Relativity

Origin of the term relativity:

Bird flies along

this direction

Expected
direction

Orbit
Earth’s motion

Before 17th century, people had a deep believe on theology. At that time, they
knew that earth is at the center of the universe and other terrestrial bodies move
round the earth.
Galileo was first persuaded that earth is in motion around the sun, which is
stationary. Most of the fellows argued that if it is true then why birds leaving the
earth would not be left behind by the speeding earth (30km/s). Galileo reasoned
that if a ship moved uniformly on the sea, a sailor could not distinguish between
the situation in which the ship is in motion and the sea at rest and the situation in
which the ship is at rest and the sea in motion. According to him, a weight dropped
from the top of the mast of a ship moving uniformly should land at the base of
the mast, not behind of it, although we might expect the latter case as the boat is
moving from beneath the falling body. In Galileo’ view, the only motion that is
measurable is the relative motion between the ship and the sea; hence the term
“Relativity” was manifested first ever, If he could do experiments on the falling
body, presumably the weight would not have landed exactly at the base of the
mast, partly due to the effects of wind and partly due to the actually moving ship
is unlikely to move uniformly.
All motion is relative:

When something is moving, it means that its position relative to something is

changing. For example, a passenger, when walking in the board, moves relative
to an airplane; an airplane moves relative to the earth; the earth moves relative to
the sun; the sun moves relative the galaxy and so on. In each case, a frame of
reference is necessary to describe the motion. To say that something is moving
always implies that it is in a specific frame which is always moving. It is obvious
that there is no specific frame with respect to which other things are moving. As
there is no universal frame of reference pervading in space, so there is no such
thing in absolute motion. Thus, all motion is relative.

Importance of relativity:

In macroscopic world, the speed v of a moving body or mechanical waves with

respect to an observer is very less than speed of light (i.e. v<<c). Say, (i) a satellite
circles the earth at v=18000 mile/h. So, v/c=0.000027, (ii) sound waves has
v=332m/s. So, v/c=0.0000010. In this macroscopic environment, our ideas about
space and time were first formulated in which Newton developed his mechanics.

In the microscopic world, an electron accelerated in a 10-million-volt potential

difference has the speed v=0.9988c. Here, v/c≅1. But we do not know whether
Newtonian mechanics can be safely extrapolated from low speed (v<<c) to high
speed (v/c≅1). Experiment shows that Newtonian mechanics does not provide
correct answer. In this mechanics, there is no limit of v (0 to ∞); so, the speed c
plays no role. And yet, if the energy of an electron is increased from 10 to 40
1
MeV, experiment shows that the speed is not doubled to 1.9976c (𝐸1 = 𝑚𝑣12 ,
2
1 𝐸2 40
𝐸2 = 𝑚𝑣22 , so, 𝑣22 = 𝑣12 = (0.9988𝑐)2 , so 𝑣2 = 1.9976𝑐) but remains <c.
2 𝐸1 10
It increases from 0.9988c to 0.9999c, a change of 0.11%.
𝑚𝑒 𝑣
If 10 Mev electron moves perpendicular to B of 2 W/m2, then 𝑟 = = 0.53
𝑞𝐵
𝑚𝑒 𝑣 2
(𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵, and 𝐹 = ), but experiment shows 1.8 cm. So, no matter how well
𝑟
𝑣
Newtonian mechanics works well at low speed, it fails if → 1.
𝑐
Moreover, when we measure length of a stick, time interval between two events
and mass of a particle, we ought to get the same result as these exists standard
unit or instrument for these measurements. A passenger on the board of an
airplane can easily measure its length by a tape, fixing airplane’s nose and tail.
But how an observer on the ground will measure the length of a moving airplane?
How he will measure the time of a watch kept at the plane? Will the measurements
of airplane-observer and ground observer be same? If not, how the values will be
affected by the relative motion?

In 1905, Einstein published his theory of relativity which was developed to

understand the nature of electromagnetism. He predicted the results of
mechanical experiments too in the range v/c=0 to v/c=1 and showed that
Newtonian mechanics is a special case of relativity theory. Many other physical
phenomena could be explained based on this theory. This theory gives solutions
of how physical quantities are affected by the relative motion between observer
and what is being observed. It links between space and time, matter and energy,
electricity and magnetism.

Concept of reference frame:

Suppose a person A travelling in a moving train at a constant speed observes
another person B sitting adjacent to him in the train. B will appear at rest to A. A
person C standing on the ground will see that B is moving with the same speed
as that of A. Thus, B appears either at rest or at motion to the two observers.

Also suppose the collision of two particles occurs at x=1m, y=4m, z=11m at a
time t=7s in a laboratory on the earth. If this collision is observed from an airplane
flying overhead, would these values be different from those in the laboratory? If
well-defined coordinate systems can be attached to the two observers of above
two examples, the event can be defined precisely.

Thus, if we are to describe events, our first step is to establish a frame of reference.
Frames of reference

The coordinate system to which any measurement can be done to specify the state
of an object is known as reference frame. It is of two types: (i) Inertial frame and
(ii) Non-inertial frame,

Inertial frame: Any frame at rest with respect to other frames or in constant
motion with them is called an inertial frame. In this frame, the law of inertia-
Newton’s first law- holds good. This is an unaccelerated system, in which a body
acted on by zero net external force will move with a constant velocity. Examples:
According to Newton, (i) Frames fixed in stars and (ii) A rocket ship drifting in
outer space, without spinning and with its energies cut off, provide an ideal
inertial system. (iii) If we neglect small acceleration effects due to the rotation
and the orbital motion of the earth and to solar motion, a frame fixed on the earth
will be an inertial frame. Likewise, any frame moving at uniform velocity with
respect to the earth, as in train, ship, and airplane will be nearly inertial. Special
relativity is discussed in this frame.

Non-inertial frame: A reference frame, which accelerates with respect to the

earth, such as one fixed to a spinning merry-go-round or to an accelerated car,
constitute non-inertial frame. A particle acted on by zero net external force will
not move in a straight line with constant speed according to an observer in such
frame. Frame fixed on earth is a non-inertial frame, because earth is spinning and
rotating. General relativity is discussed in non-inertial frame.

Galilean transformation

y y´

x x´ P
Event
S S´ occurs
vt

x x´

z z´
We consider two frames S and S´; the S´ is moving with a constant speed v along
+x-axis. Suppose an event (collision of two particles) occurs at point P. An
observer in S finds the event at (x, y, z) at time t. Since S´ moves with v, an
observer in this frame will find the event at (x´, y´, z´) at time t´. Suppose that at
t=t´=0, S and S´ coincide. t and t´ are measured by their respective clocks. Now,
at time t, S´ will move a distance vt. We can write

𝑥´ = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡

y´=y

z´=z

Clocks in all systems moving with uniform speed with respect to each other are
assumed to go at the same rate (this is an assumption in classical mechanics).
Thus, we can write: t´=t

If we write together, then

𝑥´ = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡

y´=y

z´=z

t´=t

The above equations are called Galilean transformation (from S to S´). The
transformation from S´ to S is:

𝑥 = 𝑥´ + 𝑣𝑡

y=y´

z=z´

t=t´

The above equations are called inverse Galilean transformation.

Application of Galilean transformation to measure the length of a rod

A B

Let a rod AB be fixed in S-frame. Then the Galilean transformations are:

𝑥𝐴´ = 𝑥𝐴 − 𝑣𝑡𝐴

𝑥𝐵´ = 𝑥𝐵 − 𝑣𝑡𝐵

Therefore, 𝑥𝐵´ − 𝑥𝐴´ = 𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 − 𝑣(𝑡𝐵 − 𝑡𝐴 )

Since two end points A and B are measured at the same time, so 𝑡𝐴 = 𝑡𝐵 .
Therefore, 𝑥𝐵´ − 𝑥𝐴´ = 𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴

If A and B are fixed in S´ frame, we can show: 𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 = 𝑥𝐵´ − 𝑥𝐴´ − 𝑣(𝑡𝐵´ − 𝑡𝐴´ ).
If the measurements are done at the same instant (𝑡𝐴´ = 𝑡𝐵´ ). Then

𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴 = 𝑥𝐵´ − 𝑥𝐴´

Consider the occurrence of two events A and B in S-frame. If the events are
measured by S and S´, then

𝑡𝐵´ − 𝑡𝐴´ = 𝑡𝐵 − 𝑡𝐴

The time interval and space interval measurements are absolute (independent) in
Galilean transformation. They are same. v does not enter into equation (𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴
or 𝑡𝐵 − 𝑡𝐴 ). Similarly, mass measurement is independent of v. So, in Galilean
transformation, mass length and time are independent of v.

Newtonian Relativity

How are the measurements of different inertial observers compared with regard
to velocities and accelerations of objects?
Ans: We know the position of a particle is a function of time. Suppose the position
of a particle in S´ frame is expressed by the following equation:

𝑥´ = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡 ..................................................(1)

𝑑𝑥´ 𝑑𝑥´ 𝑑𝑥
or = = − 𝑣 ........................................(2) (⸪t=t´)
𝑑𝑡´ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

∴ 𝑢𝑥´ = 𝑢𝑥 − 𝑣 ..................................................(3)

Similarly, 𝑢𝑦´ = 𝑢𝑦 ..........................................................(4)

And 𝑢𝑧´ = 𝑢𝑧 ...........................................................(5)

Equations (3)‒(5) are classical velocity addition formula. In general, Equ(3) is

𝑢´ = 𝑢 − 𝑣 ......................................................(6)

If the particle is an airplane, then S´ is air and S is the earth. Thus, the velocity of
airplane with respect to air (u´) equals the velocity of plane with respect to ground
(u) minus the velocity of the air with respect to the ground (v). Now,
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑢𝑥´ ) = (𝑢𝑥 − 𝑣) (v=constant)
𝑑𝑡´ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢𝑥´ 𝑑𝑢𝑥
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

or 𝑎𝑥´ = 𝑎𝑥
𝑎𝑦´ = 𝑎𝑦
𝑎𝑧´ = 𝑎𝑧
The above equations are acceleration transformations. Hence, in general, a´=a.
Therefore, acceleration is unaffected by the uniform relative motion. Two
observers in S´ and S observe different velocities of a particle, but when particle
velocity changes the rate of change is same for both observers.
In classical physics, m´=m (mass is not affected by motion). So,
𝑚´𝑎 = 𝑚𝑎
F´=F
Therefore, Newton’s 2nd law of motion is invariant under Galilean
transformations. In fact, the equations of motion of a particle will be exactly the
same in all inertial systems.

Problem: A passenger walks forward along the aisle of a train at a speed of 2.2
mi/h as the train moves along a straight track at a constant speed of 57.5 mi/h
with respect to the ground. What is the passengers speed with respect to the
ground?

Soln: Here, 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥´ + 𝑣

Given that, 𝑢𝑥´ = 2.2 𝑚𝑖/ℎ, v=57.5 mi/h
So, 𝑢𝑥 = (57.5 + 2.2)𝑚𝑖/ℎ = 59.7 𝑚𝑖/ℎ

Problem: Two electrons are ejected in opposite directions from radioactive atoms
in a sample of radioactive material at rest in the laboratory. Each electron has a
speed 0.67c as measured by a laboratory observer. What is the speed of one
electron as measured from the other according to classical mechanics?

Soln: Here, 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥´ + 𝑣

Given that, 𝑢𝑥´ = 0.67𝑐, The speed of S is 0.67 along –x
direction, so, v=+0.67c
So, 𝑢𝑥 = (0.67𝑐 + 0.67𝑐) = 1.34𝑐

Laws of conservation:
(i) Momentum: 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
If we put, 𝑢1 = 𝑢1´ + 𝑣 ......... and so on, we get
𝑚1 𝑢1´ + 𝑚2 𝑢2´ = 𝑚1 𝑣1´ + 𝑚2 𝑣2´

(ii) Energy is also satisfied.

Conclusion: Laws of mechanics are valid (same) in inertial frames (although

velocity, K. E. and momentum appear differently in S and S´).
Problem: Why frames of reference with acceleration are non-inertial?

Ans: Let S´ moves with acceleration ao with respect to S. So, S moves with
acceleration –ao with respect to S´. Then a particle in S with inherent acceleration
a with respect to S′ has acceleration:

𝑎´ = 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑜 in S´

or 𝑚𝑎´ = 𝑚𝑎 − 𝑚𝑎𝑜

or 𝐹´ = 𝐹 − 𝐹𝑜

If F=0, 𝐹´ = −𝐹𝑜

If no force on the particle in S (F=0), a force Fo=mao appears on the particle in

S´. This is a non-inertial frame.

Problem: Consider a mass attached to a spring and moving on a horizontal

surface. Show, from the classical transformation laws, that the equation of motion
of the mass are the same as determined by an observer at rest with respect to the
surface and by a second observer moving with constant velocity along the
direction of the spring.

Soln: The equation of motion of mass m, as determined by an observer at rest

with respect to the surface, is

F=ma (a=acceleration)

𝑑2𝑥
or −𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 ) = 𝑚 ..........................(1)
𝑑𝑡 2

Here, xo= original length of the spring, and x= length after stretching). The
equation of motion as found by second observer can be obtained by using inverse
Galilean transformation. We have to put 𝑥 = 𝑥´ + 𝑣𝑡, and 𝑥𝑜 = 𝑥𝑜´ + 𝑣𝑡 in
equation (1). So,

𝑑2𝑥 𝑑 2 (𝑥´+𝑣𝑡´) 𝑑 2 𝑥´
= 2 = .....................................(2)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 ´ 𝑑𝑡´2
And −𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 ) = −𝑘[(𝑥´ + 𝑣𝑡´) − (𝑥𝑜´ + 𝑣𝑡´)] = −𝑘(𝑥´ − 𝑥𝑜´ ) ...........(3)

Substituting equations (2) and (3) in equ(1):

𝑑 2 𝑥´
−𝑘(𝑥´ − 𝑥𝑜´ ) = 𝑚 ........................................(4)
𝑑𝑡 ′2

Equ(1) and (4) have the same form.

Problem: Speed of light is not invariant under Galilean transformation.

Soln: Let, c= the speed of light in S-frame, and c´=speed of light in S´-frame, then
using the Galilean velocity transformation, we have

𝑢´ = 𝑢 − 𝑣

𝑐´ = 𝑐 − 𝑣

So, speed of light is not invariant under Galilean transformation

𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸
Problem: Show that the electromagnetic wave equation 2
+ 2
+ −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2
1 𝜕2 𝐸
= 0 is not invariant under Galilean transformation.
𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2

Soln: This equation will be invariant if it retains the same form when expressed
in terms of the new variables x´, y´, z´ and t´. We first find from the Galilean
transformation that, 𝑥´ = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡, 𝑦´ = 𝑦, 𝑧´ = 𝑧, 𝑡´ = 𝑡.

𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝑦´ 𝜕𝑧´

∴ = 1, = −𝑣, =1= =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑦´ 𝜕𝑡´

and = = = = ⋯………..= 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

Let E=E(x´,y´,z´,t´)

From the chain rule and using the above results, we have

𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑦´ 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑧´ 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝐸

= . + . + . + . =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦´ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧´ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥´

The last 3 terms in the middle of above equ is zero.

 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕 𝜕𝐸 𝜕 𝜕𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸
Again, = ( ) = 𝜕𝑥´ (𝜕𝑥´) = 𝜕𝑥´2 ; = ; =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦´ 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧´2

𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑦´ 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑧´ 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸

Moreover, = . + . + . + . = −𝑣
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑦´ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧´ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝑥´

The last 2 terms in the middle of above equ is zero.

𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕 𝜕𝐸 𝜕 𝜕𝐸 𝜕 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸 𝜕 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸
∴ = ( ) − 𝑣 𝜕𝑥´ ( 𝜕𝑡 ) = 𝜕𝑡´ (𝜕𝑡´ − 𝑣 𝜕𝑥´) − 𝑣 𝜕𝑥´ (𝜕𝑡´ − 𝑣 𝜕𝑥´)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝑡

𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸
or = −𝑣 −𝑣 + 𝑣2 = − 2𝑣 + 𝑣2
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡´ 2 𝜕𝑥´𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝑥´𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝑥´2 𝜕𝑡´ 2 𝜕𝑥´𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝑥´2

Substituting all these values in the wave equation, we get

𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 1 𝜕2 𝐸 1 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸
2
+ 2
+ 2
− + (2𝑣 − 𝑣2 )=0
𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑦´ 𝜕𝑧´ 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡´ 2 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑥´𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝑥´2

This is not the same form as the wave equation. So, the electromagnetic wave
equation is not invariant under Galilean transformation.

Electromagnetism and Newtonian Relativity:

We have examined above that the laws of electromagnetism are not invariant
under Galilean transformation. We have shown that the speed of light is not
invariant under Galilean transformation. From late 19 th century to early 20th
century, it was not really thought that light could propagate in empty space.
1
Because the estimated and observed speed of light was 𝑐 = =
√∈𝑜 𝜇 0

2.9979 × 108 𝑚/𝑠, which seemed to be very large speed that might need
medium to propagate as the speed of sound wave was 332 m/s in air.

If we apply Galilean transformation to optical or electromagnetic phenomena,

there is only one or unique frame with which the speed of light is c and the frame
was then called “Ether”. At that time the ether was given strange properties like
it is mass less, highly transparent, elasticity greater than steel and so on. With
these peculiar properties, the existence of ether was believed at that time. Not
only the variance of speed of light and electromagnetic wave equation, no
electromagnetic theory was valid under Galilean transformation. Then the
conclusion was “Galilean relativity does apply on Newton’s laws of mechanics
but not on electrodynamics.

Several attempts were made:

(i) Relativity principle valid for Newtonian mechanics not for

electrodynamics. For the latter, there is a unique frame which must be
verified.
(ii) The principle valid for both Newtonian mechanics (NM) and
electrodynamics but the laws of electrodynamics not correct. If both to
be correct, a modification of electrodynamics (ED) is necessary.
(iii) The principle is valid for NM and ED but NM not correct. A
modification of NM is necessary
 Michelson-Morley Experiment

A. A. Michelson first performed this experiment in 1881 and then in 1887 with
E. E. Morley to test the existence of ether. He got Nobel Prize in Physics in 1907-
the first American to be so honored.
Figure shows Michelson interferometer, fixed on earth. If ether is fixed with
respect to the sun, the earth moves through ether with a velocity v=30 km/s (19
mi/s). We neglect earth spinning motion. The parallel beam from a fixed
monochromatic source attached with the instrument is split by the partially
silvered glass plate (45º inclination with bean direction) into two beams 1 and 2.
Beam 1 is reflected back to M from mirror M1 and 2 from mirror M2. The beam
1 is partially reflected and 2 is partially transmitted by M and they go to telescope
where they interfere. If M1 and M2 are very nearly at right angles, we shall
observe a fringe system as shown, because we get thin wedge of air between glass
plates.

Mirror
M2

2 l2 Glass
plate M

Mirror
Source l1 M1
Lens
1

Instrument moving rightward with v

Telescope
c‒v
Upstream velocity

Downstream velocity
c+v
Let l1 be the length between M and M1, and l2 the length between M and M2. Let
us compute the path difference or phase difference between rays 1 and 2 to reach
the telescope view. This difference has two causes (i) due to l1 and l2 are different,
and (ii) due to speeds of travel with respect to instrument because of ether wind
moves with v leftward.
Relative upstream velocity of light with respect to apparatus=c-v
Relative downstream velocity of light with respect to apparatus=c+v

𝑡2
𝑡=
2
t=0
M2

𝑐𝑡2 𝑐𝑡2
l2 2 2
v
l2

𝑡 = 𝑡2
M

𝑣𝑡2
2

𝑣𝑡2

So, Time taken (t1) for beam 1 for round trip (M to M1 and then M1 to M) is:

𝑙1 𝑙1 2𝑐 2𝑙1 1
𝑡1 = + = 𝑙1 = ...............................(1)
𝑐−𝑣 𝑐+𝑣 𝑐 2 −𝑣 2 𝑐 1−𝑣2
𝑐2

The path 2 is a cross-stream path as can be represented by the above Figure:

The transit time t2 can be obtained from the following formula according to the
Figure:
𝑣𝑡2 2 𝑐𝑡2
𝑙22 + ( ) = ( )2
2 2
 𝑡22 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 ) = 4𝑙22

2𝑙2 2𝑙2 1
𝑡2 = = ...........................(2)
√𝑐 2 −𝑣 2 𝑐 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

The difference in transit time is:

2 𝑙2 𝑙1
∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = ( 2
− 𝑣2
) .............(3)
𝑐
√1−𝑣2 1− 2
𝑐
𝑐

Suppose that the apparatus is rotated through 90º by making l1 cross-stream and
l2 down-stream lengths. If the corresponding times are designated by primes then,
2𝑙1 1 2𝑙2 1
𝑡1´ = and 𝑡2´ =
𝑐 2 𝑐 1−𝑣2
√1−𝑣2 2 𝑐
𝑐

The time difference due to rotation is:

2 𝑙2 𝑙1
∆𝑡´ = 𝑡2´ − 𝑡1´ = ( 𝑣2
− 2
) .................(4)
𝑐 1− 2
𝑐 √1−𝑣2
𝑐

Hence rotation changes the time differences by an amount:

2 𝑙 +𝑙2 𝑙1 +𝑙2
∆𝑇 = ∆𝑡´ − ∆𝑡 = ( 1 − )
𝑐 1−𝑣2 2
𝑐2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐

2(𝑙1 +𝑙2 ) 𝑣2 1 𝑣2
≅ (1 + 2
+⋯−1− − ⋯)
𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑐2

(𝑙1 +𝑙2 ) 𝑣 2
=
𝑐 𝑐2

For 1 sec the path traversed by light is c m

(𝑙1 +𝑙2 ) 𝑣 2 (𝑙1 +𝑙2 ) 𝑣 2

For 2
sec the path traversed by light is m
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐2

Now, change of λ m corresponds to shift of 1 fringe

(𝑙1 +𝑙2 ) 𝑣 2 (𝑙1 +𝑙2 ) 𝑣 2

So, change of m corresponds to shift of fringe
𝑐2 𝜆 𝑐2
 (𝑙1 +𝑙2 )𝑣 2
If the fringe shift is ∆𝑁, then ∆𝑁 =
𝑐 2𝜆

2𝐷𝑣 2
If 𝑙1 = 𝑙2 = 𝐷, then ∆𝑁 =
𝑐 2𝜆

In Michelson’s apparatus, D=11m, λ=5.5×10‒7 m, v=30km/s and c=3.0×108 m/s,

2×11 𝑚×(30×1000𝑚/𝑠)2
So, ∆𝑁 =
(3.0×108 𝑚/𝑠)2 ×5.5×10−7 𝑚

= 0.4

= 40%

They floated the apparatus in mercury so that rotation became smooth on a central
pin. Observations were made day and night (as the earth spins) and all seasons of
the year (due to the earth’s orbital motion). BUT NO FRINGE SHIFT WAS
OBSERVED.

Conclusions:

1. There is no ether frame.

2. The speed of light c is constant for all directions in every inertial system. This
fact leads to ΔN=0. Down-stream and cross-stream speed is c not (c+v) or (c-
v).

Special theory of relativity

Many experiments were done to explain the null results of Michelson-Morley

(MM) experiment. Einstein knew the results of MM experiment, the doppler shift
in light aberration experiment, solutions of Maxwell’s equation and speed of
light. He thought that the ether theory is non-sense. For explaining the anomalies
between existing theory and results, he provided a solution by publishing his
special theory of relativity. It consists of two postulates. Using these postulates,
Einstein made a correlation of motions between two frames. He developed a set
of transformation equations, which, interestingly were developed by Lorentz
several years ago when Einstein worked on it. H. A. Lorentz, a Dutch Physicist,
showed that the basic formulae of electromagnetism are the same in all frames of
reference. Thus, the transformation was named after Lorentz, called Lorentz
transformation.

Postulates of special relativity

(1) The laws of physics are the same in all inertial systems. No, preferred
inertial system exists. (The principle of relativity)
(2) The speed of light in free space has the same value in all inertial systems.
(The principle of constancy)

Newtonian relativity deals with the laws of mechanics, whereas Einstein’s

relativity principle deals with all the laws of physics. It states that no physical
measurements can tell us whether an inertial frame is intrinsically stationary or
moving; it speaks of the relative motion of two systems. The principle of
constancy contradicts Galilean transformation but consistent with all subsequent
experimental results. The entire theory was derived based on the two postulates.
Their simplicity, boldness and generality are characteristics of Einstein’s genius.

The Lorentz transformations

y y´

x x´ P
Event
S S´ occurs
vt

x x´

z z´
Consider that a rest frame S in which an event is characterized by 4 coordinates
x, y, z, t and a frame S′ moving along x-axis with a constant speed v in which the
event is characterized by x′, y′, z′, t′. We consider space-time coordinates, where
space and time are homogeneous. Homogeneity means, for example, the length
and time interval between two events should not depend on where or when the
interval happens to be in our frame.

A reasonable guess to make relationship between x and t is:

𝑥 ′ = 𝛽(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) ………………….(1) 𝑥 ′ ∝ (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡)

Where β is a proportionality factor that does not depend on x

or t but may depend on v. The choice of equation (1) is for following reasons:

(i) It is linear in x and x′; so, a single event of S corresponds to a single

event in S′.
(ii) It is simple; a simple solution to a problem always be explained first.
(iii) It can be reduced to Galilean form 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡.

Now apply first postulate:

Laws of physics have the same form in S and S′-frames. So, we can change the
sign of v if we go from primed coordinate S′ to non-primed coordinate S (Here,
S′ is fixed and S is moving with -v along x-axis.). Thus,

𝑥 = 𝛽(𝑥′ + 𝑣𝑡 ′ ) ………………………….(2)

Here, β must be the same as there is no difference between S and S′ other than
the sign of v. Since there is no relative motion along y and z-axes, then

𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 ……………………………….(3a)

𝑧 ′ = 𝑧 ………………………………,(3b)

Substituting the value of x of equ(1) into equ(2):

𝑥 = 𝛽{𝛽(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) + 𝑣𝑡′}

= 𝛽 2 (𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) + 𝛽𝑣𝑡′
 = 𝛽 2 𝑥 − 𝛽 2 𝑣𝑡 + 𝛽𝑣𝑡′

Or, 𝛽𝑣𝑡 ′ = 𝛽 2 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑥 − 𝛽 2 𝑥

𝛽 2 𝑣𝑡+𝑥−𝛽 2 𝑥
Or, 𝑡′ =
𝛽𝑣

(1−𝛽 2 )𝑥
So, 𝑡 ′ = 𝛽𝑡 + ………………………(4)
𝛽𝑣

Equ(2) to equ(4) represent the coordinate transformation with unknown β, which

has to be determined. For this, we have to apply 2nd postulate:
y y´

S S´
S

x x´

v
z z´

The speed of light is constant in S and S′ frames. Let at t=t′=0, a spherical wave
leaves the common origin. The wave propagates with speed c in all directions in
each frame. Both observers will be centered by the spherical wave fronts.

Since both observers must find the same speed c, which means that in the S frame:

𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡 ………………………………………………(5)

And in the S′ frame:

𝑥 ′ = 𝑐𝑡 ′ ………………………………………………(6)

(1−𝛽 2 )𝑥
Or, 𝛽(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) = 𝑐 {𝛽𝑡 + }
𝛽𝑣

(1−𝛽 2 )𝑐𝑥
Or, 𝛽𝑥 − = 𝑐𝛽𝑡 + 𝛽𝑣𝑡
𝛽𝑣
 𝑣
𝑐𝛽𝑡+𝛽𝑣𝑡 𝛽+ 𝛽
𝑐
Or, 𝑥= (1−𝛽2 )𝑐
= 𝑐𝑡 [ (1−𝛽2 )𝑐
]
𝛽− 𝛽−
𝛽𝑣 𝛽𝑣

𝑣
1+
So, 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑡 [ 1
𝑐
𝑐 ] …………………………………….(7)
1−( 2 −1)𝑣
𝛽

Comparing equations (5) and (7):

𝑣
1+ 𝑐 𝑐 𝑣
𝑐
1 𝑐 =1 or 1− + =1+
1−( 2 −1)𝑣 𝛽2𝑣 𝑣 𝑐
𝛽

𝑐 𝑐 𝑣 1 𝑣2
Or, = − or =1−
𝛽2𝑣 𝑣 𝑐 𝛽2 𝑐2

1 1
Or, 𝛽2 = 𝑣2
or 𝛽=√ 𝑣2
1− 2 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑣2
1 − 2 𝑣2
Now, 1 − 𝛽2 = 1 − 𝑣2
= 𝑐
𝑣2
= −𝛽 2
1− 2 1− 2 𝑐2
𝑐 𝑐

From Equ(4):

𝑣2 𝑥
(1−𝛽 2 )𝑥 𝛽2 2 𝛽𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑥
′ 𝑐
𝑡 = 𝛽𝑡 + = 𝛽𝑡 − = 𝛽𝑡 − = 𝛽(𝑡 − )
𝛽𝑣 𝛽𝑣 𝑐2 𝑐2

Therefore, Lorentz transformations are:

𝑥−𝑣𝑡
𝑥′ = 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

𝑦′ = 𝑦

𝑧′ = 𝑧
𝑣𝑥
(𝑡− 2 )
′ 𝑐
𝑡 = 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
These are called Lorentz transformation equations (unprimed to primed) derived
by Dutch Physicist H. A. Lorentz, who showed that the basic formulae of
electromagnetism are same in all inertial frames. Later Einstein discovered their
full significance.

Inverse Lorentz transformation:

We know,

𝑥 ′ = 𝛽(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡) or 𝛽𝑥 − 𝛽𝑣𝑡 − 𝑥 ′ = 0 (1)

𝑣𝑥
And 𝑡 ′ = 𝛽(𝑡 − ) or 𝛽𝑣𝑥 − 𝛽𝑐 2 𝑡 + 𝑐 2 𝑡′ = 0 (2)
𝑐2

By cross-multiplication process:

𝑥 𝑡 1
= =
−𝛽𝑣𝑐 2 𝑡 ′ −𝛽𝑐 2 𝑥 ′ −(𝛽𝑐 2 𝑡 ′ +𝛽𝑣𝑥 ′ ) −𝛽 2 𝑐 2 +𝛽 2 𝑣 2

𝑥 𝑡 1
Or, = ′ = 𝑣2
𝛽𝑣𝑐 2 𝑡 ′ +𝛽𝑐 2 𝑥 ′ 𝛽𝑐 2 𝑡 ′ +𝛽𝑣𝑥 𝛽 2 𝑐 2 (1− 2 )
𝑐

𝛽𝑐 2 (𝑥 ′ +𝑣𝑡 ′ ) 𝑥 ′ +𝑣𝑡 ′
Or, 𝑥= 𝑣2
= 𝑣2
𝛽 2 𝑐 2 (1− 2 ) 𝛽(1− 2 )
𝑐 𝑐

𝑣𝑥′ 𝑣𝑥′
𝛽𝑐 2 (𝑡 ′ + 2 ) 𝑡 ′+ 2
𝑐 𝑐
And 𝑡= 𝑣2
= 𝑣2
𝛽 2 𝑐 2 (1− 2 ) 𝛽(1− 2 )
𝑐 𝑐

So, Inverse Lorentz transformation equations are:

𝑥 ′ +𝑣𝑡 ′
𝑥= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

𝑦 = 𝑦′

𝑧 = 𝑧′
 𝑣𝑥′
𝑡 ′+ 2
𝑐
𝑡= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸
Problem: Show that the electromagnetic wave equation 2
+ 2
+ −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2
1 𝜕2 𝐸
= 0 is invariant under Lorentz transformation.
𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 2

Soln: This equation will be invariant if it retains the same form when expressed
in terms of the new variables x´, y´, z´ and t´. We first find from the Lorentz
𝑣𝑥
𝑥−𝑣𝑡 (𝑡− 2 )
′ 𝑐
transformation that, 𝑥´ = , 𝑦´ = 𝑦, 𝑧´ = 𝑧, 𝑡 = 2
2 √1−𝑣2
√1−𝑣 𝑐
𝑐2

𝜕𝑥´ 1 𝜕𝑥´ −𝑣
∴ = , = ,
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2
√1−𝑣 √1−𝑣
𝑐2 𝑐2

−𝑣
𝜕𝑡´ 𝑐2 𝜕𝑡´ 1
= , =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡 2
√1−𝑣 √1−𝑣
𝑐2 𝑐2

𝜕𝑦´ 𝜕𝑧´
= =1
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑦´

and = = = ⋯…………..= 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥

Let E=E(x´,y´,z´,t´)

From the chain rule and using the above results, we have

𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑦´ 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑧´ 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑡´

= . + . + . + . …………………(1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦´ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧´ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝑥

−𝑣
1 𝜕𝐸 𝑐2 𝜕𝐸
= . + .
2 𝜕𝑥´ 2 𝜕𝑡´
√1−𝑣 √1−𝑣
𝑐2 𝑐2
2 terms in the middle of right side of equ (1) is zero.

−𝑣 −𝑣
𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕 1 𝜕𝐸 𝑐2 𝜕𝐸 1 𝜕 𝜕𝐸 𝑐2 𝜕 𝜕𝐸
Again, = . + . = . . + . .
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥´ 2 𝜕𝑡´ 2 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝑥
√1−𝑣 √1−𝑣 √1−𝑣 √1−𝑣
[ 𝑐2 𝑐2 ] 𝑐2 𝑐2

−𝑣 −𝑣
1 𝜕 𝑐2 𝜕 1 𝜕𝐸 𝑐2 𝜕𝐸
= . + . . . . + .
2 𝜕𝑥´ 2 𝜕𝑡´ 2 𝜕𝑥´ 2 𝜕𝑡´
√1−𝑣 √1−𝑣 √1−𝑣 √1−𝑣
[ 𝑐2 𝑐2 ] [ 𝑐2 𝑐2 ]

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣2
1 𝜕2 𝐸 𝑐2 𝜕2 𝐸 𝑐2 𝜕2 𝐸 𝑐4 𝜕2 𝐸
= 𝑣2
. ′2
− 𝑣2 ′ ′
− 𝑣2 ′ ′
+ 𝑣2 ′2
1− 2 𝜕𝑥 1− 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 1− 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 1− 2 𝜕𝑡
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

1 𝜕2 𝐸 𝑣 2 𝜕2 𝐸 2𝑣 𝜕2 𝐸
= (
𝑣2 𝜕𝑥 ′2
+ 4 ′2 − 2 ′ ′)
𝑐 𝜕𝑡 𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
1− 2
𝑐

𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑦´ 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑧´ 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝑡´

Moreover, = . + . + . + . ………………..(2)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑦´ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧´ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝑡

−𝑣 𝜕𝐸 1 𝜕𝐸
= . +
2 𝜕𝑥´ 2 𝜕𝑡´
√1−𝑣 √1−𝑣
𝑐2 𝑐2

The 2 terms in the middle of equ (2) is zero.

𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕 𝜕𝐸 −𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝐸 1 𝜕 𝜕𝐸
∴ = ( )= . . + .
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡´ 𝜕𝑡
√1−𝑣 √1−𝑣
𝑐2 𝑐2

𝑣2 𝜕2 𝐸 𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝐸 𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝐸 1 𝜕2 𝐸
= 𝑣2
. ′2
− . .
𝑣2 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑡 ′
− . .
𝑣2 𝜕𝑥´ 𝜕𝑡 ′
+ 𝑣2
. ′2
1− 2 𝜕𝑥 1− 2 1− 2 1− 2 𝜕𝑡
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

1 2 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸
2 𝜕 𝐸
= 𝑣2
(𝑣 . + − 2𝑣 )
𝜕𝑥 ′2 𝜕𝑡 ′2 𝜕𝑥´𝜕𝑡´
1− 2
𝑐

𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸
Again, = ; =
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑦 ′2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 ′2

Substituting all these values in the wave equation, we get

 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 𝜕2 𝐸 1 𝜕2 𝐸
′2
+ ′2
+ ′2
− =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑐 2 𝜕𝑡 ′2

This is the same form as the wave equation. So, the electromagnetic wave
equation is invariant under Galilean transformation.

Some consequences of Lorentz transformation

(a) The Lorentz-Fitzgerald length contraction

If a frame is fixed and another one is moving, the observer in a frame (S or S′)
will see a contraction of length of anything placed in other frame. This is called
Lorentz-Fitzgerald length contraction.

(i) A stick fixed in S′ but observed from S.

y y′

S S´ x1′ x2′

x x′

v
z z′

Consider two frames S and S′, where S′ moves with velocity v relative to S. L′=
Length of a stick measured by an observer in S′. Since the measurements of x1
and x2 are made at the same time t, then from Lorentz transformation:
𝑥1 −𝑣𝑡 𝑥2 −𝑣𝑡
𝑥1′ = 2
; and 𝑥2′ = 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑥2 −𝑣𝑡 𝑥1 −𝑣𝑡
Let, 𝐿′ = 𝑥2′ − 𝑥1′ = 2
− 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝐿
= 2
= 2
’ Here, L= Length measured in S frame.
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
 𝑣2
So, 𝐿 = 𝐿′√1 −
𝑐2

The S-frame observer will see a contracted length as v<<c.

(ii) Using Inverse Lorentz Transformation (Stick in S′ frame)

An event (such as measurement of length) in S′ can be measured at the same time

t′ by the observer. But the observer of S cannot measure the coordinates at same
time t as S′ is moving. So the inverse Lorentz transformations are:

𝑥2′ +𝑣𝑡2′ 𝑥1′ +𝑣𝑡1′

𝑥2 = 2
; and 𝑥1 = 2
;
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑥2′ +𝑣𝑡2′ 𝑥1′ +𝑣𝑡1′

Now the length in S frame, 𝐿 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 2
− 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

(𝑥2′ −𝑥1′ )+𝑣(𝑡2′ −𝑡1′ )

= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

But we have to measure the length at the same time t, otherwise result will be
wrong.
𝑣 𝑣
𝑡2′ + 2 𝑥2′ 𝑡1′ + 2 𝑥1′
𝑐 𝑐
We know, 𝑡2 = 2
; and 𝑡1 = 2
;
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑣 (𝑥2′ −𝑥1′ )
And here, 𝑡2 = 𝑡1 So, 𝑡2′ − 𝑡1′ =− ;
𝑐2 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

𝑣
(𝑥2′ −𝑥1′ )+𝑣(− 2 )(𝑥2′ −𝑥1′ )
𝑐
Therefore, 𝐿= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

𝑣2
(𝑥2′ −𝑥1′ )(1− 2 ) 𝑣2
= 𝑐
= 𝐿′√1 −
2 𝑐2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
 (iii) A stick fixed in S frame but observed from S′ frame.
Two frames are S and S′ where S′ is moving along x-axis with velocity
v.
The length measured by S-frame observer at the same time is:
𝐿 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑥2′ +𝑣𝑡 ′
Here, we use inverse Lorentz transformation: 𝑥2 = 2
and
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
𝑥1′ +𝑣𝑡 ′
𝑥1 = 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

y y′

S x1 x2 S´

x x′

v
z z′

𝑥2′ +𝑣𝑡 ′ 𝑥1′ +𝑣𝑡 ′ (𝑥2′ −𝑥1′ ) 𝐿′

So, 𝐿= 2
− 2
= 2
= 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

𝑣2
So, 𝐿′ = 𝐿√1 −
𝑐2

(iv) Using Lorentz Transformation (Stick in S frame)

As S′-frame observer is moving, he cannot measure x1 and x2 of the stick at the

same time t.
𝑥2 −𝑣𝑡2 𝑥1 −𝑣𝑡1
Now, we use Lorentz transformation: 𝑥2′ = 2
; and 𝑥1′ = 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐
 𝑣 𝑣
𝑡2 − 2 𝑥2 𝑡1 − 2 𝑥1
And, 𝑡2′ = 𝑐
2
; and 𝑡1′ = 𝑐
2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )−𝑣(𝑡2 −𝑡1 )

So, 𝐿′ = 𝑥2′ − 𝑥1′ = 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

We have to measure the length at the same time, i.e. 𝑡2′ = 𝑡1′
𝑣
So, 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = ((𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
𝑐2

𝑣 𝑣2
(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )−𝑣. 2 ((𝑥2 −𝑥1 ) (𝑥2 −𝑥1 )(1− 2 )
So, 𝐿′ = 𝑐
2
= 2
𝑐

√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑣2
So, 𝐿′ = 𝐿√1 −
𝑐2

(b) Time dilation

If we, in the S-frame, observes length of time ‘t’ some event requires a frame of
references S′ in motion relative to us, our clock will indicate a longer time interval
than t′ determined by a clock in the moving frame. This is called time dilation.

(i) Events occur in S′ and clocks placed in both S & S′

y y′

Events
S S´ x′ occur

x x′

v
z z′
Two frames are S and S′ where S′ is moving along x-axis with velocity v.

Two events occur in S′ at x′; one occurs at time 𝑡1′ and the other at 𝑡2′ at x′. t2 and
t1 are times measured by the clock at S. 𝑡2′ and 𝑡1′ are times measured by the clock
at S′. Using inverse Lorentz transformation:
 𝑣 𝑣
𝑡2′ + 2 𝑥 ′ 𝑡1′ + 2 𝑥 ′
𝑐 𝑐
𝑡2 = 2
; and 𝑡1 = 2
;
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

(𝑡2′ −𝑡1′ ) 𝑡′
So, 𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 2
= 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑡′
So, 𝑡= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

A stationary clock measures a longer time interval of two events in S′-frame than
a moving clock measures.

(ii) Events occur in S but clocks are both in S and S′ frames.

Events occur at x in S frame.

𝑣 𝑣
𝑡2 − 2 𝑥 𝑡1 − 2 𝑥
We use Lorentz transformation: 𝑡2′ = 𝑐
2
; and 𝑡1′ = 𝑐
2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑡2 −𝑡1 𝑡
So, 𝑡 ′ = 𝑡2′ − 𝑡1′ = 2
; Therefore, 𝑡 ′ = 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

(iii) Events occur in S′ and clock is in S.

Two events occur at x′. Since the frame S′ is moving, so the observer in S
will see that the events will occur not at a particular x, rather at x1 and x2
corresponding to time t1 and t2. Using Lorentz transformation:

𝑣 𝑣
𝑡2 − 2 𝑥2 𝑡1 − 2 𝑥1
𝑡2′ = 𝑐
2
; and 𝑡1′ = 𝑐
2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

Now, 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 𝑣(𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = 𝑣𝑡 as S′ moves with velocity v in time t.

𝑣
(𝑡2 −𝑡1 )− 2 .𝑣𝑡 𝑣2
So, ′
𝑡 = 𝑡2′ − 𝑡1′ = 𝑐
= 𝑡 √1 −
2 𝑐2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐
 𝑡′
So, 𝑡= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

(iv) Events occur in S and clock is in S′.

Two events occur at x. Since frame S′ is moving, so the observer in S′ will see
that the events will occur not at a particular x′, rather occurs at x1′ and x2′
corresponding to time t1′ and t2′. Using inverse Lorentz transformation:
𝑣 𝑣
𝑡2′ + 2 𝑥2′ 𝑡1′ + 2 𝑥1′
𝑐 𝑐
𝑡2 = 2
; and 𝑡1 = 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

Here, 𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ; 𝑡 ′ = 𝑡2′ − 𝑡1′ and 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = 𝑣(𝑡2′ − 𝑡1′ ) = 𝑣𝑡 ′

𝑣 𝑣2
(𝑡2′ −𝑡1′ )− 2 .(𝑥2′ −𝑥1′ ) 𝑡 ′ − 2 .𝑡 ′ 𝑣2
So, 𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = 𝑐
= 𝑐
= 𝑡 ′ √1 −
2 2 𝑐2
√1−𝑣2 √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑡
So, 𝑡′ = 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

Proper frame, length and time

If the frame in which the observed body is at rest, it is known as proper frame.
The length of a rod in such a frame is called proper length. Likewise, the proper
time interval is the time recorded by a frame attached to the observed body.

(c) Phase difference

Although clocks in the moving frame appear to go at a slow rate when observed
from stationary frame, the moving clocks appear to differ from one another in
their readings by a phase constant which depends on their location. The clocks
are unsynchronized.
 𝑣
𝑡 ′+ 2𝑥′ 𝑣
From 𝑡 = 𝑐
for a given t in S, (𝑡 ′ + 𝑥 ′ ) must have a fixed value. This
2 𝑐2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

means greater x′, smaller is t′. Hence moving clocks appear to be out of phase.
From this a conclusion is drawn.

“Two events that occur simultaneously in the S frame are not, in general,
measured to simultaneous in S′ frame and vice versa.”

Question: Why is simultaneity a relative notion, not an absolute one (not an

unexpected result)?

Relativity of simultaneity

Events that seem to take place simultaneously to one observer may not be
simultaneous to another observer in relative motion or vice versa. This is the
relativity of simultaneity. We shall discuss two cases:

Case 1. If a man on a moving train lights two cigarettes, one ten minutes after the
other, then these events occur at the same place on his reference frame. A ground
observer will see these same events at different places in his reference frame.
𝑣
Example: Assume that 𝑡 ′ = 𝑡2′ − 𝑡1′ = 10 𝑚𝑖𝑛, v=20 m/s and = 6.6 × 10−8
𝑐

𝑥2′ −𝑥1′ 𝑣(𝑡2′ −𝑡1′ ) 20𝑚/𝑠×10𝑚𝑖𝑛

Here, 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 = − =0+ = 12𝑘𝑚
√1−𝑣2
2
√1−𝑣2
2 √1−(6.6×10−8 )2
𝑐 𝑐

Where 𝑥2′ = 𝑥1′

So, the observer in the train sees two events at same place, whereas observer on
the ground sees it 12 km away.

Case 2. Suppose that a moving observer S′, seated at the center of a railroad car,
observes that two men, one at each end of the car lights cigarettes simultaneously.
The ground observer S will see that the man in the back of the car lit his cigarette
before the man in the front of the car lit his cigarette.

Example. Assume that 𝑥2′ − 𝑥1′ = 25𝑚, v=20 m/s

𝑚
20 ×25𝑚
𝑠
𝑣 108 𝑚
𝑡2′ −𝑡1′ (𝑥 ′ −𝑥1′ ) 3× 2
𝑐2 2
Here, 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = − =0+ 𝑠
= 5.6 × 10−15 𝑠
√1−𝑣2
2
√1−𝑣2
2 √1−(6.6×10−8 )2
𝑐 𝑐

Where 𝑡2′ = 𝑡1′

So, 𝑡2 > 𝑡1 . This means, S observer will see that the man sitting back will light
cigarette earlier. Since (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) is very short, so the effect is very short to detect.
Thus, the simultaneity is an unexpected result due the large value of c as
compared to the speed of large object.

Illustration of time dilation and length contraction:

Time dilation and length contraction occurs in the decay of unstable particles,
called µ mesons. µ mesons decay into an electron an average of 2×10‒6s after it
comes into being. µ mesons are created high in atmosphere by fast cosmic ray
particles arriving at earth from space, and reach sea level in profusion. Such
mesons have v=2.994×108 m/s=0.998c. But mesons mean life time, t′=2×10‒6 s.
In time t′, they travel:
𝑚
𝑦 = 𝑣𝑡 ′ = 2.994 × 108 × 2 × 10−6 𝑠 = 600𝑚
𝑠

While they were actually created at altitude 10 times greater than 600m.

To resolve the paradox, we use special theory of relativity;

Let, t′=2×10‒6 s in the frame of reference of mesons

y′=the altitude at which the meson is produced, as measured by us

in the ground

y=the altitude as seen by meson

If we let y=600m, the maximum distance the meson can go in its own frame of
reference at v=0.998 s before decaying, then y in our reference frame is

𝑣2 𝑦 600𝑚
𝑦 = 𝑦 ′ √1 − or 𝑦′ = = = 9500𝑚
𝑐2 2 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−(0.998𝑐)
2
𝑐 𝑐

Hence, despite their very short lifespans, mesons can reach the ground from
considerable altitude of their formation.

Let us examine the problem from the frame of reference of an observer on the
ground:

y′=the altitude at which the meson is produced

t=life time in our reference frame

𝑡′ 2×10−6 𝑠
𝑡= 2
= 2
= 31.7 × 10−6 𝑠
√1−𝑣2 √1−(0.998𝑐)
𝑐 𝑐2

Here, 𝑡 ≈ 16 times greater than when it is at rest with respect to us. In 𝑡 =

31.7 × 10−6 𝑠, the meson can travel

𝑦 = 𝑣𝑡 = 2.994 × 108 × 31.7 × 10−6 𝑠 = 9500𝑚

The two points of view give identical results.

Problem: An astronaut is standing in a space craft parallel to its direction of

motion. An observer on the earth finds that the space craft speed is 0.6c and the
astronaut is 1.3 m tall. What is the astronaut’s height as measured in the
spacecraft?

Solution: Here, L=1.3 m, v=0.6c L′=?

𝑣2 𝐿 1.3
𝐿 = 𝐿′√1 − or 𝐿′ = = = 1.625𝑚
𝑐2 2 2
√1−𝑣2 √1−(0.6𝑐)
𝑐 𝑐2
 Problem: A certain particle has a life time of 10 ‒7s when measured at rest. How
does it go before decaying if its speed is 0.99c when it is created?

𝑡′ 1×10−7 𝑠
Solution: We know, 𝑡= 2
= 2
= 7.088 × 10−7 𝑠
√1−𝑣2 √1−(0.99𝑐)
𝑐 𝑐2

108 𝑚
Distance, 𝐿 = 𝑣𝑡 = 0.99 × 3 × × 7.088 × 10−7 𝑠 = 210.5𝑚
𝑠

Velocity addition (or transformation):

A.

(i) Let, ux, uy and uz are velocity components of a particle clong x, y and z axes
with respect S-frame. ux′, uy′ and uz′ are the velocity components of that
particle in S′. We know:
1
𝑥 ′ = 𝛽(𝑥 − 𝑣𝑡), where 𝛽 = 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

Or 𝑑𝑥 ′ = 𝛽(𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑡)………….(1) Definition of partial derivative:

If 𝑥 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑡), then
𝑣𝑥
Similarly, if 𝑡 ′ = 𝛽(𝑡 − ) 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑐2 𝑑𝑥 ′ = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
𝑣𝑑𝑥 𝜕[𝛽(𝑥−𝑣𝑡)] 𝜕[𝛽(𝑥−𝑣𝑡)]
Then, 𝑑𝑡 ′ = 𝛽(𝑑𝑡 − ) ………….(2) = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑡
𝑐2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡
= 𝛽(𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑡)
=
=
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 ′ 𝛽(𝑑𝑥−𝑣𝑑𝑡) 𝛽( −𝑣)
From equ(1) and (2): 𝑢𝑥′ = = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝛽(𝑑𝑡− 2 ) 𝑣
𝑐 𝛽(1− 𝑑𝑡 )
𝑐2

𝑢𝑥 −𝑣
So, 𝑢𝑥′ = 𝑢 𝑣
1− 𝑥2
𝑐

𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 ′ 𝑑𝑦 𝑢𝑦 𝑣2
(ii) 𝑢𝑦′ = = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑢 𝑣 √1 −
𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝛽(𝑑𝑡− 2 ) 𝑣 1− 𝑥2 𝑐2
𝑐 𝛽(1− 𝑑𝑡 ) 𝑐
𝑐2
 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑧 ′ 𝑑𝑧 𝑢𝑧 𝑣2
(iii) 𝑢𝑧′ = = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 𝑣 . √1 −
𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝛽(𝑑𝑡− 2 ) 𝑣 1− 𝑥2 𝑐2
𝑐 𝛽(1− 𝑑𝑡 ) 𝑐
𝑐2

B.

𝑣𝑥 ′
Again, considering 𝑥 = 𝛽(𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑡 ′ ) and 𝑡 = 𝛽(𝑡 ′ + ), we can prove:
𝑐2

′
𝑢𝑥′ +𝑣 𝑢𝑦 𝑣2 𝑢𝑧′ 𝑣2
(iv) 𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢′ 𝑣
, (ii) 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑢′ 𝑣
√1 − 2
, (iii) 𝑢𝑧 = 𝑢′ 𝑣
√1 −
1+ 𝑥2 1+ 𝑥2 𝑐 1+ 𝑥2 𝑐2
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

If 𝑢𝑥′ and v are very small, then the above results reduce to classical ones.

Speed of light in two frames

Let, c= the speed of light in frame S′=𝑢𝑥′ . Then, the speed of light in S frame is:

𝑢𝑥′ + 𝑣 𝑐+𝑣 𝑐(𝑐 + 𝑣)

𝑢𝑥 = = = =𝑐
𝑢𝑥′ 𝑣 1 + 𝑐𝑣 (𝑐 + 𝑣)
1+ 2 𝑐2
𝑐

Let, c= the speed of light in frame S=𝑢𝑥 . Then, the speed of light in S′ frame is:

𝑢𝑥 − 𝑣 𝑐−𝑣 𝑐(𝑐 − 𝑣)
𝑢𝑥′ = 𝑢 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑣 = =𝑐
1 − 𝑥2 1− 2 (𝑐 − 𝑣)
𝑐 𝑐

Problem: Two electrons leave a radioactive sample in opposite directions, each

having a speed of 0.67c with respect to the sample. The speed of one electron
relative to the other is 1.34c according to classical mechanics. What is the
relativistic result?

Solution: One electron as S-frame. The sample is S′ frame. The other electron is
the object whose speed is to be sought. Here, 𝑢𝑥′ = 0.67𝑐 and 𝑣 = 0.67𝑐
 𝑢𝑥′ +𝑣 (0.67+0.67)𝑐 1.34𝑐
𝑢𝑥 = 𝑢′ 𝑣
= = = 0.92𝑐
1+ 𝑥2 1+(0.67)2 1.45
𝑐

Relativity of mass

According to classical mechanics, the mass of a body is constant and it does not
depend on velocity. But special relativity shows that mass of a particle varies with
velocity. To prove it, consider the collisions of two particles in two frames S and
S′.
y y′
ux1 ux2 ux′ ‒ux′

S m1 m2 S´ m′ m′
1 1
x x′

v
z Before Collision z′

y y′
Ux Ux ′

S m1 + m2 S´ 2m′

x x′

v
z z′

After Collision

Consider two frames S at rest and S′ moving. Let the observer be in S′ frame.
Also let, m′= mass of two bodies (1 & 2) in S′; 𝑢𝑥′ = velocity of 1; −𝑢𝑥′ =velocity
of 2. Collison occurs in S′ and two bodies coalesce into mass 2m′. Let after
collision Ux′ is the velocity of of 2m′.

Using the first law of relativity (Laws of physics will be same in inertial frames).
Conservation of momentum before and after collision in S′ gives:

𝑚′ 𝑢𝑥′ − 𝑚′ 𝑢𝑥′ = 2𝑚′ 𝑈𝑥′

Or, 𝑈𝑥′ = 0 …………………………….(1)

Let the mass of particles 1 and 2 be m1 and m2 in S frame, respectively and after
collision their mass is (m1+m2). The velocity of (m1+m2) is:

𝑈𝑥′ +𝑣
𝑈𝑥 = 𝑈 𝑣′ = 𝑣 ………………………………..(2)
1+ 𝑥2
𝑐

If the collision is considered in S frame, then for body 1:

𝑢𝑥′ +𝑣
𝑢𝑥1 = 𝑢 𝑣 ′ ……………………………...(3)
1+ 𝑥2
𝑐

−𝑢𝑥′ +𝑣
And for body 2: 𝑢𝑥2 = 𝑢 𝑣 ′ ……………………………..(4)
1− 𝑥2
𝑐

Conservation of momentum before and after collision in S gives:

𝑚1 𝑢𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑢𝑥2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑈𝑥

Or, 𝑚1 𝑢𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑢𝑥2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣

𝑢𝑥′ +𝑣 −𝑢𝑥′ +𝑣
Or, 𝑚1 𝑢′ 𝑣
+ 𝑚2 𝑢 𝑣′ = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣
1+ 𝑥2 1− 𝑥2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑢𝑥′ +𝑣 𝑢𝑥′ −𝑣
Or, 𝑚1 ( 𝑢′ 𝑣
− 𝑣) = 𝑚2 ( 𝑢 𝑣′ + 𝑣)
1+ 𝑥2 1− 𝑥2
𝑐 𝑐

𝑢 𝑣′ 2 ′ 2
𝑢 𝑣
𝑢𝑥′ − 𝑥2 𝑢𝑥′ − 𝑥2
𝑐 𝑐
Or, 𝑚1 ( 𝑢′𝑥 𝑣
) = 𝑚2 ( 𝑢′𝑥 𝑣
)
1+ 2 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐
 𝑢 𝑣 ′
𝑚1 1+ 𝑥2
Or, = 𝑐
𝑢′𝑥 𝑣
…………………………..(5)
𝑚2 1− 2
𝑐

𝑢′𝑥 +𝑣
2
𝑢𝑥1
𝑢𝑥′ +𝑣 2
Now, 2
𝑢𝑥1 =( 𝑢′ 𝑣
) or, =( 𝑐
𝑢′ 𝑣
)2
1+ 𝑥2 𝑐2 1+ 𝑥2
𝑐 𝑐

2
𝑢′𝑥 +𝑣
𝑢2𝑥1
So, 1−
𝑐2
=1− ( 𝑐′ )
𝑢 𝑣
1+ 𝑥2
𝑐

2
2𝑢′𝑥 𝑣 (𝑢′𝑥 𝑣)2 (𝑢′𝑥 ) 2𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑣2
1+ 2 + 4 − 2 − 2𝑥 − 2
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
= 𝑢′𝑥 𝑣 2
(1+ 2 )
𝑐

2 2
′ 2 (𝑢′)
𝑣2 (𝑢𝑥 ) 𝑣2 𝑣 𝑥
1− 2 − 2 (1− 2 ) (1− 2 )[1− 2 ]
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
= 2 = 2
𝑢′ 𝑣 𝑢 𝑣 ′
(1+ 𝑥2 ) (1+ 𝑥2 )
𝑐 𝑐

𝑣2 (𝑢 ) ′ 2
′𝑣
𝑢𝑥 (1− 2 )[1− 𝑥2 ]
Or, 1+ =√ 𝑐 𝑐
𝑢2
…………………..(6)
𝑐2
1− 𝑥1
𝑐2

2
𝑣2 (𝑢′𝑥 )
(1− 2 )[1− 2 ]
𝑢2𝑥2 𝑐 𝑐
Similarly, 1− 2 = 2
𝑐 𝑢′ 𝑣
(1− 𝑥2 )
𝑐

𝑣2 (𝑢 ) ′ 2
𝑢𝑥′𝑣 (1− 2 )[1− 𝑥2 ]
Or, 1− =√ 𝑐
𝑢2
𝑐
……………..(7)
𝑐2
1− 𝑥2
𝑐2

Using equ(6) and (7) in (5)

 𝑢2
𝑚1 1− 𝑥2
𝑐2
=√ 𝑢2
𝑚2
1− 𝑥1
𝑐2

When 𝑢𝑥1 = 0 i.e. mass of particle 1 is at rest or 𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑜 , we get,

𝑚𝑜
𝑚2 = 2
…………………..(8)
√1−𝑢𝑥2
𝑐2

When 𝑢𝑥2 = 0 i.e. mass of particle 2 is at rest or 𝑚2 = 𝑚𝑜 , we get,

𝑚𝑜
𝑚1 = 2
…………………..(9)
√1−𝑢𝑥1
𝑐2

In general, equ(8) and (9) will be:

𝑚𝑜
𝑚= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

𝑣 𝑣
Note: If → 0, 𝑚 → 𝑚𝑜 . If → 1, 𝑚 → ∞. Thus, mass cannot be infinite
𝑐 𝑐
indicating c is the upper limit of the velocity.

Relativistic Acceleration

𝑑𝑢𝑥 ′
𝑑𝑢𝑥
We know, the acceleration, 𝑎𝑥 = , and 𝑎𝑥′ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

′
𝑑𝑢𝑥 ′
𝑑𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑 𝑢𝑥 −𝑣 𝑑𝑡
Now, = . = ( 𝑢 𝑣 ). 1 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ′ 𝑑𝑡 1− 𝑥2 (𝑑𝑡− 2 𝑑𝑥)
𝑐 2 𝑐
√1−𝑣
𝑐2

2
𝑢 𝑣 𝑑 𝑑 𝑢 𝑣
(1− 𝑥2 ).𝑑𝑡(𝑢𝑥 −𝑣)−(𝑢𝑥 −𝑣)𝑑𝑡(1− 𝑥2 ) √1−𝑣2
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
= 𝑢 𝑣 2
. 𝑢𝑥 𝑣
(1− 𝑥2 ) (1− 2 )
𝑐
𝑐
 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣
𝑎𝑥 (1− 𝑥2 )+(𝑢𝑥 −𝑣). 2 .𝑎𝑥 𝑣2
= 𝑐
𝑢 𝑣 3
𝑐
. √1 −
(1− 𝑥2 ) 𝑐2
𝑐

𝑢 𝑣 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣2
𝑎𝑥 (1− 𝑥2 + 𝑥2 − 2 ) 𝑣2
= 𝑐 𝑐
𝑢 𝑣 3
𝑐
. √1 −
(1− 𝑥2 ) 𝑐2
𝑐

3
𝑣2
𝑎𝑥 (1− 2 )2
𝑎𝑥′ = 𝑐
𝑢 𝑣 3
(1− 𝑥2 )
𝑐

Relativistic momentum and force

The relativistic momentum is defined by:

𝑚𝑜 𝑣
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 = 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

The relativistic force is defined by:

𝑑𝑝 𝑑 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
𝐹= = (𝑚𝑣) = 𝑚 +𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚 𝑑𝑣
=𝑚 +𝑣 .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑚
= (𝑚 + 𝑣 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑣

𝑑𝑣 𝑚𝑜 𝑑 𝑚𝑜
=
𝑑𝑡
[ + 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 ]
2 2
√1−𝑣 √1−𝑣
𝑐2 𝑐2
( )
𝑚𝑜 𝑣2
𝑑𝑣 𝑚𝑜 𝑐2
= [ 2
+ 3 ]
𝑑𝑡
√1−𝑣2 𝑣2 2
𝑐 (1− 2 )
𝑐
 𝑚𝑜 𝑣2 𝑚𝑜 𝑣2
𝑑𝑣 𝑚𝑜 − 𝑐2 + 𝑐2
= [ 3 ]
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 2 2
(1− 2 )
𝑐

3
−2
𝑑𝑣 𝑣2
= 𝑚𝑜 (1 − )
𝑑𝑡 𝑐2

3
−
𝑣2 2
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑎 (1 − )
𝑐2

Relativistic kinetic energy and total energy

In Newtonian mechanics, the kinetic energy (or change in K.E) of a body is equal
to the work done by a force F on it from speed v=0 to v=9. Thus,
𝑣 𝑣
𝐾 = ∫0 𝐹⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝐹𝑑𝑥 F and x has same direction

𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
= ∫0 𝑚𝑜 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑚𝑜 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑣
= 𝑚𝑜 ∫0 𝑣𝑑𝑣

1
= 𝑚𝑜 𝑣 2
2

This is the expression of kinetic energy according to classical mechanics.

In relativistic mechanics, the kinetic energy of a moving particle can be obtained

as follows:

𝑣 𝑣 𝑑𝑝 𝑣 𝑑(𝑚𝑣)
𝐾 = ∫0 𝐹𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝑣
= ∫0 (𝑚𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑚) == ∫0 (𝑚𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑚)𝑣
𝑑𝑡
 𝑣
= ∫0 (𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑚) …………………………(1)

We know that the relativistic mass is,

𝑚𝑜
𝑚= 2
√1−𝑣2
𝑐

2 𝑣2
Or, 𝑚 (1 − ) = 𝑚𝑜2
𝑐2

Or, 𝑚2 𝑐 2 − 𝑚2 𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 2
𝑑 𝑑
Or, (𝑚2 𝑐 2 − 𝑚2 𝑣 2 ) = (𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 2 )
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣

Or, 2𝑚𝑐 2 𝑑𝑚 − 𝑚2 2𝑣𝑑𝑣 − 𝑣 2 2𝑚𝑑𝑚 = 0

Or, 𝑚𝑣𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑚 = 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑚 ………………………(2)

Substituting equ(2) in (1), we get,

𝑚
𝐾 = ∫𝑚 𝑐 2 𝑑𝑚 if v=0, then m=mo; if v=v, then m=m
𝑜

𝑚
= 𝑐2 ∫𝑚 𝑑𝑚
𝑜

𝐾 = 𝑚𝑐2 − 𝑚𝑜 𝑐2 …………………………(3)

This is the expression of relativistic kinetic energy. Here, K is the difference of

𝑚𝑐 2 and 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 . So, 𝑚𝑐 2 > 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 . So, 𝑚𝑐 2 is called the total energy E and
𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 is called the rest energy Eo.

Special case: If v<<c, then K reduces to classical kinetic energy.

𝑚𝑜 𝑐2
We have, 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑐2 − 𝑚𝑜 𝑐2 = − 𝑚𝑜 𝑐2
2
√1−𝑣
𝑐2
 1
−
𝑣2 2
= 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 [(1 − ) − 1]
𝑐2

1 𝑣2 3 𝑣4
= 𝑚𝑜 𝑐2 [(1 + + 8 𝑐4 + ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 − 1]
2 𝑐2

2 1 𝑣2
𝐾 ≈ 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 [(1 + − 1]
2 𝑐2

1
= 𝑚𝑜 𝑣 2
2

This is the expression of classical K.E.

Mass-energy equivalence

We know, total energy 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 . Here, if we know the value of E, we can easily

obtain the value of m and vice versa, as the conversion factor c2 is known to us.
Thus, in other words, mass and energy are the different aspects of the same thing.
Energy can manifest itself as mass. This is mass-energy equivalence.

So, 1 kg of matter=1 kg×c2=9×1016J.

The conversion of matter into energy is the source of power liberated in all the
exothermic reactions of physics and chemistry. 6×10 ‒11kg matter vanishes when
1 kg dynamite is exploded. So, the energy liberated=5.6×106J.

Energy representation in terms of momentum

Do massless particles exist?

In classical mechanics, a particle must have rest mass in order to have energy and
momentum, but in relativistic mechanics, this requirement does not hold.
 𝑚𝑜 𝑐2
Since, 𝐸= ……………………………(1)
2
√1−𝑣
𝑐2

𝑚𝑜 𝑣
𝑃= ………………………….(2)
2
√1−𝑣
𝑐2

When mo=0 and v<c, then E=P=0. This means that a massless particle with any
speed less than c can have neither energy nor momentum.

But when mo=0 and v=c, then E and P are indeterminate. That is E and P can
have any values. Thus, equ(1) and (2) are consistent with existence of massless
particles that possess both energy and momentum provided that they travel with
seed of c.

There is another restriction of massless particles. Since,

𝑚2𝑜 𝑐4 𝑚𝑜2 𝑣 2 𝑚𝑜2 𝑣 2 𝑐 2

𝐸2 = 𝑣2
and 𝑃2 = 𝑣2
; Then 𝑃2 𝑐 2 = 𝑣2
1− 2 1− 2 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐

𝑣2
𝑚2𝑜 𝑐4 (1− 2 )
2 𝑚2𝑜 𝑐4 −𝑚2𝑜 𝑣2 𝑐2 𝑐
So, 𝐸 2 − 𝑃 𝑐2 = 𝑣2
= 𝑣2
= 𝑚2𝑜 𝑐4
1− 2 1− 2
𝑐 𝑐

2
So, 𝐸 2 = 𝑃 𝑐2 + 𝑚2𝑜 𝑐4

So, the energy for all particles;

2
𝐸 = √𝑃 𝑐2 + 𝑚2𝑜 𝑐4

If a particle exists with mo=0, then, 𝐸 = 𝑃𝑐

This is the relation between energy and momentum of a massless particle. Indeed,
photon is observed to be massless particle.