1)Explain long-range and short-range hydro-scheduling with applications: i)The coordination of the

operation of hydroelectric plants involves, of course, the scheduling of water releases. The long-range
hydro-scheduling problem involves the long-range forecasting of water availability and the scheduling of
reservoir water releases (i.e., “drawdown”) for an interval of time that depends on the reservoir
capacities.Typical long-range scheduling goes anywhere from 1 week to 1 year or several years. For hydro
schemes with a capacity of impounding water over several seasons, the long-range problem involves
meteorological and statistical analyses. ii)Short-range hydro-scheduling (1 day to 1 week) involves the hour-
by-hour scheduling of all generation on a system to achieve minimum production cost for the given time
period.In such a scheduling problem, the load, hydraulic inflows, and unit availabilities are assumed known.
A set of starting conditions (e.g., reservoir levels) is given, and the optimal hourly schedule that minimizes a
desired objective, while meeting hydraulic steam, and electric system constraints, is sought. Part of the
hydraulic constraints may involve meeting “end-point” conditions at the end of the scheduling interval in
order to conform to a long-range, water-release schedule previously established.
2) With the help of an appropriate diagram explain hydroelectric plant models: To understand the
requirements for the operation of hydroelectric plants, one must appreciate the limitations imposed on
operation of hydro-resources by flood control, navigation, fisheries, recreation, water supply, and other
demands on the water bodies and streams, as well as the characteristics of energy conversion from the
potential energy of stored water to electric energy.The amount of energy available in a unit of stored water,
say a cubic foot, is equal to the product of the weight of the water stored (in this case, 62.4 lb) times the
height (in feet) that the water would fall. One thousand cubic feet of water falling a distance of 42.5 ft has
the energy equivalent to 1 kWh. Correspondingly, 42.5 ft3 of water falling 1000 ft also has the energy
equivalent to 1 kWh. Consider the sketch of a reservoir and hydroelectric plant shown in Figure 5.6. Let us
consider some overall aspects of the falling water as it travels from the reservoir through the penstock to the
inlet gates, through the hydraulic turbine down the draft tube and out the tailrace at the plant exit.

3) Explain the input-output and incremental heat rate characteristics of a steam turbine generator
with the help of appropriate diagram: In defining the characteristics of steam turbine units, the following
terms are used: H = Btu per hour heat input to the unit or MBtu/h • F = Fuel cost times H is the $ per hour
$/h input to the unit for fuel. This incremental heat rate characteristic is the slope (the derivative) of the
input–noutput characteristic (ΔH/ΔP or ΔF/ΔP). The data shown on this curve are in terms of Btu/kWh (or
$/kWh) versus the net power output of the unit in megawatts. This characteristic is widely used in economic
dispatching of the unit. The last important characteristic of a steam unit is the unit (net) heat rate
characteristic. This characteristic is H/P versus P. It is proportional to the reciprocal of the usual efficiency
characteristic developed for machinery. The unit heat rate characteristic shows the heat input per kilowatt
hour of output versus the megawatt output of the unit.
4) With the help of appropriate diagrams explain the input output curve and increment heat rate
characteristics of combined cycle system: Combined cycle plants use the high-temperature exhaust gases
from one or more gas turbines to generate steam in heat-recovery steam generator (HRSGs) that are then
used to drive a steam turbine generator. There are many different arrangements of combined cycle plants;
some may use supplementary boilers that may be fired to provide additional steam. The advantage of a
combined cycle is its higher efficiency. Plant efficiencies have been reported in the range between 6600 and
9000 Btu/kWh for the most efficient plants. Both figures are for HHVs of the fuel. A 50% efficiency would
correspond to a net heat rate of 6825 Btu/kWh. Performance data vary with specific cycle and plant designs.
Incremental heat rate characteristics tend to be flatter than those normally seen for steam turbine units.
5) Describe input output curve and increment heat rate characteristics of cogeneration plants with its
applications: Cogeneration plants are similar to the common-header steam plants.They are designed to
produce both steam and electricity. The term “cogeneration” has usually referred to a plant that produces
steam for an industrial process like an oil refining process, Sugar Factory. Cogeneration plants are similar to
the common-header steam plants discussed previously in that they are designed to produce both steam and
electricity. The term “cogeneration” has usually referred to a plant that produces steam for an industrial
process like an oil refining process. For a variety of economic and political reasons, cogeneration is
assuming a larger role in the power systems in the United States. The economic incentive is due to the high-
efficiency electric power generation “topping cycles” that can generate power at heat rates as low as 4000
Btu/kWh.
6) Justify the need of studding the characteristics of power plants: The most important conditions
affecting the design of a power plant are: (1) The site; (2) the cost of coal; (3) water supply; (4) character
of load; (5) capacity of the station. The site of a proposed plant is important because accessibility to a market
for power often means lower investment cost and subsequent maintenance of transmission lines, and
available sources of coal and water must always be large factors in the determination of a proper site. In
congested districts where real estate is high the designer must keep within certain reasonable limits as to
floor space to keep down investment costs. Coal prices determine largely the result of possible competition.
Hydroelectric plants cannot compete with steam plants when coal prices fall much below. Water supply
affects power plant design very largely both in hydroelectric and steam plants. Abundance of water supply is
not alone sufficient.
7) Define economic dispatch problem with mathematical formulation without considering
transmission losses: Consider n generators in the same plant or close enough electrically so that the line
losses may be neglected. Let C1, C2, …, Cn be the operating costs of individual units for the corresponding
power outputs P1, P2,…., Pn respectively. If C is the total operating cost of the entire system and P R is the
total power received by the plant bus and transferred to the load, then

The equation (1) and equation (2) can be minimised as

The above equation shows that if transmission losses are neglected, the total demand PR at any instant must
be met by the total generation. The above equation is the equality constraint. This a constrained
minimising problem. This problem can be solved by using Lagrangian multiplier technique.

where f is the equality constraint equation given by

And λ is the Lagrange multiplier. Combination of equations (3) and (4) gives

Equation (5) can be solved for minimum by determining the partial derivate of the function C* on variable
Pi and equating it equal to zero.
Since Ci is a function of Pi only. The partial derivates become full derivates, that is,

Therefore, the condition for optimum operation is

Since the dci / dpi is the increment cost generation for the generator. The above equation shows that the
criterion for a most economical division of load between within a plant is that all the unit is must operate at
the same incremental fuel cost.
8) Define economic dispatch problem with mathematical formulation with considering transmission
losses: It is important to note here that the transmission system losses need to be considered here. unit 1 had
higher incremental cost compared to unit 2. For economic dispatch, unit 2 therefore was scheduled to
produce more power than unit 1. This is the case in general when units are part of the same plant, or
geographically closely located. For a unit with low incremental cost, operating cost may be higher, if the
transmission line losses are very high (e.g. due to the large distance between the unit and the load).
Therefore, one has to consider the transmission line losses for determining economic dispatch of units in a
power system.