Nuclear Structure and Properties

Structure of nuclei and nuclear constituents

Rutherford experiment indicates that nucleus must have a very compact structure,
because the whole mass and total positive charge of an atom are concentrated in
the nucleus. Natural radioactivity points out that compact nucleus is structurally
very complex, because α-particles, electrons and γ-rays are emitted from unstable
nuclei. The β-ray spectra of nuclei introduce the existence of neutrino which is a
massless particle. Research on artificial transmutation of elements establish that
α-particles, protons, neutrons, positrons and electrons enter into nucleus. Finally,
cosmic ray studies indicate the existence of elementary particles (meson, pion)
inside the nucleus. Several theories have been proposed, the important of which
are proton-electron and proton-neutron hypothesis.

Do nuclei contain electron?

Proton-electron hypothesis

The nucleus of an atom consists nearly of all its mass and a good deal of
information on nuclear properties can be inferred from a knowledge of atomic
masses.

Atomic masses refer to the masses of neutral atoms, not of striped nuclei. Thus
the masses of the orbital electrons and the mass equivalent of their binding
energies are incorporated in the figures. Atomic masses are conventionally
expressed as mass unit (u). The value of mass unit is

1 u= 1.6604×10‒27 kg

Its energy equivalent is mc2=1.6604×10‒27× (3.0×108)2 J. Again, 1 eV=1.6×10‒

19
J, mc2=931 MeV.

It was discovered that there exist varieties of atoms of the same element. Not all
these atoms have the same mass. The different varieties of the same element are
called isotopes. Nuclide refers to a particular species of nucleus.
20 elements (Be, F, Na, Al etc.) have only single stable nuclei. Others have
isotopes.

Hydrogen is found to have three isotopes. Their atomic masses are 1.007825
u(hydrogen) 2.014102 u (deuterium or deuteron) and 3.01605 u (tritium or triton).
Deuteron is stable, but triton is radioactive (changes to helium isotope). Heavy
water consists of deuteron rather than hydrogen.

The nucleus of lightest isotope of hydrogen is the proton.

Mass of proton = mp=1.0072766 u=1.0072766×1.6604×10‒27 kg=mass of an atom

(H) minus mass of electrons.

Nuclide masses are very nearly multiples of the hydrogen mass. Mass of
hydrogen atom=1.007825 u.

For example, a deuteron is twice as massive as a hydrogen. The charge of

deuteron is +e. So, it consists of two protons and one electron.

This hypothesis is buttresses (strengthened) by the fact that certain radioactive

nuclei spontaneously emit electrons, a phenomenon called beta decay. Despite
the hypothesis of nuclear electron, strong arguments are there against it:

(i) Nuclear size consideration:

The radius of a typical nucleus is about 5×10‒15m. To confine a particle, like

electron, in the nucleus in ∆𝑥 (𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)=2×5×10‒15m, uncertainty of its
ℏ
momentum, ∆𝑝 = = 1.1 × 10−20 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠. The kinetic energy with this
∆𝑥
∆𝑝2
momentum is 𝐾 = = 609 𝑀𝑒𝑉. This is a huge energy. So kinetic energy will
2𝑚𝑒
be calculated relativistic ally.

We know, 𝐾 = 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑜 ≈ 𝐸, because 𝐸𝑜 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 2 = 0.51 𝑀𝑒𝑉 ≪

609 𝑀𝑒𝑉. But 𝐸 = √𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑒2 𝑐 4 = 𝑝𝑐. So,

𝐾 = 𝑝𝑐 = ∆𝑝𝑐 = 20 𝑀𝑒𝑉
However, the electrons emitted from the nucleus by β-decay have K=2‒3 MeV.
It is much lower in magnitude when they are in the nucleus. So, electrons can not
exist in the nucleus.

Verify whether protons can exist in the nucleus:

𝑚
∆𝑝2 (1.1×10−20 𝑘𝑔. )2
−20 𝑠
For proton, ∆𝑝 = 1.1 × 10 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠, 𝐾 = = = 3.6 ×
2𝑚𝑝 2×1.67×10−27 𝑘𝑔

10−14 𝐽 = 0.23 𝑀𝑒𝑉, which is very much less than protons rest energy 𝑚𝑝 𝑐 2 =
938 𝑀𝑒𝑉. So, the existence of proton in the nucleus is entirely plausible.

Verify whether electrons can exist in the atom:

∆𝑝2
Atomic radius=5×10‒10m, ∆𝑝 = 2.2 × 10−24 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠, 𝐾= == 2.7 ×
2𝑚𝑒
10−18 𝐽 = 17 𝑒𝑉, which is very much less than its rest energy. So, electrons can
exist in the atom.

(ii) Nuclear spin consideration:

1
Protons and electrons are fermi particles. So, they have spin and angular
2
1
momentum= ℏ. Thus, nuclei with an even number of protons and electrons have
2
integral spins, while those with an odd number of protons plus electrons should
have half-integral spins. This prediction is not obeyed. If a deuteron consists of 2
1 3
protons and 1 electron, its nuclear spin ought to be or , depending on the
2 2
orientation of the particles. However, the observed spin is 1. So, nuclei do not
contain electrons.
 (iii) Magnetic momentum consideration:

The proton has a magnetic moment about 0.15% that of the electron. Nuclear
moments ought to be the same order of magnitude as that of electron if electrons
are present in the nucleus. The observed magnetic moments are comparable with
that of the proton, not with that of the electron. This discrepancy cannot be
understood if electrons are present in the nuclei.

(iv) Electron-nuclear interaction consideration:

The forces of nuclear particles lead to binding energy of 8 MeV/particle. If

electrons interact strongly with proton to form nuclei, then orbital electrons
interact both the electrons and protons of the nucleus. Experimental results do not
support it.

The above discrepancies clarify that the nucleus does not contain electrons in it.

Masses and rest energies of electrons, protons and neutrons:

Mass of electron = me=9.10953×10‒31 kg

Mass of proton = mp=1.673409×10‒27 kg

Mass of neutron = mn=1.674927×10−27 kg

Rest energy of electron=0.51 MeV (=mec2)

Rest energy of proton=941 MeV (=mpc2)

Rest energy of neutron=942 MeV (=mnc2)

Mass spectrometer

An instrument used to measure atomic masses is called a mass spectrometer.

Modern spectrometers and techniques are capable of precisions better than 1 part
in 106.

Ion source

Figure shows a simple mass spectrometer (Bainbridge). Ions are produced from
ion source (gas or solid). For gas, ions are produced by electric discharge or by
electron bombardment. For solid, it is deposited on a filament which is strongly
heated or undergone by arc discharge.

Ions emerge from source through a slit with charge +e and are accelerated by
electric field. The ions enter the spectrometer and travel in slightly different
directions. A pair of slits collimate the ion beams, which pass through a velocity
selector. The velocity selector consists of uniform electric field (E) and magnetic
field (B). E and B fields are perpendicular to each other. The force exerted by
electric field on ions is:

𝐹𝑒 = 𝑒𝐸 …………………..(1)
The force exerted by magnetic field on ions is:

⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝑒𝑣
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑞𝑣⃗ × 𝐵 …………………..(2)

Where v is the velocity of the ion. For condition of no deflection:

𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑚 …………………..(3)

Or, 𝑒𝐸 = 𝐵𝑒𝑣
𝐸
Or, 𝑣= …………………………(4)
𝐵

After passing velocity selector, they enter uniform B and follow a circular path.
𝑅1 +𝑅2
The path has a radius R (𝑅 = ). Equating Fm with centripetal force, 𝐹𝑐 =
2
𝑚𝑣 2
, where m is the mass of the ion, we get,
𝑅

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐵𝑒𝑣 =
𝑅

𝑒𝐵𝑅
𝑚= ……………………..(5)
𝑣

Since, v, e and B are known, a measurement of R yields the value of ‘m’. Ions fall
upon a photographic plate, permitting the value of R to be determined.

Do nuclei contain neutron (neutron-proton hypothesis)?

Unknown Unknown
radiation radiation

Lead
In 1930, German physicists W. Bothe and H. Becker bombarded beryllium with
α-particle from polonium source. They found that radiation was emitted and the
radiation penetrated Pb several cm without being absorbed. They called it γ-ray
having no charge. Later Irene Curie and F. Joliot did experiment by replacing Pb
with a paraffin slab, which is a hydrogen-rich substance.

Unknown
radiation

They found that protons are knocked out from paraffin. At first glance, it was not
surprising. Because they knew that X-rays can knock out electrons from atom by
Compton collisions. So, γ-rays, which have higher energy than X-rays, can knock
out protons from the atom. They found proton recoil energy (kinetic energy) of
5.3 MeV. From Compton effect, let us estimate the minimum photon energy to
produce 5.3 MeV proton’s kinetic energy.

Let, 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈=incident energy of photon

𝐸 ′ = ℎ𝜈′=scattered energy of photon

𝐾= kinetic energy transfer to the proton

Using conservation of momentum principle in case of Compton effect, we get,

2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 (ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 ′ ) = 2(ℎ𝜈)(ℎ𝜈 ′ )(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) ………………(1)

Where, 𝜙= the angle between incident and scattered photon direction and
𝑚𝑜 =rest mass. Maximum energy transfer occurs when 𝜙 = 180°, corresponding
to a head on collision, so that 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 2. Clearly, 𝐾 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 ′ . For head-
on collision, equ(1) becomes
 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 𝐾 = 2𝐸(𝐸 − 𝐾). 2

Or, 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 𝐾 = 2𝐸(𝐸 − 𝐾)

Or, 2𝐸 2 − 2𝐸𝐾 − 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 𝐾 = 0

2𝐾±√4𝐾 2 +4.2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 𝐾
Or, 𝐸=
2.2

1
= (𝐾 ± √𝐾 2 + 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 𝐾)
2

Since energy E is positive, then -ve sign is omitted as the term in the square root
is greater than K. So,
1
𝐸 = (𝐾 + √𝐾 2 + 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 𝐾)
2

Proton’s rest energy=moc2=938 MeV, K=5.3 MeV, so the value of E=53 MeV.
The result seemed peculiar at that time, because no nuclear radiation of this
amount of energy was found then. Another approach was made for other
calculation. If α-particle strikes 49𝐵𝑒 nucleus, then a carbon nucleus 126𝐶 can be
yielded.
9
4𝐵𝑒 + 42𝐻𝑒 ⟶ 12
6𝐶

For this reaction, a mass decrease

∆𝑀 = (𝑀𝐵𝑒 + 𝑀𝐻𝑒 ) − 𝑀𝐶

= 0.01144 𝑢
1
This ∆𝑀 will result in energy of 10.7 MeV, which is of 53 MeV. Thus, the
5
peculiarity become more striking.

In 1932 James Chadwick, an associate of Rutherford, proposed an alternative

hypothesis for the mysterious radiation emitted by Be. He assumed that the
radiation consisted of neutral particles whose mass is nearly the same as that of
proton. The electrical neutrality of these particles, which were called neutrons,
accounted for their ability to penetrate matter easily. Their mass accounted nicely
for the observed proton recoil energy. A moving particle colliding head-on with
one at rest whose mass is the same can transfer all its kinetic energy to the latter.
A maximum proton energy 5.3 MeV thus implies a neutron energy of 5.3 MeV.

Other experiments showed that light nuclei 42𝐻𝑒, 126𝐶 , and 147𝑁 could also be
knocked out of appropriate absorbers by the Be radiation, and the measurements
made of the energies of these nuclei fit in well with neutron hypothesis. Chadwick
arrived at the conclusion 𝑚𝑛 ≈ 𝑚𝑝 from analysis of observed proton and
nitrogen recoil energy. No other mass gave good agreement with experimental
results.

[Note: A free neutron decays into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino]

Nuclear size

The size of the nucleus was first estimated from Rutherford’s α-particle scattering
by various atoms. The larger the angle of scattering of α-particle, closer is its
approach to the nucleus. If the kinetic energy of the α-particle be equal to the
repulsive Coulomb energy between α-particle (charge: 2e, mass m and velocity)
and the nucleus (charge: Ze), it would momentarily come to rest such that the
distance of closest approach R is obtained from:
 1 1 2𝑒×𝑍𝑒
𝑚𝑣 2 =
2 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑅

𝑍𝑒 2
Or, 𝑅=
𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑚𝑣 2

For, 𝑚 = 6.64 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔, 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶, 𝑣 = 107 𝑚, Z=20, then 𝑅 =

1.5 × 10−14 𝑚 (the radius of an atom is ~10−10 𝑚).

Thus, Rutherford’s α-particle scattering provides us the knowledge of nuclear

size. We know, nucleus consists of protons. If the distance between α-particle and
nucleus becomes less than 10−14 𝑚, then for α-particle the nucleus does not
become a point charge. So, Coulomb’s law for α-particle scattering will not be
valid.

For measuring nuclear dimension, a particle of size less than nuclear size is
necessary. Hence, electrons and neutrons can also be important particles to
analyze the size of a nucleus. Thus, fast electrons (e) and neutrons (n) are used
for this purpose.

‘e’ interacts with nucleus through electric forces, but ‘n’ interacts with nucleus
with nuclear forces. ‘e’ provides information of distribution of nuclear charge,
but ‘n’ provides information of distribution of nuclear matter. In both cases, de
Broglie wavelength, λ must be smaller than the size (radius) of the nucleus.

If 𝜆 ≈ 10−14 𝑚, then the momentum of a particle of this wavelength is

ℎ
𝑝= = 6.63 × 10−20 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚/𝑠
𝜆

Then for, ‘e’ kinetic energy, 𝐾 = 𝑝𝑐 = 124 𝑀𝑒𝑉.

For ‘n’ kinetic energy, 𝐾 = 𝐸 − 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = √𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚𝑒2 𝑐 4 − 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 = 8 𝑀𝑒𝑉.

So, 124 MeV ‘e’ and 8 MeV ‘n’ are used to determine the size of the nucleus. At
present 1 GeV ‘e’ and 20 MeV ‘n’ are used. In each of the experiments, it was
found that the volume of the nucleus is proportional to the nucleons number.

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∝ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

 4
Or, 𝜋𝑅3 ∝ 𝐴
3

1
Or, 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴3
1
Or, 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 𝐴3

Here, 𝑅𝑜 = 1.2 × 10−15 𝑚. (By measuring R from α-particle scattering, we can

measure Ro). Although, 𝑅𝑜 is constant, but it varies depending on the
measurements by ‘e’ ‘n’, ‘p’ and α-particle etc.

Nuclear density

Nuclear density, 𝜌𝑁 , can be estimated from the following relation:

𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀𝑁
𝜌𝑁 = =
𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑁

Here, 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑁𝑚𝑛 + 𝑍𝑚𝑝 = (𝑁 + 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 = 𝐴𝑚𝑛 , (as 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑚𝑝 ), A=mass

number.
1
4 4 4
𝑉𝑁 = 𝜋𝑅𝑁3 = 𝜋(𝑅𝑜 𝐴3 )3 = 𝜋𝑅𝑜 3 𝐴
3 3 3

𝐴𝑚𝑛 𝑚𝑛
𝜌𝑁 = 4 3
=4 = 2 × 1017 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝜋𝑅𝑜 𝐴 𝜋𝑅𝑜 3
3 3

This value is equal to star’ density or white dwarf’s density. On the other hand,
atomic radius is ≈ 𝑅𝑁 × 104 . So, atomic density,

2×1017
𝜌𝑎 = = 2 × 105 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
(104 )3
Binding Energy and Mass Defects

The energy needed to break up a nucleus of Z-protons and N-neutrons completely

into separate particles is called binding energy of a nucleus.

Consider an atom that consists of N number of neutrons and Z number of protons.

If the mass of a neutron is 𝑚𝑛 and a proton 𝑚𝑝 , then the total mass of the nucleus
is:

𝑀 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + 𝑁𝑚𝑛 …………………………..(1)

Measurements by a mass spectrometer gives the value of mass less than that
calculated by equ(1). If the measured mass is 𝑀𝑚 , then the mass defect:

∆𝑀 = 𝑀 − 𝑀𝑚 =( 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + 𝑁𝑚𝑛 ) − 𝑀𝑚 ………….(2)

The mass equivalent energy is obtained by Einstein’s relation: 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

The energy equivalent to mass defect: ∆𝐸 = ∆𝑀𝑐 2 . The energy equivalent ∆𝐸

of the mass difference is called the binding energy of the nucleus. In forming a
nucleus, a fraction of the total mass from the constituents disappear that evolves
as energy.
Binding energy curve

The binding energy curve per nucleon is plotted as a function of mass number A.
The curve rises steeply at first, shows a zigzag at A<30, and then rises more
gradually until it reaches a maximum of 8.7 MeV at A=56, corresponding to the
iron nucleus, and then drops slowly to about 7.6 MeV at the highest mass number.
For 4𝐻𝑒, 8𝐵𝑒, 12𝐶 , 16𝑂, 26𝑁𝑒, 29𝑀𝑔 zigzag occurs. Explanation of the curve is
as follows.

Explanation of the binding energy curve

(i) Each nucleon in the nuclear interior has a binding energy of about 8.5
MeV, arising from its nuclear interactions with its neighbors. The
nucleus on the nuclear surface have fewer neighbors than those in the
interior. So, the surface nucleons have less binding energy than that of
the interior nucleons. Light nuclei with their small radii have a greater
surface-to-volume ratio than the heavy nuclei
 𝑟1 = 5 𝑐𝑚, 𝑟2 = 10 𝑐𝑚,
𝑆1 = 4𝜋𝑟1 = 100𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆1 = 4𝜋𝑟22 = 400𝜋
2
4 4
𝑉1 = 𝜋𝑟13 = 166𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 𝜋𝑟23 = 1333𝜋
3 3
𝑆1 𝑆2
= 0.60; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.30
𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑆1 𝑆2
>
𝑉1 𝑉2

The light nuclei contain more surface particles and, on the average, have
a smaller binding energy per particle. When the number of nucleons
increase, the number of interior nucleons increase, giving rise to an
increase of binding energy.

(ii) The peaks for light nuclei reflect the peculiarity of α-particle structure.
Due to the intrinsic spins of two protons or two neutrons with opposite
spins causes a sharp increase of binding energy for these nuclei.
Nuclear data for stability and binding energy indicate that the nuclei
with even Z and even N are most stable, whereas nuclei having odd Z
and odd N are least stable. The binding energy of nuclei with odd N and
even Z, or even N and odd Z lies between that of even Z and even N,
and odd Z and odd N type nuclei. Each of the protons and neutrons
having spin ½ form pairs with parallel and anti-parallel spins in even N
and even Z type nuclei, giving them a stable configuration. But in odd
Z and odd N type nuclei, one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron
are left to make the nuclei less stable. So, the pairing of spins increases
the binding energy of even Z and even N type nuclei and decrease it in
odd Z and N type nuclei.
 (iii) Above A=20, 𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑒 ≈ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (most striking features). Suppose the
binding energy of each nucleon to each other in the nucleus is ≈
𝐶 (𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡).

1 1 1
× 2 × (2 − 1) × 3 × (3 − 1) × 4 × (4 − 1)
2 2 2

1
For ‘A’ number of nucleus, there are × 𝐴 × (𝐴 − 1) bonds. So,
2

1
𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = × 𝐴 × (𝐴 − 1) × 𝐶
2

𝐵𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 1
𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = × (𝐴 − 1) × 𝐶, which is not a constant but depends on
𝐴 2
A,

But we have seen 𝐵𝑎𝑣𝑒 is nearly a constant. This anomaly gives us information
that at higher value of A, each nucleon is not bonded to each other in case larger
nucleus.

Although each nucleon would have to interact with the remaining nucleus with
same strength, at A>20, nuclear forces among nucleons do not extend more than
a few nucleons. Thus, nuclear force is of short range or the force is saturated. The
saturation can be traced through two effects

a) The force between nucleons at ½ fermi is strongly repulsive

b) The Pauli exclusion principle forbids two nucleons of the same state (i.e.
two protons do not occupy the same quantum state)

So, the nucleons interact only a limited number of nucleons

(iv) The curve falls slightly after A=56. In case, the number of protons
increases and the electrostatic repulsive force becomes prominent. This
 repulsive force gives a negative binding energy, which increases with
the square of proton number.

Liquid drop model of the nucleus

The strong force between nucleons is somewhat similar to the intermolecular
force between molecules of a liquid; both forces are attractive over a short range
and become strongly repulsive when molecules or nucleons interpenetrate. With
this similarity we expect that a large number of nucleons will behave similarly as
a large number of molecules. Based on this analogy, Bohr suggested liquid drop
model of the nucleus. Assumptions of liquid drop model:
(i) The nucleus is considered to be incompressible spherical drop with high
uniform density.
(ii) Nuclear forces are independent on spins and charge. If Coulomb and
other forces are taken into account, binding energy per nucleon will be
the same for same nuclei.
(iii) Nuclear forces are of short range and attractive.

Explanation of force
Hard repulsive core of the strong force makes the nuclear fluid nearly
incompressible, but the short-range attraction provides a cohesive force that holds
the fluid together; the balance of attraction and repulsion tends to keep nucleons
at a definite distance from one another, and gives a fluid a constant density.
Explanation of spherical shape:
Any nucleon located on the surface of a droplet of nuclear fluid experiences an
inward force, putting it back into the volume. Consequently, the fluid tends to
shrink its exposed surface area to the smallest volume. In case of liquid, the force
tends to shrink the surface is called surface tension. Here, we can call it nuclear
surface tension. Since the sphere has the least surface area for a given volume,
the droplet will be of spherical shape.
Since Coulomb repulsive force increases with increasing proton numbers, the
nucleus tends to be unstable. This is compensated by excess neutrons in the heavy
nuclei. Moreover, protons and neutrons are Fermi particles with spin ½. There
must be present the interaction of the parallel and antiparallel spins. Considering
all these factors, a German Physicist C. V. Wizsacker derived an expression to
interpreted the binding energy curve, considering the mass of the nucleus on the
basis of Bohr’s liquid drop model.

Weizsacker semi-empirical mass formula

Formula for mass M and binding energy B of a nucleus are as follows:
𝐵
𝑀 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 − ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,(1)
𝑐2

Where, 𝐵 = 𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑠 + 𝐸𝑐 + 𝐸𝑎 ∓ 𝐸𝑝 ……………………………(2)
Where, 𝐸𝑣 = volume energy of the nucleons
𝐸𝑠 = surface energy due to surface tension
𝐸𝑐 = Coulomb repulsion energy due to protons
𝐸𝑎 = asymmetric energy due to excess neutrons
𝐸𝑝 = pair energy due to even or odd number of protons and neutrons.
 (i) Volume energy (𝐸𝑣 )

Consider, U= nucleon-nucleon bond energy

𝑈
= bond energy per nucleon (since 2 neutrons constitute 1 bond)
2

Nucleon is a hard sphere. If we pack them together to have a smallest volume, we

will get a hexagonal closed packed structure. In this structure, each interior
nucleon has 12 nearest neighbors.
𝑈
So, for an interior nucleon binding energy=12 × = 6𝑈
2

If all ‘A, nucleons would be in its interior, then binding energy for A will be
𝐸𝑣 = 6𝑈𝐴 = 𝑎𝑣 𝐴 ………………………………(3)
(ii) Surface energy (𝐸𝑠 )

Some nucleons are on the surface of a nucleus. They have fewer than 12
1
neighbors. We know that the nuclear size is 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 𝐴3. So, surface area of a
2
nucleus of radius R is 4𝜋𝑅2 = 4𝜋𝑅𝑜2 𝐴3 .
2
The number of surface nucleons with fewer than 12 bond is ∝ 𝐴 . These nucleons
3

will reduce binding energy by

2
𝐸𝑠 = −𝑎𝑠 𝐴3
(iii) Coulomb energy (𝐸𝑐 )

The electric repulsion between each pair of protons will reduce binding
energy. The Coulomb energy is the work that must be done to bring together
 Z protons from infinity into a spherical size. The potential energy for a pair of
protons at a distance ‘r’ apart:
1 𝑒2
𝑉=−
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟
1
For Z protons, pairs of protons or number of bonds is 𝑍(𝑍 − 1)
2
1
So, Coulomb energy, 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑍(𝑍 − 1)𝑉
2
𝑍(𝑍−1) 1
=−
8𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑒

If all nucleons are uniformly distributed in a nucleus of radius R, then 𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒 ∝ 𝑅 =

1
𝑅𝑜 𝐴3 . So,
𝑍(𝑍−1) 1 𝑍(𝑍−1)
𝐸𝑐 ∝ − 1 = −𝑎𝑐 1
8𝜋𝜖𝑜
𝑅𝑜 𝐴 3 𝐴3

For liquid drop model binding energy is

𝐵 = 𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑠 + 𝐸𝑐
𝐵 𝑎𝑠 𝑍(𝑍−1)
= −𝑎𝑣 − 1 − 𝑎𝑐 4
𝐴
𝐴3 𝐴3

This fits to some extent to the experimental results. Correction of this formula
was needed due to increase of neutrons, parallel, antiparallel spins etc.
 (iv) Asymmetric energy (𝐸𝑎 )

Pauli exclusion principle limits two particles of each (either proton or neutron) in
the same energy level, as shown in the Figure, which is spaced by an amount 𝜖.
Consider A is the number of nucleons in a nucleus. If N>Z, the excess neutrons
will fill up the higher energy level.

Consider nucleus with N=z=8, so N+Z=A=16.

In order to replace 4 protons of this nucleus
by 4 neutrons (Figure), the resulting nucleus
will have N‒Z=8 neutrons excess in the

Energy
1
energy level. Thus, (𝑁 − 𝑍) = 4 new
2 𝜖
neutrons would occupy levels higher in
𝜖
energy by 2 𝜖 = 4 than those of the
2

protons they replace. In general, each of

1
(𝑁 − 𝑍) new neutrons will be raised in
2
1 𝜖 neutron proton
energy = (𝑁 − 𝑍)
2 2
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠
So, total work, Δ𝐸 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 ×
𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑛𝑟𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
1 1 𝜖
= (𝑁 − 𝑍) × (𝑁 − 𝑍)
2 2 2
𝜖
= (𝑁 − 𝑍)2
8
𝜖
= (𝐴 − 2𝑍)2 since N=A‒Z
8

It is seen as A increases, energy spacing 𝜖 decreases as

1
𝜖∝
𝐴
𝐾
=
𝐴
𝐾 (𝐴−2𝑍)2
So, ∆E =
8 𝐴
 (𝐴−2𝑍)2
So, 𝐸𝑎 = −∆E = −𝑎𝑎
𝐴

(v) Pairing energy (𝐸𝑝 )

This term arises from proton pairs and neutron pairs, Even-even nuclei are the
most stable and hence have higher binding energies than would otherwise be
16
expected, Nuclei as 42𝐻𝑒, 12
6𝐶 , 8𝑂 appear as peaks on the original curve of
binding energy per nucleon. Odd nuclei have both unpaired protons and neutrons
and have relatively low binding energies. The pairing energy 𝐸𝑝 si positive for
even-even nuclei, 0 for odd-even and even-odd nuclei, and negative for odd-odd
3
nuclei. 𝐸𝑝 (empirically) seems to vary with A as 𝐴−4 . Hence,
𝑎𝑝
𝐸𝑝 = (∓, 0) 3
𝐴4

So semi-empirical finding energy formula is thus:

2
𝑍(𝑍−1) (𝐴−2𝑍)2 𝑎𝑝
𝐵 = 𝑎𝑣 𝐴 − 𝑎𝑠 𝐴3 − 𝑎𝑐 1 − 𝑎𝑎 + (∓, 0) 3
𝐴
𝐴3 𝐴4

Expression for B is based upon theoretical arguments but constants are taken from
empirical data. The above expression fits well with experimental value. The ‘B’
𝐵
implies a mass defect ∆𝑀 = , hence the mass of the nucleus is
𝑐2
𝐵
𝑀 = 𝑍𝑚𝑝 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚𝑛 −
𝑐2
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration of heavy atomic
nuclei like Uranium, Radium etc. through emission of particles or
electromagnetic radiations at a constant rate. It is a nuclear property of the active
element and in all radioactive processes, a transmutation (change from one
element to other) of the element occurs.
Characteristics of radioactive substances
(i) The substances emit radiation without any excitation
(ii) They continuously go on decreasing in weight
(iii) The radioactivity is mostly found in the substances with high atomic
weight
(iv) Radioactive substances ionize the gas and affect photographic plate
(v) The radiations cause a change of atomic nuclei and penetrate through
matter.

Activity of a radioactive sample

The activity of a radioactive material is the rate at which the nuclei of its
constituent atoms decay.
Consider that
𝑁𝑖 = the number of nuclei of a sample at a time ‘t’
𝑁𝑓 = the number of nuclei of the sample after a time ‘t+dt’
At ‘dt’ sec the number of decaying nuclei=(𝑁𝑓 − 𝑁𝑖 ) = −(𝑁𝑖 − 𝑁𝑓 ) = −𝑑𝑁
−𝑑𝑁
At 1 sec the number of decaying nuclei = .
𝑑𝑡
−𝑑𝑁 −𝑑𝑁
So, The rate of decay = . So, the activity, 𝑅=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Laws of radioactivity
The radioactive decay of an element does not take place at a time. All radioactive
elements have equal probability of decay. We shall derive an expression of decay
process using probability theory.
At time ‘dt’ the number of decaying nuclei is ‘‒dN’. So, the fractional number of
decaying nuclei over the total number of nuclei, Or,
−𝑑𝑁
−𝑑𝑁 𝑁
The decay probability = . So, the decay probability per sec =
𝑁 𝑑𝑡

Experimentally it was found that the decay probability per sec has a constant
value, called decay constant, λ.
−𝑑𝑁
𝑁
So, =𝜆
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
Or, = −𝜆𝑁 ……………………(1)
𝑑𝑡

Equ(1) indicates that the activity of a substance is proportional to the number of

nuclei present in the sample at time ‘t’’ From equ(1)
𝑑𝑁
= −𝜆𝑡
𝑁

Assume that at t=0, N=No and at t=t number of nuclei is N. Integrating above
equation,
𝑁 𝑑𝑁 𝑡
∫𝑁 = − ∫0 𝜆𝑑𝑡
𝑜 𝑁
𝑁
Or, 𝑙𝑛 = −𝜆𝑡
𝑁𝑜

Or, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 ………………………..(2)

This is the decay law. The number of surviving nuclei decreases exponentially
with time as shown:

𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
N

t
 ▪ Show that 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

𝑑𝑁
We know, 𝑅=− = 𝜆𝑁, at t=0, 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 , so, at t=0, 𝑅𝑜 = 𝜆𝑁𝑜
𝑑𝑡

Since, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 , Or, 𝜆𝑁 = 𝜆𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 , Or 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

Units of activity
Unit is Curie (ci)
1 𝑐𝑖 = 3.7 × 1010 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑑
Sub-units: mci, µci, rad, grey
1 𝑒𝑟𝑔
1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = = 0.01𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑔

Half life
Half-life (𝑇1 ) of a radioactive nuclide (material) is the time at which the activity
2

or the number of nuclei of the nuclide decays to half of its initial value.
Consider that
𝑁𝑜 = the number of initial nuclei of a sample
𝑁= the number of nuclei of the sample at half-life (𝑇1 )
2

𝑁𝑜
According to the definition of 𝑇1 , 𝑁= at half-life
2 2

From, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑁𝑜 −𝜆𝑇1
We can write, = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 2
2

Or, 𝜆𝑇1 = 𝑙𝑛2

2

𝑙𝑛2
Or, 𝑇1 =
2 𝜆
0.693
Or, 𝑇1 =
2 𝜆
 ̅)
Average life (𝑻
In a radioactive substance, some of the nuclei decay earlier than others which
survive longer. We do not know why it is so, but we know that this decay is a
probabilistic phenomenon. Thus, an average life time (𝑇̅) is introduced to know
the average life expectancy of all the nuclei present at any instant before
disintegration in a decay process.
“The average life (𝑇̅) of a radioelement is the mean life time of all the atoms in a
given sample and is defined as the ratio of the total life time of all the atoms to
the total number of atoms.”
𝑡 𝑑𝑁 +𝑡 𝑑𝑁 +𝑡 𝑑𝑁 +⋯………….. ∑ 𝑡𝑑𝑁
𝑇̅ = 1 1 2 2 3 3 = ∑ ……………………(1)
𝑑𝑁1 +𝑑𝑁2 +𝑑𝑁3 +⋯……………………. 𝑑𝑁

1
̅=
▪ Show that 𝑇
𝜆

Consider a radioelement in which some atoms survive up to infinite time and

others decay instantly. Then, by introducing integral instead of summation of
equ(1), we can write,
∞
∫ 𝑡𝑑𝑁
𝑇̅ = 𝑡=0
0 ………………..(2)
∫𝑁 𝑑𝑁
𝑜

Now, we know 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 , Or, 𝑑𝑁 = −𝜆𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡, when 𝑁 = 0, 𝑡 =

∞, and when 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 , 𝑡 = 0
∞
∫0 𝑡(−𝜆𝑁𝑜 𝑒−𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡)
𝑇̅ = ∞
∫0 (−𝜆𝑁𝑜 𝑒−𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡)

∞
∫0 𝑡𝑒−𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ∞
𝑇̅ = 1 1
∞
∫0 𝑒−𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑇̅ = ∫ 𝑒−𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − [𝑒−𝜆𝑡 ]∞
0 =
0 𝜆 𝜆
 ∞
𝑇̅ = 𝜆 ∫0 𝑡𝑒−𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ∫ 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑥 − ∫{
𝑑(𝑥)
∫ 𝑦𝑑𝑥}𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

∞ ∞ 𝑑(𝑡) ∞ −𝜆𝑡
𝑇̅ = 𝜆[𝑡 ∫0 𝑒−𝜆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 − ∫0 { ∫0 𝑒 𝑑𝑡}𝑑𝑡] 𝑑𝑡
∞ −𝜆𝑡 ∞ 𝑒−𝜆𝑡
= 𝜆[𝑡 ∫0 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 − ∫0 𝑑𝑡]
−𝜆

𝑡𝑒−𝜆𝑡 𝑒−𝜆𝑡 ∞
= 𝜆[ − ]
−𝜆 𝜆2 0

𝑒−𝜆𝑡 ∞
= −[𝑡𝑒−𝜆𝑡 + ]0
𝜆
1 𝑒−𝜆𝑡 ∞
= −[1 𝜆𝑡 (𝜆𝑡)2
+ ]0
+ + +.. 𝜆
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡.2!

1
= −[(0 − 0) + (0 − )]
𝜆
1
𝑇̅ = Proved
𝜆

Radioactive series
Consider a parent nuclei of atomic number Z and mass number A. If a α-particle
( 42𝐻𝑒) emission occurs, then atomic number of daughter nucleus: Z‒2; Mass
number of daughter nucleus: A‒4. The new element by α-particle emission is:

𝐴 𝐴−4
𝑍𝑋 ⟶ 𝑍−2𝑌
 𝐴 𝐴
The new element by β-particle emission is: 𝑍𝑋 ⟶ 𝑍+1𝑌

An element comes down by two places by α-particle emission and shoots up by

one place by β-particle emission. This fact is called displacement law- given by
Soddy and Fajan in 1913,
A parent radionuclide decays into another radionuclide by emitting rays and the
process is repeated till the final product is stable. These successive
transformations of a radionuclide are generally found to lie in the range of atomic
number Z=81 to Z=92 and form a series, called radioactive series. The four
naturally occurring radioactive series and their details are as follows:

Mass number Series Parent Half-life (y) End-product

232 1.39×1010 206
4n Thorium 90𝑇ℎ 82𝑃𝑏

4n+1 Neptunium 237 2.25×106 209

93𝑁𝑝 83𝐵𝑖
4n+2 Uranium 238
92𝑈
4.51×109 208
82𝑃𝑏
4n+3 Actinium 235 7.07×108 207
82𝑃𝑏
92𝑈
Successive transformation
Consider that a radioactive nuclide P(1) decays first into a nuclide Q(2) and
finally decays to a stable-product R(3).
Let 𝜆1 = decay constant of P(1)
𝜆2 = decay constant of Q(2)
𝑁1 = number of atoms of P(1) at any time ‘t’
𝑁2 = number of atoms of Q(2) at any time ‘t’
𝑁3 = number of atoms of R(3) at any time ‘t’
𝑑𝑁1
Now, = −𝜆1 𝑁1 ……………………………………..(1)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁2
= 𝜆1 𝑁1 − 𝜆2 𝑁2 ………………………………(2)
𝑑𝑡

Because Q(2) is formed at the rate of 𝜆1 𝑁1 and decayed at 𝜆2 𝑁2 .

𝑑𝑁3
and = 𝜆2 𝑁2 ……………………………………..(3)
𝑑𝑡

Solving equ(1), we get,

𝑁1 = 𝑁10 𝑒 −𝜆1𝑡 ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,(4)
Where, 𝑁10 is the number of atoms at t=0. From equ(2),
𝑑𝑁2
= 𝜆1 𝑁10 𝑒 −𝜆1𝑡 − 𝜆2 𝑁2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁2
Or, + 𝜆2 𝑁2 = 𝜆1 𝑁10 𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡 ……………………..(5)
𝑑𝑡

Multiplying both sides of equ(5) by 𝑒 𝜆2𝑡 ,

𝑑𝑁2
𝑒 𝜆2𝑡 ( + 𝜆2 𝑁2 ) = 𝜆1 𝑁10 𝑒 (𝜆2 −𝜆1) 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
Or,
𝑑𝑡
(𝑁2 𝑒 𝜆2𝑡 ) = 𝜆1 𝑁10 𝑒 (𝜆2 −𝜆1 )𝑡

Integrating above equation,

𝜆1
𝑁2 𝑒 𝜆2𝑡 = 𝑁10 𝑒 (𝜆2−𝜆1)𝑡 + 𝐴 ………………………(6)
𝜆2 −𝜆1

Where A is a constant
At t=0, 𝑁2 = 𝑁20 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, From equ(6),
𝜆1
𝐴 = 𝑁20 − 𝑁10
𝜆2 −𝜆1
 𝜆1 𝜆1
So, 𝑁2 𝑒 𝜆2𝑡 = 𝑁10 𝑒 (𝜆2−𝜆1)𝑡 + 𝑁20 − 𝑁10
𝜆2 −𝜆1 𝜆2 −𝜆1
𝜆1
So, 𝑁2 = 𝑁10 (𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝜆2𝑡 ) + 𝑁20 𝑒 −𝜆2 𝑡 …………………(7)
𝜆2 −𝜆1

Again from equ(7) and (3),

𝜆1 𝜆2
𝑑𝑁3 = 𝑁10 (𝑒 −𝜆1𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝜆2 𝑡 )𝑑𝑡 + 𝑁20 𝜆2 𝑒 −𝜆2𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜆2 −𝜆1

On integration the above equation becomes:

𝜆2 𝜆1
𝑁3 = −𝑁10 𝑒 −𝜆1𝑡 + 𝑁10 𝑒 −𝜆2 𝑡 − 𝑁20 𝑒 −𝜆2𝑡 + 𝐵
𝜆2 −𝜆1 𝜆2 −𝜆1
𝜆1 𝜆2
=( 𝑁10 − 𝑁20 )𝑒 −𝜆2𝑡 − 𝑁10 𝑒 −𝜆1𝑡 + 𝐵 …………..(8)
𝜆2 −𝜆1 𝜆2 −𝜆1

At t=0, 𝑁3 = 𝑁30 = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, From equ(8),

𝜆1 𝜆2
𝑁30 = 𝑁10 − 𝑁20 − 𝑁10 + 𝐵
𝜆2 −𝜆1 𝜆2 −𝜆1
𝜆1 −𝜆2
𝑁30 + 𝑁20 = 𝑁10 ( ) +𝐵
𝜆2 −𝜆1

= −𝑁10 + 𝐵
𝐵 = 𝑁10 + 𝑁20 + 𝑁30
𝜆1
Thus, 𝑁3 = 𝑁30 + 𝑁20 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜆2𝑡 ) + 𝑁10 (1 + 𝑒 −𝜆2 𝑡 −
𝜆2 −𝜆1
𝜆2
𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡 )……..(9)
𝜆2 −𝜆1

Equ(4), (7) and (9) constitute the solutions. However, in most cases, at t=0, 𝑁20 =
𝑁30 = 0. So, from equ(7) and (9),
𝜆1
𝑁2 = 𝑁10 (𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝜆2𝑡 )
𝜆2 −𝜆1
𝜆1 𝜆2
𝑁3 = 𝑁10 (1 + 𝑒 −𝜆2𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝜆1𝑡 )
𝜆2 −𝜆1 𝜆2 −𝜆1

Time for Q(2) to a maximum

𝜆1
We know, 𝑁2 = 𝑁10 (𝑒 −𝜆1 𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝜆2𝑡 )
𝜆2 −𝜆1

At t=0, N2=0; it increases with t, attains a maximum and then decreases.

 P Q

𝑑𝑁2 t
Now, = 0 at maximum i.e. at t=tm, But
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁2 𝜆1
= 𝑁10 (−𝜆1 𝑒 −𝜆1𝑡 + 𝜆2 𝑒 −𝜆2𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 𝜆2 −𝜆1
𝜆1
So, at maximum, 𝑁10 (−𝜆1 𝑒 −𝜆1𝑡 + 𝜆2 𝑒 −𝜆2𝑡 ) = 0
𝜆2 −𝜆1

Or, 𝜆2 𝑒 −𝜆2𝑡𝑚 = 𝜆1 𝑒 −𝜆1𝑡𝑚

𝜆1
Or, 𝑒 (𝜆1−𝜆2 )𝑡𝑚 = 𝑙𝑛
𝜆2
1 𝜆1
Or, 𝑡𝑚 = 𝑙𝑛
𝜆1 −𝜆2 𝜆2

Radioactive dating
Radioactive dating is a method of dating rocks and minerals using radioactive
isotopes. It is based on a comparison between the observed abundance of a
naturally occurring radioactive isotope and its decay products, using known decay
rates. It is the principal source of information about the absolute age of rocks and
other geological features, including the age of the Earth itself, and it can be used
to date a wide range of natural and man-made materials.
Carbon dating is a technique to measure the age of animal or plant’s origin. 14C
is produced in the atmosphere by cosmic rays and is diminishing by decay. Thus
14 14 14
an equilibrium of C is obtained. Animals and plants have C in them, C
14
remains in equilibrium with atmosphere. After the death of an animal C
disintegrates exponentially. If we measure the number of 14C and 12C in a dead
organism and compare it with living organism. We can measure the age of the
organism.

Task

Carbon 14 is a common form of carbon which decays over time. The amount of
Carbon 14 contained in a preserved plant is modeled by the equation
𝑓(𝑡) = 10𝑒 −𝑐𝑡
Time in this equation is measured in years from the moment when the plant dies
(t=0) and the amount of Carbon 14 remaining in the preserved plant is measured
in micrograms (a microgram is one millionth of a gram). So, when t=0 the plant
contains 10 micrograms of Carbon 14.
a. The half-life of Carbon 14, that is the amount of time it takes for half of the
Carbon 14 to decay, is approximately 5730 years. Use this information to
find the constant c.
b. If there is currently one microgram of Carbon 14 remaining in the preserved
plant, approximately when did the plant die?

Solution
1. Since the half-life of Carbon 14 is 5730 years, this means that after 5730
years there will only be 5 micrograms of Carbon 14 left in the preserved
plant:
𝑓(5730) = 10𝑒 −5730𝑐 = 5
To solve for c, notice that c is in the exponent and so we need to take a logarithm
to isolate c. Since the base of the exponent is e, the natural logarithm is
appropriate. Dividing by 10 first (to isolate the exponential expression) and taking
the logarithm of both sides gives
1
−5730𝑐 = 𝑙𝑛𝑒 −5730𝑐 = 𝑙𝑛 = −𝑙𝑛2
2

Solving for c gives

 𝑙𝑛2
𝑐=
5730

which is approximately equal to 0.000121.

2. To find when f(t)=1 we use the value of c from part a and are left with the
equation
𝑙𝑛2
10𝑒 −5730𝑡 = 1
Dividing by 10 and taking the natural logarithm on both sides, as above, gives
𝑙𝑛2
ln2 1
−(
5730
) t = 𝑙𝑛𝑒 −5730𝑡 = 𝑙𝑛 10
1
𝑙𝑛
10
Or t = −5730
𝑙𝑛2

Thus, evaluating on a calculator, gives a value of approximately 19,035 years

since the plant has died. Note that if the approximate value 0.000121 is used in
place of ln2/5730 then an approximate value of 19,030 years is found instead.
In either case, it is more appropriate to report the time since the plant has died as
approximately 19,000 years since these measurements are never completely
precise.
Energetics of α-decay
Let 𝑀𝑝´ = Nuclear mass of parent nucleus P
𝑀𝐷´ = Nuclear mass of daughter nucleus D
𝑀𝛼´ = Nuclear mass of α-particle
A= mass number of the nucleus
Z= atomic number of the nucleus
𝑄𝛼 = decay energy
𝑇𝐷 = kinetic energy of daughter nucleus
𝑇𝛼 =kinetic energy of α-particle
𝑃𝐷 = momentum of the parent nucleus
𝑃𝐷 = momentum of daughter nucleus
𝑃𝛼 =momentum of α-particle
Figure below shows the energy and momentum diagram before and after decay
of the nucleus.

𝑃𝑝 = 0
𝐴, 𝑍
𝑀𝑝´ 𝑐 2
Total Energy

𝑄𝛼 = 𝑇𝐷 + 𝑇𝛼

(𝑀𝐷´ + 𝑀𝛼´ )𝑐 2 𝑃𝛼 , 𝑇𝛼 𝑃𝐷 , 𝑇𝐷
𝐴 − 4, 𝑍 − 2

Conservation of energy and momentum of the above Figures require:

𝑀𝑝´ 𝑐 2 = 𝑀𝐷´ 𝑐 2 + 𝑇𝐷 + 𝑀𝛼´ 𝑐 2 + 𝑇𝛼 …………………………..(1)
0 = 𝑃𝐷 + 𝑃𝛼 ………………………………………………(2)
If we consider the mass of electrons, then decay of particle from atom rather than
nucleus will be a reasonable consideration. Thus, we can replace 𝑀𝑝´ by 𝑀𝑃 and
𝑀𝐷´ by 𝑀𝐷 when mass of electron is included. We also consider 𝑀𝛼´ = 𝑀𝛼 . Then
equ(1) becomes,
𝑀𝑃 𝑐 2 = (𝑀𝐷 +𝑀𝛼 )𝑐 2 + 𝑇𝐷 + 𝑇𝛼 …………………………..(3)
The decay energy, 𝑄𝛼 , is defined as the sum of the kinetic energy of the daughter
nucleus and α-particle.
𝑄𝛼 = 𝑇𝐷 + 𝑇𝛼 ……………………………….(4)
From equ(3) and (4):
𝑄𝛼 = [𝑀𝑃 − (𝑀𝐷 + 𝑀𝛼 )] 𝑐 2 =the difference between equivalent
energies of initial and final masses. ( Q values are determined by particle
spectroscopy, kinetic energy measurements or mass spectroscopy).
If we consider small 𝑇𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝛼 , then classical consideration may be applied:
That is:
2
𝑃𝐷
𝑇𝐷 =
2𝑀𝐷

𝑃𝛼2
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑃𝐷 =-𝑃𝛼
2𝑀𝐷
𝑃𝛼2
2𝑀𝛼 𝑇𝛼 and 𝑇𝛼 = , so 𝑃𝛼2 =
2𝑀𝛼
=
2𝑀𝐷 2𝑀𝛼 𝑇𝛼
𝑀𝛼 𝑇𝛼
=
𝑀𝐷

In case of γ-rays, recoil kinetic energy 𝑇𝐷 is negligible but in α-decay 𝑇𝐷 is not

negligible. From equ(4)
𝑀𝛼 𝑇𝛼
𝑄𝛼 = + 𝑇𝛼
𝑀𝐷
𝑀𝛼
=( + 1)𝑇𝛼
𝑀𝐷
𝑀𝐷 +𝑀𝛼
=( )𝑇𝛼
𝑀𝐷

But, 𝑀𝐷 + 𝑀𝛼 ≈ 𝐴
𝑀𝐷 = 𝐴 − 𝑀𝛼 = 𝐴 − 4, where 𝑀𝛼 = 4 =mass number of
α-particle
𝐴
𝑄𝛼 = 𝑇
𝐴−4 𝛼
The α-particle kinetic energy is always less than the decay energy.

Fission and fusion

Fission

Fission is a process in which a nucleus with a large mass number splits into two
nuclei, which have smaller mass numbers.

E.g., When uranium-235 atoms are bombarded with slow moving neutrons, the heavy
uranium nucleus breaks up to produce two medium-weighted atoms amid 3 neutrons,
with the emission of tremendous amount of energy.
• Neutrons are usually released when fission takes place.
• Fission of a nucleus may be spontaneous, that is, it may happen at random due
to internal processes within the nucleus.
• Fission can also be induced by bombarding a nucleus with a neutron. Induced
fission is used to generate nuclear power and for weapons.
• The products formed during fission gain kinetic energy. It is this energy that
is harnessed in nuclear power stations.
 Fusion
Fusion is a process in which two nuclei combine to form a nucleus of larger
mass number.

• Fusion is the main nuclear process that occurs in the Sun and other stars.
• The products of fusion reactions also gain kinetic energy that can be
harnessed.