won the battle because of his "superior generalship" and modern tactics. The battle of
Khanwa was one of the first in India that featured cannons. In this battle slogan of Jihad (religious war)
was used by Babur. Rana Sanga wanted to prepare another army and fight Babur. However, on 30 January
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1528, Rana Sanga died in Chittoor, apparently poisoned by his own chiefs who held his plans of renewing
the fight with Babur to be suicidal.
Battle of Chanderi
Battle of Chanderi took place in the aftermath of the Battle of Khanwa. On receiving news that Rana
Sanga had made preparations to renew the conflict with him, Babur decided to isolate the Rana. Medini
Rai, who was the ruler of Malwa was one of his staunchest allies. He assisted Rana Sanga in many
campaigns against the Sultans of India.
Upon reaching Chanderi, on 20 January 1528, Babur offered Medini Rao Shamsabad (a town in
Farrukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh) in exchange for Chanderi. But Medini Rao rejected the offerand
preferred to die fighting. The outer fortress of Chanderi was taken by Babur's army at nightand the next
morning the upper fort was captured. Medini Rai was killed in the Battle of Chanderi.
Babur died in Agra at the age of 47 on 26 December 1530 and was succeeded by his eldest son, Humayun.
He was first buried in Agra but, as per his wishes, his mortal remains were moved to Kabul and reburied
in Bagh-e Babur in Kabul sometime between 1539–1544.He wrote his autobiography ‗Tujuk-i-Babri‘ in
turkey which was translated by Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana in Persian language with name ‗Babur-
Nama‘.
Nasir-ud-din Humayun
Nasir-ud-din Humayun was the elder son of Babur. He was born at Kabul on 6 March 1508. Prior to
becoming a king, he served as one of the commanders in his father‘s army and also governed the province
of Badakshan.
Humayun although charming, lacked the strong character of his father. After his father Babur‘s death,
Humayun ascended the throne in 1530. Shortly after became king he distributed his empire among his
brothers.
He conferred Sambhal to Askari, Mewat (Alwar) to Hindal and Kabul and Kandahar to Kamran. In 1533
Humayun founded a new city, Din Panah, on the bank of the Yamuna River. He also faced challenges
from all the directions.
His younger brother Kamran posed a threat in north-west frontier of his kingdom. Kamran, taking
advantage of his brother's naivety, also captured Punjab Multan and Hisar.
Although the Afghans were defeated by Babur. But the Afghans were still an effective force in the eastern
parts of India, especially Bihar. The Afghans desired that the Mughals be repulsed from India and
establish Afghan rule independently. So Humayun first focused his attention on the Afghans.
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Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujrat and Sher Shah Suri of Bihar were two main Humayun had two main rivals.
Humayun launched the attack on Sultan Bahadur and captured the fort of Mandu and Champaner.
Bahadur escaped and took up refuge with the Portuguese.
The Battle of Chausa
Hamayun's main enemy was Sher Khan. His first confrontation with Humayun was in 1532, when
Humayun had laid siege on the Chunar Fort which lasted for 4 months and ended in a submission.
When Humayun was busy in Bengal, Sher Khan seized Chunar, Benares, Jaunpur, Kannauj, Patna. He
seized every road passing through Bengal. Humayun became angry when he heard this news. Due to
Malaria outbreak Humayun left with a small army for Chunar.Sher Shah decided to encircle Humayun on
the way, after receiving information of arrival of Humayun. Humayun made many mistakes.
First, he divided his army into two parts. A contingent of army was sent under Dilawar Khan to attack
Munger (Bihar). Humayun himself advanced with the second army contingent.
Humayun's military advisers had advised him that he should walk from the northern bank of the Ganges to
Jaunpur and cross the Ganges and attack Sher Shah but he did not listen to them. He crossed the Ganges
and went on the south route from Grand Trunk Road. This route was under Sher Khan's control.
He came to know of Sher Shah at a place called Chausa. Therefore, he did not cross river and got ready to
attack on Sher Shah, but here too he took carelessness. He did not immediately attack Sher Shah. He
wasted time on the banks of river Ganga for three months. Meanwhile, Sher Khan tricked him into peace
talks and kept making his preparations. Actually, he was waiting for the rain.
As soon as the rains started, Sher Khan planned an attack. Humayun's camp was at a low point between
the Ganges and the Karmnasa river. So, the rainy water filled it. The artillery of the Mughals failed and
there was chaos in the army.
Taking advantage of this, on the night of 25 June 1539, Sher Shah suddenly attacked the Mughal camp
with deception. There was a panic in the Mughal camp. The soldiers jumped into the Ganges river to save
their lives. Some drowned in them and some were killed by Afghan forces.
Humayun himself also escaped the Ganges after saving his life. His family remained in the camp.
Humayun could reach Agra with the help of some believing Mughals. After the battle of Chausa
Humayun's fall was decided. His army was destroyed. Some members of his family also died in this battle.
The power and ambitions of the Afghans increased again.
Now they started planning to drive out the Mughals and take control of Agra. Sher Khan has now assumed
the title of Sher Shah. Sher Shah taught Khutba of his name. Minted the coins and issued the decree. He
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sent Jalal Khan and took control of Bengal and himself reached Kannauj via Benares, Jaunpur and
Lucknow.
The Battle of Bilgram or Kannauj
While Sher Shah was consolidating his position in the east, Humayun and his brothers wasted their time at
Agra. Humayun finally moved towards Kannauj where Sher Shah had already encamped himself. This
time too the two armies faced each other for more than a month and again the rains started.
On 17 May 1540 A.D when the Mughuls were shifting themselves to a higher plain, Sher Shah attacked
them. The Mughuls fought valiantly but were defeated. Humayun again fled away. The battle of Bilgram
was the decisive battle between Humayun and Sher Shah. Sher Shah captured Delhi and Agra and, thus,
the Afghans snatched the throne of Delhi from the hands of the Mughuls.
Humayun has to fled India and took refuge in Lahore. Then Sher Shah marched towards Lahore too. In
1541 A.D. He married Hamida Banu, the daughter of the spiritual mentor of Hindal, Mir Ali Akbar Jani.
He was given shelter by Virasala, the Rajput ruler of Amarkot where Akbar was born in 1542. Akbar was
taken under the care of Askari who was the governor of Kandahar at that time. Shah Tahmasp, the ruler of
Persia, welcomed Humayun. With the help of king of Persia, he tried to regain his lost military strength.
He captured Kandahar.
Sher Shah ruled India from 1540-1545, he died in 1545, and his son succeeded him to the throne, but he
was a weak ruler, and he too died in 1554. With his death the Sur empire began to disintegrate.Humayun,
sensing the opportunity sent an army under the leadership of his able General Bairam Khan. Bairam Khan
was successful in getting the control of Delhi along with other areas.
Humayun set on the throne of Delhi once again on 23rd July 1555. But his period of happiness was short
lived, just six months after the ceremonial accession to the throne of Delhi, Humayun met with an
accident in his library and died three days later on 27th February 1556.
Humayun‘s life is chronicled in a book known as Humayun-Nama, by his sister Gulbadan Begam.After
his death Humayun's first wife and chief consort, Empress Bega Begum (also known as Haji Begum) built
his tomb in 1569–70 in Delhi. It was designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyas and his son, Sayyid Muhammad.
Stanley Lane-Poole said, ―Humayun stumbled out of his life as he stumbled through it.‖
Sur Dynasty
Sher Shah Suri or Sher khan, was the founder of Sur dynasty in India. Born in 1486, he was the son of
Hasan Khan Sur a jagirdar of Sasaram, Bihar. His original name was Farid. He left his home at the age of
15 and went to Jaunpur. There he studied Arabic and Persian languages. He had very good administrative
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skills as a result he was appointed by his father to manage his jagir, but due to some reasons he left it and
joined the service of Mughal Emperor Babar.
In 1522 he joined the service of Bahar Khan, governor of Bihar at that time. He was given the title of Sher
Khan by Bahar Khan, for the courage and gallantry shown by him in killing a tiger single-handedly. Later
Bahar Khan appointed him as a deputy governor and tutor of his son Jalal Khan.
He again joined the service of Babur but came back. As Jalal Khan was a minor so Sher Khan was the
virtual ruler of Bihar. In 1531, he asserted his freedom from the Mughal ruler Humayun. He fought many
battles with him, initially capturing Gaur in Bengal and finally getting the throne of Delhi after the battle
of Kannauj in 1540. He continued to expand his empire and in a very short span of time his kingdom
extended from Indus in the east to Bengal in the west.
He was a brave soldier and a military genius; he made bunkers using sand bags in the battle of Mewat. He
was a very able administrator and is remembered for his rule and the reforms he introduced. His
administration was very efficient but a bit strict. He divided his empire into provinces known as Sarkars,
these were further sub-divided into Parganas and these were again divided into smaller units. He is
believed to be the first one to introduce ―Rupaiya‖ and ―paisa‘ in place of ―Tanka‖.
He is also credited with the introduction of custom duty, which is followed even today. He built many
inns, mosques and laid down the network of roads the most famous among them being the Grand Trunk
Road also called Sadak-e-Azam. He also had a refined taste in architecture, it is evident in the Rohtas Fort
built by him. He continued his administrative as well as military activities simultaneously. He besieged
the strong fort of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand where he died at in an accidental explosion of gunpowder in
1545.
Though he ruled India for a short period of five years but changes made by him had the everlasting impact
on the lives of people. He is considered to be the most successful ruler of medieval India. In the opinion of
S.A. Rashid, as an able general, consummate soldier, as a determined ruler Sher Shah stand head over
shoulders above the other rulers. So great was his personality that his greatest enemy, Humayun, on his
death referred to him as ―Ustad-I-Badshahan‖, teacher of kings. Sher Shah Suri was succeeded by his son
Jalal Khan who later adopted the name of Islam Shah. He built a magnificent tomb of his father, Sher
Shah Suri at Sasaram, Bihar.
Akbar
Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar, more famously known as Akbar the Great, was the third emperor of the
Mughal Empire, after Babur and Humayun. He was the son of Humayun and succeeded him as the
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emperor in the year 1556, at the tender age of just 14. He was one of the greatest emperors of the Mughal
dynasty and extended his patronage to art and culture. Being fond of literature, he extended support to
literature in several languages. Akbar, thus, laid the foundations for a multicultural empire during his
reign.
At the time of his ascent to the Mughal throne, Akbar‘s empire encompassed Kabul, Kandahar, Delhi and
parts of Punjab. But the Afghan Sultan Mohammad Adil Shah of Chunar had designs on the throne of
India and planned to wage war against the Mughals. His Hindu general Samrat Hem Chandra
Vikramaditya or Hemu in short, led the Afghan army to capture Agra and Delhi soon after Humayun‘s
death in 1556.
On the direction of his regent Bairam Khan, Akbar declared his intentions to reclaim his rights to the
throne at Delhi. The Mughal forces moved to Panipat through Thaneshwar and faced Hemu‘s army on 5
November 1556. Hemu‘s army was much larger in size than of that of Akbar. Bairam Khan led the
Mughal army and established victory of the Mughals. The Second battle of Panipat thus marked the
beginning of the glory days for the Mughal reign in India.
The first expedition of Akbar was made on Malwa. Mandu was the capital of Malwa and Baj Bahadur was
ruling over Malwa in 1561. After victory on Malwa, Mughal Army marched toward ‗Mandla‘. Gond ruler,
Rani Duragavati was ruler of Garh Mandla. ‗Garh Katanga‘ was her headquarter. Mughal army was
commanded by Ashaf Khan. Rani Durgavati and her minor son ‗Veer-Narayan‘ was martyred during the
battle in 1564.
After that Mughal army marched toward Chittorand defeated Rana Uday Singh i.e. ruler of Chittor in
1567. In 1572, Mughal army moved toward Gujrat and in the memory of Gujrat victory, Akbar built
Buland Darwaza at Fatahpur Sikri.
In 1576, Akbar again make attack on Chittor and is known as battle of Haldighati, in this battle Maharana
Pratap was defeated by Mughal army under lead of Man Singh. In 1581, Mughal army moved toward
Kabul and Gandhar and was commanded by Abdul Rahim.
Mirza Hakim ruler of Gandhar was defeated by Rahim. After this victory Akbar give title ‗Khan-e-
Khana‘. Last invasion of Mughal army under Akbar was the victory of ‗Asirgarh‘, the fort of Asirgarh is
situated in Burhanpur District of M.P. and was constructed by Asha Raja known as Ashirgarh also known
as ‗Gateway of Deccan‘.
The Rajput Policy of Akbar
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Akbar tried several ways to gain the trust of the Rajputs. The Rajputs ruler of Amber, Raja Bharmal was
the first one to establish friendly relation with Akbar in 1562. The younger daughter of Bharmal, Harkha
Bai (Mariam-uz-Zamani) was married to Akbar.
Most of the Rajput kings recognized Akbar‘s supremacy and helped him in expansion of Mughal Empire.
Rajputs like Raja Birbal, Raja Todarmal and Raja Man Singh were given higher post in administration.
All three were among Navratnas of his court.
The Rajput policy of Akbar was unique as it not only helped to end the long-drawn conflict between the
Rajputs and Mughal ruler but also helped Akbar in the consolidation of his empire. It resulted in the
development of a composite culture.
Religious Policy of Akbar
Akbar shaped his policies on the principle of religious tolerance known as Sulh-i-Kull (Peace with all). He
abolished jizya, called Hindu pandits and European Jesuits at Ibadat Khana, prohibition of cow-slaughter
and promulgation of the Din-i Ilahi (The Divine Faith). Akbar‘s so-called Din-i Ilahi was an amalgam of
Sufism, Hinduism and Zoroastrianism. However, many Muslims took Akbar‘s Din-i Ilahi with a pinch of
salt and considered that he had actually abandoned Islam.
Akbar decreed that Hindus who had been forced to convert to Islam could reconvert to Hinduism without
facing the death penalty. Akbar practiced several Hindu customs. He celebrated Diwali, allowed Brahman
priests to tie jeweled strings round his wrists by way of blessing and, following his lead, many of the
nobles took to wearing Kleva (a thread in wrist). He renounced beef and forbade the sale of all meats on
certain days.
Akbar regularly held discussions with Jain scholars and was also greatly impacted by some of their
teachings. He invited Jain guru Acharya Harvijaya Suri to Fatehpur Sikri and granted title of Jgat Guru.
Akbar was impressed by the scholastic qualities and character of the Acharya. In 1584, 1592 and 1598,
Akbar had declared "Amari Ghosana", which prohibited animal slaughter during Paryushan and Mahavir
Jayanti.
Nine Jewels of Akbar

Abdul Rahem Khanekhana

He is also known as Rahim das jee. He was the great scholar of Hindi, Persian and Turkish.‘Rahim-satsai‘
is the collection of his Doha. He Translated ‗Tuzuk-e-Babari‘ as Babar Nama in to Persian language.
1. Abdul Fazl
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He was the writer of ‗Aain-e-Akbari‘. He was killed by Veer singhBundela. Who was a Bundela
Rajput chief and the ruler of the kingdom of Orchha. He was a vassal (tkxhjnkj) of the Mughal Empire
and ruled between 1605 and either 1626.

2. Faizi
He was Court poet. He was also the brother of Abul Fazal. He translated book ‗Leelawati‘ into Persian
language. The Lilavati is a book written by mathematician Bhasker on mathematics, written in 1150. It
is the first volume of his main work, the Siddhanta Shiromani.
3. Birbal
He was a Brahmin scholar. He was born near Kalpi (Kanpur). His original name was Mahesh Das. He
was the in-charge of department of justice. He was the first and last follower of ‗din-ai-Illahi‘. He
died fighting with Yusufjai tribe of North West.
4. Man Singh
Raja Man Singh was the Kachwaha Rajput Raja of Amer. He was a trusted general of the Mughal
emperor Akbar, who included him among the Navaratnas. In 1576 he defeted to Maharana Pratap in
the battle of Haldighati.
5. Todarmal
Raja Todar Mal was the Finance Minister of the Mughal Empire. He was one of the Navaratnas of
Akbar. He started ‗Dahshala‘ system, for the collection of land revenue, under which land revenue will
be fixed for Tenure of 10 year.
6. Tansen
He was born at Gwalior.Original name was ‗Ram Tanu Pandey‘, but he converted into Islam and
become MiyanTansen.He is also known as ‗Sangeet Samrat‘. He is credited to develop number of
‗Ragas‘His tomb is situated in Gwalior.
7. Hameem-Humam-Mulla-do-Pyaza
He was very close friend of Akbar. He was chief of royal school.
8. Faqir Aziao Din
He was mystic and advisor whose advice Akbar regarded respectfully.
Jahangir (Nur-ud-din Mohammad Jahangir)
Prince Salim, later Jahangir, was born on 31 August 1569, in Fatehpur Sikri, to Akbar and one of his
wives Mariam-uz-Zamani, daughter of Raja Bharmal of Amber. Akbar's previous children had died in
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infancy. He was born after the blessing of Sheikh Salim Chisti, a Sufi Saint, in Fatehpur Sikri. After the
birth of Salim Akbar transfer his capital from Agra to Fatehpur Sikri.
ManBai was the first wife of Salim. Rajkumari Man Bai (Shah Begum) was the daughter of Bhagwant
Das and sister of Man Singh of Amer. Bhagwant Das, was the brother of Akbar's Hindu wife and Salim's
mother – Mariam-uz-Zamani. Khusrau Mirza was the son of Man Bai.
Rajput Princess, Jagat Gosain Begum was second wife of Jahangir. Jahangir called her Bibi Bilqis Makani
and she gave birth to Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan).
Nur Jahan
Mehr-Un-Nisa or Nur Jahan was third wife of Jahangir. Mirza Giyas Beg (Itimad-ud-daula) was her father
and Asmat begam was her mother who invented ‗Itra‘. She was the widow of Sher Afgan (Ali Quli Beg
Istajlu). He had earned the title of ‗Sher Afgan‘ from Emperor Akbar.
She was married with Jahangir in 1611. He gave her the title of Nur Jahan or "Light of the World". She
was very Ambitious lady. She conferred high positions to her relatives in court. Her father was given title
of ‗Itimad-ud-daula‘and was appointed as Vazir. Her elder brother Mirza Abdul Hassan was given title
‗Asaf Khan‘ and appointed as Khaneshama (head of palace). Arzumand Bano-Begam was daughter of
Asaf Khan, she was married with Khuram.
The Rebel of Salim
When Salim was of 18 year, he was appointed as governor of Allahabad where he came in to contact with
Vir Singh Bundela ruler of Orchha. At the age of 22, in 1591, he left for Allahabad and rebelled against
his father. When Akbar was informed involvement of Salim in conspiracy against him, he declared his
successor to ‗Mirza Khusrau‘. Abu'l Fazl was assassinated while he was returning from the Deccan by Vir
Singh Bundela (who later became the ruler of Orchha) between Sarai Vir and Antri (near Narwar) in a plot
contrived by Prince Salim. Salim was arrested.
The Jahangir Mahal was built Vir Singh Bundela. This palace is the symbol of friendship between the Vir
Singh Bundela and Jahangir. During the first visit of Jahangir in Orchha, this palace was built in his
honor.
East India Company
In 1608, William Hawkins, commander of the Hector, was sent to ask the Mughal Emperor Jahangir about
trade with England. He impressed Jahangir but failed to get an agreement for an English factory. It took
the arrival of a proper ambassador, Sir Thomas Roe, sent by King James I in 1615, before the Company
was able to set up a base in India.
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Jahangir's era is credited with the construction of monuments like Itimad-ud-daulah in 1622, where the use
of white marble started hinting towards a new era of architecture in the Mughal emperor. The art
culminated in the form of Taj Mahal built by his son Shah Jahan. The popular Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar
was built by Jahangir in order to reproduce the beauty of Kashmir. Jahangir died on the journey from
Kashmir to Lahore, near Sarai Saidabad in Bhimber in 1627. The body was conveyed to Lahore and was
buried in Shahdara Bagh, a suburb of that city.
Khusrau
Khusrau was born in Lahore on 16 August 1587. His mother, Manbhawati Bai (who was given the title
Shah Begam after his birth), was the daughter of Raja Bhagwant Das of Amber (Jaipur) head of the
Kachhwaha clan of Rajputs. In 1605, the emperor Akbar died. Akbar had been deeply disappointed with
Khusrau's father Jahangir. Perhaps due to this background, Khusrau rebelled against his father in 1606 to
secure the throne for himself.
Khusrau left Agra, in Panipat, he was joined by Abdur Rahim, the provincial diwan of Lahore. When
Khusrau reached Taran Taran near Amritsar, he received the blessings of Guru Arjan Dev.
Jahangir soon reached Lahore with a large army and Khusrau was defeated in the battle of Bhairowal.
Khusrau was then blinded (in 1607) and imprisoned in Agra. However, his eyesight was never completely
lost. In 1620, he was handed over to his younger brother Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan). In 1622, Khusrau
was killed on the order of Prince Khurram.
Shahjahan
Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram better known by his regnal name Shah Jahan was the fifth Mughal
emperor, who reigned from 1628 to 1658. Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram was born on 5 January
1592 in Lahore, in modern-day Pakistan and was the third son of Jahangir. His mother was a Rajput
princess from Marwar called Princess Jagat Gosain (her official name in Mughal chronicles was Bilqis
Makani). The name "Khurram" was chosen for the young prince by his grandfather, Emperor Akbar, with
whom the young prince shared a close relationship.
In 1607, Khurram became engaged to Arjumand Banu Begum, who is also known as Mumtaz Mahal. She
was daughter of Asaf Khan. The prince would have to wait five years before he was married in 1612. She
was died at age 37 (7 July 1631) while giving birth to Gauhara Begum in Burhanpur.
Shah Jahan left behind a grand legacy of structures constructed during his reign. His most famous building
was the Taj Mahal, which he built out of love for his wife, the empress Mumtaz Mahal. The building took
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twenty years to complete and was constructed from white marble underlaid with brick. Upon his death, his
son Aurangzeb had him interred in it next to Mumtaz Mahal.
Among his other constructions are the Red Fort also called the Delhi Fort or Lal Qila, large sections of
Agra Fort, the Jama Masjid, the Wazir Khan Mosque, the Moti Masjid, the Shalimar Gardens, sections of
the Lahore Fort, the Mahabat Khan Mosque in Peshawar, the Mini Qutub Minar in Hastsal, the Jahangir
mausoleum his father's tomb, the construction of which was overseen by his stepmother Nur Jahan and the
Shahjahan Mosque.
He also had the Peacock Throne, Takht-e-Taus, made to celebrate his rule. Shah Jahan also placed
profound verses of the Quran on his masterpieces of architecture. The Shah Jahan Mosque in Thatta,
Sindh province of Pakistan was built by Shah Jahan.
Burhanpur
In 1601, the Mughal emperor Akbar annexed the Khandesh sultanate. Khandesh was renamed Danesh
after Akbar's son Daniyal. Shah Jahan spent a considerable time in Burhanpur and helped add to the Shahi
Qila. The Shahi Qila is one majestic palace in Burhanpur, located to the west of the Tapti River. Diwan-i-
Aam and Diwan-i-Khas were built on the terrace of the Qila. The main attraction at the palace is the Royal
bath or Shahi Hammam. It was specifically built for Shah Jahan's wife, Mumtaz Mahal so that she could
enjoy a luxurious bath. It is said that she died there while giving birth to her fourteenth child. She was
initially buried there for six months before being moved. The original grave called the Aahukhana is in
disrepair.
War of succession

Shah Jahan had seven children – four son and three daughters Dara Shikoha, Aurangzeb, Shah Suza,
Murad Baksh, Jaha-aara Begam, Roshan-Aara and Gohar-Aara. Dara was the eldest and his father‘s
favorite. All the four princes had been trained in the art of warfare and administration. They were all
working as governors in various provinces—Dara of Punjab and Northwestern Province, Shujah of Bengal
and Orissa, Aurangzeb of Deccan and Murad of Gujarat.
War of succession was fought when Shah Jahan was yet alive. Besides, all sons and daughters of Shah
Jahan participated in it. While the four sons Dara Shikoh, Shah Shuja, Aurangzeb and Murad Baksh
fought against each other, the sisters allied themselves with one or the other brother. Jahan Ara supported
Dara Shikoh, Roshen Ara supported Aurangzeb and Gauhan Ara sided with Murad Baksh.
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Early in September 1657, Shah Jahan fell ill. He failed to attend the court for a long time. The rumor
spread that he was dead. Shah Jahan decided to appoint Dara, his eldest son as his successor. His other
sons and several staunch Muslim Ulemas and nobles did not like Dara on account of his liberal religious
views.
Prince Murad declared himself independent in Gujarat, Shah Shuja in Bengal and Murad in Gujarat.
Aurangzeb kept his plans secret. He won over Murad by promising to give the provinces of Punjab, Sindh,
Kabul and Kashmir. Shah Shuja reached Banaras with his army. Dara sent an army to check him. Shah
Shuja was defeated and ran away towards Bengal.
Aurangzeb and Murad advanced towards Agra. Dara also sent an army to fight but the army faced defeat.
Dara advanced toward Samugarh a place near Agra. In battlefield Dara committed a blunder. He got down
from his elephant and mounted a horse. Seeing him missing, commotion and disorder ensued in his army.
Dara fled from the battlefield.
The combined forces of Aurangzeb and Murad reached Agra and besieged the fort. The royal army
opposed them. After a few days of struggle, the royal army surrendered. Shah Jahan was imprisoned and
died there in a pathetic situation after six years on January 1666. He was buried besides his wife Mumtaz
Mahal in the Taj Mahal.
Aurangzeb did not adhere to the agreement arrived at with Murad. He used devious methods and got him
murdered in Gwalior fort. Shah Shuja had to run away from India and died outside in obscure
circumstances.
After his defeat, Dara wandered from place in different parts of India but was hotly chased and ultimately
fell into Aurangzeb‘s, hands. He was paraded in dirty clothes in the city and awarded death punishment.
His two sons were also given death punishment. In this way the war of succession ended with the victory
of Aurangzeb.
Aurangzeb

Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad commonly known as Aurangzeb or by his reignal title Alamgir was the sixth
Mughal emperor. Aurangzeb was born on 3 November 1618, in Dahod, Gujarat.
In 1666 after death of Shahjahan Aurangzeb held his 2nd coronation as ‗Alamgir‘. Aurangzeb introduced
several reforms in administration. He forbidden music, drinking in court and ended ‗Jharoka Darshan‘. He
never made expenditure from royal treasure for her personal need. He wrote the copies of ‗Koran‘ and
sold them. He imposed Jizya tax i.e. on Non-Muslim.
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When Aurangzeb ascended on the throne the Guru Har Rai was 8th Sikh Guru and has friendly relation
with Dara Sikho. Aurangzeb treated him as his enemy. The 9th Sikh Guru, Guru Teg Bahadur, oppose the
religious policy of Aurangzeb. He was arrested and forced to convert into Islam when he refused. He was
publicly killed in 1675 on the orders of Aurangzeb in Delhi. Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib and Gurdwara
Rakab Ganj Sahib in Delhi mark the places of execution and cremation of the Guru's body.
Unlike his father, Aurangzeb was not much interested in architecture. Aurangzeb constructed a small
marble mosque known as the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in the Red Fort complex in Delhi. He ordered
the construction of the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore. He also constructed a mosque on Benares. The
mosque he constructed in Srinagar is still the largest in Kashmir. The structure of Bibi Ka Maqbara in
Aurangabad was constructed by the sons of Aurangzeb in remembrance of their mother.
Maharaja Chhatrasal was a medieval Indian warrior from Bundela Rajput clan, who fought against the
Mughal Emperor Aurangzeband established his own kingdom in Bundelkhand, becoming a Maharaja of
Panna. In 1657, while Aurangzeb attacked Golconda and Bijapur in the Deccan, the Hindu Maratha
warrior, Shivaji, used guerrilla tactics to take control of three Adil Shahi forts formerly under his father's
command. He died in 3 March 1707 at Ahmednagarand buried in Khuldabad Maharashtra without
officially declaring a crown prince.
His three sons Bahadur Shah I, Muhammad Azam Shahand Muhammad Kam Bakhsh fought each other
for the throne. Azam Shah declared him successor to the throne, but was defeated in battle by Bahadur
Shah. In the meantime, Kam Bakhsh moved to Bijapur where he established his own empire. His forces
were later engaged in battle by the Shah's army and Kam Bakhsh was killed.
Dara Shikoh

Muhammad Dara Shikoh was born on 11 March 1615 in Ajmer. He was the elder son Prince Khurram
(Shahjahan). He, along with his sister Jahanara was Shah Jahan's favourite children. Dara Shikoh
subsequently developed a friendship with the seventh Sikh Guru, Guru Har Rai. Dara Shikoh devoted
much effort towards finding a common mystical language between Islam and Hinduism. He completed the
translation of fifty Upanishads from Sanskrit into Persian. His translation is called Sirr-e-Akbar (The
Greatest Mystery).
His most famous work, Majma-ul-Bahrain (The Confluence of the Two Seas), was also devoted to a
revelation of the mystical and pluralistic affinities between Sufic and Vedantic speculation. The library
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established by Dara Shikoh still exists on the grounds of Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University,
Kashmiri Gate, Delhiand is now run as a museum by Archaeological Survey of India.
Mughal Administration
The Mughals ruled in India for around 200 years, built a vast empire and laid the foundations of
administration system upon which the British built further.
The Central Government
The Emperor had a majestic and imperial approach in all that he did. He was strict yet generous. He was
well-informed on almost every aspect of the Administration System. He chose men of learning and culture
as his diwans but changed them often to ensure that no one became too powerful.
Diwan
The diwan, often called the Wazir (the chief minister), was mainly concerned with revenue and finance
but as he had a say in all matters where any expenditure was involved, the work of other departments also
came under his control. The most famous diwan under Akbar was Raja Todar Mal, who for a time acted as
the chief minister of the realm.
Mir Bakhshi
The Mir Bakhshi was head of military department. He was responsible to keep the army records and paid
the troops. The chief paymaster in the central administration was known as the mir bakhsh and there were
subordinate bakhshis in the provinces.
Wazir and Wakil
The office of the wakil or wakil-i-dar under the sultanate was concerned with the management of the royal
household. In the Mughal period, however, the wakil or wakil-i-sultanate, was the chief minister. The post
formerly held by the wazir. Abul Fazl called him ―the emperor‘s lieutenant in all matters connected with
the realm and the household‖.
Mir Saman
He was the official in charge of the imperial household stores, the workshops for producing goods for the
palacesand the arsenals.
Sadr-us Sudur
The Sadr-us Sudur had his chief duty to protect the laws of the shariat. He was also connected with the
distribution of charities – both cash (wazifa) and land grants. Initially as the head of the judicial
department, he supervised the appointment of qazis and muftis.
Provincial Administration
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The provincial administration was greatly improved under Akbarand in this respect the Mughal period
differs substantially from the sultanate. The boundaries of the provincial units were more definitely fixed;
and a uniform administrative pattern, with minor modifications to suit local conditions, was developed for
all parts of the empire.
Sipah Salar
The principal officer was the governor, called Sipah Salar under Akbar and Nazim under his successors,
but popularly known as subedar.
Provincial Diwan
Next to Sipah Salar in official rank, but not in any way under his control, was the provincial diwan, who
was in independent charge of the revenues of the province. He was usually a mansabdar of much lower
status than the governor, but he was independent of the governor‘s control and was directly under the
imperial diwan.
Bakhshi
He was subordinate of Mie Bakshi in provinces. He performed a number of duties, including,
occasionally, the functions of the provincial news writer.
Diwan-i-buyutat
The diwan-i-buyutat was the provincial representative of the khan-i-samanand looked after roads and
government buildings, supervised imperial storesand ran state workshops.
Faujdar
The faujdar, who was the administrative head of the sarkar (district) related to maintenance of law and
order, was appointed by the emperor but was under the supervision and guidance of the governor. Faujdar
was also responsible to look after the defense of the territory and to help other officers to collect taxes.
Amil
Amil was administrative head of sarkar (District) related to revenue matters. The amil was expected by the
government to establish direct relations with the agriculturists and eliminate chances of oppression by the
officials. He was also entrusted with the task of encouraging cultivation and improving the quality of
produce. He had to prepare monthly reports of daily receipts and remit money to the central treasury as
soon as a stipulated amount was collected.
Shiqdar
The next level of administration was the pargana, headed by a person called the shiqdar, who combined in
him the duties of revenue, justice and magistracy. He supervised the amil and qanungo who attended to
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the survey, assessment and collection of revenue. Several villages made up a pargana. The village during
the Mughal Period was recognized as a self-governing unit with rights and responsibilities. It had its
council that is the panchayat which settled disputes, performed relief work and collected revenue.
Kotwal
The kotwal was an officer of local administration, but was appointed by the central government in the
provincial capitals and other important cities. The kotwal had magisterial duties of punishing miscreants
and redressing grievancesand was also responsible for policing the town. He had to keep himself informed
about the people entering and leaving the townand had to prevent hoarding.
Social Life in 18th Century India

Social and culture life in the 18th century was very complicated. There was no uniformity of culture and
social patterns all over the country. People were divided by religion, region, tribe, languageand caste.
Moreover, the social and culture life of the upper classes was in many respects different from the life and
culture of the lower classes.
Caste was the central feature of the social life of the Hindus. Caste rules were extremely rigid. Inter-caste
marriages were forbidden. There were restrictions on inter-dining among members of different castes.
Caste regulations were strictly enforced by Jati panchayats.
Muslims were no less divided by considerations of caste, race, tribe and status, even though their religion
enjoined social equality. The Shiya and Sunni nobles were sometimes at loggerheads on account of their
religious differences. The Irani, Afghan, Turani and Hindustani Muslim nobles and officials often stood
apart from each other.
A large number of Hindus converted to Islam carried their caste into the new religion and observed its
distinctions, though not as rigidly as before. Moreover, the sharif Muslims consisting of nobles, scholars,
priests and army officers, looked down upon the ajlaf Muslims or the lower-class Muslims in a manner
similar to that adopted by the higher caste Hindus towards the lower caste Hindus.
Maratha Empire

The Marathas rose to power under Shivaji. He was born at Shivner Fort in 1627. His father was Shahji
Bhonsle and mother was Jijabai. He inherited the Jagir of Poona from his father. He conquered many forts
like, Kondana, Chakan, Toran, Purandhar, Rajgarh, Supa and Panhala. The Bijapur Sultan sent Afzal
Khan against Shivaji, but he was murdered by Shivaji in 1659. Shaista Khan, was sent by Aurangzeb
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against Shivaji. Shaista Khan defeated and captured Poona from Shivaji. But Shivaji made a bold attack
on Shaista Khan and plundered Surat and Ahmednagar.
Raja Jai Singh of Amer was sent by Aurangzeb to put down Shivaji in 1665. He succeeded in besieging
the Fort of Purandar and opened negotiations with Shivaji. The Treaty of Purandhar was signed in 1665,
according to which, Shivaji had to surrender 23 forts out of 35 forts held by him to Mughals. The
remaining forts were to be left to Shivaji on condition of service and loyalty to Mughal emperor. When
Sivaji visited Agra, he was imprisoned there. Shivaji escaped from Agra and began Military preparations.
He then captured all his lost territories from the Mughals. In 1674, he assumed the title of Chhatrapati.
Administration under Shivaji

He was a great administrator. He had a council of ministers called Asthapradhan. Each minister was
directly responsible to Shivaji. He divided the Maratha territory into three provinces under a viceroy.
Provinces were then divided into prants, further subdivided into Paragans. The lowest unit was village,
headed by Patel.
The ministers in Shivaji‘s council of ministers (Ashta Pradhan)

Peshwa Initially finance and general administration. Later became

prime minister
Sar-i-Naubat or Senapati Military commander
Majumdar (Amatya) Revenue and accounts
Waqenavis (Mantri) Intelligence, postand home affairs
Surnavis (Sachiv) Head of Royal correspondence
Sumant (Dabir) master of ceremonies
Nyayadhish justice
Pandit Rao (Sadar) Religious administration

Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji were modelled on practices of Deccan Sultanates. The
revenue system under Shivaji was based on that of Malik Amber of Ahmednagar. The land assessment
was completed through Kathi. Three types of land were classified- Paddy fields, Hilly tracks and garden
lands. Shivaji appointed his own revenue officers called as Karkuns, while reducing the powers of existing
Deshmukhs and Kulkarni.
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Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were collected in neighboring territories of Mughal Empire, not in Maratha
Empire. Chauth was 1/4th of land revenue paid to Marathas in order to avoid Maratha raids.
Sardeshmukhi was additional levy of 10% on such lands which were considered hereditary rights.
After death of Shivaji, a war of succession took place between Shambhaji and Rajaram, his sons.
Shambaji won, but later captured and killed by Mughals. Rajaram usurped the throne but Mughals made
him flee to Jinji fort. He was succeeded by Shivaji II under guardianship of Tarabai and Shahu.
The Third Battle of Panipat
The Third Battle of Panipat took place on 14 January 1761 at Panipat, between the Maratha Empire and
King of Afghans, Ahmad Shah Abdali, supported by three Indian allies — the Rohilla Najib-ud-daulah,
Afghans of the Doab region and Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh. The Maratha army was led by
Sadashivrao Bhau who was third in authority after the Chhatrapati (Rajaram Bhonsle II, also known as
Ramaraja, 6th monarch of Maratha Empire) and the Peshwa Madhavrao. The main Maratha army was
stationed in Deccan with the Peshwa. Militarily, the battle pitted the artillery and cavalry of the Marathas
against the heavy cavalry and mounted artillery (zamburak and jezail) of the Afghans and Rohillas led by
Abdali and Najib-ud-Daulah, both ethnic Afghans. The battle is considered one of the largest and most
eventful fought in the 18th centuryand it has perhaps the largest number of fatalities in a single day
reported in a classic formation battle between two armies.
Nana sahib
Nana was born on 19 May 1824 as Nana Govind Dhondu Pant, to Narayan Bhat and Ganga Bai. After the
Maratha defeat in the Third Maratha War, the East India Company had exiled Peshwa Baji Rao II to
Bithur near Cawnpore (now Kanpur), where he maintained a large establishment paid for in part out of a
British pension. Nana's father, a well-educated Deccani Brahmin, had travelled with his family from the
Western Ghats to become a court official of the former Peshwa at Bithur. Lacking sons, Baji Rao adopted
Nana Saheb and his younger brother in 1827. The mother of both children was a sister of one of the
Peshwa's wives. Nana Saheb's childhood associates included Tatya Tope, Azimullah Khan and
Manikarnika Tambe who later became famous as Rani Laxmi Bai. Tatya Tope was the son of Pandurang
Rao Tope, an important noble at the court of the Peshwa Baji Rao II. After Baji Rao II was exiled to
Bithur, Pandurang Rao and his family also shifted there. Tatya Tope was the fencing master to Nana
Saheb. Azimullah Khan joined the court of Nana Saheb as Secretary, after the death of Baji Rao II in
1851. He later became the dewan in Nana Saheb's court.
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Chatrapati Sahuji Maharaj
Shahu (also known as Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj or Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj) of the Bhosle dynasty of
Marathas was a Maharaja (1900-1922) of the Indian princely state of Kolhapur. Chhatrapati Shahu
Maharaj, also known as Rajarshi Shahu was considered a true democrat and social reformer. First
Maharaja of the princely state of Kolhapur, he was an invaluable gem in the history of Maharashtra.
Greatly influenced by the contributions of social reformer Jyotiba Phule, Shahu Maharaj was an ideal
leader and able ruler who was associated with many progressive and path breaking activities during his
rule. From his coronation in 1894 till his demise in 1922, he worked tirelessly for the cause of the lower
caste subjects in his state. Primary education to all regardless of caste and creed was one of his most
significant priorities.
Tribal Revolts
The tribal revolt took place in India in early 19th century the main cause of revolt was the interference of
foreigners (Diku) in tribal life. British policies introduced moneylenders, land lords and contractor in the
social life of tribes. Greedy moneylenders and traders interfered into the tribal area they seized the right of
tribes on forests and tribes and begin their exploitation. The religious life of tribal areas was affected by
Christian missionaries the new religion affected their social, religious life which caused the uprising of
unrest among tribal society. Some important and major tribal revolts are as follows-
Santhal Revolt (1855-1856)
This revolt took place at Santhal Paragana in Bihar. The district covering with revolt were Birbhumi,
Singhbhumi, Hazaribagh, Bhagalpur and Unhorsed and Kanhu, two Santhal Brothers provided leadership
to this revolt. But within one year the revolt was suppressed by the East India Company.
Munda Revolt (1899-1900)
This revolt was started by the Munda tribe of Bihar (Now Jharkhand). This revolt was against the
Zamindari System. The revolt was headed by Birsa Munda. Women were also participated in this revolt.
The rebellions were defeated in a fight and Birsa Munda died in jail.
Khond Revolt (1846-1856)
Khond is the main tribe of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh (Coastal areas). The movement was headed by
Chakra Bisnoi. This revolt was also against the Zamindari systems same as Munda revolt. Another leader
of this movement was Radha Krishna Dandsena. Both leaders were detained by the British government.
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Rampa revolt 1879
Rampa is known as the region between Krishna and Godavari in Karnataka. A revolt by the cultivators of
this region took place is 1879 which is known as Rampa Revolt. The revolt was headed by Alluri Sitaram
Raju who got title The Gandhi of Andhra Pradesh.
The first Indian freedom struggle
It is also known as the revolt of 1857.Basically, this revolt was a sepoy munity. The immediate cause of
this revolt was the use of greased cartridge used in newly launched Enfield rifles by the East India
Company. The cartridge used in Enfield rifles was covered with a grease of cow and pig. But it was not
the single cause of this revolt. The suppression of right of expression, annexation policy of Dalhousie, the
annexation of Awadh, Satara and Nagpur princely states, the British tenant policy, the drain of wealth and
the exploited way of ruling were another cause of this revolt. Common people did not participate in the
revolt of 1857 and the revolt was limited only to the North India. South India was unaffected with this
revolt. The revolt was initiated by Mangal Pandey who was a sepoy/soldier in 34 Native Battalion posted
at Barrack pore, Bahrampur of Bengal. He refused to use cartridge of Enfield rifles. At Barrackpore on
the afternoon of 29 March 1857, Lieutenant Baugh, Adjutant of the 34th Bengal Native Infantry (BNI),
was informed that a sepoy of hi regiment Mangal Pandey is calling upon the men to rebel and threatening
to shoot the first European. Mangal Pandey's execution was scheduled for April 18, but was carried out ten
days before that date with his colleagues.This news reached Meerut in 10th May 1857 some Indian soldiers
warhead toward Delhi from Meerut shouting ‗Maaro Firangi ko‘ this was the starting of revolt of 1857.
They declared Bahadur Shah Zafar as Shahanshah-i-Hindutan who was the pensioner of East India
company. Within a short time, the revolt spread throughout the North India. Jhansi, Kanpur, Lucknow,
Barely, Patna and Jagdishpur emerged as the main centers of revolt.

Delhi Bahadur Shah Zafar

Kanpur Nana Saheb and Tatya Tope
Jhansi Rani Laxmi Bai
Lucknow Begum Hazrat Mahal
Bareily Khan Bahadur Khan
Mandsaur (MP) Neemuch Firoz Shah
Allahabad Maulvi Liaqat Ali
Jagdishpur (Bihar), Patna Kunwar Singh
British officers associated with the revolt of 1857 were as follows-
General John Nicholson Captured Delhi is September 1857
Major Hudson Arrested Bahadur Shah Zafar and his sons. Bahadur Shah Zafar was
sent to Mandalay jail, Myanmar
Sir Huge Wheeler Defended against Nana Saheb and finally Nana Saheb escaped
Nepal.
General Neil He restored British power is Allahabad and Banaras
Sir Colin Campbell He recaptured Lucknow and maintained British power in Bareilly.
Henry Lawrence He was the chief commissioner of Awadh who died during the
revolt.
Hugh Rose Who the suppressed the revolt at Jhansi Rani Laxmi Bai was
defeated by him
Causes of the failure of the revolt of 1857
The Revolt of 1857 was a failed revolt which could not attain its objects. The main causes of the failure of
revolt were as follows-
(a) This was not a mass movement. It was only a sepoy munity which was assisted by princely states.
(b) There was no co-ordination between the princely states.
(c) The revolt was unplanned
(d) The areas of communication and transportation of rebellion were weak in comparison to East India
Company.
(e) There was a lack of arms and armaments.
Effects of the Revolt of 1857
(a) Government of India Act 1858 came in India which ended the rule of East India Company and India
was Hand overed to British Crown means India came under the direct rule of Britain.
(b) The need of national platform was realized by the nationalist who can co-ordinate to all protestors.
This national platform came in the form of establishment of Indian National Congress.
Establishment of Indian National Congress
INC was established by A.O. Hume on 28th december1885. A O Hume was a retired civil servant.
Congress was not the 1st political organization of India. Several other Organizations were established by
the nationalist leaders before 1885 but Congress was the 1st national political organization of
India.Organizations before Congress
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Bang Bhasha Prakshika Sabha 1826 Raja Ram mohan Roy

It is considered the 1st political organization of India.
Landholder Society of Bengal 1838
It protected interest of landlords of Bengal
British India Society 1839 William Adams
The main object of this society was to make control on the corrupt activities of employees of East
India Company
East India Association 1866 Dadabhai Naoroji
National Indian Association 1867 Mary Carpenter
Mary Carpenter was the biographer of Raja Rammohan Roy
Pune Sarvajanik Sabha 1870 Mahadeo Govind Ranade
Pune Sarvajanik Sabha submitted a petition in House of Commons in 1875 to provide India direct
representation in British parliament

Indian Association, 1876

It was established by Surendra Nath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose. This was the 1st political party of
India who became popular throughout the country. It raised some important issues such as the age limit for
ICS exams, press rights, right to carry arms. It is considered to be the most important pre-Congress
political organization.
Indian National Congress
First session of Congress was held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit Mahavidyalaya in Mumbai.72 Delegates
including Dada Bhai Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Firoz Shah Mehta, P. Anand Charalu attended this
session. W.C. Banerjee was appointed the 1st Chairperson of Congress. Surendra Nath Banerjee could not
attend it because on the same day he was in the 2nd session of Indian Association at Calcutta. After the
establishment of Congress, he merged Indian Association with Congress. Lord Dufferin was the Governor
General of India when Congress was established.
Some facts related to Congress
1. Womesh Chunder Banerjee was the 1st chairperson of Congress.
2. The period from 1885-1905 is known as the period of moderates in Congress. Bal Gangadhar Tilak
called it ‗The period of Begging‘.
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3. Badruddin Tyabji was the 1st Muslims chairperson of Congress (Madras session in 1887).
4. George Yule was the 1st English chairperson who chaired the Congress at Allahabad in 1888.
5. From 1885-1906, Dada Bhai Naorojibecame the chairman three times 1st (in 1886 – Calcutta), 2nd
(1893 Lahore) and 3rd (1906 Calcutta).
6. Congress was splitted into two parts– Moderates and extremists, at Surat session in 1907. Ras Bihari
Bose was the chairperson of Surat session. Bal Gangadhar Tilak was the leader of extremists. He never
became president of Congress.
7. In Lucknow session in 1916 under chairpersonship Ambika Charan Mazumdar – Moderates and
extremists merged together.
8. Mahatma Gandhi entered in active politics through the Lucknow session of Congress.
9. Annie Besant was the 1stwomen president of Congress (Calcutta session is 1917)
10. Mahatma Gandhi became Congress president for a single time in Belgaum session of Karnataka in
1924. In 1925, Mahatma Gandhi resigned from active politics and started to work for Dalit upliftment.
He re-entered in politics through Lahore session in 1929. Lahore session was the most important
session in the history of Congress.
11. Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru was the president of Lahore session where he introduced national flag and
unfurled it, declared complete independence as the object of Congress and declared to celebrate 26
January as Independence Day.
12. Sarojini Naidu was the 1st Indian female president of Congress at Kanpur session in 1925.
13. In 1938, Subhash Chandra Bose became the president of Congress at Haripura session. He was re-
elected again in 1939 at Tripuri session (Jabalpur). Pattabhi Sitaramaiyya was supported by Mahatma
Gandhi but he was defeated by Subhash Chandra Bose. After that Subhash Chandra Bose resign and
made forward block. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was appointed as the Acing president of Congress in this
session.
Moderate Phase (1885-1905)
Moderates were the most active participant of freedom struggle during 1885-1905 and so the name
moderate phase it is also sometime referred as early nationalist phase. Dada Bhai Naoroji, G.K. Gokhale,
Sir Dinshaw Edulji Wacha, Surendra Nath Banerjee were some famous moderate leaders. Moderate
advocated and used the method of constitutional agitation for reform in system. They represented their
demand to the British through petition, prayers, writs, meetings, speeches, resolutions and articles in
newspapers.
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Gopal Krishan Gokhale
He was Maharthi Brahmin of Ratnagiri Maharashtra.He born in 1866.From very childhood he was the
owner of very sharp mind. In 1884 the completed his graduation Elphinstone college in Mumbai and
secure a job in Pune as a teacher. In 1890 he comes in contact with Justice Mahadev Gobind Ranade who
motivated Gokhale to devote himself to the Indian freedom struggle. In 1890 the Gokhale was appointed
as the secretary of Atmiya Sabha the organization establish by Ranade.1896 Gokhale Ranade found the
Deccan Sabha. In 1905, Gopal Krishan Gokhale founded ‗the servant of Indian society ‗Mahatma Gandhi
called him spiritual mentor and political mentor.
The Rise of extremist in India
The reason of failure of moderate was the reason for rise of extremist. The extremist ideology came in
existence in Congress in periods of 1900-1915. Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra pal and Lala Lajpat
Rai became the leader of extremist ideology.
Bal Ganga Dhar Tilak
He was Marathi Brahman. According to Valentine Chirolhe was the father of ‗Indian unrest‘. Lok Manya
Tilak is his nick name. He protested to the policies of moderate she called it policy of begging. According
to him Indian could not achieve any success, if they crow ones in year like a frog. ‗Swaraja is my
birthright and I shall have it!‘. In order to promote Nationality among youth he started the celebrated of
Ganpati Mahotsava in 1893 and Shivaji Mahotsava in 1896.He was the 1st Indian who gave the term
‗Swadeshi and Swaraj‘. According to him our nation is like a tree whose roots are swaraj and branches are
swadeshi. He started the publication of two papers Maratha in English and Kesari in Marathi. He was
arrested and sent to jail several times. 1sttime he went to jail for 18 months and again for 6 year in
Mandalay jail (Burma). In jail he wrote a famous book Geeta Rahasya He played important role in anti-
partition moment.
Lala Lajpat Rai
He is also known as Punjab Kesari. He was the leader of Lahore. He was the follower of Swami Dayanand
Saraswathi (Arya Samaj). Dayanand Anglo Vedic college was established at Lahore by him. In 1902 he
came in contact of Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Enter in active politics. He was the editor of Punjabi and
writer of ‗Unhappy India‘. He also visited Britain during agitation of Simon Commission. When the
Commission visited Lahore on 30 October 1928, Lajpat Rai led silent march in protest against it. The
superintendent of police, James A. Scott, ordered the police to lathi (baton) charge the protesters and
personally assaulted Rai. Despite being injured, Rai subsequently addressed the crowd and said, ‗I declare
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that the blows struck at me today will be the last nails in the coffin of British rule in India‘. He did not
fully recover from his injuries and died on 17 November 1928 of a heart attack. Doctors thought that
Scott's blows had hastened his death. However, when the matter was raised in the British Parliament, the
British Government denied any role in Rai's death.
Although Bhagat Singh did not witness the event, he vowed to take revenge, and joined other
revolutionaries, Shivaram Rajguru, Sukhdev Thapar and Chandrashekhar Azad, in a plot to kill Scott.
However, in a case of mistaken identity, Bhagat Singh shoot John P. Saunders, an Assistant
Superintendent of Police. He was shot by Rajguru and Bhagat Singh while leaving the District Police
Headquarters in Lahore on 17 December 1928.
Bipin Chandra Pal
He is known as the father of ‗Revolutionary thought in India‘. He published famous magazine
Paridarshak. He presented his radical thought among people. Along with Arbindo Gosh, Bipin Chandra
Pal started a daily newspaperVandeMatram.
Arbindo Ghosh
He was famous Bengali leader. He became the principle of Bengal National College started in Calcutta.
He declared that swaraj is necessary for the fulfillment of religious duty. He published an article new lamp
for old, in which he criticized the moderate politics of Congress. He wrote his famous book ‗life divine‘.
He was the supporter of combination of spirituality with modernity is known as post modernity. He
translated the national song in English.
He played an important role in anti-partition movement and propounded the theory of organized boycott of
British goods. After his release he went to Pondicherry and thereafter concentrated on philosophical
spiritual and literary activities. Arvindo raised patriotism to the pedestal of mother worship and said I
know my country as my mother. I adore her and I worship her. He said in his book Bhawani Mandir that
for me my country is not a piece of earth neither a figure of speech and nor a fiction of mind. It is a mighty
shakti composed of the shakties of all the millions of units that make up the nation.
1905- Partition of Bengal
The decision to split Bengal came in July and by October 16, 1905, Bengal had been divided into Piston
Bengal and Assam (with a population of 31 million) and the rest of Bengal (with a population of the 4
million of whom 18 million were Bengalis, and 36 million Biharis and Oriyas). The decision had come
after Lord Curzon claimed that Bengal was too large to be governed effectively.
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The partition separated the largely Muslim eastern areas from the largely Hindu western areas. It was
definitely the 'divide and rule' policy for the Indians and the whole population was outraged about the fact
that the colonizers were turning native population against itself in order to rule.
The government announced the idea for partition in January 1904. The idea was opposed by Henry John
Stedman Cotton; Chief Commissioner of Assam But the Partition of Bengal went on to happen on October
16, 1905 by Viceroy Curzon.
Reason for the partition of Bengal
The reason for partition is believed to be that the Hindus were in a better position in terms of economic
status and professional qualities than the Muslims; and during the pre-Sepoy Mutiny period, Hindu traders
had greatly helped the British while their Muslim counterparts did not. This had made the British angry.
Hence, the benefits of Western education were given only to the Hindus and not the Muslims.
The partition was supported by the Muslims of East Bengal and their support was motivated by both their
poor economic conditions in East Bengal, as well as the believed dominance of the Hindu businessmen in
West Bengal over the governance of Bengal. It was opposed by the educated middle class of western
Bengal Political agitation following the partition of Bengal Bengali Hindus were at the forefront of
political agitation. Following the partition, an anti-British movement formed in opposition. This involved
non-violent and violent protests, boycotts and even an assassination attempt against the Governor of the
new province of West Bengal. After partition, Hindu resistance exploded as the Indian National Congress
began the Swadeshi movement.
The movement was not supported by the Muslims because the Muslims in East Bengal had hoped that a
separate region would give them more control and hence, they opposed the movements. Louis
Mountbatten discusses the partition plan with Jawaharlal Nehru and Mohammad Ali Jinnah. Due to these
political protests, the two parts of Bengal were reunited in 1911 and a new partition divided the province
on linguistic, rather than religious grounds.
In 1947, Bengal was partitioned for the second time, solely on religious grounds, as part of the partition of
India following the formation of India and Pakistan.
1906-Establishment of all Indian Muslim leagues
All India Muslim league is established in Dhaka by Nawab Salim Ullah and Aga Khan at 30 Dec 1906. It
declared its main object is to protect political and economic interests of Muslims. The head quarter of all
India Muslim league was set up at Luck now. Aga Khan (Prominent leader of Dhaka) became the 1st
chairperson of Muslim league. Mohamad Maulana Ali Zohar constructed the constitution of Muslim
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league which was known as Green Book. 1908 Sayed Amir Ali founded a branch of Muslim league at
London. 1907 a delegate of Muslim league met with newly appointed Governor General of India Lord
Minto at Shimla and demanded some especial provisions for Muslim in India. Governor General assured
to them that he will provide protection to Muslim interests.
1906 – The Calcutta session of Congress
The extremists wanted to extend the boycott to all over India and refuse cooperation so that task of
administration becomes impossible. They wanted all that Gandhi would take up in future minus non-
violence. This was the first phase of the passive resistance. The moderates were moderates. They did not
like these new techniques of struggle. They even thought of using the Boycott in only special
circumstances. The extremists were far more popular than the moderates.
Before this session, the extremists would have taken over Congress had they elected a leader among them.
But it was not done. The moderates were politically intelligent. In 1906, the session at Calcutta was
presided by Dada Bhai Naoroji. The moderates chose Dada Bhai Naoroji to preside the Congress. Dada
Bhai Naoroji, the Grand Oldman of India was respected by the moderates and extremists alike. But, in this
session, the Congress was compelled by the extremists to adopt following resolutions which were accepted
by the moderates with half heart.
These were as follows: Resolution on Partition of Bengal Resolution of Self Government (Swaraj)
Resolution on Swadeshi Resolution on Boycott. Thus, in Calcutta session of 1906, under the leadership of
Dada Bhai Naoroji, Congress adopted Swaraj as the Goal of Indian people. But here a bit of politics was
played by the Moderates. They, by no means wanted to be tagged as radical. The toned down the
resolution in a compromised state and made it ‗self-government means that obtaining the self-governing
British Colonies. Thus, the whole meaning of Swaraj of the extremists was changed. The extremists were
defeated in this politics and the difference became apparent. Congress was now bound to split.
1907 Surat Session of Congress
The mutual conflicts of moderates and extremists once again exposed at Surat. Extremists were
demanding for chairperson from their camp but when Ras Bihari Bose was announced the chairperson of
Congress from moderate camp, extremist became aggressive and loosed their temper. Place of session was
converted into battle field. Congress was divided into two parts; this was the 1st division of Congress.
After the division of Congress, it became week and British enjoyed such opportunity.
British Government suppressed Anti-British activities. Bal Gangadhar Tilak was imprisoned for 6 years in
Mandalay jail, Burma. Arbindo Ghosh resigns the politics and settled at Pondicherry where he established
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Arbindo Ashram, instead of politics he focused himself in spiritual, philosophical and literary activities.
Bipin Chandra pal undergrounded and Lala Lajpat Rai went on the tour of Britain.
Morley- Minto reform 1909
Its real name was ‗Council of India Act 1909‘ but it was drafted by Secretary of state John Morley and
Governor General of India Gilbert John Elliot, 4th Earl of Minto, so it is known as Morley-Minto reform.
The main provisions of this act are as follows-
1. The members of legislative council of Governor General were increased from 6 to 60 and the number
of members of state council was increased by 50.
2. 1st time the concept of election of member for legislature took place India.
3. Separate Electoral College was provided to the Muslims, means Muslims were given right to elect
their separate representative. It was that decision which breaks the unity of Hindus and Muslims and
worked as the seed of partition of India.
Dilli Darbar 1911
Delhi Coronation Durbar was held on 12 December 1911 before an assembly of about 80,000 select
people of British India and the princely states apparently to mark the accession of King George V to the
throne of Great Britain on the death of Edward VII. But the real intention behind holding the Durbar in the
presence of the King and Queen was to pacify the Bengal agitators who were becoming increasingly
militant in realizing their manifold demands, such as, annulment of the partition of Bengal, having
Governor-in-Council for Bengal, releasing political prisoners, reform of the local government and
education system, and liberalizing recruitment and promotions in the army and the bureaucracy.
The partition of Bengal was annulled by King George in Delhi Durbar in 1911. The capital was shifted
from Calcutta to Delhi at the same time. The decision to annulment the partition of Bengal in 1911 was
taken mainly to curb the menace of revolutionary terrorism. The annulment came as a rude shock to the
Muslim political elite. It was also decided to shift the capital to Delhi as a sop to the Muslims, as it was
associated with Muslim glory, but the Muslims were not pleased. Bihar and Orissa were taken out of
Bengal and Assam was made a separate province.
Gate way of India was built at Bombay in his honor. Sir Edwin Lutyens, the architect of Delhi, designed 4
bungalows in the Rashtrapati Bhavan Estate, (Viceroy House Estate); now, these bungalows lie on the
Mother Teresa Crescent (then Willingdon Crescent). Lutyens, apart from designing the Viceroy's House,
designed large government building and was involved with town planning. Sir Herbert Baker, designed
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Secretariat Buildings (North and South Block), and bungalows on the then King George's Avenue (South
of the Secretariats) for high-ranking officials.
The first Delhi Darbar was held in 1877 by Government General Lord Benton in regards of Queen
Victoria. 2nd Delhi Darbar was held in 1903 by Government General Lord Curzon in regards of Queen
Alexandra. India gate of Delhi was built in 1931 in memory of that soldiers who were killed in 1 st world
war.
1914: First World War
The spark that ignited World War I was struck in Sarajevo the capital of Bosnia, where Archduke Franz
Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire was shot to death along with his wife, Sophie, by the
Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip on 28 June 1914. Princip and other nationalists were struggling to end
Austro-Hungarian rule over Bosnia and Herzegovina. Because mighty Russia supported Serbia, Austria-
Hungary waited to declare war until its leaders received assurance from German leader Kaiser Wilhelm II
that Germany would support their cause. On July 28, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, and the
tenuous peace between Europe‘s great powers quickly collapsed. Within a week, Russia, Belgium, France,
Great Britain and Serbia had lined up against Austria-Hungary and Germany, and World War I had begun.
Introduction to Mahatma Gandhi in Indian politics
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on 2 October 1869, at Porbandar in Gujarat. His father was the
dewan (chief minister) of Porbandar; his deeply religious mother was a devoted practitioner of
Vaishnavism. At age of 13 year (1883) he was married with Kasturba Gandhi who later became popular
with name ‗Baa‘. It was a child marriage. Kasturba supported throughout the life to Mahatma Gandhi and
died in 1944. At the age of 19, Mohandas left home to study law in London at the Inner Temple, one of
the city‘s four law colleges.
Upon returning to India in mid-1891, he set up a law practice in Rajkot a small city of Gujrat, but met with
little success. He soon accepted a position with an Indian firm that sent him to its office in South Africa.
Along with his wife, Kasturba, and their children, Gandhi remained in South Africa for nearly 20 years.
Gandhi ji in Africa
At age of 23 years, Gandhi ji again left India without his family. Gandhi arrived in Durban, Natal (now
Kwa Zulu-Natal) in 1893 to serve as legal adviser of Dada Abdulla. In June 1893 when he was boarded on
rail trip from Pietermaritzburg, Natal to Pretoria, Transvaal. Gandhi was seated in the first-class
compartment, as he had a first-class ticket. A White person asked him to leave compartment due to racial
discrimination. Gandhi protested but was warned that he would be forcibly removed if he did not make a
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gracious exit. As Gandhi refused to comply with the order, a white police officer pushed him out of the
train, and his luggage was tossed out on to the platform.
The position of Indians in the Transvaal was worse than in Natal. They were compelled to pay a poll tax of
£3; they were not allowed to own land except in specially allotted locations, a kind of ghetto; they had no
franchise, and were not allowed to walk on the pavement or move out of doors after 9 PM without a
special permit. The first discriminatory legislation directed at Indians, Law 3 of 1885, was passed in the
South African Republic, or the Transvaal.
Gandhi ji decided to fight against injustice. After then he spent 20 years in South Africa. He fought for
establishment of civil rights of Indian people and against racism. In 22 May 1894, he established ‗Natal
Indian Congress‘ (NIC). In 1896 he came to India for a short time. From Natal Gandhi ji published his
1stnewspaper ‗Indian Opinion‘. The term ‗Satyagraha‘ was officially used by Mahatma Gandhi in 1907
when he leaded an agitation against a discriminated law – Asiatic register law, also known as Black law.
According to provision of this law, all Indians were required to get their finger print on a register in
registrar office; this was discrimination because it was only year Indian.
Indians refused to give their finger print. They protested against it in leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.
Indians travelled illegally from Natal to Transvaal. Thousands of Indian were beaten and arrested by
police; Mahatma Gandhi was one of them. This was 1st time when he went to jail in Natal. Satyagraha
against injustice carried for 7 years. In June 1914 Black Act was repelled. It was a big victory of Indian
and Gandhi ji on British government.
Lucknow session of Congress 1916
Lucknow Session of Congress in 1916 was the 31st Session of the INC. Ambika Charan Majumdar was the
president of the Lucknow Session of Congress. Jinnah played a key role in Unification of Muslim League
and Congress. For his efforts for unification of League and Congress, Sarojini Naidu awarded him with the
title of Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity. It was also due to the efforts of Tilak and Annie Besant this
agreement between the Congress and the League came into picture, although this was much against the
wishes of many important nationalist leaders, like Madan Mohan Malviya.
Causes for the Reunification of Congress and Muslim League
1. The partition of Bengal and its subsequent annulment in 1911 drew the Muslims closer to the Hindus.
Muslim leaders like Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.N. Ansari, Mohammed Ali, had the Pan-Islamic
sentiment which triggered them to side with the Indian National Congress.
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2. Muslim League in 1912 at Calcutta made a change in its constitution which led the Muslim League to
work with other organizations for the protection of the interests of the Muslims. Therefore, Muslim
League came closer to the Congress.
3. In its Lucknow session in 1913, Muslim League also adopted the demand of self-government like
extremist leader of Congress like Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
4. During First World War, Indian Soldiers were fighting along with British against the Ottoman Empire
and Indian Muslim saw the Sultan as the Caliph of Islam and fighting against him displeased them.
5. Lord Chelmsford had invited suggestions for the next round of reform which was supposed to come
after the end of the war, so in order to get a better share Muslim league also focused on unification.
The demise of the Moderate leaders like Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Firoz Shah Mehta reduced the
opposition for amalgamation of the factions of Congress (Extremists and Moderates) and this paved
the way for Tilak and Annie Besant to dominate the Congress.
Annie Besant
Annie Wood was born in 1847 in London into a middle-class family of Irish origin. In 1867, at age twenty,
she married 26-year-old clergyman Frank Besant. In 1885, Annie Besant joined the Fabian Society and
later became a member of 'Marxist Social Democratic Federation'. She joined the Theosophical Society, a
religious movement founded in 1875 and based on ideas of karma and reincarnation. As a leader of the
Society, Besant helped to spread Theosophical beliefs around the world. She established the
'OlkotPanjama School' in 1894. She was the founder of Central Hindu College. Later this college
developed as the Hindu University of Benares. Annie Besant started the India Home Rule movement in
1916 and became its president. She was appointed as a 1st women chairperson of Congress in annual
session of 1917, Calcutta.
Theosophical society established by Madam Blabtaskee and cornel Alcott in 1875, New York. Main object
of this organization was to known secrets of theosophy. In India theosophical society was established in
1882 at Adyar near Madras. Smt. Annie Besant was appointed as the head of Theosophical Society of
India and George Arundel was appointed as secretary of society.
The Home Rule League movement
From 1907-1915, the Indian National Congress was dominated by the moderates. Tilak was released from
jail in 1914. But the release of Tilak was in no way an automatic reentry of Tilak into the Congress,
because of the firm opposition from Pheroze Shah Mehta and Gopal Krishna Gokhale. But, the death of
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G.K. Gokhale, and Pheroze Shah Mehta in 1915, gave a possibility of the entry of Tilak into the INC.
With Annie Besant‘s help, Tilak was able to reenter the Congress.
Annie Besant and Tilak were very positive towards political reforms in India. The Home Rule league was
‗self-government‘ based on the Irish model. Annie Besant and Tilak started this movement. Annie Besant
started the Home Rule League in September, 1916, and Tilak started it in April 1916.
To achieve self-government in India, promotion of political education and to build confidence among
Indians to speak against the government‘s suppression were the main objectives of Home Rule Movement.
Tilak‘s movement was confined to Maharashtra and Karnataka and Annie Besant movement spread to
other parts of India. But as far as organization skill is concerned, Tilak‘s Home Rule League movement
was more organized, and there were many volunteers who worked for Tilak. Mohammed Ali Jinnah also
had the first experience of participating in politics in India by taking part in the Home Rule League of
Annie Besant. Annie Besant tried to mobilize participation through the publication of her two newspapers:
New India and Commonweal However, Tilak continued writing in ‗Kesari‘, ‗Maratha‘, and Young India
to spread the message of the Home Rule League.
This period marks the transition from the moderate, or deliberate phase of Indian National politics to the
agitational phase stared by M.K. Gandhi. Thus, it had a great impact. Bal Gangadhar Tilak got the title of
‗Loknayak‘ during the Home Rule League itself.
The decline of Home Rule League
In 1918, the Home Rule League declined due to many factors. The Montford reforms promised
responsible Government in India due to which Annie Besant ‗pro-British‘. Bal Gangadhar Tilak went to
England to file a legal suit against Valentine Chirol. Valentine Chirol had published, a book, ―Father of
Indian Unrest‖, in which the Tilak was blamed for being responsible for the agitational politics that came
to India. Thus, Tilak became busy with filing the legal suit against Valentine Chirol. The advent of Gandhi
who actively took part in Indian politics, gave an opportunity to the Indian youth to get integrated in
Gandhian politics, contributed to the decline of the Home Rule League. Nonetheless, it was the Home
Rule League that marked the transitional phase between the deliberative and dormant phase of the INC to
the mass-based politics of the Gandhian agitation.
Champaran Satyagraha: Date: 19 April 1917
The ChamparanAndolan of 1917 was first civil disobedience movement of Mahatma Gandhi in India.
Mahatma Gandhi had arrived to Champaran on the request of Raj Kumar Shukla who met him the
Congress Session in Lucknow 1916.
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Indigo plant was used to make natural dye and this was very profitable for the British, who in turn, forced
the tenants to grow indigo on a large scale. The peasants who refused to cultivate this specific crop faced
the weight of exorbitant taxes levied by the landlords. These landlords were mostly the British colonizers
themselves with the rest of the land owners under them. To further add to the plight of the farmers, the
British enforced a system of indigo cultivation called ‗Tinkathia‘. This system laid out the mandatory
conditions to grow the indigo plant in three out of twenty parts of a peasant‘s land.
Due to forced cultivation of Indigo farmers could not cultivate other food crops. This led to a situation of
food crisis.
Mahatma Gandhi on his arrival to the Motihari Railway Station in the Champaran district received a notice
from the then district magistrate of the British, W.B. Haycock where he was asked to board the next
available train and leave the region. Mahatma Gandhi refused to comply with the demands of the authority
and said that he had come to render humanitarian services to the people and that he would not leave
Champaran until he had helped those who were suffering. This led the police to arrest him.
However, the continuous mass public support for Mahatma Gandhi from of the people of Champaran led
the British authorities to mark his release as well as permit him to reside on account of fear of an uprising.
He stayed in HazarimalDharmashala in the Bettiah village. Mahatma Gandhi met eight thousand
cultivators of indigo where he studied their plight and the reasons behind it.
He found illetracy is main cause behind subjugation of farmers. He set up three schools in Motihari,
Bhitiharwa (fHkfrgjok) and Madhuban to impart education. Mahatma Gandhi also established ‗Buniyadi‘
schools that taught farming, carpentry, spinning and other such activities that further strengthened the self-
sustenance of the people. During the course of his stay, Mahatma Gandhi involved many eminent
personalities of the Congress such as Brij Kishore Prasad, Rajendra Prasad, Anugrah Narayan Sinha,
Ramnavami Prasad and J. B. Kripalani.
British government established an enquiry committee for examination of exploitations of the peasants by
the landlords. On the report of committee Bihar Legislative Council passed Champaran Agrarian Bill on
the 4th March, 1919 which finally delivered the abolition of the Tinkhatia system of plantation.
Khera Satyagraha: 22 March 1918
Peasants were already struggling with the destruction of crops by late rains, a sudden rise in agricultural
wages, high rate of inflation and the outbreak of bubonic plague. The peasants of Kheda were not capable
to pay the increased rate of revenue and were demanding that revenue collection be relaxed. Local leaders,
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already running no revenue Campaign, through the Gujarat Sabha they got in touch with Gandhi in
January 1918. On 22 March 1918 Gandhi decided to launch a Satyagraha.
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Narhari Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya, Indulal Yagnik and Ravi Shankar Vyas
toured the countryside, organized the villagers and prepared them for a movement. By April the Bombay
government partially fulfilled the peasants' demands by not confiscating the properties of defaulting
peasants who could not pay, and in June Gandhi withdrew the campaign.
Ahmadabad Mill Movement – 1918
During the period of intense plague outbreak from August 1917 to January 1918, the workers of the textile
mills in Ahmedabad were given ‗plague bonuses. In January 1918 employers announced their intent to
discontinue the plague bonuses.
The frustrated workers of the mill turned to Anusuyya Sarabhai, a social worker who was also the sister of
the president of the Ahmedabad Mill Owner‘s Association. Anusuyya soon urged Mohandas Gandhi, who
was respected by the mill owners and workers, to intervene and help.
On 22 February 1918 mill owners announced that they would invite back the workers who accepted the 20
percent increase in wages. Some of the workers accepted this offer, but Gandhi urged the workers to stay
firm in demanding economic justice. Gandhi put a demand of 35 percent increase in wages but mill
owners denied it. Gandhi and the workers decided not return to work until their demand was met.
The workers also were employed in building a weaving school at the Gandhi ashram so that they could be
self-sufficient during the strike. Sensing the weakening morale of the laborers Gandhi staged the his first
‗fasts unto death‘ on 15 March 1918. On the third day of the fast, Ambalal Sarabhai, the president of the
Ahmedabad Mill Owner‘s Association, offered to meet the worker‘s demands.
1917: August Declaration
Edwin Samuel Montagu who was Secretary of State for India, made a declaration in British parliament on
20 August 1917 known as August Declaration. Montague statement was the precursor to the Government
of India Act, 1919.
It was stated in the Declaration that the control over the Indian Government would be transferred gradually
to the Indian people. On the basis of the Montague-Chelmsford report, the Government of India Act 1919,
was passed, which introduced several reforms.
It leads introduction of a bicameral Central Legislature as the Indian Legislative Council and the Indian
Legislative Assembly and establishment of a Unicameral Provincial Legislature, known as the Legislative
Council.
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Dyarchy was introduced in the provinces. Separate Electoral College was formed for Sikhs, Europeans and
the Anglo-Indians. The power of the Secretary of State for India to control the affairs relating to the
Government of India was reduced.
Rise of Revolutionary Activities during 1st World War
The Revolutionary movement is a part of the Indian independence movement. Revolutionary groups
believed in armed revolution and were against to peaceful civil disobedience movement of Mahatma
Gandhi. The revolutionary groups were mainly concentrated in Bengal, Maharashtra, Bihar, the United
Provinces and Punjab.
Gadar Party
Gadar Party was established by Lala Hardayal in 1913 at San Francisco (California). Key members
included Bhai Parmanand, Sohan Singh Bhakna, Bhagwan Singh Gyani, Har Dayal, Tarak Nath Das,
Kartar Singh Sarabha, Abdul Hafiz Mohamed Barkatullah, Ras Bihari Bose, and Gulab Kaur. After the
outbreak of World War I, Ghadar party members returned to Punjab to agitate for rebellion for freedom
Movement. In 1915 they conducted revolutionary activities in central Punjab and organized uprisings.
Their presence challenged the hold of the British Empire; police surveillance in Punjabi villages increased
in an attempt to crush the rebellion. The party is known for setting the foundation for future Indian
revolutionary movements and served as a stepping stone for independence.
Kama Gata Maru incident
Kama-gata-maru was a steam ship, which was taken by Punjabi Indians on rent from Japan. 326 Panjabi
passengers were boarded on this ship. The ship sailed from Calcutta to Hongkong-Shangnai Yokohama-
Japan and then to Vencor (Canada) in 1914. At that time Canada was also a colony of Britain. But the
government of Canada did not granted permission for entry of Indians. So, sailors turned their ship was
back to India from the Vencor. The Ship again reached (docked) at Bajbaj port of Calcutta. Baba Gurdeet
Singh was leader of this ship he and 20 other followers were arrested by policeman all the passengers
register the in the firing of police 19 of them were killed this incident is known as ‗Bajbaj riot‘ and known
as Kama-gata-Maru incident.
India House
Shyamji Krishna Varma was an Indian revolutionary and journalist who founded the Indian Home Rule
Society, India House and The Indian Sociologist in London. Upon his arrival in London, Shyam ji Krishna
Verma stayed at the Inner Temple and studied Herbert Spencer's writings in his spare time.
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In 1900 he bought an expensive house in High Gate. As many Indian students faced racist attitudes when
seeking accommodations, he founded India House as a hostel for Indian students with living
accommodation of 25 students. It was formally inaugurated on 1st July 1905.
His home became a base for all political leaders of India. Gandhiji, Lenin, Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Gopal
Krishna Gokhale, and many more visited him to discuss the Indian Independence Movement. On 18th
February 1905, Shyamji inaugurated a new organization called "The Indian Home Rule Society".
Hindustan Republican Association
Hindustan Republican Association was established in October 1924 in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh by
revolutionaries like Ramprasad Bismil, Jogesh Chatterjee, Chandrashekhar Azad, Yogendra Shukla and
Sachindranath Sanyal. The aim of the party was to organize armed revolution to end the colonial rule and
establish a Federal Republic of the United States of India.
Bismil and his group of youths strongly opposed decision of Gandhi ji to suspend Non-cooperation
movement in the Gaya Congress of 1922. With the consent of Lala Har Dayal, Bismil went to Allahabad
where he drafted the constitution of the party called ‗Yellow Paper‘ in 1923 with the help of Sachindra
Nath Sanyal and Dr. Jadugopal Mukherjee. First meeting of HRA was conducted on 3 October 1924 at
Kanpur under the Chairmanship of Sachindra Nath Sanyal.
Kakori Conspiracy
The Kakori Conspiracy was a train robbery that took place between Kakori and, near Lucknow, on 9
August 1925. The robbery was organized by Hindustan Republican Association (HRA). The robbery plan
was executed by Ram Prasad Bismil associated with Ashfaq Ulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, Chandrashekhar
Azad, Sachindra Bakshi, Keshab Chakravarty, Manmathnath Gupta, Murari Lal Gupta, Mukundi Lal
Gupta and Banwari Lal.
They plundered a treasury carried through8 Down Train travelling from Saharanpur to Lucknow train of
the Northern Railway. Ram Prasad Bismil, was arrested at Saharanpur on 26 September 1925, and Ashfaq
Ullah Khan, was arrested ten months later at Delhi.
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) was established in 8th August 1928 at Feroz Shah
Kotla New Delhi by Chandrasekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and others. The HSRA's manifesto
titled Philosophy of the Bomb was written by Bhagwati Charan Vohra.
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Saunders murder case
When the Simon Commission visited Lahore on 30 October 1928, Lala Lajpat Rai led a peaceful protest
against the Commission. Superintendent of police, James A. Scott, ordering his men to lathi charge the
protesters. Lala Lajpat Rai was beaten but addressed a meeting later. He died on 17 November 1928.
Bhagat Singh and other revolutionaries, Shivaram Rajguru, Sukhdev Thapar and Chandrashekhar Azad,
vowed to take revenge, in a plot to kill Scott. However, due to mistaken identity John P. Saunders, an
Assistant Superintendent of Police was shot by Rajguru and Singh at District Police Headquarters, Lahore
on 17 December 1928.
Bombing of the Central Legislative Assembly
The perpetrators of the Saunders murder having eluded capture and gone into hiding, the next major action
by the HSRA was the bombing of the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi on 8 April 1929. This was an
exercise, intended to highlight the aims of the HSRA and timed as a protest against the introduction of the
Public Safety Bill.
Bhagat Singh and BatukeshwarDutt threw bombs on the empty benches. They made no attempt to escape
and courted arrest while shouting Inqilab Zindabad and Samrajyavad ka Nash ho'. Their rationale for the
bombing was explained in a leaflet titled "To Make the Deaf Hear".
On 15 April 1929 police raided the HSRA's bomb factory in Lahore and arrested Kishori Lal, Sukhdev
Thapar and Jai Gopal. The Assembly Bomb case trial followed and Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru
were hanged on 23 March 1931 for their actions.
Rowlett Act
The Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919 popularly known as the Rowlett Act or Black Act,
was a legislative act passed by the Imperial Legislative Council in Delhi on 21 March 1919. It was passed
on the recommendations of a committee under president, British judge Sir Sidney Rowlett. This act
effectively authorized the government to arrest any person suspected of terrorism living in British India for
up to two years without a trial, and gave the imperial authorities power to deal with all revolutionary
activities. Mahatma Gandhi protested this act and called it ‗Black law‘.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, a member of the All-India Muslim League resigned from the Imperial legislative
council in protest against the act. Mahatma Gandhi wanted non-violent civil disobedience against such
unjust laws, which would start with a hartal on 6 April 1919. But before it could be launched, there were
large-scale violent, anti-British demonstrations in Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Ahmedabad, etc.
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Especially in Punjab, the situation became explosive due to wartime repression, forcible recruitments, and
ravages of disease. In towns across North and West India, life came to a standstill, as shops shut down and
schools closed in response to the bandh call. During the intense anti-British demonstrations, Punjab also
witnessed the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
On April 9, 1919, two nationalist leaders, Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal, were arrested by the
British officials without any provocation except that they had addressed protest meetings, and taken to
some unknown destination. This caused resentment among the Indian protestors who came out in
thousands on 10th April to show their solidarity with their leaders. Soon the protests turned violent because
the police resorted to firing in which some of the protestors were killed.
To curb any future protest government put martial law in place and law and order in Punjab was handed
over to Brigadier-General Dyer. On 13th April Baisakhi day, a large crowd of people mostly from
neighboring villages, unaware of the prohibitory orders in the Amritsar gathered in the Jallianwala Bagh.
Brigadier- General Dyer arrived on the scene with his men.
The troops surrounded the gathering under orders from General Dyer and blocked the only exit point and
opened fire on the unarmed crowd killing more than 1000 unarmed men, women, and children. Hunter
Commission
The government formed a committee of inquiry to investigate the Jallianwala Bagh shootings. On 14 th
October 1919, the Government of India announced the formation of the Disorders Inquiry Committee. The
committee was commonly known as Hunter Commission after the name of chairman, Lord William
Hunter. It also had Indian members. In the final report submitted in March 1920, the committee
unanimously condemned Dyer‘s actions. However, the Hunter Committee did not impose any penal or
disciplinary action against General Dyer.
Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest. Mahatma Gandhi gave up the title of Kaiser-i-
Hind, bestowed by the British for his work during the Boer War. Gandhi was overwhelmed by the
atmosphere of total violence and withdrew the movement on 18 April 1919. On 13 March 1940, Udham
Singh from Punjab, who was witness Amritsar massacre, shot to Michael O‘dyer.
Michael O‘ Dwyer was lieutenant governor of Punjab in 1919 and Reginald E. H dyer was brigadier
general of Punjab, he committed suicide in 1927. Jawaharlal Nehru gave title ‗Shahid e Azam to Udham
Singh‘.
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Khilafat Movement
The Khilafat movement in India arose out of the sentiments of the Indian Muslims to protect the institution
of the Khalifa in Turkey. The Khalifa in Islamic tradition is considered as the successor to the Prophet
Muhammad and the custodian of the Islam. As Turkey was defeated in the First World War, the Allies
imposed strict terms on it. Turkey was dismembered and the Khalifa removed from power.
It was opposed by the Muslims of entire world. The Muslims in India launched the Khilafat movement in
support of Khalifa. In early 1919, a Khilafat Committee was formed under the leadership of the Shaukat
Ali and Muhammad Ali (Ali brothers), Maulana Azad, Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani.
The Khilafat issue gave opportunity to bring the Hindus and Muslims on a common platform. At the
Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, the resolution was passed to launch a non-
cooperation movement in support of Khilafat and also for swaraj.
Non-Corporation Movement
The non-cooperation movement led by Gandhi ji was a mass movement which had never been seen before
and after. It was launched by Mahatma Gandhi on 1st August 1920. In his famous book Hind Swaraj
(1909) Mahatma Gandhi stated that British rule is running through the help and cooperation of Indians.
After a series of events including the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Gandhiji realized that there was no
prospect of getting any fair treatment at the hands of British, so he planned to withdraw the nation's co-
operation from the British Government, and launched the Non-Cooperation Movement. He believed that if
Indians withdraw their support to British Government, the British rule in India would collapse within a
year.
Indians were encouraged to withdraw from government sponsored schools, police services, the military
and the civil service and lawyers were asked to leave the government courts. Public transportation and
English-manufactured goods, especially clothing, was boycotted. Indians returned honors and titles given
by the government and resigned from various posts like teachers, lawyers, civil and military services.
Movement was actively supported by the younger generation of Indian nationalists. All India Muslim
League criticized the idea. The Congress Party adopted the plans of Mahatma Gandhi, and received
extensive support from Muslim leaders like Maulana Azad, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Hakim Ajmal Khan,
Abbas Tyabji, Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar and Maulana Shaukat Ali.
A challenging speech was made by Maulana Mohammed Ali in July 1921 declaring it ‗religiously
unlawful for the Muslims to continue in the British Army‘ and asking them to resign. The colonial
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government immediately arrested Maulana Mohammed Ali along with some other leaders. On his visit to
Bombay in November, 1921, The Prince of Wales was greeted with city-wide strikes and demonstrations.
Chauri Chaura Incident and Withdrawal of the movement
The threat of violence on both sides was increasing and it was extremely disturbing to Gandhi Ji. On 5
February 1922, in Chauri-Chaura in Gorakhpur district police provoked a crowd of demonstrators. The
people attacked the policemen who then fired on them. Angered by this, the people set fire to the police
station building in which many policemen died. When Gandhi heard about this violent incident, he
decided to withdraw the movement on 10 March 1922, which was later ratified by the Congress Working
Committee. On 18 March 1922, he was imprisoned for six years for publishing seditious materials.

Congress- Khilafat Swaraj Party

After Withdrawal of Noncooperative movement a debate started among Congressmen on entrance in
legislative councils. C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru and Ajmal Khan wanted to take part in elections of
legislative councils. This group was called Swarajists or group of Pro-changers. On the other hand, group
led by Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C. Rajagopalachari and M.A.Ansari known as the ‗No-
changers‘. They opposed entry of Indians into the councils.
The Swaraj Party or the Congress-Khilafat Swaraj Party was formed on 1 January 1923 by C R Das and
Motilal Nehru. C.R. Das was appointed its president and Motilal Nehru as one of the secretaries. Swaraj
Party contested in election of 1923. They got 42 out of 104 seats to the Central Legislature.
The party‘s program was to obstruct the government. They wanted to create deadlocks on every measure.
They boycotted all official functions and receptions held by the government. They voiced their grievances
and aspirations in the Legislative Assembly.
Swarajist Vithalbhai Patel became speaker of the Central Legislative Assembly in 1925. They outvoted the
government many times even in matters related to budgetary grants. They were able to defeat the Public
Safety Bill in 1928. They exposed the weaknesses of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms. They gave fiery
speeches in the Assembly on self-rule and civil liberties.
Chittaranjan Das
DeshbanduChittaranjan Das was born on 5 November 1870 in Kolkata. He finished his law studies from
England and returned to India in 1893. He practiced law for many years at the Calcutta High Court. In the
1908 Alipore Bomb Case, Das defended Aurobindo Ghosh and gained fame among Indians. He also
contributed to the English weekly ‗BandeMataram‘ along with Aurobindo and Bipin Chandra Pal. He
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became involved with the Non-Cooperation Movement led by Mahatma Gandhi. In 1921, he was arrested
along with his son and wife for taking part in the movement. He spent 6 months in prison.
He, along with Motilal Nehru established the Swaraj Party in January 1923. He was a prolific writer and
poet. He published his collection of poems in two volumes titled ‗Malancha‘ and ‗Mala‘. Das‘s health
started getting worse in 1925 and he went on to stay in Darjeeling to improve his health. The people gave
him the honorific title ‗Deshbandhu‘. Das died of a severe fever on 16 June 1925 in Darjeeling.
Abul Kalam Azad
Azad became the leader of the Khilafat Movement, during which he came into close contact with the
Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi. Azad became an enthusiastic supporter of Gandhi's ideas of non-violent
civil disobedience, and worked to organize the non-co-operation movement in protest of the 1919 Rowlett
Acts. Azad committed himself to Gandhi's ideals, including promoting Swadeshi (indigenous) products
and the cause of Swaraj (Self-rule) for India. In 1923, at an age of 35, he became the youngest person to
serve as the President of the Indian National Congress. He also worked for Hindu-Muslim unity through
the Al-Hilal newspaper.It is often said that his book India wins Freedom is about his political life and
Ghubar-e-Khatir deals with his social and spiritual life.
Following India's independence, he became the First Minister of Education in the Indian government. His
contribution to establishing the education foundation in India is recognized by celebrating his birthday as
National Education Day across India.
Muddy Man Committee - 1924
In 1924, Swarajist lead by Motilal Nehru demanded the constitutional reform. They were dissatisfied with
provisions of diarchy made under Government of India Act 1919. Government appointed a 9-member
enquiry committee in chairpersonship of Sir Alexander Muddy man. This committee is officially known as
reform enquiry committee.
Butler committee – 1927
Butler Committee was formed by British Government in 1927 under the Chairmanship of Sir Harcourt.
The purpose of the committee was to inquire into the relationship between the Indian states and the British
throne and suggest measures for improvement. The committee submitted its report in 1929. The committee
suggested that the states should be transferred to British India without any contract with a new
government. It also divided the roles of the Governor-General and the Viceroy of India stating that the
Viceroy should be the agent of the British Crown in its relation with the princes.
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Simon commission
The Indian Statutory Commission, commonly referred to as the Simon Commission after its chairman Sir
John AllsebrookSimon, was sent to India in 1928, to study potential of constitutional reform. In 1930, the
Commission published its two-volume report, also known as the Simon Report.
The Simon Commission was dispatched to India in 1928 to review the Government of India Act 1919. The
Commission, appointed by Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, did not include any Indian delegates. As a
result, the Indian National Congress and a faction of the Muslim League, led by Mohammed Ali Jinnah,
decided to boycott the Commission.
Upon arrival in Bombay on 3 February 1928, the Commission was met by protests. In London, the London
Branch of the Indian National Congress planned a demonstration upon the return of the Commission. The
Simon Report was met with disappointment and condemnation throughout India. The Indian National
Congress mistrusted the findings of the Commission and the Congress boycotted the Report. Gandhi
subsequently started the Civil Disobedience Movement. Mohammed Ali Jinnah made it clear that the
report was unacceptable to Hindus, Muslims and Indian nationalists.
The Muslims considered the Report to be reactionary; the executive Board of the All-India Muslim
Conference called the Report 'unacceptable'. Prominent members of the Legislative Assembly of India
such as Mian Mohammed Shah Nawaz, Gaya Prasad Singh, Dr. Ziauddin and M. R. Jayakar criticized it as
well. In the wake of the Report, a series of Round Table Conferences were set up from 1930 to 1932. The
outcome of the Commission and the Conferences was the Government of India Act 1935.
Nehru Report
After the failure of Simon Commission Lord Birkenhead, The Secretary of State asked Indian politicians
to draw a draft of the forthcoming Act on which both Hindus and Muslims could agree. The Indian leaders
accepted the challenge and for this purpose, an All-Parties Conference was held at Delhi in January 1928.
A committee was formed in chairpersonship of Motilal Nehru. The committee worked for three months at
Allahabad and its memorandum was called the ‗Nehru Report‘. According to recommendations, India
should be given the status of a dominion state. There should be federal form of government with residuary
powers vested in the center. India should have a parliamentary form of government headed by a Prime
Minister and six ministers appointed by the Governor General.
There should be bi-cameral legislature. There should be no separate electorate for any community. System
of weightage for minorities was as bad as that of separate electorates. Reservation of Muslim seats could
be possible in the provinces where Muslim population was at least ten percent, but this was to be in strict
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proportion to the size of the community. Muslims should enjoy one-fourth representation in the Central
Legislature.
Sind should be separated from Bombay only if the Committee certified that it was financially self-
sufficient. The North West FrontierProvidence should be given full provincial status. A new Kannada
speaking province Karnataka should be established in South India. Hindi should be made the official
language of India. The recommendations of the Nehru Report went against the interests of the Muslim
community.
Jinnah Report
In a meeting of the Council of All India Muslim League on 28 March 1929, Quaid-i-Azam Jinnah decided
to give an alternative Muslim agenda. It was in this meeting that Quaid-i-Azam presented his Fourteen
Points.
(1) The form of the future constitution should be federal with the residuary powers vested in the
provinces.
(2) A uniform measure of autonomy shall be granted to all provinces.
(3) All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the definite principle
of adequate and effective representation of minorities in every province without reducing the
majority in any province to a minority or even equality.
(4) In the Central Legislative, Muslim representation shall not be less than one-third.
(5) Representation of communal groups shall continue to be by means of separate electorate as at
present, provided it shall be open to any community at any time to abandon its separate electorate in
favor of a joint electorate.
(6) Any territorial distribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in any way affect the
Muslim majority in the Punjab, Bengal and the North West Frontier Province.
(7) Full religious liberty, i.e., liberty of belief, worship and observance, propaganda, association and
education, shall be guaranteed to all communities.
(8) No bill or any resolution or any part thereof shall be passed in any legislature or any other elected
body if three-fourth of the members of any community in that particular body oppose such a bill
resolution or part thereof on the ground that it would be injurious to the interests of that community
or in the alternative, such other method is devised as may be found feasible and practicable to deal
with such cases.
(9) Sindh should be separated from the Bombay presidency.
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(10) Reforms should be introduced in the North West Frontier Province and Baluchistan on the same
footing as in the other provinces.
(11) Provision should be made in the constitution giving Muslims an adequate share, along with the other
Indians, in all the services of the state and in local self-governing bodies having due regard to the
requirements of efficiency.
(12) The constitution should embody adequate safeguards for the protection of Muslim culture and for the
protection and promotion of Muslim education, language, religion, personal laws and Muslim
charitable institution and for their due share in the grants-in-aid given by the state and by local self-
governing bodies.
(13) No cabinet, either central or provincial, should be formed without there being a proportion of at least
one-third Muslim ministers.
(14) No change shall be made in the constitution by the Central Legislature except with the concurrence
of the State's contribution of the Indian Federation.
Lahore session of Congress - 26 December 1929
It was a historic conference of Congress. Jawaharlal Nehru was appointed as chairperson of Congress.
This was the indication of radical change in Congress thousands of youths were collected at the bank of
Ravi River at Lahore. Nehru hosted the Tri-color flag of India. The main decisions were as follow:
1. Congress decided ‗complete independence‘ as its main object. Pt Jawaharlal Nehru stated in his
presidential speech that, ‗Congress will not be satisfied less than complete independent‘. It is notable
that, till date the object of Congress was to acquire the status of dominion state.
2. Congress decided that, just after 1 month later on 26 Jan 1930, the entire nation will celebrate the
Indian Independence Day.
3. As soon as possible Congress will start a mass movement and this movement be headed by Mahatma
Gandhi. It is notable that after a long vacation Mahatma Gandhi again join Congress in Lahore session.
4. Nehru report which was focused on dominion status had been lapsed.
5. It has been decided that Congress will not be participate in Round table Congress, London.
Civil Disobedient Movement
The Lahore session also decided to launch a Civil Disobedience Movement for the attainment of Poorna
Swaraj and authorized Mahatma Gandhi to lead it. In February the Congress working Committee met at
Sabarmati Ashram and authorized Mahatma Gandhi to chalk out a program of the Civil Disobedience
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Movement. Before launching the movement, Gandhi placed ‗eleven points‘ of administrative reform and
stated to Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, accepted them there would be no need of agitation.
Gandhi’s eleven Demands
Gandhi ji presented eleven demands to the Government and gave an ultimatum of 31 January 1930 to
accept or reject the demands. The demands were as follows:
1. Reduce expenditure on the military and civil administration by 50 per cent.
2. Introduce total prohibition.
3. Carry out reforms in Criminal Investigation Department (CID).
4. Change Arms Act allowing popular control of issue of firearms licenses.
5. Release all political prisoners.
6. Accept the Postal Reservation Bill Personalities Associated with Swadeshi Movement of British India
7. Change the ratio between the rupee and the sterling
8. Introduced textile protection
9. Reserve Coastal shipping for Indians Specific Peasant Demands
10. Reduce land revenue by 50 per cent
11. Abolish salt tax and Government‘s salt monopoly
The Government response to Gandhi's proposal was negative. Gandhi took the decision to start the
movement. The Civil Disobedience Movement began with the historic ‗Dandi March‘ by Gandhi. On 12
March 1930, he started from Sabarmati Ashram along with 78 Satyagrahis for Dandi, a coastal village in
Gujarat where he decided to break the salt law. He walked nearly 200 miles and reached Dandi on 5 April.
The next morning on 6 April, 1930 Gandhi and his fellows violated salt law. His action was hailed by all
Indians. Jawaharlal Nehru was accompanied Gandhi to Dandi was greatly impressed by Mahatma's
exemplary courage and determination to break the salt laws. Subhas Chandra Bose compared the Dandi
March of Gandhi to Napoleon's march to Paris from Elba. On 9 April 1930, Gandhi gave a call for the
country-wide Civil Disobedience Movement. Congress was declared unlawful body.
Dharasana Satyagraha
Dharasana is a town in Gujarat. There was a refinery of salt at Dharsana. On 4 May 1930 a satyagrah was
held at Dharasana Salt Works. Before the day itself, many Congress leaders were arrested including Nehru
and Sardar Patel. The march did not stop. Abbas Tyabji, a retired judge, led it with Gandhi's wife Kasturba
at his side. But even they were arrested before reaching Dharasana and were sentenced to three months
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imprisonment. After they were arrested, the peaceful agitation continued under the leadership of Sarojini
Naidu supported by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.
American journalist Webb Miller was an eye-witness to this beating of the satyagrahis with steel tipped
lathis (sticks). This report became an international sensation. The beating of the protesters disturbed
people around the world and generated negative public opinion about Britain‘s rule over India.
QissaKhwani bazaar massacre
The KhudaiKhidmatgar (literally Servants of God), led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, were a group of
Muslims committed to the removal of British rule through non-violent methods. On 23 April 1930,
Ghaffar Khan was arrested after giving a speech in Utmanzai urging resistance to British rule.
After other KhudaiKhidmatgar leaders were arrested, a large crowd of the group gathered at the
QissaKhwani bazaar. As British Indian troops moved into the bazaar, the crowd was loud and stones were
thrown. A British Army dispatch rider was killed and his body burned. Two British armored cars drove
into the square at high speed, killing several people.
Rani Gaidinliu
Gaidinliu was a Naga spiritual and political leader who led a revolt against British rule in India. At the age
of 13, she joined the Heraka religious movement of her cousin HaipouJadonang. The movement later
turned into a political movement seeking to drive out the British from Manipur and the surrounding Naga
areas. Within the Heraka faith, she came to be considered an incarnation of the Goddess Cherachamdinliu.
Gaidinliu was arrested in 1932 at the age of 16, and was sentenced to life imprisonment by the British
rulers. Jawaharlal Nehru met her at Shillong Jail in 1937, and promised to pursue her release. Nehru gave
her the title of "Rani" (Queen), and she gained local popularity as Rani Gaidinliu.
Vedaranyam March
Vedaranyam March (also called the Vedaranyam Satyagraha) was a nonviolent civil disobedience
movement on the lines of Dandi March, which was led by Mahatma Gandhi on the western coast of India
the month before, it was organized to protest the salt tax. C Rajagopalachari, a close associate of Gandhi,
led the march which had close to 150 volunteers. It began at Trichinopoly (now Tiruchirappalli) on 13
April 1930 and proceeded for about 240 km towards the east before culminating at Vedaranyam, a small
coastal town in the then Tanjore District. By collecting salt directly from the sea, the marchers broke the
salt law.
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First Round Table Conference: Nov 1930
In response to the inadequacy of the Simon Report, the Labor Government, which had come to power
under Ramsay MacDonald in 1929, decided to hold a series of Round Table Conferences in London. The
first Round Table Conference convened from 12 November 1930 to 19 January 1931. Prior to the
Conference, M. K. Gandhi had initiated the Civil Disobedience Movement on behalf of the Indian
National Congress. Consequently, since many of the Congress' leaders were in jail, Congress did not
participate in the first conference, but representatives from all other Indian parties and a number of Princes
did. The outcomes of the first Round Table Conference were minimal: India was to develop into a
federation, safeguards regarding defence and finance were agreed and other departments were to be
transferred. However, little was done to implement these recommendations and civil disobedience
continued in India. The British Government realized that the Indian National Congress needed to be part
of deciding the future of constitutional government in India.
Gandhi – Irwin Pact: 5 March 1931
Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, met with Gandhi to reach a compromise. On 5 March 1931 they agreed the
following to pave the way for the Congress' participation in the second Round Table Conference:
Congress would discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement, it would participate in the second Round
Table Conference, the Government would withdraw all ordinances issued to curb the Congress, the
Government would withdraw all prosecutions relating to offenses not involving violence and the
Government would release all persons undergoing sentences of imprisonment for their activities in the
Civil Disobedience Movement.
Second Round Table Conference: September 1931
The second Round Table Conference was held in London from 7 September 1931 to 1 December 1931
with the participation of Gandhi and the Indian National Congress. Two weeks before the Conference
convened, the Labor government had been replaced by the Conservatives. At the conference, Gandhi
claimed to represent all people of India. This view, however, was not shared by other delegates. In fact,
the division between the many attending groups was one of the reasons why the outcomes of the second
Round Table Conference were again no substantial results regarding India's constitutional future.
Meanwhile, civil unrest had spread throughout India again, and upon return to India Gandhi was arrested
along with other Congress leaders. A separate province of Sind was created and the interests of minorities
were safeguarded by MacDonald's Communal Award.
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Communal Award
The Communal Award was announced by the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald, on 16 August
1932. This was yet another act of British policy of divide and rule. The Muslims, Sikhs and Christians had
already been recognized as minorities. The Communal Award declared the depressed classes also to be
minorities and entitled them to separate electorates.
Though opposed to separate electorates, the Congress was not in favor of changing the Communal Award
without the consent of the minorities. Thus, while strongly disagreeing with the Communal Award, the
Congress decided neither to accept it nor to reject it.
Gandhi saw the Communal Award as an attack on Indian unity and nationalism. Gandhi demanded that the
depressed classes be elected through joint and if possible, a wider electorate through universal franchise,
while expressing no objection to the demand for a larger number of reserved seats. And to press for his
demands, he went on an indefinite fast on 20 September 1932. Now leaders of various persuasions,
including B. R. Ambedkar, M.C. Rajah and Madan Mohan Malviya got together to hammer out a
compromise contained in the Poona Pact.
Poona Pact: 24 September 1932
In 1932, the Britishers announced 'The Communal Award' or Ramsay Mc Donald award which was
considered as one of the tools of divide and rule in India. Mahatma Gandhi understood their motive.
Therefore, on 20 September 1932 he went on a hunger strike.
Poona Pact refers to an agreement between B. R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi on behalf of depressed
classes and caste Hindu leaders on the reservation of electoral seats for the depressed classes in the
legislature of British India government. Contrary to popular belief, Mahatma Gandhi was not involved in
signing the pact.
It was made on 24 September 1932 at Yerwada Central Jail in Poona, India. It was signed by B.R
Ambedkar on behalf of the depressed classes and Madan Mohan Malviya on behalf of the Caste Hindus as
a means to end the fast that Gandhi was undertaking in jail as a protest against the decision by British
prime minister Ramsay MacDonald to give separate electorates to depressed classes for the election of
members of provincial legislative assemblies in British India. They finally agreed upon 148 electoral seats.
Third Round Table Conference: 17 Nov 1932
The Third Round Table Conference (17 November 1932 - 24 December 1932) was not attended by the
Indian National Congress and Gandhi. Many other Indian leaders were also absent. Like the two first
conferences, little was achieved. The recommendations were published in a White Paper in March 1933
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and debated in Parliament afterwards. A Joint Select Committee was formed to analyze the
recommendations and formulate a new Act for India. The Committee produced a draft Bill in February
1935 which was enforced as the Government of India Act of 1935 in July 1935.
Government of India Act 1935
The Government of Indian Act was passed by the British parliament in 1935 and came into effect in 1937.
It was based on a report by a Joint Select Committee, led by Lord Linlithgow, set up the two houses of the
British parliament. The Act was consisted with 321 sections and 10 schedules, this was the longest act
passed by British Parliament so far and was later split into two parts viz. Government of India Act 1935
and Government of Burma Act 1935.
The important provisions of the acts are –
Federation
The Act provided for the establishment of ―Federation of India‖. It consisted of provinces of British India
and Princely States as units.
Distribution of Power
It divided legislative powers between the Central and Provincial legislatures. There was a threefold
division: -
1) Federal list: Consisted of 59 subjects like external affairs, currency, defenceetc., over which the federal
legislature had legislative power.
2) Provincial list: Consisted of 54 subjects; the police, education etc. over which provincial legislature
had jurisdiction.
3) Concurrent list: Consisted of 36 subjects like criminal law, civil procedure, marriage, divorce etc, over
which both the federal and provincial legislature had competence.
The residuary powers were vested with the Governor General.
Dyarchy at the Centre
The Dyarchy which was established in the provinces by Act of 1919 was now adopted at the Centre. The
executive authority vested in the Governor-General included the following-
The administration of reserved subjects like defence, external affairs etc. was done by Governor General
with the help of ―Councilors‖, who were appointed by him and not responsible to legislature. In the
matters of transferred subjects, the Governor General acted, on the advice of ―Council of Ministers‖ who
were responsible to the legislature.
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Federal Legislature
The central legislature was bicameral consisting of Federal Assembly and the Council of States. The
Council of States (upper house) consisted of 260 members, of which 156 (60%) were elected from British
India and 104 (40%) were nominated by Princely States.
Federal Assembly (lower house) consisted of 375 members, of which 250 (67%) were elected by the
Legislative Assemblies and 125 (33%) nominated by the rulers of the Princely States.
Federal Court
It provided for the first time the establishment of a Federal Court for India in Delhi. Federal court was
established in 1937 and consisted of a Chief Justice and 6 additional judges appointed by his Majesty‘s
Government on the basis of high legal qualifications. It had original jurisdiction to decide disputes
between the Centre and the Provinces. It had appellate jurisdiction over decisions of the High Courts and
advisory jurisdiction to advice the Governor General on any point of law. It was the highest court in India.
The federal court functioned in India for about 12 years, till its transformation into the Supreme Court of
India in 1950 under the present Constitution. The credit for its excellent work goes to Sir Maurice Gwyer,
who guided the Court in its formative years as its first Chief Justice.
Provincial Autonomy
By Government of India Act 1935, the provinces no longer remained as delegates of Central Government
but became autonomous units of administration. The act introduced provincial autonomy viz. Madras,
Bombay, Bengal, the United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar, Central Provinces, Assam, the North Western
Frontier Province, Orissa and Sind. As federation was not introduced at the center, the Govt of India was
represented by the Governor General. The provinces were administered by the ministers. The difference
between the reserved and transferred subjects was dropped. All subjects were placed under the charge of
ministers who were made responsible to legislature. The legislative relations between the Central
Government and the provinces were regulated according to three lists of subjects provided under the 1935
Act.
However, ―Dominion Status‖ which was promised by the Simon Commission in 1929 was not conferred
by this Act. The intention to establish ―Federation of India‖ did not materialize because of the opposition
for merger from the rulers of Princely States. The degree of provincial autonomy introduced at the
provincial level was limited as central government retained important powers and control. The Governor
was given pivotal position, which discretionary powers on important matters. He was not bound by the
advice of ministers. Thus, the claim of conferring provincial autonomy was very limited.
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Election of 1937
Under the government of India act 1935, provincial election had been held at 1937. In April 1936, special
session of Congress was summoned at Lucknow, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru became the chairperson of this
session, discussing the strategy of the future, and Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru admitted that they are no choice but
to context in the election. Election for provinces has been held at January - February 1937.
Results were in favor of Congress out of total 1585 seat of state Vidhansabha it won 707 seats. There was
total 11 states in 1937- Panjab, Assam, Bengal, United Province, North West Frontier, Sindh, Bombay,
Bihar, Madras, Orissa and Central Province.
Congress got absolute majority in 4 provinces- Madras, United Provinces, Central Provinces and Bihar. In
Orissa, Bombay, Assam and North-West Frontier Province it emerged as the largest political party and
formed the governments. Later Assam and NWFP also came under Congress rule.
In Bengal, Punjab and Sindh Congress could not form government. In Punjab, the Muslim League and
Unionist Party formed a coalition government. However, after some days Unionist Party was merged in
Muslim league under Sikandar Hayat Khan and remained so till 1947.
a coalition government under leader Fazlul Haq was formed in Bengal by Muslim League and
KrishakPraja Party. In Sindh, during 1937-1947, two leaders remained premier viz. Ghulam Hussain
Hidayutulla and Alla Bakhsh. They were non-Congress leaders. The Muslim league got 108 seats out of
the total 485 Muslim Seats. Congress contested on 58 Muslim seats and won 26 seats out of them.
Congress remained in office for more than two years.
Second World War
Second World War began on 1st September 1939 this war came in existence due to imperialistic policies of
Adolf Hitler. He was the dictator of Germany. Germany, Italy and Japan were axis powers and Britain,
France, Russia and US are known as allied power. Under imperial rule the majority of India was bound to
support the Allies when war broke out, and many Indians sympathized with the war effort. But India's
Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, made the mistake of declaring India at war with Germany without consulting
Indian leaders. This divided the Indian National Congress. Gandhi, directly opposed India's participation
in the war. On 22 December 1939 all 8 Congress governments resigned. This day was celebrated by
Muslim league as ‗Day of deliverance‘.
Subhas Chandra Bose
Subhas Chandra Bose was born on 23 January 1897 at Cuttack Odisha. He completed his graduation from
Calcutta University.Bose was placed fourth in ICS exam with highest marks in English. But his urge for
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participating in the freedom movement was intense and in April 1921, he resigned from the coveted Indian
Civil Service and came back to India.
Bose regarded Chittaranjan Das as his political guru. He started a newspaper ‗Swaraj‘and edited ‗Forward
Block‘. In 1930 he was elected Mayor of Calcutta Municipal Corporation. During the mid-1930s Bose
travelled in Europe, visiting Indian students and European politicians, including Benito Mussolini. He
observed party organization and saw communism and fascism in action. In this period, he also researched
and wrote the first part of his book The Indian Struggle. During his stay in Berlin, he met and fell in love
with Emily Schinkel, who was of Austrian origin. Bose and Emily were married in 1937.
In 1938, at Haripura session of Congress, he was elected as the chairperson of Congress. In 1939 at
‗Tripuri‘ (Jabalpur) session of Congress, Bose was again elected by defeating Mahatma Gandhi‘s
candidate PattabhiSitaramayya. Bose decided to resign from the party in 1939. He formed a new party
Forward Bloc on 22 June 1939.
In January 1941, Bose was arrested and detained in his house by British government. He escaped from his
home, Elgin Road Calcutta. With support of his nephew Shishir Bose, he reached Berlin via Peshawar,
Kabul and Moscow. Netaji met the German Foreign Minister J. Von Ribbentrop, Germany on 3 April
1941, and expressed his desire to form an 'Indian Government in Exile'. Netaji wasted one whole year in
Berlin only to meet Hitler. On 29 May 1942 he met Hitler. But he was not convinced. He decided to leave
for the Far East.
He boarded a German submarine on 8 February 1943 from Kiel with another Indian colleague, Abid
Hassan, leaving behind his wife and only child, daughter Anita, and many well-wishers in Germany. Then
he moved to Singapore from Germany. Bose arrived in Singapore on 2 July 1943.
He was appointed President of the Indian Independence League by Ras Bihari Bose. On 21 October 1943,
Subhas Chandra Bose proclaimed the formation of the Provisional Government of Free India. Two days
later, he declared war on Britain and the United States. With help of the Japan, he re-organized Azad Hind
Fauj (also called the Indian National Army).
On 14 April 1944, he led the Azad Hind Fauj on an offensive against the British in India. Crossing the
Burmese border, he planted the Indian National tri-color flag at Moirang, Manipur. The campaign was
considered a failure and Bose left for Singapore via Bangkok on 24 April 1944. While in Singapore, Bose
received the devastating news of the Japanese surrender on 12 August 1945.
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On 17 August 1945, Bose left Singapore for Bangkok. However, the plane crashed in the vicinity of
Taihoku (Taipei) airport at 2 pm on 18 August. Bose was badly burned in the crash and subsequently died
in a Japanese military hospital in Taipei. Bose‘s body, and thus his death, was never fully verified.
Linlithgow Plan/August offer
A change of government took place in Britain in May 1940 and Winston Churchill became the prime
minister (1940–45). Britain was in immediate danger of Nazi occupation. The government‘s response was
a statement of the viceroy known as the August offer. On 8 August 1940, early in the Battle of Britain, the
Viceroy of India, Lord Linlithgow, made the so-called August Offer.
(1) Governor General immediately will expand his executive council and Indian member will be
appointed in it.
(2) Shortly a war committee will be formed, with Indians. It will decide what should be the strategy of
Indian army in 2nd world war.
(3) After the end of war British government will from a constituent assembly which will decide the
procedure of rule in India- Congress completely rejected this offer.
Individual Satyagraha
After the rejection of August offer, there were two opinions in Congress- either a mass movement should
be started shortly or it is the time to wait. Mahatma Gandhi favored the second opinion and announced the
starting of individual Satyagraha.
The Individual Satyagraha was not to seek independence but to affirm the right of speech. The other
reason of this Satyagraha was that a mass movement may turn violent and he would not like to see the
Great Britain embarrassed by such a situation. This view was conveyed to Lord Linlithgow by Gandhi
when he met him on 27 September 1940. The non-violence was set as the centerpiece of Individual
Satyagraha.
This was done by carefully selecting the Satyagrahis. The first Satyagrahi selected was Acharya Vinoba
Bhave on 17 October 1940, who was sent to Jail when he spoke against the war. Second Satyagrahi was
Jawahar Lal Nehru. Third was Brahma Datt, one of the inmates of the Gandhi's Ashram. They all were
sent to jails for violating the Defense of India Act. This was followed by a lot of other people. But since it
was not a mass movement, it attracted little enthusiasm and in December 1940, Gandhi suspended the
movement. The campaign started again in January 1941, this time, thousands of people joined and around
20 thousand people were arrested.
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The Two Nation Theory and Demand of Pakistan
Historical experience provided the base, with Sir Syed Ahmad Khan began the period of Muslim self-
awakening and started to aware the Muslims for modern education after Muslim downfall in South Asia
under the Hindus majority, Allama Iqbal provided the philosophical explanation to Sir Syed‘s idea and
Quaid-e-Azam supported and converted the theory in to a practical work and transformed it into a political
reality.
Sir Syed was a first man in Sub-Continent history to introduce a word ―Two Nation‖ for Muslims and
Hindus and introduced an idea to become a pioneer of Two Nation Theory.
Allama Iqbal was born in Sialkot on 9 November 1877. He was well educated, philosopher and called as a
Poet of India. Iqbal was one of the people, who for the first time gave the concept of Two Nation Theory.
Allama Iqbal presidential address to the 1930 Allahabad session of the All-India Muslim League spoke of
the Punjab, North West Frontier Province, Sindh and Baluchistan united in a single state. He thought that
the final fortune of the India was a separate state without the British rule.
The name of the country was coined in 1933 as Pakistan by Choudhry Rahmat Ali, a law student at the
University of Cambridge in Third round table conference. He published it in his pamphlet Now or Never,
using it as an acronym referring to the names of the five northern regions of British India: Punjab,
Afghanistan, Kashmir, Sindh, and Baluchistan.
The All-India Muslim League held its annual session from March 22 to 24 March 1940, at Minto Park,
Lahore. The Lahore Resolution is totally noted for the formal adoption and implementation of Two Nation
Theory.
In opposition to the Lahore Resolution, the All-India Azad Muslim Conference gathered in Delhi in April
1940 to voice its support for a united India. Its members included several Islamic organizations in India, as
well as 1400 nationalist Muslim delegates. The 1946 elections resulted in the Muslim League winning the
majority of Muslim votes and reserved Muslim seats in the Central and provincial assemblies. This victory
was assisted by the support given to the Muslim League by the rural agriculturalists of Bengal as well as
the support of the landowners of Sindh and Punjab. The Congress, which initially denied the Muslim
League's claim of being the sole representative of Indian Muslims, was now forced to recognize that the
Muslim League represented Indian Muslims.
The British, while not approving of a separate Muslim homeland, appreciated the simplicity of a single
voice to speak on behalf of India's Muslims. The Cabinet mission scheme did not offer independent
Pakistan, the Muslim League accepted the proposals.
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After the Cabinet Mission broke down, Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946 Direct Action Day, with the
stated goal of peacefully highlighting the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India. However, on
the morning of the 16th, armed Muslim gangs gathered at the Ochterlony Monument in Calcutta to hear
Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, the League's Chief Minister of Bengal. That very evening, in Calcutta,
Hindus were attacked by returning Muslim celebrants, who carried pamphlets distributed earlier which
showed a clear connection between violence and the demand for Pakistan, and directly implicated the
celebration of Direct-Action Day with the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would later be called the
"Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946".
The next day, Hindus struck back, and the violence continued for three days in which approximately 4,000
people died, both Hindus and Muslims. The communal violence spread to Bihar (where Hindus attacked
Muslims), to Noakhali in Bengal (where Muslims targeted Hindus), to GarhMukteshwar in the United
Provinces (where Hindus attacked Muslims), and on to Rawalpindi in March 1947 in which Hindus were
attacked or driven out by Muslims.
The British Prime Minister Attlee appointed Lord Louis Mountbatten as India's last viceroy, and he was
given the task to oversee British India's independence by June 1948. Vallabhbhai Patel was one of the first
Congress leaders to accept the partition of India as a solution to the rising Muslim separatist movement led
by Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
Early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948. However, with
the British army unprepared for the potential for increased violence, the new viceroy, Louis Mountbatten,
advanced the date for the transfer of power, allowing less than six months for a mutually agreed plan for
independence. In June 1947, the nationalist leaders, including Nehru and Abul Kalam Azad on behalf of
the Congress, Jinnah representing the Muslim League, B. R. Ambedkar representing the Untouchable
community, and Master Tara Singh representing the Sikhs, agreed to a partition of the country along
religious lines in stark opposition to Gandhi's views.
The predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to the new India and predominantly Muslim areas
to the new nation of Pakistan; the plan included a partition of the Muslim-majority provinces of Punjab
and Bengal. The communal violence that accompanied the announcement of the Radcliffe Line, the line of
partition, was even more horrific.
On 14 August 1947, the new Dominion of Pakistan came into being, with Muhammad Ali Jinnah sworn in
as its first Governor-General in Karachi. The following day, 15 August 1947, India, now a smaller Union
of India, became an independent country with official ceremonies taking place in New Delhi, and with
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Jawaharlal Nehru assuming the office of prime minister, and the viceroy Mountbatten staying on as its
first Governor General. Gandhi remained in Bengal to work with the new refugees from the partitioned
subcontinent.
Cripps Mission: March -1942
By the middle of 1942, Japanese troops were approaching the borders of India. Pressure was mounting
from China, the United States and Britain to solve the issue of the future status of India before the end of
the war. In March 1942, the Prime Minister dispatched Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the War Cabinet,
to India to discuss the British Government's Draft Declaration. Sir Stafford Cripps was a senior left-wing
politician and government minister in the War Cabinet of Prime Minister Winston Churchill.
Cripps Mission offered the following proposal:
1. After the war, the sub-continent will be under the Crown but the British Government would avoid
interfering in internal as well as external affairs.
2. Defence, Foreign Affairs, Communications etc. will be handed over to the India.
3. The members of the provincial Legislative Assemblies will elect a Cental Assembly for farming
constitution. After the constitution is made, it will be sent to all the provinces for confirmation. The
provinces which would not approve the constitution would have the authority to establish their
independent status.
4. Appropriate step will be taken for the security of minorities.
Cripps worked to keep India loyal to the British war effort in exchange for a promise of full self-
government after the war. Cripps discussed the proposals with the Indian leaders. Both the major parties,
the Congress and the League rejected his proposals and the mission proved a failure. Gandhi said that
Cripps' offer of Dominion Status after the war was a "post-dated cheque drawn on a failing bank".
Congress moved toward the Quit India movement whereby it refused to cooperate in the war effort, while
the British imprisoned practically the entire Congress leadership for the duration of the war.
Quit India Movement
Yusuf Meher Ali was an Indian freedom fighter and socialist leader. He coined the terms 'Simon Go Back'
and "quit India". On 8 August 1942 the Quit India Resolution was passed at the Bombay session of
Congress. The Government issued an order banning public processions, meetings & assemblies. Despite
the police warning large crowd had gathered at Gowalia Tank Maidan. Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted the Indian
flag.
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In his Quit India speech that day at Gowalia Tank, Bombay, and Gandhi told Indians to follow non-violent
civil disobedience. Gandhi in his stirring speech told the people "do or die". In early hours of 9th August,
all the top leaders -Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, Azad were arrested and Congress was declared an unlawful
organization. With the arrest of all the national leaders, there was nobody to guide the popular agitation.
Underground activity
Underground activity was carried out by RammanoharLohia, Jayaprakash Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Usha
Sharma, Biju Patnaik, ChhotubhaiPuranik, Achyut Patwardhan, Sucheta Kripalani and R.P. Goenka.On 14
August 1942, Usha and some of her close associates began the Secret Congress Radio, a clandestine radio
station. It went air on 27 August.
Establishment of Parallel governments
Parallel governments were established at many places. Chittu Pandey established parallel government in
Ballia Uttar Pradesh in August 1942 for a week. The TamraliptaJatiya Sarkar was parallel government
established in Tamluk, West Bengal. The TamraliptaJatiya Sarkar had set up Police Stations, Military
Departments, Courts and even a system for revenue collection. The Government functioned from 17
December 1942 to 8 August 1944. The chief protagonists were Satish Chandra Samanta, Sushil Kumar
Dhara, Ajoy Mukherjee and MatanginiHazra.
Patri Sarkar was being run in 150 villages of present-day Satara-Sangli region of Maharashtraeffective
from August 1943 to May 1946under the leadership of ―Krantisimha‖ Nana Patil. AchutraoPatawardhan,
Y. B. Chavan, Ganapat Rao Deshmukh and many others participated in the Patri Sarkar movement.
Oppose of Quit India Movement
Several political groups opposed to the Quit India Movement. These included the Muslim League, the
Hindu Mahasabha, the Communist party of India and princely states. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Shyama
Prasad Mukherjee, leader of the Hindu Mahasabha and M.S. Golwalkar RSS head opposed the call for the
Quit India Movement and boycotted it officially. The League was not in favor of the British leaving India
without partitioning the country first. The Communist party supported the war waged by the British since
they were allied with the Soviet Union.
Achievements of the Quit India Movement
Though despite of its flaws, the Quit India Movement remains significant because it was during this
movement that the British realized that they would not be able to govern India successfully in the long run
and began to think of ways they could exit the country in a peaceful and dignified manner. One of the
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greatest achievements of the Quit India Movement was that it kept the Congress Party united all through
these challenging times.
Rajagopalachari Formula, Desai-Liaquat Proposals and Wavell Plan
In order to solve the political deadlock between Congress and Muslim League several efforts were made
by prominent politicians and British government. As the result of which Rajagopalachari Formula, Desai-
Liaquat Proposals and Wavell Plan came in existence.
Rajagopalachari Formula
The gap between Congress and Muslim League was being widened day by day. The political deadlock
could not be overcome without compromising with the Muslim League. That is why Rajagopalachari
published his plan on 10 July 1944, which became known as CR Formula.
The main points of C.R. Formula were the following:
1. The League was to endorse the Indian demand for independence and to co-operate with the Congress
in formation of Provisional Interim Government for a transitional period.
2. At the end of the War, a commission would be appointed to demarcate the districts having a Muslim
population in absolute majority and in those areas plebiscite to be conducted on all inhabitants
(including the non-Muslims) on basis of adult suffrage.
3. All parties would be allowed to express their stance on the partition and their views before the
plebiscite.
4. In the event of separation, a mutual agreement would be entered into for safeguarding essential matters
such as defence, communication and commerce and for other essential services.
5. The transfer of population, if any would be absolutely on a voluntary basis. vi. The terms of the
binding will be applicable only in case of full transfer of power by Britain to Government of India.
Talks between Gandhiji and Jinnah started on the plan of ChakravartyRajagopalachari in September 1944.
Jinnah mainly rejected this formula. In this plan, Muslims were given an incomplete, disabled, and termite
Pakistan because they wanted whole Bengal, Assam, Sindh, Punjab and North Western Province, and
Baluchistan. In this, non-Muslims were also allowed to participate in the referendum, while Jinnah wanted
to give the franchise to the Muslims only.
Desai - Liaquat Proposals
Bhulabhai Desai was the leader of the Congress and also a friend of the General-Secretary of the Muslim
League, Nawabzada Liaqat Ali Khan. Desai and Liaquat Ali Khan made a series of discussions and drew a
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formula for cooperation between the Congress and the League in 1945. Both of them came up with the
draft proposal for the formation of an interim government at the Centre, consisting of:
1. There would be an equal number of persons nominated by the Congress and the League in interim
government.
2. In the central legislature 20% of the seats would be reserved for minorities.
3. The Government would function within the framework of the existing Government of India Act, 1935.
No settlement could be reached between the Congress and the League on these lines, but the fact that a
part of parity between the Congress and the League was decided upon had far-reaching consequences.
Thus Desai - Liaquat Pact came as sudden event filling the vacuum during this period when Indian
politics was at a halt having all its leaders behind the bars.
Wavell Plan
The Shimla Conference was held by Viceroy Lord Wavell on 25 June 1945. Convened to agree on and
approve the Wavell Plan for Indian self-government, and there it reached a potential agreement for the
self-rule of India that provided separate representation for Muslims and reduced majority powers for both
communities in their majority regions.
The Main Proposals of the Wavell Plan were as follows-
1. The Viceroy‘s Executive Council would be immediately reconstituted and the number of its members
would be increased.
2. In the Council there would be equal representation of Hindus and Muslims.
3. All the members of the Council, except the Viceroy and the Commander-in-Chief, would be Indians.
An Indian would be appointed as the member for Foreign Affairs in the Council. However, a British
commissioner would be responsible for trade matters. The defence of India would remain in British
hands until power was ultimately transferred to Indians.
The Viceroy would convene a meeting of Indian politicians including the leaders of Congress and the
Muslim League at which they would nominate members of the new Council. If this plan were to be
approved for the central government, then similar councils of local political leaders would be formed in all
the provinces.
Indian general election 1945
On 19 September 1945, the Viceroy Lord Wavell announced that elections to the central and provincial
legislatures would be held in December 1945 to January 1946. It was also announced that an executive
council would be formed and a constitution-making body would be convened after these elections.
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Although the Government of India Act, 1935 had proposed an all-India federation, it could not take place
because the government held that the Princely states were unwilling to join it. Consequently, rather than
choosing 375 members, only 102 elective seats were to be filled.
Hence the elections to the central legislature were held under the terms of the Government of India Act
1919. General elections were held in British India in December 1945 to elect members of the Central
Legislative Assembly and the Council of State. The Indian National Congress emerged as the largest
party, winning 59 of the 102 elected seats. The Muslim League won all Muslim constituencies, but failed
to win any other seats. Of the 13 remaining seats, 8 went to Europeans, 3 to independents, and 2 to Akali
candidates in the Sikh constituencies of Punjab.
This election coupled with the provincial one in 1946 proved to be a strategic victory for Jinnah and the
partitionists. Even though Congress won, the League had united the Muslim vote and as such it gained the
negotiating power to seek a separate Muslim homeland as it became clear that a united India would prove
highly unstable. The elected members later formed the Constituent Assembly of India. These were the last
general elections in British India; consequent elections were held in 1951 in India and 1970 in Pakistan.
INA Trial
In November 1945, the British decided to hold the first treason trial of Indian Army officers who had gone
over to the INA in Delhi's Red Fort. On the stand in this highly publicized military trial were three
defendants — Shahnawaz Khan, Prem Sahgal and Gurbaksh Dhillon. They were second-tier commanders
of the INA, who had given up their allegiance to the British Indian Army.
Arguing on behalf of the defendants was veteran Congressman Bhulabhai Desai, who was Chief Defence
Counsel (CDC), Tej Bahadur Sapru, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Dr. KN Katju (Former Chief minister of
Madhya Pradesh). They had to present their case in front of a military tribunal comprising of senior British
army officers.In spite of this aggressive and widespread opposition, the court martial was carried out, and
all three defendants were sentenced to deportation for life.
The revolt of the Royal Indian Navy
The revolt of the Royal Indian Navy in 1946 has a special place in the revolutionary history of Indian
people. The revolt started on 18 February 1946 from the naval ship ―Talwar‖. This ship was a signal
training school. Barbaric exploitation and oppression of the Indian people by the British colonialists had
enraged the sailors. The fact that there was a conspiracy to hang the prisoners of war of Azad Hind
Fauzwho were being tried in Red Fort in Delhi, had also influenced them. This inspired them to take up
arms to liberate their motherland.
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On 17 February the sailors were served contaminated food. When they approached the British commander,
he insulted them. This event created the grounds for a revolt to break out. On 18 February morning the
sailors began their hunger strike. When the striking sailors called for a discussion, the sailors demanded
that they need some political party leader to mediate.
The revolt grew rapidly and spread to all naval training centers, ships, and residential areas, where people
threw the British flag and hoisted the red communist flag and flags of other two parties. To organize the
strike in coordinated way they formed ―NausainikKendriyaHadtaalSamti‖. They elected MS Khan as
president and Madan Singh as vice president of the committee. They also renamed the Royal Indian Navy
as ―Indian Navy‖.
Cabinet Mission
In September 1945, the new elected Labor party government in Britain expressed its intention of transfer
of power and creating a Constituent Assembly for India. The Cabinet Mission was sent to India in March
1946 to make this possible. The members of the Cabinet Mission were: Lord PethickLawrence, Secretary
of State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade and A.V Alexander, First Lord of
Admiralty. The Mission came out with its own proposals known as the Cabinet Mission Plan.
The Plan rejected the Muslim League demand for a separate state of Pakistan and instead called for an
Indian Union that consisted of British provinces and the Princely States. While the Plan rejected Pakistan,
it proposed a unique federal set-up. Provinces and princely states were made free to form groups under the
Union, having a legislature and executive, enjoying significant autonomy.
The Plan was initially accepted by the Muslim League and the Congress Party. However, the Congress
soon rejected the grouping of states, specifically the grouping of states on the basis of religion. The
Muslim League was not ready to change any part of the Plan and so any consensus between the Congress
and the Muslim League broke down.
Nonetheless, the proceedings of the Constituent Assembly began and an interim government, with
Jawaharlal Nehru as the Prime minister, was set-up. The Muslim League refused to be part of both; she
called ‗Direct Action Day‘ triggering large-scale violence across the country.
Indian provincial elections, 1946
Provincial elections were held in British India in January 1946 to elect members of the legislative councils
of British Indian provinces. In elections Indian National Congress won 923 (58.23%) seats out of 1585.
On second rank All-India Muslim League won 425 seats (26.81%). The Congress formed its ministries in
Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Central Provinces, Madras, NWFP, Orissa and United Provinces. The Muslim
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League formed its ministries in Bengal and Sindh. A coalition consisting of the Congress, Unionist Party
and the Akalis was formed in Punjab.
Legislative Assemblies
Province Congress Muslim League Total
Assam 58 31 108
Bengal 86 113 250

Bihar 98 34 152
Bombay 125 30 175
Central Provinces 92 13 112
Madras 165 79 215
North West Frontier 30 17 50
Province
Orissa 47 4 60
Punjab 51 73 175

Sindh 18 27 60
United Provinces 153 54 228
Total 923 425 1585

Muslim League won most of the seats reserved for Muslims in India. For example they won the seats in
Tamil Nadu and UP despite the fact that whatever happens these stats would not be part of Pakistan (in
case India is divided).
Direct Action Day
On 30 July 1946, All India Muslim league declare that 16 Aug 1946 will be observed as direct-action
day and league will organize nationwide ‗Hartal‘ and demonstrations.16 Aug 1946 is known as the
‗August Day‘ in Indian history.
Interim Government
On 2 September in 1946, the interim government of India led by Jawaharlal Nehru was formed. The
Muslim League initially decided to sit out of the government, and three of the five ministries reserved
for Muslims were occupied by Asaf Ali, Sir Shafaat Ahmad Khan, and Syed Ali Zaheer, all non-League
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Muslim representatives. Two posts remained vacant. However, after Lord Wavell agreed to allot all five
reserved portfolios to the Muslim League if it agreed to cooperate.
In October, the cabinet was reshuffled to accommodate the new Muslim League members. It was the
only such cabinet in India‘s history in which arch-rivals Congress and the Muslim League shared power
at the Centre.
CONGRESS
Vice President of the Executive Council, External Affairs and Jawaharlal Nehru
Commonwealth Relations
Home Affairs, Information and Broadcasting Vallabhbhai Patel
Agriculture and Food Rajendra Prasad
Education and Arts C. Rajagopalachari
Defence Baldev Singh
Industries and Supply C. Rajagopalachari
Labor Jagjivan Ram
Railways and Communications Asaf Ali
Work, Mines and Power C.H. Bhabha

ALL-INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE

Commerce Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar
Finance Liaquat Ali Khan
Health Ghazanfar Ali Khan
Law Jogendra Nath Mandal
Posts and Air AbdurRab Nishtar

Nehru declared the government‘s plan to engage in direct diplomatic relations with all countries and
goodwill missions. He also expressed support for the independence of colonized nations. In December,
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was inducted into the cabinet.
Mount batten Plan
On 20 February 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee made an announcement that British India
would be granted full self-government rights by 30 June 1948. He also stated that as soon as the date of

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the final transfer is confirmed, the future of the princely states will be decided. This declaration is known
as ‗Clement Attlee declaration‘. After the declaration the Governor General Wavell was replaced by
Lord Mountbatten. He arrived in India on 22 March 1947.
In view of this, Lord Mountbatten declared a plan on 3rd June 1947 known as 3rd June Plan or the
Mountbatten Plan. According to plan-
1. Partition of British India was accepted by the British Government.
2. Successor governments would be given dominion status autonomy and sovereignty to both countries
can make their own constitution.
3. Princely States were given the right to either join Pakistan or India or can become a separate nation
other than Pakistan or India.
Indian Independence Act
India Independence Act 1947 was an Act passed by the Parliament of the Britain. It divided the British
India into two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan. The Act received the assent of the
royal family on 18 July 1947 after which, India came into existence on August 15 and Pakistan on
August 14 in the year 1947. The Government of India Act 1935 governed the two dominions until the
new constitutions were framed for both the countries. On 15 August 1947, India became independent.
On 7 August 1947, Muhammad Ali Jinnahleft Delhi to Karachi, the constitutional assembly at Pakistan
which was made on 11 Aug 1947 elected him as the first Governor General of Pakistan and he got title
‗Quaid-e-Azam‘.
Mountbatten remained Governor General of India. In 1948, he was replaced by C. Rajagopalachari who
was first Indian Governor General and also was last. On 24 Jan 1950, he was replaced by first president
of India ‗Dr. Rajendra Prasad‘. He took charge of the office of first president of India on 26 Jan 1950.
On this day India became a Republic state.
GOVERNOR OF BENGAL (BEFORE 1773)
Robert Clive (1754-1767)
 Founder of the British Indian Empire, popularly known as ‗Clive of India‘.
 He was British administrator and military leader to start with, however his destiny brought him to
India and he worked in various capacities for British East India Company.
 He was Governor of Bengal before ‗Regulating Act of 1773‘ – which actually marks beginning of
Birtish rule.

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 He was involved in Battle of Plassey (1757) and consequent annexation of Bengal.

 Started Dual administration in Bengal (1757-1722), the practice was stopped by Warren Hastings.
 Civil Services were organized during Clive‘s tenure.
 He prohibited employees of the company from undertaking any private or accept any gift.
 During First Anglo-Mysore War (1766-69), Robert Clive was recalled during the course of war in
1767. English was defeated by Haider Ali.
GOVERNOR GENERALS OF BENGAL (1773-1833)

Lord Warren Hastings (1773-1785)

 Governor of Bengal was designated as Governor General of Bengal.
 He annexed Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in 1772.
 He started modern western administration in India.
 He entered into business with Egypt, Tibet and Bhutan. He stopped annual pension to Mughal
Emperor and reduced the pension of the Nawab of Bengal.
 Overall administration including Civil Services was very corrupt during Hastings‘s tenure.
He initiated the Rohilla War (1774) and annexation of Rohilkhand by Nawab of Awadh, with the
help of British.
 During his tenure Act of 1781 came under which the powers of jurisdiction between the Governor-
General-in-council and the Supreme Court at Calcutta were clearly divided.
 He led First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82) followed by Treaty of Salbai as Marathas were defeated.
Pitts India Act of 1784 was enacted.
 He was involved in Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84), Haider All died and Mysore was
defeated.
 During his tenure Judicial Murder of Nand Kumar in 1775 took place. Nand Kumar was critic of
Warren Hastings, indicted in false case and sentenced to death.
Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)
 He was the founding father of ‗Indian Civil Services‘. (Reforms for purification of Administration).
 He was the father of modern police administration in India.

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 He created the post of DSP. He believed in the separation of powers; therefore, he deprived the
District Collector of judicial powers and created the new post of District Judge. He also carried out
gradation of courts.
 He proposed Cornwallis Code (1793) incorporating several judicial reforms. He codified the
personal laws (IPC and CrPC are codified personal laws) and separation of revenue and civil
administration.
 Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92) followed by Treaty of Seringapatam (1792).
 Introduction of the Permanent Revenue Settlement that is Zamindari system in Bengal and Bihar
(1793). It was the worst measure of Lord Cornwallis.
 Europeanization of administrative machinery and introduction of civil services.
 He established Permanent revenue settlement with a class of revenue collectors (Zamindars under
Zamindari rights).
Sir John Shore (1793-1798)
 First civil servant to become Governor-General. He played important role during the introduction of
Permanent revenue settlement that is Zamindari system in 1793.
 Charter act of 1793 was enacted during his period.
 He defeated Nizam of Hyderabad who later on joined Subsidiary Alliance with British during
Wellesley‘s tenure.
Lord Arthur Wellesley (1798-1805)
 During his tenure introduction of Subsidiary Alliance in 1798 occurred. The rulers of the state of
Nizam of Hyderabad, Mysore, Tanjore, Awadh, Jodhpur, Jaipur and finally Peshwas also signed
Subsidiary Alliance.
 During his tenure Fourth Anglo-Mysore war (1799) and Second Anglo-Maratha war (1803-05)
occurred.
Lord George Barlow (1805-1807)
 Pursued moderate policy, that is, the policy of non-intervention with princely states.
 Tried to establish peaceful relations with Marathas.
 White Mutiny at Vellore (1806) occurred during his tenure.
Lord Minto-I (1807-1813)

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 Concluded important Amritsar treaty (1809) with Maharaja Ranjit Singh which decided later course
of Anglo-Sikh relations.
 Governor General of Bengal at the time of passage of Charter Act of 1813.
Francis Rawdon Hastings (1813-1823): (Marques of Hastings)
 Renounced the policy of non-intervention followed by his predecessor and revived aggressive
imperialistic policy marking the beginning of second phase of British imperialism in India, so as to
build large British Asiatic Empire by conquering territories bordering India.
 During his tenure Anglo-Nepal War; Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1819) and Pindari War
(1817-18) occurred.
Lord Amherst (1823-28)
 First Anglo-Burmese War (1824-1826) and signed Treaty of Yandaboo in 1826 by which British
merchants were allowed to settle on southern coast of Rangoon.
 Capture of Barrackpore (1826) occurred.
GOVERNOR GENERALS OF INDIA (1832-1858)

Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)

 Charter Act of 1833 was enacted.
 He was the most liberal British Governor-General of India.
 Tenure coincides with socio-religious reform movements of 19th century (Abolition of Sati and
other cruel rights (1829) occurred during his tenure.
 Resolution of 1835 and Educational reforms.
 Suppression of ‗Thug‘ that is highway robbery in 1830 by Colonel Sleiman.
 Raja of Mysore was deposed and territories of kingdom were annexed (1831).
 Annexation of Cachar (1834) and Jaintia (1832) and Coorg (1834) on the charges of mal-
administration.
 Formation of Agra province in 1834.
 Provincial courts of appeal and circuits were replaced by commissioners of revenue and circuit.
 Treaty of `Perpetual friendship‘ with Ranjit Singh took place.
Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835-1836)

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 Brief tenure marked by the liberation of Indian press of prohibitory restrictions as new press law was
passed.
Lord Auckland (1836-1842)
 Disastrous First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-1842) occurred during his tenure.
Lord Ellenborough (1842-1844)
 Successfully completed Afghan war and annexed Sindh province for British in 1843.
 Became first Governor General of India to be recalled for defying the orders of the Court of
Directors of East India Company.
 War with Gwalior (1843) occurred during his tenure.
Lord Hardinge-I (1844-1848)
 Issued orders for prohibition of female infanticide and suppression of the practice of human sacrifice
among the Goads of Central India.
 Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846) occurred during his tenure.
Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856)
 Application of ‗Doctrine of Lapse‘ (one of the principle political reasons for ‗Revolt of 1857)
annexed Satara (1848), Jaipur and Sambalpur (1849), Bhagat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853),
Nagpur (1854) and Awadh (1856) under `Doctrine of Lapse‘
 The introduction of Railways (first train Bombay to Thane), Telegraph and Postal systems (first
telegraph line – Calcutta – Agra) in India in 1853.
 Postal reforms (Post Office Act 1854) initiated during his tenure.
 Charter- Act of 1853 passed.
 Wood‘s Education Dispatch 1854 (Magna Carta of Modern Western Education in India) also passed.
 Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852) and annexation of lower Burma occurred during his tenure.
 Widow Remarriage Act (1856) enacted.
 Military headquarter of British India was moved to Shimla, where summer capital of British India
was also established. Headquarter of Bengal artillery was moved to Meerut.
 Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-56) and annexation of Punjab from Maharaja Dilip Singh (Maharaja
Dilip Singh handed over Kohinoor diamond to British).
 Establishment of separate Public Works Department in every province.

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To bring more land under cultivation so as to earn more revenue, two canals (1854), upper Ganga
canal, in western Uttar Pradesh (originating in Haridwar) and Baridoab canal in Punjab were
constructed. Similarly, the harbors of Calcutta, Bombay and Karachi were modernized to receive
large maritime ships.
VICEROY AND GOVERNOR GENERALS OF INDIA (1858-1947)

Lord Canning (1856-1857 and 1858-1862)

 (Last Governor of East India Company and first viceroy and Governor General of India)
 Establishment of three universities at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay in 1857 occurred during.
 Witnessed and suppressed the Revolt of 1857.
 ‗Doctrine of Lapse‘ started by Lord Dalhousie was finally withdrawn in 1859.
 Two arms of British administration originated (Secretary of State of India, Viceroy and Governor
General of India to look after the administration of India)
 Regressive laws, such as Criminal Procedure Codes (CrPC) and Indian Penal Codes (IPC) were
introduced.
 Introduction of new tax such as income tax, on experimental basis in 1859.
 White Mutiny‘ by European troops in 1859 occurred.
 Indian Councils Act of 1861 enacted.
Lord Elgin-I (1862-1863)
 Wahabi movement occurred during his tenure and get suppressed.
Lord Lawrence (1862-1869)
 Followed a policy of rigid non-interference in Afghanistan called Policy of Masterly Inactivity.
 Setting up of High Courts at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras (1865).
Lord Mayo (1869-1872)
 Opening of the Rajkot college in Kathiawar and the Mayo College at Ajmer for political training of
Indian princes.
 Establishment of Statistical Survey of India occurred.
 Establishment of Department of Agriculture and Commerce.
 Introduction of State Railways.

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Lord North Brook (1872-1876)

 Visit of Prince of Wales in 1875 occurred.
 Trial of Gaekwad of Baroda occurred.
 Kuka movement in Punjab occurred during his tenure.
Lord Lytton (1876-1880)
 Famine of 1876-1878 affecting Madras, Bombay, Mysore, Hyderabad, parts of Central India and
Punjab occurred. Famine commission under the presidency of Richard Strachey (1878) appointed.
 Royal Titles Act (1876), Queen Victoria assuming the title of ‗Kaiser-i-hind‘ or ‗Queen Empress of
India‘.
 The Vernacular Press Act (1878) and the Arms Act (1878) enacted.
 The Second Afghan War (1878-1880) took place.
Lord Rippon (1880-1884)
 Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act (1882) took place.
 The first Factory Act, 1881, to improve labor conditions enacted.
 Government resolution on Local Self Government (1882) also passed
 Continuation of Financial decentralization.
 Appointment of education commission under the chairmanship of Sir William Hunter (1882).
 The IIbert bill controversy (1883-1884) occurred.
Lord Dufferin (1884-1888)
 The third Burmese war (1885-86) and establishment of Indian National Congress occurred during his
tenure.
Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894)
 Factory act (1891) enacted.
 Categorization of civil services as imperial, provincial and subordinate occurred.
 Indian Council Act (1892) enacted.
 Setting up of Durand Commission (1893) to define the Durand line between India and Afghanistan
(now between Pakistan and Afghanistan).
Lord Elgin-II (1894-1999)
 Two British officials assassinated by Chapekar brothers (1897) during his tenure.
Lord Curzon (1899-1905)

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 Appointment of Police Commission (1902) under Sir Andrew Frazer to review police administration.
 Appointment of Universities Commission (1902) and passing of Indian Universities Act (1904)
Establishment of department of Commerce and industry.
 Calcutta Corporation Act (1899) enacted.
 Ancient Monument Preservation act (1904) & Partition of Bengal (1905) enacted.
 Curzon-Kitchener controversy started.
Lord Minto-II (1905-1910)
 Popularization of anti-partition and Swadeshi movements.
 Split in Congress in the annual session of 1907 in Surat occurred.
 Establishment of Muslim League by Aga Khan (1906).
Lord Hardinge-11 (1910-1916)
 Creation of Bengal presidency (like Bombay and Madras) in 1911.
 Coronation Durbar of King George V held in Delhi 1911.
 Transfer of Capital from Calcutta to Delhi 1911.
 Establishment of Hindu Mabasabha (1915) by Madan Mohan Malavaya.
Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921)
 Formation of Home Rule Leagues by Annie Besant and Tilak (1916).
 Lucknow session of the Congress (1916).
 Lucknow pact between Congress and Muslim league (1916) signed.
 Foundation of Sabarmati Ashram (1916) after Gandhiji‘s return; Launch of Champaran Satyagraha
(1916), Kheda Satyagaha (1918) and Satyagraha at Ahmedabad (1918) occurred.
 Montague‘s August declaration (1917) proposed.
 Government of India‘s Act (1919) enacted.
 The Rowlett Act (1919) enacted.
 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) took place.
 Launch of Non-cooperation and Khilafat movement occurred.
 Foundation of women‘s university at Pune (1916) and appointment of Saddler‘s commission (1917)
for reforms in educational policy.
 Appointment of S.V. Sinha as Governor of Bihar (the first Indian to become a Governor).

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Lord Reading (1921-1926)

 Chauri Chaura incident (February 5, 1922) and the subsequent withdrawal of non-cooperation
movement.
 Moplah rebellion in Kerala (1921) started.
 Repeal of the Press Act of 1910 and the Rowlett Act of 1919 occurred.
 Criminal Law Amendment Act and Abolition of cotton exercise.
 Communal riots in Multan, Amritsar, Delhi, Aligarh, Arvi and Calcutta occurred.
 Kakori train robbery (1925) also happened during his tenure.
 Establishment of Swaraj party by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru (1922).
 Decision to hold simultaneous examination for the ICS both in Delhi and London with effect from
1923.
Lord Irwin (1926-1931)
 Visit of Simon Commission to India (1928) and the boycott of the commission by the Indians
occurred.
 An All-Parties Conference held at Lucknow (1928) for suggestions for (future) Constitution of India,
the report of ‗Nehru Report‘ of the ‗Nehru Constitution‘ proposed.
 Appointment of Harcourt Butler Indian States Commission 1927.
 Murder of Saunders, the Assistant Superintendent of Police of Lahore; bomb blast in the assembly
hall of Delhi; the Lahore conspiracy case and the death of Jatin Das after prolonged hunger strike
(1921) and bomb accident on train in Delhi (1929).
 Lahore session of the Congress (1929); Puna Swami resolution.
 Dandi March (12 March1930) by Gandhi to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.
 Deepavali declaration by Lord Erwin (1929).
 Boycott of the first-round table conference, Gandhi-Irwin pact (1931) and the suspension of the civil
disobedience movement (March 1931).
Lord Willingdon (1931-1936)
 Second round table conference (1931) and failure of the conference, presumption of civil
disobedience.
 Announcement of communal award 1932 under which separate communal electorates were set up.
 ‗Fast unto Death‘ by Gandhi in Yeravada prison, broken after the Pune pact (1932).

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 Third round table conference (1932) occured.

 Launch of individual Civil Disobedience Movement (1933).
 The Government of India Act (1935) enacted.
 Establishment of All India Kisan Sabha (1936) and Congress Socialist Party by Acharya Narendra
Dev and Jayprakash Narayan (1934).
 Burma-separated from India (1935).
Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944)
 First general elections (1936-37); occured Congress gained majority in 5 provinces and formed
coalition in 3 other provinces.
 Resignation of the Congress ministries after the outbreak of the World War-II (1939).
 Subash Chandra Bose elected President of Congress at the 51st session of the Congress (1938).
 Resignation of Bose in 1939 and formation of the Forward Bloc (1939) occured.
 Lahore resolution (March 1940) by the Muslim league demand for the separate state for Muslims.
 August offer‘ (1940) by the viceroy; criticism by the Congress and the endorsement by the Muslim
league.
 Vincent Churchill was elected Prime Minister of England (1940).
 Escape of Subash Chandra Bose from India (1941) and organization of the Indian National Army.
 Cripps Mission, Cripps Plan to offer dominion status to India and setting up of a constituent
assembly and its rejection by the Congress.
 Passing of the ‗Quit India resolutions‘ by the Congress (1942); outbreak of ‗August Revolution‘; or
Revolt of 1942 after the arrest of National leaders.
 ‗Divide and Quit‘ slogan at Karachi session (1944) of the Muslim League.
Lord Wavell (1944-1947)
 Wavell Plan and the Shimla Conference (1942) took place.
 End of World War-II (1945).
 Proposals of the Cabinet Mission (1946) and its acceptance by the Congress.
 Observance of ‗Direct action day‘ (August 16, 1948) by the Muslim League.
 Elections to the constituent assembly, formation of interim government by the Congress (September
1946)

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Announcement of the end of British rule in India by Clement Atlee (Prime Minister of England) on
20 February 1947.
Lord Mountbatten (1947-1948)
 June 3 Plan (June 3, 1947) announced.
 Introduction of Indian Independence Bill in the House of Commons.
 Appointment of two boundary commissions under Sir Cyril Radcliffe for the partition of Bengal and
Punjab.
Education in India
Education is a powerful tool to unlock the golden door of freedom which can change the world. With the
advent of the British, their policies and measures breached the legacies of traditional schools of learning
and this resulted in the need for creating a class of subordinates. To achieve this goal, they instituted a
number of acts to create an Indian canvas of English colour through the education system.
Initially, British East India Company was not concerned with the development of education system
because their prime motive was trading and profit-making. To rule in India, they planned to educate a
small section of upper and middle classes to create a class ―Indian in blood and colour but English in
taste‖ who would act as interpreters between the Government and the masses. This was also called the
―downward filtration theory‖.
The following steps and measures were taken by the British for the development of Education in India.
The chronological development of Education during the British Period in India is discussed below:
1813 Act -The Education
1. Charles Grant and William Wilberforce, who was missionary activists, compelled the East India
Company to give up its non-invention policy and make way for spreading education through English in
order to teach western literature and preach Christianity. Hence, the British Parliament added a clause in
1813 charter that Governor-General-in-Council less than one lakh for education and allowed the
Christian Missionaries to spread their religious ideas in India.
2. Act had its own importance because it was first instance that British East India Company
acknowledged for the promotion of education in India.
3. With the efforts of R.R.M Roy, the Calcutta College was established for imparting Western education.
Also three Sanskrit colleges were set up at Calcutta.
General Committee of Public Instruction, 1823

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This committee was formed to look after the development of education in India which was dominated by
Orientalists who were the great supporter of Oriental learning rather than the Anglican. Hence, they
created paramount of pressure on the British India Company to promote Western Education. As a result,
spread of education in India got discursive between Orientalist-Anglicist and Macaulay‘s resolution
come across with clear picture of British education system.
Lord Macaulay’s Education Policy, 1835
1. This policy was an attempt to create that system of education which educates only upper strata of
society through English.
2. English become court language and Persian was abolished as court language.
3. Printings of English books were made free and available at very low price.
4. English education gets more fund as compare to oriental learning.
5. In 1849, JED Bethune founded Bethune School.
6. Agriculture Institute was established at Pusa (Bihar)
7. Engineering Institute was established at Roorkee.
Wood’s Dispatch, 1854
1. It is considered as the ―Magna Carta of English Education in India‖ and contained comprehensive
plan for spreading education in India.
2. It states the responsibility of State for the spread of education to the masses.
3. It recommended the hierarchy education level- At bottom, vernacular primary school; at district,
Anglo-vernacular High Schools and affiliated college, and affiliated universities of Calcutta, Bombay
and Madras Presidency.
4. Recommended English as a medium of instruction for higher studies and vernacular at school level.
Hunter Commission (1882-83)
1. It was formed to evaluate the achievements of Wood Dispatch of 1854 under W.W Hunter in 1882.
2. It underlined the state‘s role in the extension and improvement of primary education and secondary
education.
3. It underlined the transfer of control to district and municipal boards.
4. It recommended two division of secondary education- Literary up to university; Vocational for
commercial career.
Sadler Commission

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1. It was formed to study on the problems Calcutta University and their recommendations were
applicable to other universities also.
2. Their observations were as follows:
I. 12-year school course
II. 3-years degree after the intermediate stage
III. Centralised functioning of universities, unitary residential-teaching autonomous body.
IV. Recommended extended facilities for applied scientific and technological education, teacher‘s
training and female education.
Hence, we can say the British education system were influence by the aspiration of Christian
Missionaries. It was injected to ensure a cheap supply of educated Indians to increase a number of
subordinate posts in administration and in British business concern. That‘s why, they emphasis on
English as a medium of instruction and also to glorified British conquerors and their administration
Trade unions in India

Trade unions in India, as in most other countries, have been the natural outcome the modem factory
system. Early Period Efforts towards organising the workers for their welfare were made, during the
early period of industrial development by social workers, philanthropists and other religious leaders
mostly on humanitarian grounds. The first Factories Act, 1881, was passed on the basis of the
recommendations of the Bombay Factory Commission, 1875.
Due to the limitations of the Act, the workers in Bombay Textile Industry under the leadership of N M
Lokhande demanded reduced of hours of work, weekly rest days, mid-day recess and compensation for
injuries. Bombay Mill owners‘ Association conceded the demand for weekly holiday.
Consequently, Lokhande established the first Workers‘ Union in India in 1890 in the name of Bombay
Mill hands Association. A labour journal called ―Dinabandu‖ was also published.
Some of the important unions established during the period are: Amalgamated Society of Railway
Servants of India and Burma (1897), Management the Printers Union, Calcutta (1905) and the Bombay
Postal Union (1907), the KamgarHitavardhak Sabha (1910) and the Social Service League (1910). But
these unions were treated as ad hoc bodies and could not serve the purpose of trade unions.
The beginning of the Labour movement in the modest sense started after the outbreak of World War I in
the country. Economic, political and social conditions of the day influenced the growth of trade union

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movement in India. Establishment of International LabourOrganisation in 1919 helped the formation of

trade unions in the country. Madras Labour Union was formed on systematic lines in 1919. A number of
trade unions were established between 1919 and 1923. Category wise unions, like Spinners‘ Union and
Weavers‘ Union, came into existence in Ahmedabad under the inspiration of Mahatma Gandhi. These
unions were later federated into an industrial union known as Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association.
This union has been formed on systematic lines and has been functioning on sound lines based on the
Gandhian Philosophy of mutual trust, collaboration and non-violence. All India Trade Union Congress
The most important year in the history of Indian Trade Union movement is 1920 when the All-India
Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was formed consequent upon the necessity of electing delegates for the
International LabourOrganisation (ILO). This is the first all India trade union in the country. The first
meeting of the AlTUC was held in October, 1920 at Bombay (now Mumbai) under the presidentship of
Lala Lajpat Rai. The formation of AITUC led to the establishment of All India Railwaymen‘s
Federation (AIRF) in 1922. Another split by the communists in 1931 led to the formation of All India
Red Trade Union Congress. Thus, splits were more common during the period. However, efforts were
made by the Railway Federation to bring unity within the AITUC unity. These efforts did bear fruit and
All India Red Trade Union Congress was dissolved. Added to this, All India Trade Union Federation
also merged with AITUC. The unified AITUC‘s convention was held in 1940 in Nagpur. But the unity
did not last long. The World Was II brought splits in the AITUC. There were two groups in the AITUC,
one supporting the war while the other opposing it. the supporting group established its own central
organisation called the Indian Federation of Labour. A further split took place in 1947, when the top
leaders of the Indian National Congress formed another central organisation.
Indian National Trade Union Congress:
The efforts of Indian National Congress resulted in the establishment of Indian National Trade Union
Congress (INTUC) by bringing the split in the AITUC, INTUC started gaining membership right from
the beginning.
Other Central Unions:
Socialists separated from AITUC had formed Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS) in 1948. The Indian
Federation of Labour merged with the HMS, Radicals formed another union under the name of United
Trade Union Congress in 1949. Thus, the trade union movement in the country was split into four
distinct central unions during the short span of 1946 to 1949. Some other central unions were also

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formed. They were Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS) in 1955, the Hind Mazdoor Panchayat (HMP) in
1965 and the Centre of Indian Trade Unions (CITU) in 1970. Thus, splinter group of INTUC formed
Union Trade Union Congress, the split in the Congress Party in 1969 resulted in the split in INTUC and
let to the formation of National LabourOrganisation (NLO).

Rudra’s IAS – 284, zone-II MP NAGAR BHOPAL 9098200428 (C.M. MISHRA)